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Assessing Critical Thinking in the Digital Era

The Importance of Assessment

However, while critical thinking is widely recognized as an essential skill, it can be challenging for higher education institutions to quantify or measure how well students have learned it. Assessment is a vital and dynamic component of teaching knowledge, skills, and competencies. It informs program and institutional improvement, providing invaluable information that administrators, faculty, and staff can use to make data-driven decisions that lead to better student outcomes.

One of the key difficulties in assessing critical thinking is defining what it is and how it should be measured. Critical thinking is a complex skill that involves the ability to analyze and evaluate information, think creatively, and make reasoned judgments, as Richard Paul and Linda Elder outline in their 2019 publication . It is not a single skill that can be easily quantified or measured through traditional assessments. As a result, educators have had to develop more nuanced approaches to evaluating critical thinking skills, such as project-based assessments and open-ended questions that require students to demonstrate their reasoning and problem-solving abilities.

While critical thinking is widely recognized as an essential skill, it can be challenging for higher education institutions to quantify or measure how well students have learned it.

Another challenge in measuring critical thinking is ensuring that assessments are fair and unbiased. Assessments that are overly reliant on multiple-choice questions or rote memorization can unfairly disadvantage students who may excel in other areas of critical thinking.

For these reasons, educators need effective assessment methods that accurately measure critical thinking skills in a variety of contexts. These assessments should use consistent and objective criteria to ensure that all students are given equal opportunities to demonstrate their abilities.

However, building such assessment tools and overcoming the barriers associated with measuring critical thinking places a large and sometimes overwhelming administrative burden on faculty and staff. Unfortunately, there can be a negative impact on student performance when faculty members must allocate more time and resources to handling administrative tasks than to teaching courses and supporting learner success.

A Partnership Between Industry and Academia

The need for critical thinking assessment tools is being addressed through a recent partnership between various higher education institutions and Peregrine Global Services, an education technology company specializing in assessment and instructional solutions. Peregrine recently launched its Critical Thinking Assessment to help colleges and universities evaluate this important skill.

To ensure that the assessment tool would meet the specific needs of the higher education community, the company developed its Peregrine Partner Program, which involved beta testing the tool with programs of varying sizes and types during the fall of 2022 and the spring of 2023. Each educational partner provided valuable feedback on how to present data to help schools make informed decisions, how to remove administrative burdens associated with assessment, and how to foster a culture of quality.

The partnership between Peregrine and the higher education institutions has led to several unforeseen advancements in technology. These include the ability to analyze exam data by course, cohort, or program, as well as the implementation of blind scoring to remove scoring bias. The new tool also adopts an innovative approach to assessing critical thinking and generating the data necessary to analyze exam results. For example, schools will be able to sort and filter data by levels of higher-order thinking.

The Critical Thinking Assessment uses a standardized rubric covering six critical thinking subcriteria and provides institutions with the flexibility to customize the exams to meet their needs. Academic programs can tailor the service to cover specific disciplines and assess varying levels of higher-order thinking. Learners receive scenarios randomly, ensuring a unique testing experience for each student.

The system auto-scores multiple-choice questions, while designated program faculty and assessment administrators use a rubric to manually score open-ended items. The short case studies and scenario questions are written and validated by subject matter experts with practical and teaching experience in each specific discipline.

“The Critical Thinking Assessment helps make assessment a facultywide effort, where everyone has buy-in,” says Melodie Philhours, associate professor of marketing and director of assessment at Arkansas State University’s Neil Griffin College of Business in Jonesboro. “The assessment tool significantly reduces the time and resources required for assessment, allowing faculty to focus on teaching and improving student learning outcomes. One of the most significant benefits has been the removal of the administrative burden related to compiling and entering the data, as the results are readily available after the assessment is fully scored.”

At the Forefront of Disruption

The collaboration between Peregrine and its partner schools will benefit not only the institutions involved, but also the broader field of education. Any time higher education and the technology sector can work together, they will drive innovation and disruption, ultimately leading to better learner outcomes. With the Critical Thinking Assessment tool, Peregrine aims to help higher education institutions assess not just retained knowledge, but also acquired skills and competencies.

In the future, Peregrine plans to incorporate AI into the assessment and build an aggregate pool, so schools can compare their results over periods of time, internally and externally, allowing them to benchmark against schools with similar demographics. Until then, Peregrine is offering the tool to schools as a course-level assessment they can use in their overall assessment portfolio.

The partnership between Peregrine and universities highlights the potential for industry and academia to come together to address the challenges faced by higher education. It demonstrates that when universities are at the forefront of disrupting education in a positive manner, they can move along with technology rather than lag behind it.

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Distance Learning

Using technology to develop students’ critical thinking skills.

by Jessica Mansbach

What Is Critical Thinking?

Critical thinking is a higher-order cognitive skill that is indispensable to students, readying them to respond to a variety of complex problems that are sure to arise in their personal and professional lives. The cognitive skills at the foundation of critical thinking are analysis, interpretation, evaluation, explanation, inference, and self-regulation.

When students think critically, they actively engage in these processes:

Communication
Problem-solving

To create environments that engage students in these processes, instructors need to ask questions, encourage the expression of diverse opinions, and involve students in a variety of hands-on activities that force them to be involved in their learning.

Types of Critical Thinking Skills

Instructors should select activities based on the level of thinking they want students to do and the learning objectives for the course or assignment. The chart below describes questions to ask in order to show that students can demonstrate different levels of critical thinking.

*Adapted from Brown University’s Harriet W Sheridan Center for Teaching and Learning

Using Online Tools to Teach Critical Thinking Skills

Online instructors can use technology tools to create activities that help students develop both lower-level and higher-level critical thinking skills.

Example: Use Google Doc, a collaboration feature in Canvas, and tell students to keep a journal in which they reflect on what they are learning, describe the progress they are making in the class, and cite course materials that have been most relevant to their progress. Students can share the Google Doc with you, and instructors can comment on their work.
Example: Use the peer review assignment feature in Canvas and manually or automatically form peer review groups. These groups can be anonymous or display students’ names. Tell students to give feedback to two of their peers on the first draft of a research paper. Use the rubric feature in Canvas to create a rubric for students to use. Show students the rubric along with the assignment instructions so that students know what they will be evaluated on and how to evaluate their peers.
Example: Use the discussions feature in Canvas and tell students to have a debate about a video they watched. Pose the debate questions in the discussion forum, and give students instructions to take a side of the debate and cite course readings to support their arguments.
Example: Us e goreact , a tool for creating and commenting on online presentations, and tell students to design a presentation that summarizes and raises questions about a reading. Tell students to comment on the strengths and weaknesses of the author’s argument. Students can post the links to their goreact presentations in a discussion forum or an assignment using the insert link feature in Canvas.
Example: Use goreact, a narrated Powerpoint, or a Google Doc and instruct students to tell a story that informs readers and listeners about how the course content they are learning is useful in their professional lives. In the story, tell students to offer specific examples of readings and class activities that they are finding most relevant to their professional work. Links to the goreact presentation and Google doc can be submitted via a discussion forum or an assignment in Canvas. The Powerpoint file can be submitted via a discussion or submitted in an assignment.

Pulling it All Together

Critical thinking is an invaluable skill that students need to be successful in their professional and personal lives. Instructors can be thoughtful and purposeful about creating learning objectives that promote lower and higher-level critical thinking skills, and about using technology to implement activities that support these learning objectives. Below are some additional resources about critical thinking.

Additional Resources

Carmichael, E., & Farrell, H. (2012). Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Online Resources in Developing Student Critical Thinking: Review of Literature and Case Study of a Critical Thinking Online Site. Journal of University Teaching and Learning Practice , 9 (1), 4.

Lai, E. R. (2011). Critical thinking: A literature review. Pearson’s Research Reports , 6 , 40-41.

Landers, H (n.d.). Using Peer Teaching In The Classroom. Retrieved electronically from https://tilt.colostate.edu/TipsAndGuides/Tip/180

Lynch, C. L., & Wolcott, S. K. (2001). Helping your students develop critical thinking skills (IDEA Paper# 37. In Manhattan, KS: The IDEA Center.

Mandernach, B. J. (2006). Thinking critically about critical thinking: Integrating online tools to Promote Critical Thinking. Insight: A collection of faculty scholarship , 1 , 41-50.

Yang, Y. T. C., & Wu, W. C. I. (2012). Digital storytelling for enhancing student academic achievement, critical thinking, and learning motivation: A year-long experimental study. Computers & Education , 59 (2), 339-352.

Insight Assessment: Measuring Thinking Worldwide

http://www.insightassessment.com/

Michigan State University’s Office of Faculty & Organizational Development, Critical Thinking: http://fod.msu.edu/oir/critical-thinking

The Critical Thinking Community

http://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/defining-critical-thinking/766

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9 responses to “ Using Technology To Develop Students’ Critical Thinking Skills ”

This is a great site for my students to learn how to develop critical thinking skills, especially in the STEM fields.

Great tools to help all learners at all levels… not everyone learns at the same rate.

Thanks for sharing the article. Is there any way to find tools which help in developing critical thinking skills to students?

Technology needs to be advance to develop the below factors:

Understand the links between ideas. Determine the importance and relevance of arguments and ideas. Recognize, build and appraise arguments.

Excellent share! Can I know few tools which help in developing critical thinking skills to students? Any help will be appreciated. Thanks!

Pingback: EDTC 6431 – Module 4 – Designing Lessons That Use Critical Thinking | Mr.Reed Teaches Math
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Brilliant post. Will be sharing this on our Twitter (@refthinking). I would love to chat to you about our tool, the Thinking Kit. It has been specifically designed to help students develop critical thinking skills whilst they also learn about the topics they ‘need’ to.

How Does Technology Affect Critical Thinking?

Technology is always quickly advancing. New apps, new updates, and platforms emerge to help us connect to each other, automate our tasks, or just have fun. But does technology help or hinder critical thinking skills?

Your critical thinking skills will be affected by technology depending on factors, including the kind of technology you’re using and the context of the technology.

Impact of Technology on Critical Thinking

You use technology in one form or another every day. As time goes on, it plays a more significant role in our lives and changes the way we consume and process information. Critical thinking is all about analyzing the information in front of you, thinking about it rationally and without bias, and always asking questions.

Technology brings information right into your hands more effortless than ever through your phone, tablet, or laptop. Even reading has evolved from physical books to an e-reader, and news comes through Twitter and Facebook.

Critical thinking includes soft skills like problem-solving, finding cause and effect relationships, interpret data, evaluate arguments, and keep opinions and views malleable and fluid. Technology can both reinforce these skills and also threaten them.

How Does Technology Improve Critical Thinking?

The type of technology you’re using and what environment you’re using will affect what kinds of positive benefits you will experience.

Education and Learning

Schools are introducing more and more technology in the classroom to keep up with advances. They hope to better prepare students for the world of growing technology.

In a classroom setting, activities and learning can be more interactive with the use of technology. Technology is capable of engaging multiple senses and can improve student’s investment in the material.

Appropriate technology in classrooms increases students’ academic achievement, self-confidence, motivation in class, and attendance. Technology helps students move beyond sitting attentively and listening and promotes more hands-on learning.

It affects critical thinking by helping students apply what they’ve learned to real-life situations and develop problem-solving skills – two essential elements of critical thinking.

Beyond school-age children, adults benefit from technological learning as well. As new developments arise in technology, people need to have lifelong learning skills, adapt themselves to change, and grow or refresh their existing knowledge.

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Simulations

Simulation programming is growing in popularity to emulate real-life situations virtually. There are many professional fields, such as aviation and medicine, where certain conditions are rare, but you need to prepare for them. Simulations can virtually simulate flight errors for pilot training or rare diseases for medical students to learn how to address them.

Simulations provide a site for learning from mistakes in a high-stakes environment and encourages experimental learning. It takes what is usually a theoretical concept and makes it concrete, ensuring better reasoning and deeper understanding.

The learner, with simulations, can develop and apply critical thinking skills such as making judgments, interpreting information, making decisions objectively, and evaluating outcomes.

Social Media

Social networks open up the world. You can interact with people halfway around the globe with whom you share things in common. Information sharing and interactions have radically changed since the beginnings of social media.

There are many social media sites for people to have conversations, share ideas or interests, make new friends, or professional connections.

Whether you’re a student in the same class or talking with someone with a shared interest, opening yourself up to others’ opinions and ideas and processing them is vital to critical thinking.

Is Technology Killing Critical Thinking?

Depending on what technology you’re using and how you’re using it, technology can be damaging to critical thinking.

In schools, the type of technology that students use can boost their learning quality or harm it. Having classrooms wired for student internet access has been shown to decrease learning. Students that use the internet during a class lecture do not pay as much attention to the speaker. In contrast, students without the internet pay more attention.

This distraction is because technology promotes multi-tasking, but it prevents people from understanding information in a meaningful way.

When it comes to critical thinking, social media is both a positive and a negative. Social media offers the opportunity to access multiple viewpoints, but algorithms tend to show you more of what you’ve already seen.

Critical thinking is essential when it comes to social media. Being a conscious consumer of information means questioning everything we come across. When using social media, you need to take the time to evaluate the news and information you read. The source likely doesn’t go through the same rigorous standards of reliability-checking and validation as other content.

When you replace print news or books with social media, you lose a lot of value. Non-fiction books may seem outdated to some, and podcasts are taking over. But books go through research, editing for accuracy, and fact-checking.

Reading fiction just for enjoyment is also on the decline with the rise of technology. However, reading fiction can captivate your imagination in ways that visual media – like video games and television – do not.

Any kind of reading is full of positive benefits, including reflection, vocabulary, and critical thinking. Print literacy is on the decline while visual literacy is on the rise, and just relying on visual media is not enough to fully develop and master critical thinking.

Real-time media, such as movies and video games, also do not offer time for reflection or analysis. So, while visual media allows you to process information faster, you should still read books or lose out on the other skills that can benefit you.

Final Thoughts

The world of technology is so infinite that it can seem overwhelming. All forms of media don’t work in every setting. There needs to be a balance of modern technology in life, or you run the risk of losing out on developing fundamental skills.

Technology is an excellent boost to your critical thinking skills, but you should be aware of some of the pitfalls that come along with some forms of technology.

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Critical Thinking in the Age of AI

Over the past few decades, online discussions have occasionally turned to the question of whether the tools that allow us easy access to a wealth of information (like Google) help or hurt our ability to reason (i.e., to be critical thinkers) and to learn . We are now seeing this same discussion about new artificial intelligence tools, like ChatGPT. Before reading on, take a moment and think about your own perspective on this: Do these tools help make you a stronger critical thinker or not?

To try and figure this out requires a clear definition of critical thinking, something that is frequently lacking in these discussions. Let’s use what Daniel Willingham, a cognitive scientist, says is his “ commonsensical view .” His definition is that critical thinking is:

Novel: Not a direct repetition of something you’ve learned before.
Self-directed: Not just repeating steps you’ve been given.
Effective: Following patterns that are likely to yield useful conclusions.

These elements are best thought about in the context of the tools we have available: As we use generative AI to create more writing and other content, it will be even more important to approach media with the right framework. Daniel Dennett, the philosopher and scientist, wrote about some mental habits to use (he called them “ intuition pumps ”). Occam’s razor is one that many people are familiar with—don’t rely on a complex explanation when a simpler one works just as well. He also talks about certain things to be on the lookout for, such as a “deepity”: a statement that sounds simple and profound but can be read multiple ways and which is actually quite pointless (Dennett gives the example “Love is just a word”). If you find yourself gasping and going “wow” after encountering one of these, take a moment to see if you can explain what interesting idea it actually revealed; you may not be able to!

Like any habit of mind, people can adopt effective general patterns with effortful practice. And domain-specific critical thinking skills can be supported through instruction. That is, if your goal is to teach someone how to, say, debug a program that isn’t working, there is evidence that it can be taught through direct instruction and practice applying it, getting feedback along the way.

But this gets at another challenge. Frequently, what people mean by critical thinking is the application of approaches to new situations. You may think that someone who just received that training in debugging may be able to use the same underlying skills to help, say, revise an essay. However, there is a lot of psychology research that finds we are generally terrible at transferring critical thinking skills to new situations. We’ll dive into this limitation in people’s abilities to transfer their knowledge in another post, but, for now, we shouldn’t assume that for people using generative AI, being experts in their particular fields will protect them when evaluating false or misleading claims in areas outside their expertise.

So what does all of this mean for a person trying to keep up their critical thinking skills as the use of generative AI ramps up? Here are a few suggestions:

Learn : Continue building your own body of knowledge and skills, even if it is seemingly something that a computer could do for you. That will give you the grounding to potentially make connections and form new ideas that go beyond what even ChatGPT can generate.
Evaluate : Stress the critical in the idea of “critical thinking.” It is well-known that generative AI can hallucinate , particularly when it comes to up-to-date research. Even outside interactions with a tool like ChatGPT, try to apply some healthy skepticism, whether to a news article, a YouTube video, an interesting newsletter, a corporate strategy document, or any other media. Look for additional sources for claims you see, particularly ones that seem too good to be true.
Reflect : After you work with an AI, do some reflecting. For example, if you are using ChatGPT to help you craft a persuasive message (like a marketing email or even a LinkedIn post), ask yourself how it went. Did it produce what you wanted? What elements seemed to align with your thinking and which didn’t? Making sure you stop to explore these questions in your own interactions will help make you a stronger critical thinker when dealing with the output of AI systems.

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How to Improve Your Critical Thinking Skills

Traditional tools and new technologies..

Posted September 29, 2023 | Reviewed by Lybi Ma

Technology provides access to vast information and makes daily life easier. Yet, too much reliance on technology potentially interferes with the acquisition and maintenance of critical thinking skills in several ways:

1. Information Overload : The constant influx of data can discourage deep critical thinking as we may come to rely on quick, surface-level information rather than delving deeply into a subject.

2. Shortened Attention Span: Frequent digital distractions can disrupt our ability for the sustained focus and concentration required for critical thinking.

3. Confirmatory Bias and Echo Chambers: Technology, including social media and personalized content algorithms, can reinforce confirmation bias . People are often exposed to information that aligns with their beliefs and opinions, making them less likely to encounter diverse perspectives and engage in critical thinking about opposing views.

4. Reduced Problem-Solving Opportunities: Technology often provides quick solutions to problems. While this benefits efficiency, it may discourage individuals from engaging in complex problem-solving, a fundamental aspect of critical thinking.

5. Loss of Research Skills: The ease of accessing information online can diminish traditional research skills, such as library research or in-depth reading. These skills are essential for critical thinking, as they involve evaluating sources, synthesizing information, and analyzing complex texts.

While technology can pose challenges to developing critical thinking skills, it's important to note that technology can also be a valuable tool for learning and skill development. It can provide access to educational resources, facilitate collaboration , and support critical thinking when used thoughtfully and intentionally. Balancing technology use with activities that encourage deep thinking and analysis is vital to lessening its potential adverse effects on critical thinking.

Writing is a traditional and powerful tool to exercise and improve your critical thinking skills. Consider these ways writing can help enhance critical thinking:

1. Clarity of Thought: Writing requires that you articulate your thoughts clearly and coherently. When you need to put your ideas on paper, you must organize them logically, which requires a deeper understanding of the subject matter.

2. Analysis and Evaluation: Critical thinking involves analyzing and evaluating information. When you write, you often need to assess the validity and relevance of different sources, arguments, or pieces of evidence, which hone your critical thinking skills.

3. Problem-Solving: Writing can be a problem-solving exercise in itself. Whether crafting an argument, developing a thesis, or finding the right words to express your ideas, writing requires thinking critically about approaching these challenges effectively.

4. Research Skills: Good writing often involves research, and research requires critical thinking. You need to assess the credibility of sources, synthesize information, and draw conclusions based on the evidence you gather.

5. Argumentation: Constructing a persuasive argument in writing is a complex process requiring critical thinking. You must anticipate counterarguments, provide evidence to support your claims, and address potential weaknesses in your reasoning.

6. Revision and Editing: To be an influential writer, you must learn to read your work critically. Editing and revising requires evaluating your writing objectively, identifying areas that need improvement, and refining your ideas and arguments.

7. Problem Identification: In some cases, writing can help you identify problems or gaps in your thinking. As you write, you might realize that your arguments are not as strong as you initially thought or that you need more information to support your claims. This recognition of limitations is a crucial aspect of critical thinking.

Writing is a dynamic process that engages multiple facets of critical thinking. It has been a valuable tool used in education , business, and personal development for centuries.

Yet, this traditional approach of self-generated written thoughts is rapidly being supplanted by AI -generated writing tools like Chat GPT (Generative Pre-trained Transformer. With over 100 million users of Chat GPT alone, we cannot ignore its potential impact. How might the increasing reliance on AI-generated writing tools influence our critical thinking skills? The impact can vary depending on how the tools are used and the context in which they are employed.

Critical thinking involves evaluating information sources for credibility, relevance, and bias. If individuals consistently trust the information provided by chatbots without critically assessing its quality, it can hinder their development of critical thinking skills. This is especially true if they depend on the chatbot to provide answers without questioning or verifying the information. Relying solely on chatbots for answers may also reduce people's effort in problem-solving. Critical thinking often requires wrestling with complex problems, considering multiple perspectives, and generating creative solutions. If we default to chatbots for quick answers, we may miss opportunities to develop these skills.

However, it's essential to note that the impact of chatbots on critical thinking skills may not be entirely negative. These tools can also have positive effects:

1. Chatbots provide quick access to vast information, which can benefit research and problem-solving. When used as a supplement to critical thinking, they can enhance the efficiency of information retrieval.

2. Chatbots can sometimes assist in complex tasks by providing relevant data or suggestions. When individuals critically evaluate and integrate this information into their decision-making process, it can enhance their critical thinking.

3. Chatbots can be used as learning aids. They can provide explanations, examples, and guidance, which can support skill development and, when used effectively, encourage critical thinking.

In summary, the impact of chatbots on critical thinking skills depends on how we use them. The effect will be harmful if they become a crutch to avoid independent thought or analysis. However, they can be valuable resources when used as tools to facilitate and augment critical thinking and writing processes. Individuals must balance leveraging the convenience of chatbots and actively engaging in independent critical thinking and problem-solving to maintain and enhance their cognitive abilities. You can do that effectively through writing regularly.

Tara Well, Ph.D. , is a professor in the department of psychology at Barnard College of Columbia University.

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An Evaluative Review of Barriers to Critical Thinking in Educational and Real-World Settings

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No new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is not applicable to this article.

Though a wide array of definitions and conceptualisations of critical thinking have been offered in the past, further elaboration on some concepts is required, particularly with respect to various factors that may impede an individual’s application of critical thinking, such as in the case of reflective judgment. These barriers include varying levels of epistemological engagement or understanding, issues pertaining to heuristic-based thinking and intuitive judgment, as well as emotional and biased thinking. The aim of this review is to discuss such barriers and evaluate their impact on critical thinking in light of perspectives from research in an effort to reinforce the ‘completeness’ of extant critical thinking frameworks and to enhance the potential benefits of implementation in real-world settings. Recommendations and implications for overcoming such barriers are also discussed and evaluated.

1. Introduction

Critical thinking (CT) is a metacognitive process—consisting of a number of skills and dispositions—that, through purposeful, self-regulatory reflective judgment, increases the chances of producing a logical solution to a problem or a valid conclusion to an argument ( Dwyer 2017 , 2020 ; Dwyer et al. 2012 , 2014 , 2015 , 2016 ; Dwyer and Walsh 2019 ; Quinn et al. 2020 ).

CT has long been identified as a desired outcome of education ( Bezanilla et al. 2019 ; Butler et al. 2012 ; Dwyer 2017 ; Ennis 2018 ), given that it facilitates a more complex understanding of information ( Dwyer et al. 2012 ; Halpern 2014 ), better judgment and decision-making ( Gambrill 2006 ) and less dependence on cognitive bias and heuristic thinking ( Facione and Facione 2001 ; McGuinness 2013 ). A vast body of research (e.g., Dwyer et al. 2012 ; Gadzella 1996 ; Hitchcock 2004 ; Reed and Kromrey 2001 ; Rimiene 2002 ; Solon 2007 ), including various meta-analyses (e.g., Abrami et al. 2008 , 2015 ; Niu et al. 2013 ; Ortiz 2007 ), indicates that CT can be enhanced through targeted, explicit instruction. Though CT can be taught in domain-specific areas, its domain-generality means that it can be taught across disciplines and in relation to real-world scenarios ( Dwyer 2011 , 2017 ; Dwyer and Eigenauer 2017 ; Dwyer et al. 2015 ; Gabennesch 2006 ; Halpern 2014 ). Indeed, the positive outcomes associated with CT transcend educational settings into real-world, everyday situations, which is important because CT is necessary for a variety of social and interpersonal contexts where good decision-making and problem-solving are needed on a daily basis ( Ku 2009 ). However, regardless of domain-specificity or domain-generality of instruction, the transferability of CT application has been an issue in CT research (e.g., see Dumitru 2012 ). This is an important consideration because issues with transferability—for example, in real-world settings—may imply something lacking in CT instruction.

In light of the large, aforementioned body of research focusing on enhancing CT through instruction, a growing body of research has also evaluated the manner in which CT instruction is delivered (e.g., Abrami et al. 2008 , 2015 ; Ahern et al. 2019 ; Cáceres et al. 2020 ; Byerly 2019 ; Dwyer and Eigenauer 2017 ), along with additional considerations for and the barriers to such education, faced by teachers and students alike (e.g., Aliakbari and Sadeghdaghighi 2013 ; Cáceres et al. 2020 ; Cornell et al. 2011 ; Lloyd and Bahr 2010 ; Ma and Liu 2022 ; Ma and Luo 2021 ; Rear 2019 ; Saleh 2019 ); for example, those regarding conceptualisation, beliefs about CT, having feasible time for CT application and CT’s aforementioned transferability. However, there is a significant lack of research investigating barriers to CT application by individuals in real-world settings, even by those who have enjoyed benefits from previous CT instruction. Thus, perhaps the previously conjectured ‘something lacking in CT instruction’ refers to, in conjunction with the teaching of what CT consists of, making clear to students what barriers to CT application we face.

Simply, CT instruction is designed in such a way as to enhance the likelihood of positive decision-making outcomes. However, there are a variety of barriers that can impede an individual’s application of CT, regardless of past instruction with respect to ‘how to conduct CT’. For example, an individual might be regarded as a ‘critical thinker’ because they apply it in a vast majority of appropriate scenarios, but that does not ensure that they apply CT in all such appropriate scenarios. What keeps them from applying CT in those scenarios might well be one of a number of barriers to CT that often go unaddressed in CT instruction, particularly if such instruction is exclusively focused on skills and dispositions. Perhaps too much focus is placed on what educators are teaching their students to do in their CT courses as opposed to what educators should be recommending their students to look out for or advising what they should not be doing. That is, perhaps just as important for understanding what CT is and how it is conducted (i.e., knowing what to do) is a genuine awareness of the various factors and processes that can impede CT; and so, for an individual to think critically, they must know what to look out for and be able to monitor for such barriers to CT application.

To clarify, thought has not changed regarding what CT is or the cognitive/metacognitive processes at its foundation (e.g., see Dwyer 2017 ; Dwyer et al. 2014 ; Ennis 1987 , 1996 , 1998 ; Facione 1990 ; Halpern 2014 ; Paul 1993 ; Paul and Elder 2008 ); rather, additional consideration of issues that have potential to negatively impact CT is required, such as those pertaining to epistemological engagement; intuitive judgment; as well as emotional and biased thinking. This notion has been made clear through what might be perceived of as a ‘loud shout’ for CT over at least the past 10–15 years in light of growing political, economic, social, and health-related concerns (e.g., ‘fake news’, gaps between political views in the general population, various social movements and the COVID-19 pandemic). Indeed, there is a dearth of research on barriers to CT ( Haynes et al. 2016 ; Lloyd and Bahr 2010 ; Mangena and Chabeli 2005 ; Rowe et al. 2015 ). As a result, this evaluative perspective review aims to provide an impetus for updating the manner in which CT education is approached and, perhaps most importantly, applied in real-world settings—through further identifying and elaborating on specific barriers of concern in order to reinforce the ‘completeness’ of extant CT frameworks and to enhance the potential benefits of their implementation 1 .

2. Barriers to Critical Thinking

2.1. inadequate skills and dispositions.

In order to better understand the various barriers to CT that will be discussed, the manner in which CT is conceptualised must first be revisited. Though debate over its definition and what components are necessary to think critically has existed over the 80-plus years since the term’s coining (i.e., Glaser 1941 ), it is generally accepted that CT consists of two main components: skills and dispositions ( Dwyer 2017 ; Dwyer et al. 2012 , 2014 ; Ennis 1996 , 1998 ; Facione 1990 ; Facione et al. 2002 ; Halpern 2014 ; Ku and Ho 2010a ; Perkins and Ritchhart 2004 ; Quinn et al. 2020 ). CT skills—analysis, evaluation, and inference—refer to the higher-order, cognitive, ‘task-based’ processes necessary to conduct CT (e.g., see Dwyer et al. 2014 ; Facione 1990 ). CT dispositions have been described as inclinations, tendencies, or willingness to perform a given thinking skill (e.g., see Dwyer et al. 2016 ; Siegel 1999 ; Valenzuela et al. 2011 ), which may relate to attitudinal and intellectual habits of thinking, as well as motivational processes ( Ennis 1996 ; Norris 1994 ; Paul and Elder 2008 ; Perkins et al. 1993 ; Valenzuela et al. 2011 ). The relationship between CT skills and dispositions has been argued to be mutually dependent. As a result, overemphasising or encouraging the development of one over the other is a barrier to CT as a whole. Though this may seem obvious, it remains the case that CT instruction often places added emphasis on skills simply because they can be taught (though that does not ensure that everyone has or will be taught such skills), whereas dispositions are ‘trickier’ (e.g., see Dwyer 2017 ; Ku and Ho 2010a ). That is, it is unlikely that simply ‘teaching’ students to be motivated towards CT or to value it over short-instructional periods will actually meaningfully enhance it. Moreover, debate exists over how best to train disposition or even measure it. With that, some individuals might be more ‘inherently’ disposed to CT in light of their truth-seeking, open-minded, or inquisitive natures ( Facione and Facione 1992 ; Quinn et al. 2020 ). The barrier, in this context, is how we can enhance the disposition of those who are not ‘inherently’ inclined. For example, though an individual may possess the requisite skills to conduct CT, it does not ensure the tendency or willingness to apply them; and conversely, having the disposition to apply CT does not mean that one has the ability to do so ( Valenzuela et al. 2011 ). Given the pertinence of CT skills and dispositions to the application of CT in a broader sense, inadequacies in either create a barrier to application.

2.2. Epistemological (Mis)Understanding

To reiterate, most extant conceptualisations of CT focus on the tandem working of skills and dispositions, though significantly fewer emphasise the reflective judgment aspect of CT that might govern various associated processes ( Dawson 2008 ; Dwyer 2017 ; Dwyer et al. 2014 , 2015 ; King and Kitchener 1994 , 2004 ; Stanovich and Stanovich 2010 ). Reflective judgment (RJ) refers to a self-regulatory process of decision-making, with respect to taking time to engage one’s understanding of the nature, limits, and certainty of knowing and how this can affect the defense of their reasoning ( Dwyer 2017 ; King and Kitchener 1994 ; Ku and Ho 2010b ). The ability to metacognitively ‘think about thinking’ ( Flavell 1976 ; Ku and Ho 2010b ) in the application of critical thinking skills implies a reflective sensibility consistent with epistemological understanding and the capacity for reflective judgement ( Dwyer et al. 2015 ; King and Kitchener 1994 ). Acknowledging levels of (un)certainty is important in CT because the information a person is presented with (along with that person’s pre-existing knowledge) often provides only a limited source of information from which to draw a conclusion. Thus, RJ is considered a component of CT ( Baril et al. 1998 ; Dwyer et al. 2015 ; Huffman et al. 1991 ) because it allows one to acknowledge that epistemological understanding is necessary for recognising and judging a situation in which CT may be required ( King and Kitchener 1994 ). For example, the interdependence between RJ and CT can be seen in the way that RJ influences the manner in which CT skills like analysis and evaluation are conducted or the balance and perspective within the subsequent inferences drawn ( Dwyer et al. 2015 ; King et al. 1990 ). Moreover, research suggests that RJ development is not a simple function of age or time but more so a function of the amount of active engagement an individual has working in problem spaces that require CT ( Brabeck 1981 ; Dawson 2008 ; Dwyer et al. 2015 ). The more developed one’s RJ, the better able one is to present “a more complex and effective form of justification, providing more inclusive and better integrated assumptions for evaluating and defending a point of view” ( King and Kitchener 1994, p. 13 ).

Despite a lesser focus on RJ, research indicates a positive relationship between it and CT ( Baril et al. 1998 ; Brabeck 1981 ; Dawson 2008 ; Dwyer et al. 2015 ; Huffman et al. 1991 ; King et al. 1990 )—the understanding of which is pertinent to better understanding the foundation to CT barriers. For example, when considering one’s proficiency in CT skills, there might come a time when the individual becomes so good at using them that their application becomes something akin to ‘second nature’ or even ‘automatic’. However, this creates a contradiction: automatic thinking is largely the antithesis of reflective judgment (even though judgment is never fully intuitive or reflective; see Cader et al. 2005 ; Dunwoody et al. 2000 ; Hamm 1988 ; Hammond 1981 , 1996 , 2000 )—those who think critically take their time and reflect on their decision-making; even if the solution/conclusion drawn from the automatic thinking is ‘correct’ or yields a positive outcome, it is not a critically thought out answer, per se. Thus, no matter how skilled one is at applying CT skills, once the application becomes primarily ‘automatic’, the thinking ceases to be critical ( Dwyer 2017 )—a perspective consistent with Dual Process Theory (e.g., Stanovich and West 2000 ). Indeed, RJ acts as System 2 thinking ( Stanovich and West 2000 ): it is slow, careful, conscious, and consistent ( Kahneman 2011 ; Hamm 1988 ); it is associated with high cognitive control, attention, awareness, concentration, and complex computation ( Cader et al. 2005 ; Kahneman 2011 ; Hamm 1988 ); and accounts for epistemological concerns—consistent not only with King and Kitchener’s ( 1994 ) conceptualisation but also Kuhn’s ( 1999 , 2000 ) perspective on metacognition and epistemological knowing . This is where RJ comes into play as an important component of CT—interdependent among the requisite skills and dispositions ( Baril et al. 1998 ; Dwyer et al. 2015 )—it allows one to acknowledge that epistemological understanding is vital to recognising and judging a situation in which CT is required ( King and Kitchener 1994 ). With respect to the importance of epistemological understanding, consider the following examples for elaboration.

The primary goal of CT is to enhance the likelihood of generating reasonable conclusions and/or solutions. Truth-seeking is a CT disposition fundamental to the attainment of this goal ( Dwyer et al. 2016 ; Facione 1990 ; Facione and Facione 1992 ) because if we just applied any old nonsense as justification for our arguments or solutions, they would fail in the application and yield undesirable consequences. Despite what may seem like truth-seeking’s obvious importance in this context, all thinkers succumb to unwarranted assumptions on occasion (i.e., beliefs presumed to be true without adequate justification). It may also seem obvious, in context, that it is important to be able to distinguish facts from beliefs. However, the concepts of ‘fact’ or ‘truth’, with respect to how much empirical support they have to validate them, also require consideration. For example, some might conceptualise truth as factual information or information that has been or can be ‘proven’ true. Likewise, ‘proof’ is often described as evidence establishing a fact or the truth of a statement—indicating a level of absolutism. However, the reality is that we cannot ‘prove’ things—as scientists and researchers well know—we can only disprove them, such as in experimental settings where we observe a significant difference between groups on some measure—we do not prove the hypothesis correct, rather, we disprove the null hypothesis. This is why, in large part, researchers and scientists use cautious language in reporting their results. We know the best our findings can do is reinforce a theory—another concept often misconstrued in the wider population as something like a hypothesis, as opposed to what it actually entails: a robust model for how and/or why a given phenomenon might occur (e.g., gravity). Thus, theories will hold ‘true’ until they are falsified—that is, disproven (e.g., Popper [1934] 1959 , 1999 ).

Unfortunately, ‘proof’, ‘prove’, and ‘proven’—words that ensure certainty to large populations—actually disservice the public in subtle ways that can hinder CT. For example, a company that produces toothpaste might claim its product to be ‘clinically proven’ to whiten teeth. Consumers purchasing that toothpaste are likely to expect to have whiter teeth after use. However, what happens—as often may be the case—if it does not whiten their teeth? The word ‘proven’ implies a false claim in context. Of course, those in research understand that the word’s use is a marketing ploy, given that ‘clinically proven’ sounds more reassuring to consumers than ‘there is evidence to suggest…’; but, by incorrectly using words like ‘proven’ in our daily language, we reinforce a misunderstanding of what it means to assess, measure and evaluate—particularly from a scientific standpoint (e.g., again, see Popper [1934] 1959 , 1999 ).

Though this example may seem like a semantic issue, it has great implications for CT in the population. For example, a vast majority of us grew up being taught the ‘factual’ information that there were nine planets in our solar system; then, in 2006, Pluto was reclassified as a dwarf planet—no longer being considered a ‘major’ planet of our solar system. As a result, we now have eight planets. This change might be perceived in two distinct ways: (1) ‘science is amazing because it’s always developing—we’ve now reached a stage where we know so much about the solar system that we can differentiate celestial bodies to the extent of distinguishing planets from dwarf planets’; and (2) ‘I don’t understand why these scientists even have jobs, they can’t even count planets’. The first perspective is consistent with that of an individual with epistemological understanding and engagement that previous understandings of models and theories can change, not necessarily because they were wrong, but rather because they have been advanced in light of gaining further credible evidence. The second perspective is consistent with that of someone who has failed to engage epistemological understanding, who does not necessarily see that the change might reflect progress, who might be resistant to change, and who might grow in distrust of science and research in light of these changes. The latter point is of great concern in the CT research community because the unwarranted cynicism and distrust of science and research, in context, may simply reflect a lack of epistemological understanding or engagement (e.g., to some extent consistent with the manner in which conspiracy theories are developed, rationalised and maintained (e.g., Swami and Furnham 2014 )). Notably, this should also be of great concern to education departments around the world, as well as society, more broadly speaking.

Upon considering epistemological engagement in more practical, day-to-day scenarios (or perhaps a lack thereof), we begin to see the need for CT in everyday 21st-century life—heightened by the ‘new knowledge economy’, which has resulted in exponential increases in the amount of information made available since the late 1990s (e.g., Darling-Hammond 2008 ; Dwyer 2017 ; Jukes and McCain 2002 ; Varian and Lyman 2003 ). Though increased amounts of and enhanced access to information are largely good things, what is alarming about this is how much of it is misinformation or disinformation ( Commission on Fake News and the Teaching of Critical Literacy in Schools 2018 ). Truth be told, the new knowledge economy is anything but ‘new’ anymore. Perhaps, over the past 10–15 years, there has been an increase in the need for CT above and beyond that seen in the ‘economy’s’ wake—or maybe ever before; for example, in light of the social media boom, political unrest, ‘fake news’, and issues regarding health literacy. The ‘new’ knowledge economy has made it so that knowledge acquisition, on its own, is no longer sufficient for learning—individuals must be able to work with and adapt information through CT in order to apply it appropriately ( Dwyer 2017 ).

Though extant research has addressed the importance of epistemological understanding for CT (e.g., Dwyer et al. 2014 ), it does not address how not engaging it can substantially hinder it—regardless of how skilled or disposed to think critically an individual may be. Notably, this is distinct from ‘inadequacies’ in, say, memory, comprehension, or other ‘lower-order’ cognitively-associated skills required for CT ( Dwyer et al. 2014 ; Halpern 2014 ; see, again, Note 1) in that reflective judgment is essentially a pole on a cognitive continuum (e.g., see Cader et al. 2005 ; Hamm 1988 ; Hammond 1981 , 1996 , 2000 ). Cognitive Continuum Theory postulates a continuum of cognitive processes anchored by reflective judgment and intuitive judgment, which represents how judgment situations or tasks relate to cognition, given that thinking is never purely reflective, nor is it completely intuitive; rather, it rests somewhere in between ( Cader et al. 2005 ; Dunwoody et al. 2000 ). It is also worth noting that, in Cognitive Continuum Theory, neither reflective nor intuitive judgment is assumed, a priori, to be superior ( Dunwoody et al. 2000 ), despite most contemporary research on judgment and decision-making focusing on the strengths of RJ and limitations associated with intuitive judgment ( Cabantous et al. 2010 ; Dhami and Thomson 2012 ; Gilovich et al. 2002 ). Though this point regarding superiority is acknowledged and respected (particularly in non-CT cases where it is advantageous to utilise intuitive judgment), in the context of CT, it is rejected in light of the example above regarding the automaticity of thinking skills.

2.3. Intuitive Judgment

The manner in which human beings think and the evolution of which, over millions of years, is a truly amazing thing. Such evolution has made it so that we can observe a particular event and make complex computations regarding predictions, interpretations, and reactions in less than a second (e.g., Teichert et al. 2014 ). Unfortunately, we have become so good at it that we often over-rely on ‘fast’ thinking and intuitive judgments that we have become ‘cognitively lazy’, given the speed at which we can make decisions with little energy ( Kahneman 2011 ; Simon 1957 ). In the context of CT, this ‘lazy’ thinking is an impediment (as in opposition to reflective judgment). For example, consider a time in which you have been presented numeric data on a topic, and you instantly aligned your perspective with what the ‘numbers indicate’. Of course, numbers do not lie… but people do—that is not to say that the person who initially interpreted and then presented you with those numbers is trying to disinform you; rather, the numbers presented might not tell the full story (i.e., the data are incomplete or inadequate, unbeknownst to the person reporting on them); and thus, there might be alternative interpretations to the data in question. With that, there most certainly are individuals who will wish to persuade you to align with their perspective, which only strengthens the impetus for being aware of intuitive judgment as a barrier. Consider another example: have you ever accidentally insulted someone at work, school, or in a social setting? Was it because the statement you made was based on some kind of assumption or stereotype? It may have been an honest mistake, but if a statement is made based on what one thinks they know, as opposed to what they actually know about the situation—without taking the time to recognise that all situations are unique and that reflection is likely warranted in light of such uncertainty—then it is likely that the schema-based ‘intuitive judgment’ is what is a fault here.

Our ability to construct schemas (i.e., mental frameworks for how we interpret the world) is evolutionarily adaptive in that these scripts allow us to: make quick decisions when necessary and without much effort, such as in moments of impending danger, answer questions in conversation; interpret social situations; or try to stave off cognitive load or decision fatigue ( Baumeister 2003 ; Sweller 2010 ; Vohs et al. 2014 ). To reiterate, research in the field of higher-order thinking often focuses on the failings of intuitive judgment ( Dwyer 2017 ; Hamm 1988 ) as being limited, misapplied, and, sometimes, yielding grossly incorrect responses—thus, leading to faulty reasoning and judgment as a result of systematic biases and errors ( Gilovich et al. 2002 ; Kahneman 2011 ; Kahneman et al. 1982 ; Slovic et al. 1977 ; Tversky and Kahneman 1974 ; in terms of schematic thinking ( Leventhal 1984 ), system 1 thinking ( Stanovich and West 2000 ; Kahneman 2011 ), miserly thinking ( Stanovich 2018 ) or even heuristics ( Kahneman and Frederick 2002 ; Tversky and Kahneman 1974 ). Nevertheless, it remains that such protocols are learned—not just through experience (as discussed below), but often through more ‘academic’ means. For example, consider again the anecdote above about learning to apply CT skills so well that it becomes like ‘second nature’. Such skills become a part of an individual’s ‘mindware’ ( Clark 2001 ; Stanovich 2018 ; Stanovich et al. 2016 ) and, in essence, become heuristics themselves. Though their application requires RJ for them to be CT, it does not mean that the responses yielded will be incorrect.

Moreover, despite the descriptions above, it would be incorrect, and a disservice to readers to imply that RJ is always right and intuitive judgment is always wrong, especially without consideration of the contextual issues—both intuitive and reflective judgments have the potential to be ‘correct’ or ‘incorrect’ with respect to validity, reasonableness or appropriateness. However, it must also be acknowledged that there is a cognitive ‘miserliness’ to depending on intuitive judgment, in which case, the ability to detect and override this dependence ( Stanovich 2018 )—consistent with RJ, is of utmost importance if we care about our decision-making. That is, if we care about our CT (see below for a more detailed discussion), we must ignore the implicit ‘noise’ associated with the intuitive judgment (regardless of whether or not it is ‘correct’) and, instead, apply the necessary RJ to ensure, as best we can, that the conclusion or solution is valid, reasonable or appropriate.

Although, such a recommendation is much easier said than done. One problem with relying on mental shortcuts afforded by intuition and heuristics is that they are largely experience-based protocols. Though that may sound like a positive thing, using ‘experience’ to draw a conclusion in a task that requires CT is erroneous because it essentially acts as ‘research’ based on a sample size of one; and so, ‘findings’ (i.e., one’s conclusion) cannot be generalised to the larger population—in this case, other contexts or problem-spaces ( Dwyer 2017 ). Despite this, we often over-emphasise the importance of experience in two related ways. First, people have a tendency to confuse experience for expertise (e.g., see the Dunning–KrugerEffect (i.e., the tendency for low-skilled individuals to overestimate their ability in tasks relevant to said skill and highly skilled individuals to underestimate their ability in tasks relevant to said skills); see also: ( Kruger and Dunning 1999 ; Mahmood 2016 ), wherein people may not necessarily be expert, rather they may just have a lot of experience completing a task imperfectly or wrong ( Dwyer and Walsh 2019 ; Hammond 1996 ; Kahneman 2011 ). Second, depending on the nature of the topic or problem, people often evaluate experience on par with research evidence (in terms of credibility), given its personalised nature, which is reinforced by self-serving bias(es).

When evaluating topics in domains wherein one lacks expertise, the need for intellectual integrity and humility ( Paul and Elder 2008 ) in their RJ is increased so that the individual may assess what knowledge is required to make a critically considered judgment. However, this is not necessarily a common response to a lack of relevant knowledge, given that when individuals are tasked with decision-making regarding a topic in which they do not possess relevant knowledge, these individuals will generally rely on emotional cues to inform their decision-making (e.g., Kahneman and Frederick 2002 ). Concerns here are not necessarily about the lack of domain-specific knowledge necessary to make an accurate decision, but rather the (1) belief of the individual that they have the knowledge necessary to make a critically thought-out judgment, even when this is not the case—again, akin to the Dunning–Kruger Effect ( Kruger and Dunning 1999 ); or (2) lack of willingness (i.e., disposition) to gain additional, relevant topic knowledge.

One final problem with relying on experience for important decisions, as alluded to above, is that when experience is engaged, it is not necessarily an objective recollection of the procedure. It can be accompanied by the individual’s beliefs, attitudes, and feelings—how that experience is recalled. The manner in which an individual draws on their personal experience, in light of these other factors, is inherently emotion-based and, likewise, biased (e.g., Croskerry et al. 2013 ; Loftus 2017 ; Paul 1993 ).

2.4. Bias and Emotion

Definitions of CT often reflect that it is to be applied to a topic, argument, or problem of importance that the individual cares about ( Dwyer 2017 ). The issue of ‘caring’ is important because it excludes judgment and decision-making in day-to-day scenarios that are not of great importance and do not warrant CT (e.g., ‘what colour pants best match my shirt’ and ‘what to eat for dinner’); again, for example, in an effort to conserve time and cognitive resources (e.g., Baumeister 2003 ; Sweller 2010 ). However, given that ‘importance’ is subjective, it essentially boils down to what one cares about (e.g., issues potentially impactful in one’s personal life; topics of personal importance to the individual; or even problems faced by an individual’s social group or work organisation (in which case, care might be more extrinsically-oriented). This is arguably one of the most difficult issues to resolve in CT application, given its contradictory nature—where it is generally recommended that CT should be conducted void of emotion and bias (as much as it can be possible), at the same time, it is also recommended that it should only be applied to things we care about. As a result, the manner in which care is conceptualised requires consideration. For example, in terms of CT, care can be conceptualised as ‘concern or interest; the attachment of importance to a person, place, object or concept; and serious attention or consideration applied to doing something correctly or to avoid damage or risk’; as opposed to some form of passion (e.g., intense, driving or over-powering feeling or conviction; emotions as distinguished from reason; a strong liking or desire for or devotion to some activity, object or concept). In this light, care could be argued as more of a dispositional or self-regulatory factor than emotional bias; thus, making it useful to CT. Though this distinction is important, the manner in which care is labeled does not lessen the potential for biased emotion to play a role in the thinking process. For example, it has been argued that if one cares about the decision they make or the conclusion they draw, then the individual will do their best to be objective as possible ( Dwyer 2017 ). However, it must also be acknowledged that this may not always be the case or even completely feasible (i.e., how can any decision be fully void of emotional input? )—though one may strive to be as objective as possible, such objectivity is not ensured given that implicit bias may infiltrate their decision-making (e.g., taking assumptions for granted as facts in filling gaps (unknowns) in a given problem-space). Consequently, such implicit biases may be difficult to amend, given that we may not be fully aware of them at play.

With that, explicit biases are just as concerning, despite our awareness of them. For example, the more important an opinion or belief is to an individual, the greater the resistance to changing their mind about it ( Rowe et al. 2015 ), even in light of evidence indicating the contrary ( Tavris and Aronson 2007 ). In some cases, the provision of information that corrects the flawed concept may even ‘backfire’ and reinforce the flawed or debunked stance ( Cook and Lewandowsky 2011 ). This cognitive resistance is an important barrier to CT to consider for obvious reasons—as a process; it acts in direct opposition to RJ, the skill of evaluation, as well as a number of requisite dispositions towards CT, including truth-seeking and open-mindedness (e.g., Dwyer et al. 2014 , 2016 ; Facione 1990 ); and at the same time, yields important real-world impacts (e.g., see Nyhan et al. 2014 ).

The notion of emotion impacting rational thought is by no means a novel concept. A large body of research indicates a negative impact of emotion on decision-making (e.g., Kahneman and Frederick 2002 ; Slovic et al. 2002 ; Strack et al. 1988 ), higher-order cognition ( Anticevic et al. 2011 ; Chuah et al. 2010 ; Denkova et al. 2010 ; Dolcos and McCarthy 2006 ) and cognition, more generally ( Iordan et al. 2013 ; Johnson et al. 2005 ; Most et al. 2005 ; Shackman et al. 2006 ) 2 . However, less attention has specifically focused on emotion’s impact on the application of critical thought. This may be a result of assumptions that if a person is inclined to think critically, then what is yielded will typically be void of emotion—which is true to a certain extent. However, despite the domain generality of CT ( Dwyer 2011 , 2017 ; Dwyer and Eigenauer 2017 ; Dwyer et al. 2015 ; Gabennesch 2006 ; Halpern 2014 ), the likelihood of emotional control during the CT process remains heavily dependent on the topic of application. Consider again, for example; there is no guarantee that an individual who generally applies CT to important topics or situations will do so in all contexts. Indeed, depending on the nature of the topic or the problem faced, an individual’s mindware ( Clark 2001 ; Stanovich 2018 ; Stanovich et al. 2016 ; consistent with the metacognitive nature of CT) and the extent to which a context can evoke emotion in the thinker will influence what and how thinking is applied. As addressed above, if the topic is something to which the individual feels passionate, then it will more likely be a greater challenge for them to remain unbiased and develop a reasonably objective argument or solution.

Notably, self-regulation is an important aspect of both RJ and CT ( Dwyer 2017 ; Dwyer et al. 2014 ), and, in this context, it is difficult not to consider the role emotional intelligence might play in the relationship between affect and CT. For example, though there are a variety of conceptualisations of emotional intelligence (e.g., Bar-On 2006 ; Feyerherm and Rice 2002 ; Goleman 1995 ; Salovey and Mayer 1990 ; Schutte et al. 1998 ), the underlying thread among these is that, similar to the concept of self-regulation, emotional intelligence (EI) refers to the ability to monitor (e.g., perceive, understand and regulate) one’s own feelings, as well as those of others, and to use this information to guide relevant thinking and behaviour. Indeed, extant research indicates that there is a positive association between EI and CT (e.g., Afshar and Rahimi 2014 ; Akbari-Lakeh et al. 2018 ; Ghanizadeh and Moafian 2011 ; Kaya et al. 2017 ; Stedman and Andenoro 2007 ; Yao et al. 2018 ). To shed light upon this relationship, Elder ( 1997 ) addressed the potential link between CT and EI through her description of the latter as a measure of the extent to which affective responses are rationally-based , in which reasonable desires and behaviours emerge from such rationally-based emotions. Though there is extant research on the links between CT and EI, it is recommended that future research further elaborate on this relationship, as well as with other self-regulatory processes, in an effort to further establish the potentially important role that EI might play within CT.

3. Discussion

3.1. interpretations.

Given difficulties in the past regarding the conceptualisation of CT ( Dwyer et al. 2014 ), efforts have been made to be as specific and comprehensive as possible when discussing CT in the literature to ensure clarity and accuracy. However, it has been argued that such efforts have actually added to the complexity of CT’s conceptualisation and had the opposite effect on clarity and, perhaps, more importantly, the accessibility and practical usefulness for educators (and students) not working in the research area. As a result, when asked what CT is, I generally follow up the ‘long definition’, in light of past research, with a much simpler description: CT is akin to ‘playing devil’s advocate’. That is, once a claim is made, one should second-guess it in as many conceivable ways as possible, in a process similar to the Socratic Method. Through asking ‘why’ and conjecturing alternatives, we ask the individual—be it another person or even ourselves—to justify the decision-making. It keeps the thinker ‘honest’, which is particularly useful if we’re questioning ourselves. If we do not have justifiable reason(s) for why we think or intend to act in a particular way (above and beyond considered objections), then it should become obvious that we either missed something or we are biased. It is perhaps this simplified description of CT that gives such impetus for the aim of this review.

Whereas extant frameworks often discuss the importance of CT skills, dispositions, and, to a lesser extent, RJ and other self-regulatory functions of CT, they do so with respect to components of CT or processes that facilitate CT (e.g., motivation, executive functions, and dispositions), without fully encapsulating cognitive processes and other factors that may hinder it (e.g., emotion, bias, intuitive judgment and a lack of epistemological understanding or engagement). With that, this review is neither a criticism of existing CT frameworks nor is it to imply that CT has so many barriers that it cannot be taught well, nor does it claim to be a complete list of processes that can impede CT (see again Note 1). To reiterate, education in CT can yield beneficial effects ( Abrami et al. 2008 , 2015 ; Dwyer 2017 ; Dwyer and Eigenauer 2017 ); however, such efficacy may be further enhanced by presenting students and individuals interested in CT the barriers they are likely to face in its application; explaining how these barriers manifest and operate; and offer potential strategies for overcoming them.

3.2. Further Implications and Future Research

Though the barriers addressed here are by no means new to the arena of research in higher-order cognition, there is a novelty in their collated discussion as impactful barriers in the context of CT, particularly with respect to extant CT research typically focusing on introducing strategies and skills for enhancing CT, rather than identifying ‘preventative measures’ for barriers that can negatively impact CT. Nevertheless, future research is necessary to address how such barriers can be overcome in the context of CT. As addressed above, it is recommended that CT education include discussion of these barriers and encourage self-regulation against them; and, given the vast body of CT research focusing on enhancement through training and education, it seems obvious to make such a recommendation in this context. However, it is also recognised that simply identifying these barriers and encouraging people to engage in RJ and self-regulation to combat them may not suffice. For example, educators might very well succeed in teaching students how to apply CT skills , but just as these educators may not be able to motivate students to use them as often as they might be needed or even to value such skills (such as in attempting to elicit a positive disposition towards CT), it might be the case that without knowing about the impact of the discussed barriers to CT (e.g., emotion and/or intuitive judgment), students may be just as susceptible to biases in their attempts to think critically as others without CT skills. Thus, what such individuals might be applying is not CT at all; rather, just a series of higher-order cognitive skills from a biased or emotion-driven perspective. As a result, a genuine understanding of these barriers is necessary for individuals to appropriately self-regulate their thinking.

Moreover, though the issues of epistemological beliefs, bias, emotion, and intuitive processes are distinct in the manner in which they can impact CT, these do not have set boundaries; thus, an important implication is that they can overlap. For example, epistemological understanding can influence how individuals make decisions in real-world scenarios, such as through intuiting a judgment in social situations (i.e., without considering the nature of the knowledge behind the decision, the manner in which such knowledge interacts [e.g., correlation v. causation], the level of uncertainty regarding both the decision-maker’s personal stance and the available evidence), when a situation might actually require further consideration or even the honest response of ‘I don’t know’. The latter concept—that of simply responding ‘I don’t know’ is interesting to consider because though it seems, on the surface, to be inconsistent with CT and its outcomes, it is commensurate with many of its associated components (e.g., intellectual honesty and humility; see Paul and Elder 2008 ). In the context this example is used, ‘I don’t know’ refers to epistemological understanding. With that, it may also be impacted by bias and emotion. For example, depending on the topic, an individual may be likely to respond ‘I don’t know’ when they do not have the relevant knowledge or evidence to provide a sufficient answer. However, in the event that the topic is something the individual is emotionally invested in or feels passionate about, an opinion or belief may be shared instead of ‘I don’t know’ (e.g., Kahneman and Frederick 2002 ), despite a lack of requisite evidence-based knowledge (e.g., Kruger and Dunning 1999 ). An emotional response based on belief may be motivated in the sense that the individual knows that they do not know for sure and simply uses a belief to support their reasoning as a persuasive tool. On the other hand, the emotional response based on belief might be used simply because the individual may not know that the use of a belief is an insufficient means of supporting their perspective– instead, they might think that their intuitive, belief-based judgment is as good as a piece of empirical evidence; thus, suggesting a lack of empirical understanding. With that, it is fair to say that though epistemological understanding, intuitive judgment, emotion, and bias are distinct concepts, they can influence each other in real-world CT and decision-making. Though there are many more examples of how this might occur, the one presented may further support the recommendation that education can be used to overcome some of the negative effects associated with the barriers presented.

For example, in Ireland, students are not generally taught about academic referencing until they reach third-level education. Anecdotally, I was taught about referencing at age 12 and had to use it all the way through high school when I was growing up in New York. In the context of these referencing lessons, we were taught about the credibility of sources, as well as how analyse and evaluate arguments and subsequently infer conclusions in light of these sources (i.e., CT skills). We were motivated by our teacher to find the ‘truth’ as best we could (i.e., a fundament of CT disposition). Now, I recognise that this experience cannot be generalised to larger populations, given that I am a sample size of one, but I do look upon such education, perhaps, as a kind of transformative learning experience ( Casey 2018 ; King 2009 ; Mezirow 1978 , 1990 ) in the sense that such education might have provided a basis for both CT and epistemological understanding. For CT, we use research to support our positions, hence the importance of referencing. When a ‘reference’ is not available, one must ask if there is actual evidence available to support the proposition. If there is not, one must question the basis for why they think or believe that their stance is correct—that is, where there is logic to the reasoning or if the proposition is simply an emotion- or bias-based intuitive judgment. So, in addition to referencing, the teaching of some form of epistemology—perhaps early in children’s secondary school careers, might benefit students in future efforts to overcome some barriers to CT. Likewise, presenting examples of the observable impact that bias, emotions, and intuitive thought can have on their thinking might also facilitate overcoming these barriers.

As addressed above, it is acknowledged that we may not be able to ‘teach’ people not to be biased or emotionally driven in their thinking because it occurs naturally ( Kahneman 2011 )—regardless of how ‘skilled’ one might be in CT. For example, though research suggests that components of CT, such as disposition, can improve over relatively short periods of time (e.g., over the duration of a semester-long course; Rimiene 2002 ), less is known about how such components have been enhanced (given the difficulty often associated with trying to teach something like disposition ( Dwyer 2017 ); i.e., to reiterate, it is unlikely that simply ‘teaching’ (or telling) students to be motivated towards CT or to value it (or its associated concepts) will actually enhance it over short periods of time (e.g., semester-long training). Nevertheless, it is reasonable to suggest that, in light of such research, educators can encourage dispositional growth and provide opportunities to develop it. Likewise, it is recommended that educators encourage students to be aware of the cognitive barriers discussed and provide chances to engage in CT scenarios where such barriers are likely to play a role, thus, giving students opportunities to acknowledge the barriers and practice overcoming them. Moreover, making students aware of such barriers at younger ages—in a simplified manner, may promote the development of personal perspectives and approaches that are better able to overcome the discussed barriers to CT. This perspective is consistent with research on RJ ( Dwyer et al. 2015 ), in which it was recommended that such enhancement requires not only time to develop (be it over the course of a semester or longer) but is also a function of having increased opportunities to engage CT. In the possibilities described, individuals may learn both to overcome barriers to CT and from the positive outcomes of applying CT; and, perhaps, engage in some form of transformative learning ( Casey 2018 ; King 2009 ; Mezirow 1978 , 1990 ) that facilitates an enhanced ‘valuing’ of and motivation towards CT. For example, through growing an understanding of the nature of epistemology, intuitive-based thinking, emotion, bias, and the manner in which people often succumb to faulty reasoning in light of these, individuals may come to better understand the limits of knowledge, barriers to CT and how both understandings can be applied; thus, growing further appreciation of the process as it is needed.

To reiterate, research suggests that there may be a developmental trajectory above and beyond the parameters of a semester-long training course that is necessary to develop the RJ necessary to think critically and, likewise, engage an adequate epistemological stance and self-regulate against impeding cognitive processes ( Dwyer et al. 2015 ). Though such research suggests that such development may not be an issue of time, but rather the amount of opportunities to engage RJ and CT, there is a dearth of recommendations offered with respect to how this could be performed in practice. Moreover, the how and what regarding ‘opportunities for engagement’ requires further investigation as well. For example, does this require additional academic work outside the classroom in a formal manner, or does it require informal ‘exploration’ of the world of information on one’s own? If the latter, the case of motivational and dispositional levels once again comes into question; thus, even further consideration is needed. One way or another, future research efforts are necessary to identify how best to make individuals aware of barriers to CT, encourage them to self-regulate against them, and identify means of increasing opportunities to engage RJ and CT.

4. Conclusions

Taking heed that it is unnecessary to reinvent the CT wheel ( Eigenauer 2017 ), the aim of this review was to further elaborate on the processes associated with CT and make a valuable contribution to its literature with respect to conceptualisation—not just in light of making people explicitly aware of what it is, but also what it is not and how it can be impeded (e.g., through inadequate CT skills and dispositions; epistemological misunderstanding; intuitive judgment; as well as bias and emotion)—a perspective consistent with that of ‘constructive feedback’ wherein students need to know both what they are doing right and what they are doing wrong. This review further contributes to the CT education literature by identifying the importance of (1) engaging understanding of the nature, limits, and certainty of knowing as individuals traverse the landscape of evidence-bases in their research and ‘truth-seeking’; (2) understanding how emotions and biases can affect CT, regardless of the topic; (3) managing gut-level intuition until RJ has been appropriately engaged; and (4) the manner in which language is used to convey meaning to important and/or abstract concepts (e.g., ‘caring’, ‘proof’, causation/correlation, etc.). Consistent with the perspectives on research advancement presented in this review, it is acknowledged that the issues addressed here may not be complete and may themselves be advanced upon and updated in time; thus, future research is recommended and welcomed to improve and further establish our working conceptualisation of critical thinking, particularly in a real-world application.

Acknowledgments

The author would like to acknowledge, with great thanks and appreciation, John Eigenauer (Taft College) for his consult, review and advice regarding earlier versions of this manuscript.

Funding Statement

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

The author declares no conflict of interest.

1 Notably, though inadequacies in cognitive resources (apart from those explicitly set within the conceptualisations of CT discussed; e.g., see Section 2.1 ) are acknowledged as impediments to one’s ability to apply CT (e.g., a lack of relevant background knowledge, as well as broader cognitive abilities and resources ( Dwyer 2017 ; Halpern 2014 ; Stanovich and Stanovich 2010 )), these will not be discussed as focus is largely restricted to issues of cognitive processes that ‘naturally’ act as barriers in their functioning. Moreover, such inadequacies may more so be issues of individual differences than ongoing issues that everyone , regardless of ability, would face in CT (e.g., the impact of emotion and bias). Nevertheless, it is recommended that future research further investigates the influence of such inadequacies in cognitive resources on CT.

2 There is also some research that suggests that emotion may mediate enhanced cognition ( Dolcos et al. 2011 , 2012 ). However, this discrepancy in findings may result from the types of emotion studied—such as task-relevant emotion and task-irrelevant emotion. The distinction between the two is important to consider in terms of, for example, the distinction between one’s general mood and feelings specific unto the topic under consideration. Though mood may play a role in the manner in which CT is conducted (e.g., making judgments about a topic one is passionate about may elicit positive or negative emotions that affect the thinker’s mood in some way), notably, this discussion focuses on task-relevant emotion and associated biases that negatively impact the CT process. This is also an important distinction because an individual may generally think critically about ‘important’ topics, but may fail to do so when faced with a cognitive task that requires CT with which the individual has a strong, emotional perspective (e.g., in terms of passion , as described above).

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Teaching Critical Thinking in the Digital Age

As technology becomes increasingly integrated into our daily lives, it is important to recognize its impact on education. The digital age presents both opportunities and challenges for educators, particularly when it comes to teaching critical thinking. In this blog post, we will explore the art of teaching critical thinking in the digital age and discuss some strategies for incorporating technology into the classroom.

Understanding critical thinking, the importance of critical thinking, challenges of teaching critical thinking in the digital age, is technology producing a decline in critical thinking and analysis, how critical thinking is important to media and digital literacy, 1. encourage questioning, 2. use educational technology, 3. incorporate gamification, 4. teach ai prompt engineering, 5. incorporate technology into lesson plans, 6. encouraging active engagement with digital media, 7. teaching the art of questioning, 8. encouraging independent research, 9. fostering collaborative learning, teaching in the era of chatgpt, 1. analyzing and interpreting data, 2. evaluating arguments and evidence, 3. solving problems and making decisions, 4. generating hypotheses and testing them, 5. identifying patterns and relationships, 6. making connections between different ideas or concepts, q: what is critical thinking in the digital age, q: what is the art of critical thinking, q: what is digital critical thinking, q: what are the thinking skills in the digital age.

Critical thinking is a cognitive skill that involves the ability to analyze, evaluate, and synthesize information to make reasoned and logical decisions. It is a multifaceted process that requires the individual to engage in independent and reflective thinking. Critical thinking involves asking questions, identifying assumptions, analyzing arguments, and drawing conclusions based on evidence.

It also involves the ability to identify biases and recognize the limitations of one’s knowledge and understanding. The development of critical thinking skills is crucial for individuals to navigate complex issues and make informed decisions in various aspects of life.

Furthermore, critical thinking is essential in the digital age where there is an abundance of information and misinformation, and individuals need to be able to analyze and evaluate digital content critically. The ability to think critically is a lifelong skill that is valuable in all aspects of life, including education, career, and personal relationships.

Critical thinking is a valuable skill that enables individuals to analyze information, make informed decisions, and solve complex problems. In today’s rapidly changing world, critical thinking is more important than ever. With the abundance of information available at our fingertips, it is essential that we teach students how to think critically so they can navigate this information landscape effectively. You may further check this article from futurelearn.com on the importance of critical thinking .

While technology can be a powerful tool for teaching critical thinking, it also presents some unique challenges. One of the biggest challenges is the overwhelming amount of information available online. With so much information, it can be difficult for students to determine what is credible and what is not. Additionally, technology can be a distraction, making it difficult for students to focus on the task at hand.

The use of technology has become ubiquitous in our daily lives, including in education. However, some have expressed concerns that technology is producing a decline in critical thinking and analysis skills. Critics argue that technology has made it easier for individuals to access information without having to engage in critical analysis, resulting in a generation of individuals who are more likely to accept information at face value without questioning its validity.

Additionally, the abundance of digital distractions, such as social media and video games, can lead to a lack of focus and decreased attention span, which may impede the development of critical thinking skills. However, others argue that technology can also be used as a tool to enhance critical thinking and analysis, as well as to provide access to a wealth of information that can be analyzed and evaluated.

Ultimately, the impact of technology on critical thinking and analysis is complex and multifaceted, and requires ongoing exploration and discussion.

Media and digital literacy are essential skills for navigating the digital landscape of the modern age. Critical thinking plays a crucial role in developing these skills, as it enables individuals to evaluate and analyze digital media content effectively. The ability to critically analyze media and digital content is particularly important in an era of fake news and misinformation, where it can be challenging to discern what is accurate and what is not.

Critical thinking allows individuals to identify biases and question the validity of information presented in digital media, enabling them to make informed decisions and form their opinions. It also enables individuals to understand the broader implications of digital media on society, including issues related to privacy, security, and ethical considerations.

Therefore, critical thinking is an essential component of media and digital literacy and is crucial for individuals to effectively engage with digital media in a responsible and informed manner. You may read more about this in this article titled, “ Enhancing critical thinking skills and media literacy in initial vocational education ”.

Strategies for Teaching Critical Thinking in the Digital Age

Despite the challenges, there are several strategies that educators can use to teach critical thinking in the digital age. Here are a few:

One of the most effective ways to teach critical thinking is to encourage students to ask questions. This can be done in a variety of ways, such as asking open-ended questions, posing hypothetical scenarios, and encouraging students to think deeply about the material they are studying. By asking questions, students are forced to think critically about the information they are learning and are better able to make connections between different concepts.

Educational technology can be a powerful tool for teaching critical thinking. For example, online discussion forums can be used to encourage students to engage with each other and share their ideas. Similarly, interactive simulations and virtual reality experiences can be used to help students understand complex concepts in a more engaging way. However, it is important to be aware of the potential downsides of technology, such as its impact on social relationships. (Learn more about this topic here: How Educational Technology Impacts Social Relationships ).

Gamification is the use of game-like elements in non-game contexts, such as education. By incorporating gamification into the classroom, educators can make learning more engaging and fun for students. For example, points, badges, and leaderboards can be used to motivate students to complete assignments and participate in class discussions. However, it is important to be aware of the challenges associated with gamification, such as the potential for students to become too focused on the rewards rather than the learning itself. (Learn more about gamification here: Gamification in Education: Benefits, Challenges, and Best Practices ).

As AI and machine learning become increasingly prevalent, it is important for students to understand how these technologies work and AI prompt engineering is the process of creating prompts that can be used to train machine learning models. By teaching students about AI prompt engineering , educators can help them understand how these technologies work and how they can be used in a variety of contexts. (Learn more about teaching AI prompt engineering here: Teaching AI Prompt Engineering to Students: Importance, Tips and Prospects ).

Technology can be a valuable tool for enhancing lesson plans and engaging students. For example, videos, podcasts, and other multimedia can be used to supplement traditional classroom materials. Similarly, online quizzes and assessments can be used to test students’ knowledge and provide immediate feedback. However, it is important to ensure that the technology is used in a meaningful way and does not distract from the learning objectives. (Learn more about incorporating technology into lesson plans here: How to Incorporate Technology into Lesson Plans )

Encouraging active engagement with digital media is essential for individuals to develop critical thinking skills and engage with digital content responsibly. Active engagement involves actively questioning, analyzing, and evaluating digital media content rather than passively consuming it.

It requires individuals to be proactive in seeking out diverse perspectives and sources of information to gain a comprehensive understanding of a topic. Teachers and educators can play a crucial role in encouraging active engagement by incorporating digital media literacy into their lesson plans and teaching students how to evaluate digital content critically.

Additionally, educators can encourage students to engage with digital media through interactive and collaborative activities such as online discussions, digital storytelling, and gamification. By actively engaging with digital media, individuals can develop the skills and knowledge necessary to make informed decisions and navigate the digital landscape effectively.

Teaching the art of questioning is an essential component of developing critical thinking skills. The ability to ask thoughtful and insightful questions is crucial for individuals to gain a deeper understanding of a topic, challenge assumptions, and make informed decisions. Effective questioning involves asking open-ended questions that prompt individuals to think critically and explore various perspectives.

Teachers and educators can teach the art of questioning by modeling effective questioning techniques, encouraging students to ask questions, and providing opportunities for students to practice asking questions.

Additionally, educators can teach students how to evaluate the quality of questions by examining factors such as relevance, complexity, and potential biases. By teaching the art of questioning, individuals can develop the skills necessary to engage in independent and reflective thinking, evaluate information critically, and make informed decisions.

Encouraging independent research is a crucial component of developing critical thinking skills in the digital age. Independent research involves seeking out information from diverse sources, evaluating the quality and relevance of information, and synthesizing information to form informed opinions and make informed decisions.

Teachers and educators can encourage independent research by providing students with opportunities to explore topics of interest, guiding students through the research process, and teaching students how to evaluate the credibility and reliability of sources. Additionally, educators can teach students how to use various digital tools and resources to conduct research effectively.

By encouraging independent research, individuals can develop the skills and knowledge necessary to navigate the digital landscape effectively, evaluate information critically, and make informed decisions.

Fostering collaborative learning is a crucial aspect of developing critical thinking skills in the digital age. Collaborative learning involves working together with peers to solve problems, share knowledge, and explore different perspectives.

Moreover, it encourages individuals to engage in active listening, communication, and teamwork, all of which are essential for developing critical thinking skills. Educators can foster collaborative learning by incorporating group projects, online discussions, and other interactive activities into their lesson plans.

These activities can help individuals develop their ability to work collaboratively and think critically while also promoting digital literacy and responsible use of technology. By fostering collaborative learning, educators can help individuals develop the skills necessary to navigate the digital landscape effectively, make informed decisions, and contribute to society.

As a language model trained by OpenAI, ChatGPT represents the cutting edge of artificial intelligence . While ChatGPT can be a valuable tool for education, it is important to remember that it is still a machine and cannot replace human teachers. Educators should use ChatGPT as a supplement to their teaching, rather than a replacement. (Learn more about teaching in the age of ChatGPT here: Teaching in the Age of ChatGPT ).

What Activities Can Teachers Incorporate to Develop Critical Thinking?

To analyze and interpret data, one must carefully scrutinize the data to uncover patterns, relationships, and trends. This can require critical thinking skills to determine what the data is telling us and how it can be used effectively. Additionally, students may need to look closely at the data to identify any correlations or discrepancies that can help them draw meaningful conclusions.

Evaluating arguments and evidence involves assessing the strength and reliability of the evidence and arguments presented in a text or other source. This can require critical thinking skills to determine whether the argument is logical and the evidence is valid. For example, students may need to assess the credibility of sources cited in an argument or evaluate the soundness of a particular claim.

Solving problems and making decisions requires students to identify problems, generate potential solutions, evaluate those solutions, and select the best option. This can require critical thinking skills to determine which solution is most effective or appropriate. For example, students might need to weigh the pros and cons of different solutions or consider how each solution would impact various stakeholders.

Generating hypotheses and testing them involves developing a hypothesis or prediction about a particular phenomenon and then testing it through experimentation or observation. This can require critical thinking skills to design experiments that will effectively test their hypotheses. However, students may need to consider different variables that could impact their results or develop alternative hypotheses if their initial predictions are not supported by their findings.

Identifying patterns and relationships requires students to recognize similarities and differences between different pieces of information or data. This can require critical thinking skills to identify patterns or relationships that are not immediately apparent. For example, students might need to compare data from different sources or identify common themes across different texts.

Making connections between different ideas or concepts involves linking various ideas or concepts together to create a more complete understanding of a particular topic. This can require critical thinking skills to identify connections between seemingly unrelated ideas. For example, students might need to consider how different historical events influenced each other or how various scientific concepts are related.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs):

A: Critical thinking in the digital age refers to the ability to analyze, evaluate, and synthesize information in a rapidly changing technological landscape. It involves using a combination of logic, reasoning, and creativity to solve problems and make informed decisions.

A: The art of critical thinking involves the ability to question assumptions, think independently, and evaluate evidence objectively. Furthermore, It involves using a range of cognitive skills, including analysis, synthesis, evaluation, and interpretation, to make sound judgments and decisions.

A: Digital critical thinking refers to the application of critical thinking skills in the context of digital technology. It involves evaluating information sources, analyzing data, and making informed decisions based on digital information. Additionally, in today’s world, accessing and sharing more information digitally makes digital critical thinking skills increasingly important.

A: The thinking skills in the digital age include a range of cognitive abilities, including analytical thinking, creative thinking, problem-solving, decision-making, and information literacy. Additionally, these skills are essential for success in the rapidly changing technological landscape of the digital age.

Teaching critical thinking in the digital age presents both opportunities and challenges. By encouraging questioning, incorporating educational technology and gamification, teaching AI prompt engineering, and incorporating technology into lesson plans, educators can help students develop the critical thinking skills they need to succeed in today’s rapidly changing world. However, remember that using technology in a meaningful way and never replacing human teachers is important. By finding the right balance between technology and human interaction, we can ensure that students receive the best possible education.

Khondker Mohammad Shah-Al-Mamun is an experienced writer, technology integration and automation specialist, and Microsoft Innovative Educator who leads the Blended Learning Center at Daffodil International University in Bangladesh. He was also a Google Certified Educator and a leader of Google Educators Group (GEG) Dhaka South.

Khondker Mohammad Shah – Al – Mamun

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Introduction

Today’s learners are increasingly familiar with using technology to acquire knowledge and to seek answers. As constructivist pedagogies, like partnering, technology-enhanced active learning (TEAL), and inquiry-based learning, become increasingly prevalent in classrooms, these 21st century learners are taking on the roles of researcher, thinker, and sense-maker, among others (Prensky, 2010). This means that students have the responsibility to ensure that the information they are gathering and applying to learning or action is relevant, accurate, and reliable (Tutor2u, 2021). This necessary shift toward student-centered learning calls on teachers to guide and mentor students in ways that develop the critical thinking skills necessary to be successful learners, with particular focus on informed decision-making.

Dr. Tony Wagner believes that the ability to create new knowledge and solve new problems is the single most important skill that students must master today (Fullan, 2013). In order acquire this skill, modern day education is best conducted in ways that engage and motivate students and foster the development of 21st century competencies, like innovation, critical thinking and problem solving. In order for this to be achieved, one must consider what types of learning environments are conducive to competency development in these categories amongst today’s learners.

This chapter outlines what 21st century learning looks like, what competencies it develops, and how critical thinking, as a concept, has been traditionally difficult to characterize and, therefore, teach to and assess for. Also covered in this chapter will be how researchers and educators approach the definition of critical thinking, including how it overlaps and intertwines with problem solving, decision-making, and information-communication technology (ICT) and, therefore, how technology can play a role in critical thinking development amongst learners.

Background Information

In developing this chapter, a literature review was undertaken to examine how critical thinking plays a role in learners’ educational experience. Through examining existing literature, definitions, and frameworks, it became clear that there are a few elements that are key to understanding critical thinking and decision making through the lens of 21st-century learning.

21st Century Learning

The learning environment.

Educators can create and facilitate learning in effective ways that differ from the traditional lecture, or sage-on-the-stage, approach. Partnering is a 21st century way of working together whereby students explore and discover for themselves the answers to questions, while educators provide just enough guidance to allow that to happen with minimal need for outside assistance (Prensky, 2010). For teachers, this might mean teaching self-monitoring and self-correcting skills to encourage self-sufficient learners. With partnering, the students’ job is to make use of any tools, including technology, available to them to find information, make meaning, and create, while teachers guide with questioning, contextualizing, and providing rigor to ensure quality (Prensky, 2010).

Borne of constructivist leanings, which stipulate that students construct meaning through experience and that meaning is influenced by the interaction of prior knowledge and new events (Arends, 1998), partnering shares traits with more popularized approaches like project-based learning, or inquiry-based learning, while underscoring the reciprocal nature of the student-teacher relationship. This aligns with Tam’s outline of constructivist learning environment characteristics, including that knowledge and authority are shared between teachers and students, the teacher acts as a facilitator, and learning groups are small and heterogenous in nature (Tam, 2000). In partnering, teachers empower students to use any available technology to personalize their learning experience and follow their passions while seeking information, answering questions, sharing ideas, practicing, and creating (Prensky, 2010).

It is clear that technology can be a very supportive tool in a 21st-century learning environment as students use it to engage with their learning experience in the role of researcher. However, it is their other roles – thinker and sense maker – that may go overlooked by the students themselves. Teachers should ensure they inform students that thinking logically and critically is one of their primary roles (Prensky, 2010) and should have structures in place to provide the guidance and feedback necessary to further foster these skills.

21st Century Competencies

Being a learner in the 21st century means a shift from traditional skills associated with being a student, like rote learning and memorization, to skills like innovation and creativity. Dr. Tony Wagner highlights curiosity as being a key characteristic of an innovative learner while Dr. Teresa Amabile highlights that knowledge and problem-solving are important to the creative process (Fullan, 2013). Curiosity begets knowledge acquisition, which enables students to tackle problems that need solved or decisions that need to be made.

This process requires learners to possess certain competencies, which Wagner refers to as the 7 Survival Skills (Asia Society, 2009), including, but not limited to, critical thinking and problem solving as well as accessing and analyzing information. In the technological age we live in, there is boundless information available to those who seek it. For learners, the ability to effectively search for information and identify what is important and parse it out from that which is superfluous is important to the critical thinking and decision-making processes. Wagner (2008) posits that these survival skills are key to successful careers, continuous learning, and active and informed citizenship and, yet, the education community is unsure how to teach or assess them, posing an obvious challenge.

Critical Thinking & Decision Making

This raises the question of how skills like critical thinking and decision-making are defined and why they are so important in contemporary learning environments. It is important that measurable and consistent definitions are generated in order for educators to effectively teach and assess the skills of critical thinking and decision-making.

Definition and Importance of Critical Thinking

Depending on the source, critical thinking has many definitions, each overlapping with some nuanced differences. Heard et al. (2020) curated a collection of critical thinking definitions and formulated this formal definition to guide the development of the Australian Council for Educational Research’s (ACER) critical thinking framework, which will be touched on shortly:

To think critically is to analyze and evaluate information, reasoning and situations, according to appropriate standards such as truth and logic, for the purpose of constructing sound and insightful new knowledge, understandings, hypotheses and beliefs. Critical thinking encompasses the subject’s ability to process and synthesize information in such a way that it enables them to apply it judiciously to tasks for informed decision-making and effective problem-solving. (p.11)

In addition, Robert Ennis’ definition of critical thinking as “reflective thinking focused on deciding on what to believe or do” (Ennis, 1985, p.45 ) suggests that critical thinking does not only influence individual judgment when it comes to what to think, but also what actions to take. By Ennis’ definition, it would seem that decision-making – deciding what action to take – is intertwined with critical thinking. With respect to problem-solving, researchers agree that while it is related to critical thinking, the term problem solving is more often used in relation to well-defined problems with limited solutions, while critical thinking involves open-ended reasoning and ill-defined problems (Heard et al., 2020).

With the aforementioned definitions in mind, Edward Glaser’s summary of critical thinking can serve as a good basis to understanding what critical thinking is in a nutshell. The three characteristics Glaser considers hallmarks of critical thinking ability include: a disposition towards thoughtfully considering the problems and subjects in one’s life experiences and not just in specific contexts or situations, knowledge of the methods of logical inquiry and reasoning, and some skill in applying those methods (Heard et al., 2020).

Teaching and Assessing Critical Thinking

It is clear from these interpretations that critical thinking and decision-making are vital to the success of contemporary learners, both in school and beyond in their personal and professional lives. However, in order to teach and assess critical thinking, an operational definition is required so that assessment tools and intervention techniques can be devised (Heard et al, 2020).

This was the driving force behind the development of the ACER’s critical thinking framework, which is evidence-based and outlines critical thinking processes by strands and aspects, with the intention of providing areas of focus for the teaching and assessing of critical thinking skills. The framework considers critical thinking to be a series of cognitive processes that are goal-oriented and purpose-driven, not just reflective thought (Facione, 1990). These cognitive processes can be broken down into six areas, including interpretation, analysis, evaluation, inference, explanation, and self-regulation, each of which encapsulates a set of subskills. For example, in order for learners to evaluate, they should be able to question the evidence, speculate as to possible alternatives, and draw logical conclusions (Facione, 1990).

For the purposes of the ACER’s critical thinking skills development framework, these cognitive processes were taken into account. In its structure, the critical thinking framework is divided into three strands, further broken down into three aspects each. These aspects encapsulate the knowledge, skills, and understanding that are consistent across definitions of critical thinking (Heard et al, 2020). The three strands are knowledge construction, evaluating reasoning, and decision-making. The aspects of knowledge construction are the identification of gaps in knowledge, discriminating information, and identifying patterns and making connections. The aspects involved in evaluating reasoning include applying logic, identifying assumptions and motivations, and justifying arguments. Finally, the aspects of decision-making are identifying criteria for decision-making, evaluating options, and testing and monitoring implementation (Heard et al, 2020). For reference, the framework is available as a graphical representation in Appendix A.

This framework shares many of the same characteristics of critical thinking that Wagner (2008) discusses when describing the “5 Habits of Mind”. Wagner’s habits of weighing evidence, seeing connections and speculating on possibilities align very closely with the framework’s knowledge construction strand, while Wagner’s habit of being aware of varying viewpoints aligns with the evaluating reasoning strand, and finally, Wagner’s habit of assessing value shares similar aspects to the decision-making strand (Heard et al, 2020; Wagner, 2008). The ACER’s critical thinking framework and Wagner’s “5 Habits of Mind” may be used when considering how to teach and assess critical thinking and decision-making in their classrooms. Wagner (2008) refers to critical thinking as “learning to answer the right questions”, which can be accomplished through an educator’s application of rigor in the classroom when guiding students who are developing critical thinking skills.

This brings us back to the pedagogical approach of partnering when designing the learning environment. To recapitulate, partnering is when students take on the role of researcher, technology user, thinker, and sense maker, while teachers guide, question, provide context, and apply rigor. Educators should make it clear to their students that thinking logically and more critically is one of their primary roles (Prensky, 2010). Learners’ skills of logical and critical thinking can be nurtured and encouraged when educators have a functional definition of critical thinking and clearly articulated subskills that they can draw on when guiding, questioning, and assessing students. The ACER’s framework and Wagner’s “5 Habits of Mind” are two resources that can provide a solid foundation and starting point for teaching and assessing critical thinking.

Applications

Critical thinking includes knowledge construction, which involves identifying gaps in knowledge and discriminating information. In contemporary society, much of our knowledge construction and information acquisition occurs in the digital space. That is why Information-Communications Technology (ICT) has relevant applications in relation to critical thinking and decision-making. Understanding information literacy and the role critical thinking plays in navigating the vast digital world of information is vital. Furthermore, having relevant resources and tools that support the development of critical thinking skills and information literacy can help educators nurture these 21st-century skills amongst learners

Information Communication Technology (ICT)

Typically, when we speak about information literacy, we think of skills that are procedural, like retrieving, managing, referencing, and communicating information (CILIP, 2018), but it is important that individuals apply critical thinking in order to assess the information they are collecting (Paul et al, 2007). Information literacy and critical thinking are interrelated in that information literacy emphasizes the ability to identify and articulate the information needed for a purpose, understanding how to find and identify appropriate information sources, and how to critically assess the information gathered (Grafstein, 2017). Therefore, information-communication technology can play a vital role in developing key 21st-century competencies like knowledge construction and decision making.

As technology has become more versatile and accessible in educational settings, it has become a fixture in many classrooms. In a class following a partnering approach to learning and instruction, students are encouraged to use any technology at their disposal to personalize their learning experience, to aid in seeking information, answering questions, sharing ideas, and creating (Prensky, 2010). Students may use computers, tablets, or personal devices like smartphones to accomplish this.

The ability to put students in the roles of researcher, technology expert, thinker, and sense-maker is largely due to recent changes in the way information can be accessed, thanks to the advent of the internet (Heard et al, 2020). However, with the expansion of technology and the rise of internet use comes challenges. The ease with which users can access information is matched by the ease with which users can manipulate open-access online information sources (Heard et al., 2020). For this reason, the Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals has updated the definition of information literacy to align more closely with critical thinking. They now define information literacy as the “ability to think critically and make balanced judgments about any information we find and use” (CILIP, 2018).

Educational Technology Example

One way that learners may be guided to develop their critical thinking skills in the context of ICT and information literacy, is through the provision of resources that can help broaden their opportunities for constructing knowledge and evaluating information. AllSides for Schools is a web-based platform of resources that provides educators with information and curricular guidance to help guide learners in developing skills like critical thinking (AllSides for Schools, 2022). It originated in 2019 as a nonprofit joint initiative by AllSides and Living Room Conversations to aid educators in addressing digital media literacy and communication skills with their students (AllSides for Schools, 2022). The mission of AllSides for Schools is to teach students how to critically evaluate news, media content, and other information as well as how to use their acquired knowledge to engage in productive dialogue, both in the educational setting and in their communities, professionally and in their personal lives (AllSides for Schools, 2022). To accomplish this mission, the platform has centralized and expanded upon the resources available across AllSides and Living Room Conversations and offers classroom activities and lesson plans (AllSides for Schools, 2022) that educators can draw on when providing guidance, context, and rigor for their learners.

Conclusions and Future Recommendations

As outlined throughout this chapter, contemporary learners require a modernized approach to instruction and learning. It is important that educators understand which skills to foster and help develop. The ability to memorize and regurgitate information is no longer an effective or valuable skill, nor is it a motivating concept for most 21st-century learners. Rather, today’s students thrive best when they are put at the center of their learning experience in the roles of researcher, thinker, and creator. Educators, then, should fill the roles of guide and contextualizer, encouraging students to think logically and critically as one of their primary roles (Prensky, 2010). The goal, as posited by Dr. Wagner and Dr. Amabile is to create innovative, creative, and knowledgable learners with strong critical thinking, problem-solving, and decision-making skills.

In order to nurture these 21st-century competencies, educators must be able to teach and assess them using clearly defined metrics. That is where operationalized definitions like the one created by Glaser or Heard et al (2020) and critical thinking frameworks, like the ACER’s, are essential. They provide a structure from which educators can guide students, offer feedback, and assess progress. Additionally, educators can steer students to seek information using whatever technology is available to them, including web-based educational technology and platforms, like AllSides for Schools, a critical thinking and media literacy online resource designed to aid in the development of knowledge acquisition, information literacy, and critical thinking skills.

Moving forward, curricular documents and assessment tools should be constructed with more constructivist and student-centered approaches in mind. As an example, current elementary curriculum documents and assessment guides from the Ontario Ministry of Education do mention critical thinking, albeit briefly, including a definition and where critical thinking fits in when considering assessment, though in some documents critical thinking only appears in the glossary (Ontario, 2010; Ontario, 2007; Ontario, 2006). Beyond this cursory mention, no concrete means of teaching or assessing critical thinking, especially in a student-centered fashion are brought forth. This is an oversight that should be addressed in future renditions of the Ontario curriculum for the reasons outlined throughout this chapter.

AllSides for Schools. (2022). About All Sides for schools . https://allsidesforschools.org/about/

Arends, R. I. (1998). Resource handbook. Learning to teach (4th ed.). McGraw-Hill.

Asia Society. (2009). 7 Skills students need for their future . [Video]. https://youtu.be/NS2PqTTxFFc

Chartered Institute of Library and Information Professionals. (2018). CILIP definition of information literacy. https://infolit.org.uk/ILdefinitionCILIP2018.pdf

Ennis, R. (1985). A logical basis for measuring critical thinking skills. Assessing Critical Thinking . https://jgregorymcverry.com/readings/ennis1985assessingcriticalthinking.pdf

Facione, P. A. (1990). Critical thinking: A statement of expert consensus for purposes of educational assessment and instruction. California Academic Press.

Fullan, M. (2013). Pedagogy and change: Essence as easy. Stratosphere (pp. 17-32). Pearson.

Grafstein, A. (2017). Information literacy and critical thinking. In D. Sales & M. Pinto (Eds.), Pathways into information literacy and communities of practice (pp. 3–28). https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-100673- 3.00001-0

Heard, J., Scoular, C., Duckworth, D., Ramalingam, D., & Teo, I. (2020). Critical thinking: Skill development framework. Australian Council for Educational Research. https://research.acer.edu.au/ar_misc/41

Ontario. (2010). Growing success: Assessment, evaluation and reporting in Ontario’s schools: covering grades 1 to 12 . Ministry of Education. http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/policyfunding/growsuccess.pdf

Ontario. (2006). Language: Ontario curriculum grades 1-8. Ministry of Education. http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/curriculum/elementary/language18currb.pdf

Ontario. (2007). Science and technology: Ontario curriculum grades 1-8. Ministry of Education. http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/curriculum/elementary/scientec18currb.pdf

Paul, R. W., Elder, L., Bartell, T. (1997). A brief history of the idea of critical thinking . https://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/a-brief-history-of-the-idea-of-critical-thinking/408

Prensky, M. (2010). Partnering. Teaching digital natives. Partnering for real learning (pp. 9-29). Corwin Press.

Tam, M. (2000). Constructivism, Instructional Design, and Technology: Implications for Transforming Distance Learning. Educational Technology and Society, 3 (2).

Tutor2u. (2021, March 22). ICT: What is good information? https://www.tutor2u.net/business/reference/ict-what-is-good-information

Wagner, T. (2008). The global achievement gap: Why even our best schools don’t teach the new survival skills our children need, and what we can do about it. Basic Books (pp. 1-41).

Wagner, T. (2008). The global achievement gap . [PowerPoint Slides]. https://asiasociety.org/education/seven-skills-students-need-their-future

Appendix A: ACER Critical thinking skill development framework

ACER critical thinking skill development framework

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Thinking Through the Ethics of New Tech…Before There’s a Problem

Beena Ammanath

Historically, it’s been a matter of trial and error. There’s a better way.

There’s a familiar pattern when a new technology is introduced: It grows rapidly, comes to permeate our lives, and only then does society begin to see and address the problems it creates. But is it possible to head off possible problems? While companies can’t predict the future, they can adopt a sound framework that will help them prepare for and respond to unexpected impacts. First, when rolling out new tech, it’s vital to pause and brainstorm potential risks, consider negative outcomes, and imagine unintended consequences. Second, it can also be clarifying to ask, early on, who would be accountable if an organization has to answer for the unintended or negative consequences of its new technology, whether that’s testifying to Congress, appearing in court, or answering questions from the media. Third, appoint a chief technology ethics officer.

We all want the technology in our lives to fulfill its promise — to delight us more than it scares us, to help much more than it harms. We also know that every new technology needs to earn our trust. Too often the pattern goes like this: A technology is introduced, grows rapidly, comes to permeate our lives, and only then does society begin to see and address any problems it might create.

BA Beena Ammanath is the Executive Director of the global Deloitte AI Institute, author of the book “Trustworthy AI,” founder of the non-profit Humans For AI, and also leads Trustworthy and Ethical Tech for Deloitte. She is an award-winning senior executive with extensive global experience in AI and digital transformation, spanning across e-commerce, finance, marketing, telecom, retail, software products, services and industrial domains with companies such as HPE, GE, Thomson Reuters, British Telecom, Bank of America, and e*trade.

Partner Center

6 Chapter 4 Supporting Students’ Critical Thinking

Critical thinking is fundamental to learner achievement in all subject areas. There are a great number and variety of standards that students are expected to meet using critical thinking skills such as analyzing, evaluating, and assessing; this is because critical thinking is essential for students to lead productive lives. Almost 30 years ago, Facione (1990) argued that critical thinking is also necessary for societies to hang together, stating, “Being a free, responsible person means being able to make rational, unconstrained choices. A person who cannot think critically, cannot make rational choices. And, those without the ability to make rational choices should not be allowed to run free, for being irresponsible, they could easily be a danger to themselves and to the rest of us” (p. 13). That sentiment is even more applicable in the age of the Internet and world unrest as humans prepare for an unknown future.

OVERVIEW OF CRITICAL THINKING AND TECHNOLOGY IN K–12 CLASSROOMS

In order to implement technology use with a learning focus, teachers need to understand critical thinking before attempting to support it with technology.

What Is Critical Thinking?

Critical thinking skills refer to abilities to be open-minded, mindful, and analytical, and to evaluate, question, reason, hypothesize, interpret, explain, and draw conclusions (Ennis, 2012). A simple way to define critical thinking is the ability to make good decisions and to clearly explain the foundation for those decisions. When using technology, being able to think critically allows one to:

Judge the credibility of sources.

Identify conclusions, reasons, and assumptions.

Judge the quality of an argument, including the acceptability of its reasons, assumptions, and evidence.

Develop and defend a position on an issue.

Ask appropriate clarifying questions.

Plan experiments and judge experimental designs.

Define terms in a way appropriate for the context.

Be open-minded.

Try to be well-informed.

Draw conclusions when warranted, but with caution. (Ennis, 1993, p. 180)

To some extent all humans, even very young children, continually think critically to analyze their world and to make sense of it. However, most people’s skills are not as well developed as they could or should be, and there is a clear link between critical thinking and student success. Scholars agree, however, that schools are not the most productive learning environments for critical thinking, and that schools need to take a stronger focus on critical thinking.

Critical thinking is part of a group of cognitive abilities and personal characteristics called higher order thinking skills (HOTS). These skills also include creative thinking (chapter 5) and problem solving (chapter 6). This list of cognitive skills is based on Bloom’s well-known Taxonomy of Educational Goals (Bloom, 1956). Bloom’s first three competencies—knowledge, comprehension, and application—are generally equated with the acquisition of declarative knowledge (discussed in chapter 2). The second three competencies—analysis, synthesis, and evaluation—are generally considered critical thinking or higher order skills. Figure 4.1 presents an example of critical thinking skills from Bloom’s taxonomy and the types of technology-enhanced tasks that might support them. Forty-five years after Bloom’s Taxonomy was published, Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) revised it to add a “metacognitive knowledge” category and to make it easier for teachers to design instruction that requires critical thinking. Excellent resources for using the revised taxonomy are available from teachthought at http://www.teachthought.com/pedagogy/50-resources-for-teaching-with-blooms-taxonomy/ and many other sources on the Web, including Pinterest (e.g., the poster at

https://www.pinterest.com/pin/287597126178595755/).

Critical thinking has been central to education since the time of Socrates (469–399 B.C.E.). The focus of the Socratic method is to question students so that they come to justify their arguments; this teaching strategy is still used in many classrooms to foster critical thinking. Edutopia ( https://www.edutopia.org/ ) provides many resources for Socratic/ critical thinking. Critical thinking software can also provide tasks that require critical thinking and prompts to help students understand how to come to effective decisions. Regardless of the tool that students use to support their critical thinking, it is important to note the crucial role of critical thinking skills both in school and out. In fact, since Socrates, philosophers throughout history such as Plato, Francis Bacon, Rene Descartes, William Graham Sumner, and John Dewey have emphasized the need for students to think critically about their world.

More specifically, scholars note that critical thinking is one foundation for learning, in part because all of the learning skills are interdependent and, as Paul (2004a) points out, “everything essential to education supports everything else essential to education” (p. 3). For example, as students consider how to decide whether they can believe everything they read on the Internet, they use a variety of skills to

Understand basic content.

Communicate among themselves and with others.

Think creatively about resources.

Assess the veracity of the information they come in contact with.

Produce a well-supported conclusion.

In other words, they must think critically throughout the process as they develop other learning skills.

It is also clear that critical thinking is used in all areas of life as we learn and experience. Making a good decision about whether to buy a laptop or an iPod, and then which model, requires research, assessment, evaluation, and careful planning, just as deciding what to eat for dinner or how to spend free time does.

Although there may be discipline-specific skills, general critical thinking skills may apply across disciplines and content areas (Ennis, 2011a; McPeck, 1992). For example, Stupple, et al (2017) note that critical thinking skills test scores correlate positively with college GPA. Although this is not a causal relationship (in other words, the research does not show that effective critical thinking causes a high GPA), there appears to be something about students who can think critically that helps them succeed in college. In addition, the processes that students use to think critically appear to transfer or assist not only in the reading process but in general decision- making. However, experts disagree to what extent this happens. Some researchers believe that much critical thinking is subject- or genre-specific. Nonetheless, all agree that it is crucial to help students hone their critical thinking abilities, and many believe that technology can help by providing support in ways outlined throughout this chapter.

In addition to the lessons presented in this chapter based on these ideas, other chapters of this book present ideas and activities that involve critical thinking either implicitly or explicitly. As you read through the text, see if you can find those examples.

Critical Thinking and Media Literacy

Critical thinking, as defined in the previous section, is especially important because media, particularly television and computers, is increasingly prevalent in the lives of K–12 students. Students have always needed to have general information literacy, or “knowing when and why you need information, where to find it, and how to evaluate, use, and communicate it in an ethical manner” (CILIP, 2007). However, students who are faced with a bombardment of images, sounds, and text need to go beyond information literacy to interpret and assess (in other words, think critically about) information in new ways. In other words, they must be media literate.

In general, media literacy means that students are able not only to comprehend what they read, hear, and see but also to evaluate and make good decisions about what media presents. There are many variations on how to support students in becoming media literate. For example, the Center for Media Literacy, the world’s largest distributor of media education materials, recommends activities such as tracing racial images in the media throughout history, exploring how maps are constructed (and asking questions like “Why does ‘north’ mean ‘up’?”), and challenging gender stereotypes in TV comedies. These activities are crucial because learners of all ages watch TV, and even kindergartners use the computer and may have access to the Internet. Much of what learners read, see, and hear they believe verbatim and share as truth with others, particularly if someone they see as an authority posts it. This occurs whether the message is intended as fact or not. To become more media literate, teachers and students need to learn and practice critical thinking skills that are directed at the ideologies, purveyors, and purposes behind their data sources. Most important, students must use the Internet responsibly and with the necessary skepticism; in particular, this includes investigative skills and the ability to judge the validity of information from Web sites.

There are many resources to help teachers and students to become media literate. One of the best is the Center for Media Literacy’s (CML) free K-12 resources (available from http://www.medialit.org/). The site presents a clear, theory-based definition and outstanding lessons based on the five core concepts of media literacy. The lessons and handouts focus on students learning to ask these five “key questions”:

Who created this message?

What creative techniques are used to attract my attention?

How might different people understand the message differently from me?

What values, lifestyles, and points of view are represented in, or omitted from, this message?

Why is this message being sent?

Another focus of the CML is the “Essential Questions for Teachers” that teachers should ask themselves:

Am I trying to tell the students what the message is? Or am I giving them the skills to determine what THEY think the message(s) might be?

Have I let students know that I am open to accepting their interpretation, as long as it is well substantiated, or have I conveyed the message that my interpretation is the only correct view?

At the end of the lesson, are students likely to be more analytical? Or more cynical?

During media literacy lessons, students use technology to construct their own critically evaluated multimedia messages. This site is an excellent resource both for teachers just beginning to explore media literacy and for those looking for additional pedagogically sound ideas and activities.

Another outstanding source of lessons, articles, and activities for K–12 is the Critical Evaluation section of Kathy Schrock’s Web site at http://www.schrockguide.net/critical-evaluation.html), as is the useful medialiteracy.com Web site (see Figure 4.2).

Characteristics of Effective Critical Thinking Tasks

There are many ways to help students become media-literate critical thinkers. In general, effective critical thinking tasks:

Take place in an environment that supports objection, questioning, and reasoning.

Address issues that are ill-structured and may not have a simple answer.

Do not involve rote learning.

Provide alternatives in product and solution.

Allow students to make decisions and see consequences.

Are supported by tools and resources from many perspectives.

Help students examine their reasoning processes.

Teachers who want to promote critical thinking can employ the terms in Figure 4.3 in their student objectives and assignments. For example, if the objective is for students to analyze their use of technology, the teacher can ask students to contrast, categorize, and/or compare. If the objective is for students to evaluate technology use in schools, the teacher might ask students to defend, justify, or predict. For more information and tools for secondary school, see the resources provided by the Critical Thinking Community at http://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/high-school-teachers/807 .

Student benefits of critical thinking

It should be clear from the previous discussion that good critical thinking skills affect students in many ways. Additional benefits that accrue to good critical thinkers include:

Better grades and/or performance on high stakes tests (Watanabe, 2015)

Independence

Good decision making

The ability to effect social change

Becoming better readers, writers, speakers, and listeners

The ability to address bias and prejudice

Willingness to stick with a task

Because critical thinking skills can be learned, all students, including those with different language and physical abilities and capabilities, have the potential to reap these benefits.

THE CRITICAL THINKING PROCESS

Although all students can benefit from critical thinking, no two people use the exact same skills or processes to think critically. However, teachers can present students with a general set of steps synthesized from the research literature that can serve as a basis for critical thinking. These steps are:

Review your content understanding/clarify the problem. Compile everything you know about the topic that you are working on. Try to include even small details. Figure out what other content knowledge you need to know to help examine all sides of the question and how to get that information.

Analyze the material. Organize the material into categories or groupings by finding relationships among the pieces. Decide which aspects are the most important. Weigh all sides.

Synthesize your answers about the material. Decide why it is significant, how it can be applied, what the implications are, which ideas do not seem to fit well into the explanation that you decided on.

Evaluate your decision-making process.

Students can use this process as a foundation for discovering what works best for them to come to rational decisions. As outlined in the following section, teachers play a central role in sup- porting students in this process.

Teachers and Critical Thinking

To support the critical thinking process with technology, teachers must first understand their roles and the challenges of working with learners who are developing their critical thinking skills. These issues are discussed here.

The teacher’s role in critical thinking opportunities

Experts see the teacher’s role in critical thinking as being a model, helping students to see the need for and excitement of being able to think critically. In modeling critical thinking, teachers should:

Overtly and explicitly explain what they do and why.

Encourage students to think for themselves.

Be willing to admit and correct their own mistakes.

Be sensitive to students’ feelings, abilities, and goals and to what motivates them.

Allow students to participate in democratic processes in the classroom.

By modeling self-questioning and other strategies, teachers can help students to understand what critical thinkers do.

Teachers can also decide to teach critical thinking skills directly and/or through content— both are appropriate in specific contexts. Techniques that teachers can use to support critical thinking are presented in Figure 4.4. Additional ideas are listed in the Guidelines section of this chapter.

As Weiler (2004) notes, often students who are in a dualistic stage of intellectual development, in which they see everything as either right or wrong, will need a gradual introduction to the idea that not everything is so clear-cut. Rather than direct teaching of critical thinking, students can be led to understand this idea by encountering inexplicable or not easily answerable examples over time. For example, teachers addressing the urban myth of alligators in the sewers of New York might ask students to suggest what the sewers of New York might be like, and then to compare that to what they know about alligators’ natural habitats. This might lead to a thoughtful consideration of whether alligators could survive in New York sewers. The teacher’s role in this case is to ask questions to support student movement toward more complex reasoning.

Challenges for teachers

As the process above implies, learning to think critically takes time, and it requires many examples and practice across a variety of contexts. The school library media specialist is an excellent source for resources and ideas for teaching all aspects of critical thinking.

However, teaching students to think critically is not always an easy task, and it may be made more difficult by having students from cultures that do not value or promote displays of critical thinking in children in the same way as schools in the United States do or believe that it is the role of the school to do so. As many scholars point out, critical thinking in itself is probably not culturally biased, but the instruction of critical thinking can be. Teachers need to understand their students’ approaches to reasoning and objection and to teach critical thinking supported by technology in culturally responsive ways (as mentioned in chapter 2) by:

Understanding and exploring what critical thinking means in other cultures

Avoiding overgeneralizing and recognizing salient cultural features of critical thinking during the process, particularly in the tools used

Taking into consideration the strengths and differences of students

GUIDELINES FOR SUPPORTING STUDENT CRITICAL THINKING WITH TECHNOLOGY

As with all the goals outlined in this text, there are many things for teachers to think about when deciding how to support critical thinking. Many of the guidelines in other chapters also apply. The guidelines here are not specific only to critical thinking.

Designing Critical Thinking Opportunities

Guideline #1: Ask the right questions. Research in classrooms shows that teachers ask mostly display questions to discover whether students can repeat the information from the lesson and can explain it in their own words. However, to promote critical thinking and reasoning, students need to think about and answer “essential” questions that help them to meet universal standards for critical thinking. These standards are directly related to analysis, synthesis, and evaluation (and sometimes to application), discussed above as characteristics of effective critical thinking tasks. For example, questions about clarity (Can you give me an example of …? What do you mean by… ?) ask students to apply their learning to their experience, and vice versa. Questions that focus on precision or specificity (Exactly how much… ? On what day and at what time did … ?) ask students to analyze the data more deeply. A question about breadth (How might___ answer this question? What do you think___would say about this issue?) might also challenge students to synthesize.

Whichever set of standards or objectives teachers decide to use, it is important that the teacher support the critical thinking process by providing scaffolds, or structures and reinforcements that help guide learners toward independent critical thinking. Critical thinking does not mean negative thinking, it means voluntary, justified, educated skepticism. Question formats and strategies for creating effective questions are provided by Kentucky Prism at http://www.kyprism.org, and see Cotton (2001) for still-relevant research on questioning and strategies to make it work in classrooms. On the Web, find lists of questions that can lead to critical thinking by conducting a search on the term “critical thinking questions.”

Guideline #2: Use tasks with appropriate levels of challenge. Mihalyi Csikszentmihalyi (1997) and other researchers have found that the relationship between skills that students possess and the challenge that a task presents is important to learning. For example, they discovered that students of high ability were often bored with their lessons and that the balance of challenge and skills could be used to predict students’ attitudes toward their lessons. Their findings indicate that activities should be neither too challenging nor too easy for the student. Teachers can use observation, interview, and other assessments to determine the level of readiness for each student on specific tasks and with different content. Teachers can then use student readiness to change the challenge that students face in a task by:

Changing the way students are grouped

Introducing new technologies

Changing the types of thinking tasks

Varying the questions they ask

Altering expectations of goals that can be met

Differentiation, a strategy for designing instruction that meets diverse students’ needs (dis- cussed in chapter 2), can help teachers to provide tasks with appropriate levels of challenge for students.

Guideline #3: Teach strategies. Supporting critical thinking by modeling and asking questions is useful but not enough for all students. Good critical thinkers use metacognitive skills–in other words, they think about the process of their decision-making. The actual teaching of metacognitive strategies can have an impact on when and if students use them. To help students think about their thinking, teachers can prompt the students to ask themselves:

Did I have enough resources?

Were the resources sufficiently varied and from authorities I can trust?

Did I consider issues fairly?

Do all the data support my decision?

For English language learners (ELLs), this might mean teaching how to formulate and ask questions for clarity and specific information and to use relevant vocabulary words. One way this could hap- pen is to have ELLs create interview questions and interact with an external audience via email. Through the interaction and feedback from their email partners, the students could learn whether their questions were clear and specific and the vocabulary appropriate.

Guideline #4: Encourage curiosity. Why is the grass green? Why do I have to do geometry? Why are we at war? What are clouds made of? How do people choose what they will be when they grow up? Children ask these questions all the time, and these questions can lead to thinking critically about the world. However, in classroom settings they are often ignored, whether due to curricular, time, or other constraints. The Internet as a problem-solving and research tool (chapter 6) can contribute to teachers and learners finding answers together and evaluating those answers. However, if teachers stop learners from being curious, avoid their questions, or answer them unsatisfactorily, teachers can shut down the first step toward critical thinking.

A summary of these guidelines is presented in Figure 4.5.

CRITICAL THINKING TECHNOLOGIES

What Are Critical Thinking Tools?

Critical thinking tools are those that support the critical thinking process. Critical thinking instruction does not require the use of electronic tools. However, many of the tools mentioned throughout this book can be used to support critical thinking, depending on the specific activity. For example, word processing can help students lay out their thoughts before a debate, and concept mapping Web sites and software such as Inspiration (www.inspiration.com) can help students to brainstorm and plan their ideas. Likewise, the Internet can supply information, and databases and spreadsheets can help students organize data for more critical review.

This chapter presents tools that are specifically focused on building critical thinking skills. The following examples are categorized into:

Strategy software—content-free and structured to support critical thinking skills with student-generated content.

Content software—content is predetermined and strategy use is emphasized. Students typically read the software content and work out answers to questions.

Many other tools in these categories exist; those described here are some of the most popular, inexpensive, and useful.

Strategy Software

CMap v.3.8 (IHMC, 2005)

This software is easy to learn and use for third grade and up. The user double-clicks on the screen and inputs text into the shape that appears. Users can change the colors of the graphics and text to show different categories of reasoning such as objections, reasons, and claims. A very useful feature allows users to put text on the connecting lines to show the reasoning behind the connections they made. Figure 4.6 is an example map of the argument for and against alligators in the New York City sewer system. Download this software free from http://cmap.ihmc.us/.

First Step KidSkills (Kid Tools Support System, 2003)

KidSkills is a free software package intended for students ages 7–13. Of the four sections, titled Getting Organized, Learning New Stuff, Doing Homework, and Doing Projects, the last has the greatest focus on critical thinking. This section has five activities: Project Planner, Getting

Information, Big Picture Card, Working Together, and Project Evaluation. Each of the activities focuses on students combining information and printing or saving it in the form of a “card” or page. In the Project Planner exercise, students make a card that lists their question, topics for them to investigate, possible re- sources, and an evaluation of the resources (authority, fact, opinion, or don’t know). There is also a Second Step available, and resources and tips for use are provided on the Kid Tools Web site. Although intended for use with learners with learning disabilities or emotional/ behavioral problems, it is useful for all children and simple enough for students with limited English proficiency to understand and use, particularly because all instructions are presented in text and audio. Some teachers may find it too simple, but its simplicity is also part of its effectiveness.

Additional apps and tools are presented in the Teacher Toolbox for this text.

Content Software

BrainCogs (Fablevision, 2002)

A CD-based strategy program, BrainCogs helps students to learn, reflect on, and use specific strategies across a variety of contexts. The software employs an imaginary rock band, the Rotten Green Peppers, to demonstrate the importance of and techniques for remembering, organizing in- formation, prioritizing, shifting perspectives, and checking for mistakes. Although the focus is more on strategies to help students pass tests, the general strategy knowledge gained can transfer across subjects and tasks because it is not embedded in any specific content area. The software is accompanied by a video, posters, and other resources that function as scaffolds for diverse learners. The exercises, in addition to being entertaining and fun, employ multimedia (sound, text, and graphics) in ways that make the content accessible to English language learners and native English speakers with diverse learning styles. Available through http://www.fablevision.com/.

Mission Critical (San Jose State University)

This Web tool provides information and quizzes on critical thinking. Although intended for college students, the quizzes are simple and well explained and could be used at a number of different grade levels with support from the teacher. The site addresses arguments, persuasion, fallacies, and many other aspects of logic and critical thinking. The site begins at http://missioncritical.royalwebhosting.net/ .

Choices, Choices: Taking Responsibility (Tom Snyder Productions/Scholastic)

Taking Responsibility helps students in grades K–4 work through a five-step critical thinking process:

Understand your situation.

Talk about your options.

Make a choice.

Think about the consequences.

Used on a single computer and facilitated by the teacher, the simulation in this software title provides a scenario in which two students have broken one of the teacher’s possessions; how- ever, no one else saw them. The class acts as the two students in the scenario. Through a series of decisions, the class must decide which actions to take and face the consequences of their decisions. There are 300 different ways that students can get through this software, so the consequences are not always clear- cut until they are presented to students. Figure 4.8 presents the Taking Responsibility goal-setting screen.

The software comes with many resources to help students think critically about the situations and their decisions and to assist the teacher in integrating literature, role-play, and other activities into the lesson. Each step of the simulation is presented in pictures, audio, and text, which helps ELLs and other students to access the information. The Choices, Choices series includes a number of other titles. Tom Snyder Productions/Scholastic also provides a similar Decisions, Decisions series for older students.

Teachers who want to use this type of software should be aware that the choices that students are allowed to make within the software are preset and represent the views of the software author. Teachers and students must understand the limitations and biases of this software to use it in ways that demonstrate true critical thinking.

Other Options

There are a variety of other tool options for teachers and students to support critical thinking. Brainstorming and decision-tree software, strengths/weaknesses/opportunities/threats (SWOT) analysis packages, and Web-based content and question tools are available. For more information on teaching critical thinking and how technology might help, see Schwartz (2016) and the TedEd talk “Rethinking Thinking” by Trevor Maber on ed.ted.com.

One recent trend in critical thinking is the development of school- and classroom-based makerspaces. A makerspace is a physical space that contains any array of tools and resources where students can dream, imagine, solve problems, invent, and a lot more. Makerspaces support discovery, creativity, and many of the other goals outlined in this book. For more information, see “7 Things You Should Know about Makerspaces” at https://net.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/eli7095.pdf and learn more about the maker movement at http://www.makerspaceforeducation.com/.

Additional apps and Web sites can be found in the Teacher Toolbox for this text. Whichever tools teachers decide to use, they need to remember that the tool should not create a barrier to students reaching the goal of effective critical thinking.

TECHNOLOGY-SUPPORTED LEARNING ACTIVITIES: CRITICAL THINKING

As noted previously, instruction in critical thinking can be direct through the use of explicit instruction or indirect through modeling, describing, and explaining. The goal is to help learners understand clearly why they need to think critically and to give them feedback on how they do and how they can improve. Unfortunately, few software packages and Web sites, let alone textbooks, require critical thinking skills of students. Software that does support critical thinking often requires supplementing to help students understand and use them. Teachers can supplement these resources and facilitate critical thinking during activities by developing external documents. An external document is a kind of worksheet that can involve students in, for example, taking notes, outlining, highlighting, picking out critical information, summarizing, or practicing any of the skills that support critical thinking. An external document can also enhance students’ access to critical thinking software or Web sites by providing language or content help. All kinds of external documents exist across the Internet in lesson plan databases, teacher’s guides, and other educational sites to be shared and added to.

The goal for an external document is to overcome the weaknesses of the software. An external document should:

Be based on current knowledge in the content area.

Enhance interpersonal interaction.

Provide higher order thinking tasks.

Provide different ways for students to understand and respond.

Enhance the learning that the software facilitates.

Be an integral part of the activity.

Make the information more authentic to students.

Expose students to information in a different form.

Give students more control.

Teachers can use the terms from Figure 4.3 to help plan and create external documents. Like any other tool, external documents need to be clearly explained and modeled before students use them. To make documents more accessible to students with learning challenges and/or diverse learning styles, teachers can:

Print instructions in a color different from the rest of the text.

Provide oral instructions along with the written document.

Provide visual aids when possible.

Provide slightly different documents for students at different reading or content levels.

Use large, clear print.

In this section, technology-enhanced lessons in critical thinking are supplemented by external documents to demonstrate how teachers can make do with the tools they have and also make the tools more effective. Each example provides an overview of the lesson procedure and the tools used and a sample external document that supports student critical thinking during the lesson. Specific grade levels are not mentioned, because the focus is on the principles behind the activities, and the tasks can be easily adapted for a variety of students. As you read, think about how each external document supports critical thinking and what additional documents might encourage student critical thinking in other ways.

Science Example: Shooting for the Moon

The class reads Space Day—Inventors Wanted at the about.com site ( http://childparenting.about.com/ ). The site gives students guidelines for designing and creating an item for astronauts to take into space.

The class uses a planning tool to decide how to address this task and to make a timeline for completion.

Students make teams and brainstorm their ideas in a word processing or graphics program. They list their re- sources and reasons for using each re- source in the external document, a resource handout (Figure 4.9).

After they make a preliminary decision about their invention, they use the Space Day Invention external document handout (Figure 4.10) to analyze their choices.

Students complete a model of their invention, then use the Invention Justification external document (Figure 4.11) to plan the written explanation that will accompany their model.

The simple external documents in this case give students a foundation for thinking, a permanent record of their thinking, and assistance for thinking, speaking, and writing about their invention. The range of documents that can be created to facilitate this activity is large; the documents can also be adapted for different students. For example, documents intended for ELLs can include graphics and vocabulary explanations, and those for students with reading barriers can be set up online and read by an electronic text reader. When students finish their project, they can be asked to review their documents to reflect on their thinking processes.

Social Studies Example: Election Year Politics Debate

The class reads a variety of Internet sources, popular press, and opinion pieces to gather information to complete the Election Year Issues chart external document in Figure 4.12.

Students choose the issue they decide is most important according to the criteria given and use the Debate Planning document in Figure 4.13 to organize their position.

During the debate, students keep track of and summarize the arguments on a computer screen using a spreadsheet or other relevant software.

After the debate, students try to come to a consensus using all their documentation for support. The Issues chart helps students to focus on crucial aspects of the topic that they are thinking about. This type of grid can be used for almost any topic area. The debate planning handout is also a multiuse external document that can be employed in debate planning or discussion throughout the year in almost any subject area.

English Example: Critical Reading

After appropriate introduction by the teacher, students in groups of three read one of the three stories about the death of Malcolm X from Dan Kurland’s Web site (http://criticalreading.com/malcolm.htm).

Student groups complete the Reading Analysis external document (Figure 4.14), which they would have used previously for other readings.

Student groups reconfigure, with one student from each of the initial three reading groups in a new group (known as jigsaw learning). In their new groups students compare the reports and understandings from their first group and summarize their analysis of all the readings.

Students go online to discover other discussions and reports on the death of Malcolm X and to make conclusions about the events and the sources that reported them.

Instr u ctions: Read the selection carefully. With your g roup, write answers to the questions. Use examples from the readin g and other evidence to support your answers.

To relate facts
To persuade with appeal to reason or emotions
To entertain (to affect people’s emotions)
Explain why you think this is the purpose. Use examples from the selection to support your idea.
Why did the author write this selection?
Where and by whom was it published?
List all the main ideas in this selection.
List any words that you do not know, and add a definition in your own words.
Write a short summary of the selection. Limit your summary to five sentences.
Decide if the information in this selection is well written. What makes you think so?
What are the selection ’ s stren g ths and weaknesses?
What is your g roup ’ s opinion about this selection? Does it seem fair, lo g ical, true, effective, somethin g else? Explain clearly why you think so and g ive evidence to support your ideas.

FIGURE 4.14 Reading Analysis WWorksheet

Reading is not only covered in English or language arts areas. Teachers in all subject areas need to help students evaluate sources and become more media literate, and external documents that help them to do so can be used across the curriculum.

Math Example: Write to Dr. Math

Throughout the semester, students choose a math problem that is giving them trouble. They complete the Dr. Math Questions worksheet (Figure 4.15) about that problem. The teacher helps students post their questions to the Write to Dr. Math Web site (http://mathforum.org/dr.math/).

Students use the answer from the experts to analyze their approach to the problem and to answer a similar problem.

Presenting a problem and their thought processes to an external audience helps students clarify, detail, and explain—supporting the development of critical thinking.

Art Example: Pictures in the Media

Students look at the use of art in advertisements on the Web. Students choose an advertisement about a familiar product.

Examining the art that accompanies the ad, students complete the Advertising Art document (Figure 4.16).

Students choose or create new art for the advertisement based on their answers.

External documents help make the technology resources more useful, more focused, and more thought-provoking. The combination of technology tools and external documents can lead to many opportunities for critical thinking

Instr u ctions: Look at the art in your advertisement. Carefully consider your answers to these questions.

Answer as completely as possible.

1. Describe the art objectively, including color selection, line direction, use of shadow and light, and other features. In other words, try not to use any opinion in your description.

2. In words, what do you think this picture is saying? Why do you think so? Give evidence and

examples as support.

3. Is it an accurate representation of the product? How is it related to the product? Explain your

answers clearly.

4. How do you think someone else would respond to the art in this ad? Think of several different

people you know and project what effect the art might have on them.

5. What is the purpose of this art? What do the publishers of this ad hope to accomplish? Why do

you think so?

6. What are the consequences of not knowing the influences that art can have on people?

FIGURE 4.16 Advertising Art

ASSESSING CRITICAL THINKING WITH AND THROUGH TECHNOLOGY

Evaluating student work on external documents like those described in the previous section is one way to evaluate student progress in critical thinking. Student use of strategy and other critical thinking software tools can also aid in assessment. Many of the assessment means and tools mentioned throughout this text can assist teachers in evaluating the process and outcomes of student critical thinking. Ennis (2011b) provides several purposes for assessing critical thinking:

Diagnosing students’ level of critical thinking

Giving students feedback about their skills

Motivating students to improve their skills

Informing teachers about the success of their instruction.

Although critical thinking tests do exist, Ennis recommends that teachers make their own tests because the teacher-made tests will be a better fit for students and can be more open-ended (and thereby more comprehensive). He makes a logical argument that the use of multiple-choice tests that ask students for a brief written defense of their answers might be effective and efficient.

Which is more believable? Circle one:

The sewer worker investigates the alligators and says, “I’ve never seen one, so they don’t exist.”
The mayor says, “Of course there are no alligators. I would know if there were.”
A and B are equally believable.

EXPLAIN YOUR REASON:

In addition, both content and thinking skills can be tested simultaneously. For example, the question below requires students not only to answer the question but to explain their logic.

This format gives students who have credible interpretations for their answers credit for answering based on evidence. It can also eliminate some of the cultural and language differences that might otherwise interfere with a good assessment. For example, although the student might mark the multiple-choice part of the question incorrectly due to language misunderstandings or a slip of the hand, the teacher will be able to tell from the written explanation whether the student understands the question and is able to use thinking skills to think through and defend the answer. Students can complete this kind of test on the computer, avoiding problems with handwriting legibility.

Technology can aid teachers in developing tests of this sort. Test-making software abounds both from commercial publishers and nonprofit Web sites; however, few of the multiple-choice test creators also allow for short answers. An effective choice is to use a word processor to develop the test. The test can then be easily revised for future administrations. Teachers who have technical support and/or are proficient in Web page creation can also use an html editor to create a Web-based test.

Measuring critical thinking skills is not easy, but observation over time, a criterion-referenced task, and/or talk-alouds by students during activities are some ways to do so. Self-assessments can also encourage student reflection on how well they have done. Teachers can use a personal digital assistant (PDA) such as a cell phone or iPad to quickly note and store observations and, if necessary, later transfer the notes into a desktop computer for editing and sharing. Most important is to assess many situations using different methods to get the best idea of which critical-thinking skills students understand and to what degree they use them.

FROM THE CLASSROOM

Thinking Skills

There are many activities young children need to be involved in before learning the ins and outs of working a computer. A good book on this topic is Failure to Connect: How Computers Affect Our Children’s Minds and What We Can Do About It, by Jane M. Healy. All that said, computers can be extremely motivating and engaging. They can enhance our students’ use of collaborative skills and problem-solving skills. These things are very powerful in helping people learn. So while the activities you are thinking of using don’t directly match up to whatever test your students need to take, there are many computer activities that will involve many higher level thinking skills that will help our students learn, not only for THE TEST, but for life in general. (Susan, fifth-grade teacher)

Media Literacy

Learning to recognize bias in any form of media is important, especially on the Internet where anyone can publish. When are students developmentally ready to recognize bias? This is a tough question and will vary for individual students. I think that [the] use of preselected Web sites for fifth and sixth graders is a logical step. This is a good age to point out why you, as the teacher, have selected certain sites for their validity and reliability. This can be contrasted with sites that don’t meet the criteria. (Sally, fifth- and sixth-grade teacher)

Critical Thinking and Word Processing

[An article I read said that] one computer tool [that encourages students to think critically] is the word processor, because as students type, typographical, grammar or misspelled words are highlighted. Students should try to correct it themselves before looking at the suggestions by the computer. . . . this helps students become aware of their mistakes and make a conscious effort to avoid them in the future . . . I think that a conscious effort to avoid mistakes is probably going to take more than just seeing it highlighted as wrong on the computer. I think that some direct instruction or work related to those mistakes might be necessary to really help students critically think about what they did and why it wasn’t right . . . because in my experience, the computer’s tips aren’t always all that helpful. Sometimes I even wonder if spell check helps me to be a critical thinker or a carefree writer who is reliant on the computer to make corrections for me. I’m certainly not dedicated enough to try and correct my mistakes before doing a spelling and grammar check. Can we expect our students to do this? (Jennie, first-grade teacher)

Critical Thinking and the Internet

I appreciate the fact that using the Internet can promote critical thinking because the

students move from being passive learners to participants and collaborators in the creation of knowledge and meaning (Berge & Collins, 1995). The technology is empowering for students. . . They seem to feel more control over what they are able to learn and this seems to be motivating!

I wish I could figure out how to transfer that feeling to activities that are not suited for technology! (April, sixth-grade teacher)

CHAPTER REVIEW

Define critical thinking.

There are many different lists of the specific components of critical thinking, but in general experts agree that critical thinking is the process of providing clear, effective support for decisions.

Understand the role of critical thinking in meeting other learning goals such as creativity and production.

Teachers cannot teach their students all the content that they will use in their lives. They can, however, help them to become aware of and develop tools to deal with the decisions they will have to make in school and after. Learning to think critically will help students to become better communicators, problem solvers, producers, and creators and to use information wisely.

Discuss guidelines for using technology to encourage student critical thinking. Techniques such as asking the right questions, using tasks with appropriate challenges, teaching thinking strategies, and encouraging curiosity facilitate more than critical thinking; they are good pedagogy across subjects and activities. Teachers do not need to search for tools to support critical thinking. There are plenty of free tools on the Web, and critical thinking can be supported by common tools such as word processors.

Analyze technologies that can be used to support critical thinking.

People do not often think of a word processor or spreadsheet as a critical-thinking tool, but when their use is focused on aspects of thinking, they can certainly support the process. Many electronic tools can be used to support critical thinking, but teachers must ensure that the tools do not create a barrier to students reaching the goal of effective critical thinking.

Create effective technology-enhanced tasks to support critical thinking.

Any task can have a critical thinking component if it is built into the task. Understanding how to promote critical thinking and doing so with external documents can turn ordinary technology-enhanced tasks into extraordinary student successes.

Employ technology to assess student critical thinking.

Multiple-choice tests in which students are asked to explain their reasons for their answers seem to be a logical and effective way to test not only content but thinking processes. How- ever, this is only one way to assess critical thinking. Teachers need to employ observation, student self-reflection, and other assessments over time to gain a clear understanding of what students can do and how they can improve. Technology can help teachers prepare for and perform assessments

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Classroom Q&A

With larry ferlazzo.

In this EdWeek blog, an experiment in knowledge-gathering, Ferlazzo will address readers’ questions on classroom management, ELL instruction, lesson planning, and other issues facing teachers. Send your questions to [email protected]. Read more from this blog.

Eight Instructional Strategies for Promoting Critical Thinking

(This is the first post in a three-part series.)

The new question-of-the-week is:

What is critical thinking and how can we integrate it into the classroom?

This three-part series will explore what critical thinking is, if it can be specifically taught and, if so, how can teachers do so in their classrooms.

Today’s guests are Dara Laws Savage, Patrick Brown, Meg Riordan, Ph.D., and Dr. PJ Caposey. Dara, Patrick, and Meg were also guests on my 10-minute BAM! Radio Show . You can also find a list of, and links to, previous shows here.

You might also be interested in The Best Resources On Teaching & Learning Critical Thinking In The Classroom .

Current Events

Dara Laws Savage is an English teacher at the Early College High School at Delaware State University, where she serves as a teacher and instructional coach and lead mentor. Dara has been teaching for 25 years (career preparation, English, photography, yearbook, newspaper, and graphic design) and has presented nationally on project-based learning and technology integration:

There is so much going on right now and there is an overload of information for us to process. Did you ever stop to think how our students are processing current events? They see news feeds, hear news reports, and scan photos and posts, but are they truly thinking about what they are hearing and seeing?

I tell my students that my job is not to give them answers but to teach them how to think about what they read and hear. So what is critical thinking and how can we integrate it into the classroom? There are just as many definitions of critical thinking as there are people trying to define it. However, the Critical Think Consortium focuses on the tools to create a thinking-based classroom rather than a definition: “Shape the climate to support thinking, create opportunities for thinking, build capacity to think, provide guidance to inform thinking.” Using these four criteria and pairing them with current events, teachers easily create learning spaces that thrive on thinking and keep students engaged.

One successful technique I use is the FIRE Write. Students are given a quote, a paragraph, an excerpt, or a photo from the headlines. Students are asked to F ocus and respond to the selection for three minutes. Next, students are asked to I dentify a phrase or section of the photo and write for two minutes. Third, students are asked to R eframe their response around a specific word, phrase, or section within their previous selection. Finally, students E xchange their thoughts with a classmate. Within the exchange, students also talk about how the selection connects to what we are covering in class.

There was a controversial Pepsi ad in 2017 involving Kylie Jenner and a protest with a police presence. The imagery in the photo was strikingly similar to a photo that went viral with a young lady standing opposite a police line. Using that image from a current event engaged my students and gave them the opportunity to critically think about events of the time.

Here are the two photos and a student response:

F - Focus on both photos and respond for three minutes

In the first picture, you see a strong and courageous black female, bravely standing in front of two officers in protest. She is risking her life to do so. Iesha Evans is simply proving to the world she does NOT mean less because she is black … and yet officers are there to stop her. She did not step down. In the picture below, you see Kendall Jenner handing a police officer a Pepsi. Maybe this wouldn’t be a big deal, except this was Pepsi’s weak, pathetic, and outrageous excuse of a commercial that belittles the whole movement of people fighting for their lives.

I - Identify a word or phrase, underline it, then write about it for two minutes

A white, privileged female in place of a fighting black woman was asking for trouble. A struggle we are continuously fighting every day, and they make a mockery of it. “I know what will work! Here Mr. Police Officer! Drink some Pepsi!” As if. Pepsi made a fool of themselves, and now their already dwindling fan base continues to ever shrink smaller.

R - Reframe your thoughts by choosing a different word, then write about that for one minute

You don’t know privilege until it’s gone. You don’t know privilege while it’s there—but you can and will be made accountable and aware. Don’t use it for evil. You are not stupid. Use it to do something. Kendall could’ve NOT done the commercial. Kendall could’ve released another commercial standing behind a black woman. Anything!

Exchange - Remember to discuss how this connects to our school song project and our previous discussions?

This connects two ways - 1) We want to convey a strong message. Be powerful. Show who we are. And Pepsi definitely tried. … Which leads to the second connection. 2) Not mess up and offend anyone, as had the one alma mater had been linked to black minstrels. We want to be amazing, but we have to be smart and careful and make sure we include everyone who goes to our school and everyone who may go to our school.

As a final step, students read and annotate the full article and compare it to their initial response.

Using current events and critical-thinking strategies like FIRE writing helps create a learning space where thinking is the goal rather than a score on a multiple-choice assessment. Critical-thinking skills can cross over to any of students’ other courses and into life outside the classroom. After all, we as teachers want to help the whole student be successful, and critical thinking is an important part of navigating life after they leave our classrooms.

‘Before-Explore-Explain’

Patrick Brown is the executive director of STEM and CTE for the Fort Zumwalt school district in Missouri and an experienced educator and author :

Planning for critical thinking focuses on teaching the most crucial science concepts, practices, and logical-thinking skills as well as the best use of instructional time. One way to ensure that lessons maintain a focus on critical thinking is to focus on the instructional sequence used to teach.

Explore-before-explain teaching is all about promoting critical thinking for learners to better prepare students for the reality of their world. What having an explore-before-explain mindset means is that in our planning, we prioritize giving students firsthand experiences with data, allow students to construct evidence-based claims that focus on conceptual understanding, and challenge students to discuss and think about the why behind phenomena.

Just think of the critical thinking that has to occur for students to construct a scientific claim. 1) They need the opportunity to collect data, analyze it, and determine how to make sense of what the data may mean. 2) With data in hand, students can begin thinking about the validity and reliability of their experience and information collected. 3) They can consider what differences, if any, they might have if they completed the investigation again. 4) They can scrutinize outlying data points for they may be an artifact of a true difference that merits further exploration of a misstep in the procedure, measuring device, or measurement. All of these intellectual activities help them form more robust understanding and are evidence of their critical thinking.

In explore-before-explain teaching, all of these hard critical-thinking tasks come before teacher explanations of content. Whether we use discovery experiences, problem-based learning, and or inquiry-based activities, strategies that are geared toward helping students construct understanding promote critical thinking because students learn content by doing the practices valued in the field to generate knowledge.

An Issue of Equity

Meg Riordan, Ph.D., is the chief learning officer at The Possible Project, an out-of-school program that collaborates with youth to build entrepreneurial skills and mindsets and provides pathways to careers and long-term economic prosperity. She has been in the field of education for over 25 years as a middle and high school teacher, school coach, college professor, regional director of N.Y.C. Outward Bound Schools, and director of external research with EL Education:

Although critical thinking often defies straightforward definition, most in the education field agree it consists of several components: reasoning, problem-solving, and decisionmaking, plus analysis and evaluation of information, such that multiple sides of an issue can be explored. It also includes dispositions and “the willingness to apply critical-thinking principles, rather than fall back on existing unexamined beliefs, or simply believe what you’re told by authority figures.”

Despite variation in definitions, critical thinking is nonetheless promoted as an essential outcome of students’ learning—we want to see students and adults demonstrate it across all fields, professions, and in their personal lives. Yet there is simultaneously a rationing of opportunities in schools for students of color, students from under-resourced communities, and other historically marginalized groups to deeply learn and practice critical thinking.

For example, many of our most underserved students often spend class time filling out worksheets, promoting high compliance but low engagement, inquiry, critical thinking, or creation of new ideas. At a time in our world when college and careers are critical for participation in society and the global, knowledge-based economy, far too many students struggle within classrooms and schools that reinforce low-expectations and inequity.

If educators aim to prepare all students for an ever-evolving marketplace and develop skills that will be valued no matter what tomorrow’s jobs are, then we must move critical thinking to the forefront of classroom experiences. And educators must design learning to cultivate it.

So, what does that really look like?

Unpack and define critical thinking

To understand critical thinking, educators need to first unpack and define its components. What exactly are we looking for when we speak about reasoning or exploring multiple perspectives on an issue? How does problem-solving show up in English, math, science, art, or other disciplines—and how is it assessed? At Two Rivers, an EL Education school, the faculty identified five constructs of critical thinking, defined each, and created rubrics to generate a shared picture of quality for teachers and students. The rubrics were then adapted across grade levels to indicate students’ learning progressions.

At Avenues World School, critical thinking is one of the Avenues World Elements and is an enduring outcome embedded in students’ early experiences through 12th grade. For instance, a kindergarten student may be expected to “identify cause and effect in familiar contexts,” while an 8th grader should demonstrate the ability to “seek out sufficient evidence before accepting a claim as true,” “identify bias in claims and evidence,” and “reconsider strongly held points of view in light of new evidence.”

When faculty and students embrace a common vision of what critical thinking looks and sounds like and how it is assessed, educators can then explicitly design learning experiences that call for students to employ critical-thinking skills. This kind of work must occur across all schools and programs, especially those serving large numbers of students of color. As Linda Darling-Hammond asserts , “Schools that serve large numbers of students of color are least likely to offer the kind of curriculum needed to ... help students attain the [critical-thinking] skills needed in a knowledge work economy. ”

So, what can it look like to create those kinds of learning experiences?

Designing experiences for critical thinking

After defining a shared understanding of “what” critical thinking is and “how” it shows up across multiple disciplines and grade levels, it is essential to create learning experiences that impel students to cultivate, practice, and apply these skills. There are several levers that offer pathways for teachers to promote critical thinking in lessons:

1.Choose Compelling Topics: Keep it relevant

A key Common Core State Standard asks for students to “write arguments to support claims in an analysis of substantive topics or texts using valid reasoning and relevant and sufficient evidence.” That might not sound exciting or culturally relevant. But a learning experience designed for a 12th grade humanities class engaged learners in a compelling topic— policing in America —to analyze and evaluate multiple texts (including primary sources) and share the reasoning for their perspectives through discussion and writing. Students grappled with ideas and their beliefs and employed deep critical-thinking skills to develop arguments for their claims. Embedding critical-thinking skills in curriculum that students care about and connect with can ignite powerful learning experiences.

2. Make Local Connections: Keep it real

At The Possible Project , an out-of-school-time program designed to promote entrepreneurial skills and mindsets, students in a recent summer online program (modified from in-person due to COVID-19) explored the impact of COVID-19 on their communities and local BIPOC-owned businesses. They learned interviewing skills through a partnership with Everyday Boston , conducted virtual interviews with entrepreneurs, evaluated information from their interviews and local data, and examined their previously held beliefs. They created blog posts and videos to reflect on their learning and consider how their mindsets had changed as a result of the experience. In this way, we can design powerful community-based learning and invite students into productive struggle with multiple perspectives.

3. Create Authentic Projects: Keep it rigorous

At Big Picture Learning schools, students engage in internship-based learning experiences as a central part of their schooling. Their school-based adviser and internship-based mentor support them in developing real-world projects that promote deeper learning and critical-thinking skills. Such authentic experiences teach “young people to be thinkers, to be curious, to get from curiosity to creation … and it helps students design a learning experience that answers their questions, [providing an] opportunity to communicate it to a larger audience—a major indicator of postsecondary success.” Even in a remote environment, we can design projects that ask more of students than rote memorization and that spark critical thinking.

Our call to action is this: As educators, we need to make opportunities for critical thinking available not only to the affluent or those fortunate enough to be placed in advanced courses. The tools are available, let’s use them. Let’s interrogate our current curriculum and design learning experiences that engage all students in real, relevant, and rigorous experiences that require critical thinking and prepare them for promising postsecondary pathways.

Critical Thinking & Student Engagement

Dr. PJ Caposey is an award-winning educator, keynote speaker, consultant, and author of seven books who currently serves as the superintendent of schools for the award-winning Meridian CUSD 223 in northwest Illinois. You can find PJ on most social-media platforms as MCUSDSupe:

When I start my keynote on student engagement, I invite two people up on stage and give them each five paper balls to shoot at a garbage can also conveniently placed on stage. Contestant One shoots their shot, and the audience gives approval. Four out of 5 is a heckuva score. Then just before Contestant Two shoots, I blindfold them and start moving the garbage can back and forth. I usually try to ensure that they can at least make one of their shots. Nobody is successful in this unfair environment.

I thank them and send them back to their seats and then explain that this little activity was akin to student engagement. While we all know we want student engagement, we are shooting at different targets. More importantly, for teachers, it is near impossible for them to hit a target that is moving and that they cannot see.

Within the world of education and particularly as educational leaders, we have failed to simplify what student engagement looks like, and it is impossible to define or articulate what student engagement looks like if we cannot clearly articulate what critical thinking is and looks like in a classroom. Because, simply, without critical thought, there is no engagement.

The good news here is that critical thought has been defined and placed into taxonomies for decades already. This is not something new and not something that needs to be redefined. I am a Bloom’s person, but there is nothing wrong with DOK or some of the other taxonomies, either. To be precise, I am a huge fan of Daggett’s Rigor and Relevance Framework. I have used that as a core element of my practice for years, and it has shaped who I am as an instructional leader.

So, in order to explain critical thought, a teacher or a leader must familiarize themselves with these tried and true taxonomies. Easy, right? Yes, sort of. The issue is not understanding what critical thought is; it is the ability to integrate it into the classrooms. In order to do so, there are a four key steps every educator must take.

Integrating critical thought/rigor into a lesson does not happen by chance, it happens by design. Planning for critical thought and engagement is much different from planning for a traditional lesson. In order to plan for kids to think critically, you have to provide a base of knowledge and excellent prompts to allow them to explore their own thinking in order to analyze, evaluate, or synthesize information.
SIDE NOTE – Bloom’s verbs are a great way to start when writing objectives, but true planning will take you deeper than this.

QUESTIONING

If the questions and prompts given in a classroom have correct answers or if the teacher ends up answering their own questions, the lesson will lack critical thought and rigor.
Script five questions forcing higher-order thought prior to every lesson. Experienced teachers may not feel they need this, but it helps to create an effective habit.
If lessons are rigorous and assessments are not, students will do well on their assessments, and that may not be an accurate representation of the knowledge and skills they have mastered. If lessons are easy and assessments are rigorous, the exact opposite will happen. When deciding to increase critical thought, it must happen in all three phases of the game: planning, instruction, and assessment.

TALK TIME / CONTROL

To increase rigor, the teacher must DO LESS. This feels counterintuitive but is accurate. Rigorous lessons involving tons of critical thought must allow for students to work on their own, collaborate with peers, and connect their ideas. This cannot happen in a silent room except for the teacher talking. In order to increase rigor, decrease talk time and become comfortable with less control. Asking questions and giving prompts that lead to no true correct answer also means less control. This is a tough ask for some teachers. Explained differently, if you assign one assignment and get 30 very similar products, you have most likely assigned a low-rigor recipe. If you assign one assignment and get multiple varied products, then the students have had a chance to think deeply, and you have successfully integrated critical thought into your classroom.

Thanks to Dara, Patrick, Meg, and PJ for their contributions!

Please feel free to leave a comment with your reactions to the topic or directly to anything that has been said in this post.

Consider contributing a question to be answered in a future post. You can send one to me at [email protected] . When you send it in, let me know if I can use your real name if it’s selected or if you’d prefer remaining anonymous and have a pseudonym in mind.

You can also contact me on Twitter at @Larryferlazzo .

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Critical thinking and problem solving with technology.

Brief Summary: Critical thinking and problem solving is a crucial skill in a technical world that can immediately be applied to academics and careers. A highly skilled individual in this competency can choose the appropriate tool to accomplish a task, easily switch between tools, has a basic understanding of different file types, and can troubleshoot technology when it’s not working properly. They can also differentiate between true information and falsified information online and has basic proficiency in data gathering, processing and interpretation.

Learners with proficient skills in critical thinking and problem solving should be able to:

Troubleshoot computers and mobile devices when issues arise, like restarting the device and checking if it requires a software or operating system update
Move across tools to complete a task (for example, adding PowerPoint slides into a note taking app for annotation)
Differentiate between legitimate and falsified information online
Understand basic file types and know when to use them (for example, the difference between .doc and .pdf files)

Market/Employer Trends: Employers indicate value in employee ability to problem solve using technology, particularly related to drawing information from data to identify and solve challenges. Further, knowing how to leverage technology tools to see a problem, break it down into manageable pieces, and work toward solving is of important value. Employers expect new employees to be able to navigate across common toolsets, making decisions to use the right tool for the right task.

Self-Evaluation:

Key questions for reflection:

How comfortable are you when technology doesn’t work the way you expect?
Do you know basic troubleshooting skills to solve tech issues?
Do you know the key indicators of whether information you read online is reliable?

Strong digital skills in this area could appear as:

Updating your computer after encountering a problem and resolving the issue
Discerning legitimate news sources from illegitimate ones to successfully meet goals
Converting a PowerPoint presentation into a PDF for easy access for peers who can’t use PowerPoint
Taking notes on a phone and seamlessly completing them on a computer

Ways to Upskill:

Ready to grow your strength in this competency? Try:

Reviewing University Libraries’ resources on research and information literacy
Read about troubleshooting in college in the Learner Technology Handbook
Registering for ESEPSY 1359: Critical Thinking and Collaboration in Online Learning

Educator Tips to Support Digital Skills:

Create an assignment in Carmen prompting students to find legitimate peer-reviewed research
Provide links to information literacy resources on research-related assignments or projects for student review
Develop assignments that require using more than one tech tool to accomplish a single task

Main Challenges When Developing Your Critical Thinking

Written by Argumentful

Every day we are constantly bombarded with information and opinions from all directions. The ability to think critically is more important now than it ever was.

Critical thinking allows us to evaluate arguments, identify biases, and make informed decisions based on evidence and reasoning.

However, developing this skill is not easy, and there are many challenges that can stand in our way.

In this article, we will explore the main challenges that people face when trying to develop their critical thinking skills and provide some tips and strategies for overcoming them.

• Challenge #1: Confirmation Bias

• Challenge #2: Logical Fallacies

• Challenge #3: Emotions

• Challenge #4: Lack of Information or Misinformation

• Challenge #5: Groupthink

• Challenge #6: Overconfidence Bias

• Challenge #7: Cognitive dissonance

Challenge #1: Confirmation Bias

What is confirmation bias.

Confirmation bias is a tendency to seek out information that supports your existing beliefs and ignore information that contradicts those beliefs . It can be a major obstacle to critical thinking, as it can lead us to only consider evidence that confirms our preconceived notions and dismiss evidence that challenges them.

Raymond S. Nickerson, a psychology professor considers that confirmation bias is a common human tendency that can have negative consequences for decision making and information processing.

For example, in politics, people may only consume news from sources that align with their political ideology and ignore information that challenges their beliefs.

Or in the workplace, managers may only seek out feedback that confirms their leadership style and ignore feedback that suggests they need to make changes.

How do critical thinkers fight confirmation bias?

To overcome confirmation bias, it is important to actively seek out information from a variety of sources and perspectives .

This can involve reading news articles and opinion pieces from a range of sources, engaging in discussions with people who hold different opinions, and being open to changing our own beliefs based on new evidence.

It can also be helpful to regularly question our own assumptions and biases.

Another strategy is to practice “ steel manning ” which involves actively trying to understand and strengthen arguments that challenge our own beliefs, rather than just attacking weaker versions of those arguments.

Nickerson suggests the following strategies that can be used to mitigate confirmation bias:

Considering alternative explanations : You can make a conscious effort to consider alternative explanations for a given set of data or evidence, rather than simply focusing on information that supports your pre-existing beliefs.
Seeking out disconfirming evidence : Try to actively seek out evidence that contradicts your pre-existing beliefs, rather than simply ignoring or discounting it.
Using formal decision-making tools : Use formal decision-making tools, such as decision trees or decision matrices, to help structure your thinking and reduce the influence of biases.
Encouraging group decision making : Groups can be more effective at mitigating confirmation bias than individuals, since group members can challenge each other’s assumptions and biases.
Adopting a scientific mindset : You can adopt a more scientific mindset, which involves a willingness to consider multiple hypotheses, test them rigorously, and revise them based on evidence.

Nickerson suggests that these strategies may be effective at mitigating confirmation bias, but notes that they may require effort and practice to implement successfully.

By being aware of confirmation bias and actively working to overcome it, we can all develop a more open-minded approach to critical thinking and make more informed decisions.

Challenge #2: Logical Fallacies

Critical thinking requires the ability to identify and analyze arguments for their strengths and weaknesses. One major obstacle to this process is the presence of logical fallacies.

What are logical fallacies?

Logical fallacies are errors in reasoning that can make an argument appear convincing, even if it is flawed .

There are many types of logical fallacies, including ad hominem attacks , false dichotomies , strawman arguments , and appeals to emotion . These fallacies can appear in everyday discourse, from political debates to advertising campaigns, and can lead to flawed conclusions and decisions.

An example of a logical fallacy is when a politician might use an ad hominem attack to undermine their opponent’s credibility rather than addressing their argument directly.

Similarly, an advertisement might use emotional appeals to distract consumers from the actual merits of a product.

For an engaging introduction into the topic, check out Ali Almossawi’s book on logical fallacies-“ An Illustrated Book of Bad Arguments “. It provides a visually appealing perspective, using illustrations and examples to explain many common fallacies. It is aimed at a general audience, but provides a good overview of the topic for beginners.

How do critical thinkers fight logical fallacies?

To avoid being swayed by logical fallacies, it is important to be able to recognize them.

• One strategy is to familiarize yourself with common fallacies and their definitions .

• Additionally, it is important to analyse an argument’s premises and conclusions to identify any flaws in its reasoning.

• Finally, it can be helpful to question assumptions and consider alternative perspectives to ensure that your thinking is not influenced by logical fallacies.

A good source to do a deep dive into logical fallacies is The Fallacy Files by Gary N. Curtis – This website provides an extensive list of common logical fallacies, along with explanations and examples of each. It emphasizes the importance of being able to identify and avoid fallacies, and provides resources for improving critical thinking skills.

By developing the ability to identify and avoid logical fallacies, you can become a more effective critical thinker and make more informed decisions.

Challenge #3: Emotions

Emotions can have a significant impact on critical thinking and decision-making. Our emotional responses to information can affect our perception of it and bias our judgments. For example, if we have a strong emotional attachment to a particular belief or idea, we may be more likely to dismiss information that contradicts it and accept information that supports it, even if the information is flawed or unreliable.

Additionally, emotional reactions can also lead to impulsive decision-making, where we may act without fully considering all available information or weighing the potential consequences. This can be particularly problematic in high-stakes situations, such as in the workplace or in personal relationships.

Jennifer S. Lerner, Ye Li, Piercarlo Valdesolo, and Karim S. Kassam explore the relationship between emotions and decision making, including the role of emotions in shaping cognitive processes such as attention, memory, and judgment. They suggest that emotions can influence decision making in both positive and negative ways, and that understanding how emotions affect decision making is an important area of research.

How do critical thinkers manage emotions?

To manage the role of emotions in critical thinking, it is important to first become aware of our emotional reactions and biases. This can be done through mindfulness practices, such as meditation or journaling, where we can reflect on our thoughts and feelings without judgment.

It can also be helpful to actively seek out diverse perspectives and information, as exposure to new and varied ideas can help to broaden our understanding and reduce emotional attachments to particular beliefs. Additionally, taking a pause before making a decision or responding to information can provide time to reflect on our emotional reactions and consider all available information in a more rational and objective manner.

Overall, recognizing the impact of emotions on critical thinking and developing strategies for managing them can lead to more informed and effective decision-making.

Challenge #4: Lack of Information or Misinformation

Critical thinking relies heavily on having accurate and reliable information. However, in today’s age of rapid information sharing, it is easy to be inundated with an overwhelming amount of information, and distinguishing fact from fiction can be a daunting task. Additionally, misinformation and propaganda can be intentionally spread to manipulate opinions and beliefs.

Pew Research Center found that many Americans are concerned about the impact of misinformation on democracy and that fake news can erode trust in institutions and hinder critical thinking.

One example of the impact of misinformation is the spread of conspiracy theories, such as the belief that climate change is a hoax. These beliefs can lead to negative consequences for us and society as a whole, such as a lack of action on climate change.

How do critical thinkers overcome the lack of information or misinformation?

To overcome the challenge of misinformation and a lack of information, critical thinkers must develop a habit of fact-checking and verifying information. This means seeking out multiple sources of information and analyzing the credibility and biases of each source. Critical thinkers must also be willing to adjust their beliefs based on new evidence and be open to changing their opinions.

Pew Research Center suggests that media literacy education can help people become more discerning consumers of information.

• A good source for developing media literacy is Unesco’s “ Media and Information Literacy: Curriculum for Teachers “: The publication emphasizes the importance of teaching students to critically evaluate information in order to become informed and responsible citizens. It provides a framework for teaching media and information literacy skills, including critical thinking, and emphasizes the need to teach students how to recognize and avoid misinformation.

• Another source worth checking out is New York Times Events’ video on How to Teach Critical Thinking in an Age of Misinformation . The speakers suggest that educators should focus on teaching students to ask probing questions, evaluate evidence, and consider alternative perspectives. They also note that critical thinking skills are especially important in an age of information overload and misinformation.

• Furthermore, it is important to be aware of your own biases and limitations when seeking out and evaluating information. Confirmation bias, discussed in Challenge #1, can also play a role in accepting misinformation or overlooking important information that does not align with our pre-existing beliefs.

By being diligent and thorough in our information gathering and evaluation, we can overcome the challenge of misinformation and make more informed decisions.

Challenge #5: Groupthink

What is groupthink.

According to Sunstein and Hastie , groupthink occurs when members of a group prioritize consensus and social harmony over critical evaluation of alternative ideas. They suggest that groupthink can lead to a narrowing of perspectives and a lack of consideration for alternative viewpoints, which can result in flawed decision-making. They argue that groupthink is particularly dangerous in situations where group members are highly cohesive, where there is a strong leader or dominant voice, or where the group lacks diverse perspectives.

The desire for group cohesion can lead to a reluctance to challenge the consensus or express dissenting opinions, resulting in flawed decision-making and missed opportunities for innovation.

One example of groupthink is the space shuttle Challenger disaster in 1986 , where NASA engineers failed to recognize and address the risk of launching the shuttle in cold weather due to pressure from superiors and a culture of overconfidence. This led to a catastrophic failure that claimed the lives of all seven crew members.

How do critical thinkers overcome groupthink?

To overcome groupthink, it is important to encourage diversity of thought and promote constructive disagreement.

There are several strategies for avoiding groupthink, including promoting independent thinking and dissenting opinions, encouraging diverse perspectives, and engaging in active listening and critical evaluation of alternative ideas.

This can be achieved by seeking out dissenting views and challenging assumptions, creating a culture of open communication and feedback, and avoiding hierarchies that can stifle innovation and creativity. It is also important to value and reward independent thinking, even if it goes against the prevailing consensus.

For more ways to overcome group think, check out this comprehensive list of strategies from Northwestern school of education and social policy .

Developing critical thinking skills can help you to overcome groupthink and make more informed and effective decisions. By being aware of the challenges of group dynamics and actively seeking out diverse perspectives, you can cultivate a more independent and objective approach to critical thinking, ultimately leading to better outcomes and a more robust and resilient society.

Challenge #6: Overconfidence Bias

Another challenge to developing critical thinking is overconfidence bias, which is the tendency to overestimate our own abilities and knowledge. This bias can lead us to make hasty decisions or overlook important information, which can ultimately hinder our critical thinking skills.

Kahneman explains how the human mind has two modes of thinking: System 1, which is fast and intuitive, and System 2, which is slow and deliberative. He argues that overconfidence bias is a common flaw in System 1 thinking, which can lead us to overestimate our knowledge and abilities. Kahneman suggests that improving critical thinking requires training to recognize and control our overconfidence bias.

Overconfidence bias can occur in various contexts, such as in the workplace, academic settings, or even in personal relationships. For instance, you may be overconfident in your ability to complete a task at work without seeking help or feedback from colleagues, which could result in suboptimal outcomes.

Lichtenstein and Fischhoff conducted a study on overconfidence bias, in which they found that people tend to overestimate their knowledge and abilities in areas where they have limited expertise.

Tversky and Kahneman’s seminal paper on heuristics and biases discusses overconfidence bias as a common flaw in human decision-making. They suggest that overconfidence bias can lead us to make inaccurate judgments and can contribute to a wide range of cognitive biases.

How do critical thinkers overcome overconfidence bias?

To overcome overconfidence bias, you should take a more humble and reflective approach to your own abilities and knowledge. This can involve seeking feedback from others, taking the time to consider different perspectives, and being open to constructive criticism.

Kahneman suggests that improving critical thinking requires training to recognize and control our overconfidence bias.

Moore and Healy offer several strategies for reducing overconfidence bias , including increasing feedback, considering alternative explanations, and using probabilistic reasoning.

Another strategy is to cultivate a growth mindset , which emphasizes the belief that your abilities can be developed through effort and persistence. By adopting this mindset, you can avoid becoming complacent and continue to challenge yourself to develop your critical thinking skills.

Overall, overcoming overconfidence bias requires a willingness to acknowledge our own limitations and to actively seek out opportunities for growth and learning.

Challenge #7: Cognitive dissonance

Cognitive dissonance is a psychological phenomenon that occurs when a person holds two or more conflicting beliefs, values, or ideas. This internal conflict can create feelings of discomfort, which can lead to irrational and inconsistent behaviour. Cognitive dissonance can pose a significant challenge to critical thinking by distorting our perceptions and leading us to accept information that confirms our existing beliefs while dismissing or rationalizing away information that challenges them.

For example, a person who believes that they are a good driver may become defensive and dismissive when presented with evidence of their unsafe driving habits, such as speeding or not using a turn signal. This person may experience cognitive dissonance, as their belief in their driving ability conflicts with the evidence presented to them.

Tavris and Aronson’s book- Mistakes were made (but not by me) examines the phenomenon of cognitive dissonance in everyday life, using real-life examples to illustrate how we justify our beliefs and actions, even in the face of evidence to the contrary. It’s a worthwhile read to understand the psychological mechanisms that underlie cognitive dissonance and the implications of dissonance for understanding interpersonal conflict, group behaviour, and decision-making.

How do critical thinkers overcome cognitive dissonance?

Overcoming cognitive dissonance requires a willingness to confront and examine our own beliefs and assumptions.

Tavris and Aronson offer several strategies for recognizing and overcoming cognitive dissonance.

• we should be aware of the potential for cognitive dissonance to arise in situations where our beliefs, attitudes, or behaviours are inconsistent . By recognizing the possibility of dissonance, we can be more prepared to manage the discomfort that may result.

• we should engage in self-reflection to examine our beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors more closely. By questioning assumptions and considering alternative perspectives, we may be able to reduce the cognitive dissonance we experience.

• we should seek out diverse perspectives and engage in constructive dialogue with others. By listening to and respecting different viewpoints, we can gain a deeper understanding of ourselves and others, which may help to reduce cognitive dissonance.

Finally, the authors emphasize the importance of taking responsibility for our own actions and decisions. By acknowledging mistakes and being accountable for them, we can avoid the temptation to justify our behaviour and maintain consistency with our beliefs and attitudes.

In conclusion, developing effective critical thinking skills is essential for making informed decisions and navigating complex issues. However, there are several challenges that can hinder the development of critical thinking.

Confirmation bias, logical fallacies, emotions, lack of information or misinformation, groupthink, overconfidence bias, and cognitive dissonance are all common challenges that you may face when attempting to engage in critical thinking.

To overcome these challenges, it is important to develop strategies such as seeking out diverse perspectives, fact-checking and verifying information, and managing emotions. Additionally, it is crucial to remain open-minded and willing to consider alternative viewpoints, even if they challenge your existing beliefs. By recognizing and addressing these challenges, you can continue to improve your critical thinking skills and become more effective problem-solvers and decision-makers in your personal and professional lives.

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Question of the Day Examples

By Med Kharbach, PhD | Last Update: May 25, 2024

The importance of questioning in the classroom cannot be overstated, as it is a fundamental tool for fostering engagement, critical thinking, and deeper understanding. According to Patrícia Albergaria Almeida (2012), effective classroom questioning shifts the focus from teacher-centered to student-centered learning, encouraging higher-order thinking and active participation. Almeida’s research highlights that while teachers ask a high volume of questions—between 300 and 400 daily—students ask significantly fewer, typically only one question per week. This disparity underscores the need for greater awareness and strategies to promote student questioning, as it is vital for uncovering students’ conceptual understanding and reasoning processes.

Similarly, Rodolfo A. Neirotti (2021) emphasizes that questioning is crucial for understanding and exploring the world around us. Questions drive curiosity and foster an analytical mindset, allowing students to connect new information with prior knowledge and make sense of complex concepts. Neirotti argues that questioning helps improve interactions, stimulate creativity, and support scientific inquiry, which are essential for intellectual growth and problem-solving.

In today’s post, I compiled an extensive list of Question of the Day examples that you can use with your students or colleagues to spark engagement, foster critical thinking, and promote a dynamic learning environment. These questions are carefully categorized to cover diverse themes, including Cultural Appreciation, Environmental Awareness, Historical Perspectives, STEM Curiosities, Creative Expression, Global Citizenship, Philosophical Inquiry, Health and Wellness, Innovative Thinking, and Interpersonal Skills.

Question of The Day Examples

Here are some engaging “Question of the Day” prompts to spark curiosity and foster a dynamic learning environment.

1. Cultural Appreciation

Understanding and appreciating diverse cultures is essential in our interconnected world. This category encourages students to explore traditions, customs, and values from various cultures, fostering a sense of global awareness and respect. Through these questions, students will learn about the richness of cultural diversity and the importance of inclusivity.

What is one tradition from another culture that you find interesting and why?
How do different cultures celebrate the New Year?
Can you name a traditional dish from another country and describe it?
What are some common cultural symbols from around the world?
How do various cultures honor their ancestors?
What is a unique holiday celebrated in another country?
How do different cultures approach education?
What is one art form unique to a specific culture?
How do people in different countries greet each other?
What are some traditional clothing items from different cultures?
How do various cultures celebrate weddings?
What are some unique musical instruments from around the world?
How do different cultures celebrate coming-of-age ceremonies?
What is a popular sport in another country that is less known here?
How do various cultures view and use traditional medicine?

2. Environmental Awareness

Our planet faces numerous environmental challenges, and it’s crucial to raise awareness about sustainability and conservation. This category focuses on questions that highlight the significance of protecting our environment. Students will explore topics like climate change, recycling, and renewable energy, inspiring them to take action towards a greener future.

What is one simple way you can reduce your carbon footprint?
How does recycling help the environment?
What are the effects of deforestation on wildlife?
How does pollution affect marine life?
What are the benefits of using renewable energy sources?
How can planting trees help combat climate change?
What are the consequences of plastic waste in the oceans?
How can we conserve water in our daily lives?
What are some endangered species and why are they at risk?
How does composting benefit the environment?
What is the importance of biodiversity?
How do oil spills impact the environment?
What are some ways to promote sustainable agriculture?
How does urbanization affect natural habitats?
What role do bees play in our ecosystem?

Related: 100 Engaging Philosophical Questions for Kids

3. Historical Perspectives

History offers invaluable lessons and insights into our present and future. This category prompts students to delve into significant historical events and figures, encouraging them to think critically about the past. By understanding history, students can better appreciate the complexities of the world and the progress we’ve made.

What is one historical event you would like to witness and why?
How did the invention of the printing press change the world?
What are some lessons we can learn from ancient civilizations?
How did the Industrial Revolution impact society?
What is the significance of the Magna Carta?
How did the discovery of electricity revolutionize life?
What are the key causes of the World Wars?
How did the civil rights movement shape modern society?
What is the impact of the Renaissance on art and culture?
How did explorers like Christopher Columbus change the world?
What is the historical significance of the Great Wall of China?
How did the Cold War influence global politics?
What can we learn from the fall of the Roman Empire?
How did the Space Race affect technological advancement?
What was the impact of the Silk Road on trade and culture?

4. STEM Curiosities

Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math (STEM) are fields that drive innovation and shape our future. This category is designed to spark curiosity and interest in STEM topics. Through these questions, students will explore fascinating concepts and recent advancements, encouraging them to think like scientists and engineers.

How do vaccines work to protect us from diseases?
What are black holes and why are they important to study?
How does coding contribute to creating video games?
What are some recent breakthroughs in renewable energy?
How does 3D printing work and what are its uses?
What is the role of DNA in heredity?
How do self-driving cars navigate and avoid obstacles?
What are the benefits and risks of artificial intelligence?
How does the internet work?
What are the basic principles of quantum physics?
How do weather satellites predict storms?
What are some cutting-edge materials used in construction?
How do we measure the distance between stars?
What are the applications of nanotechnology in medicine?
How does the human brain process information?

5. Creative Expression

Creativity is a vital part of personal and academic growth. This category inspires students to express themselves artistically and imaginatively. Whether through art, music, writing, or design, these questions encourage students to explore their creative potential and understand the value of artistic expression.

If you could create a new art form, what would it be?
How does music influence your mood and creativity?
What story would you tell if you wrote a book?
How would you design a dream home?
What inspires you to create art?
If you could compose a song, what would it be about?
How would you direct a movie with no dialogue?
What is your favorite way to express yourself creatively?
If you could build a sculpture out of any material, what would you use?
How do colors influence your artwork?
What role does creativity play in solving everyday problems?
How would you choreograph a dance to tell a story?
If you could design a video game, what would its theme be?
How do different cultures influence artistic styles?
What would you paint if you had a giant canvas and no restrictions?

6. Global Citizenship

Being a responsible global citizen means understanding and addressing global issues. This category promotes awareness of topics like human rights, global health, and social justice. Through these questions, students will learn about their role in the global community and how they can contribute to a more equitable world.

How can we support fair trade practices globally?
What are the impacts of global warming on different regions of the world?
How can we help refugees in our communities?
What are the benefits of learning a second language?
How do international organizations like the UN help maintain peace?
What are some ways to reduce global poverty?
How does access to education vary around the world?
What is the importance of protecting human rights?
How can we promote gender equality globally?
What are the effects of global health crises on different countries?
How does global trade affect local economies?
What role can individuals play in combating climate change?
How does cultural exchange benefit global understanding?
What are the consequences of deforestation in the Amazon rainforest?
How can we support clean water initiatives worldwide?

7. Philosophical Inquiry

Philosophy encourages deep, critical thinking about life’s fundamental questions. This category challenges students to consider philosophical ideas and ethical dilemmas. By engaging with these questions, students will develop their reasoning skills and explore different perspectives on complex issues.

What is the meaning of happiness?
Do humans have free will?
What is the nature of reality?
Is there such a thing as absolute truth?
What is the purpose of life?
Can we ever truly know another person’s mind?
What makes an action morally right or wrong?
Is it possible to achieve true equality?
What is the value of art in society?
Can machines possess consciousness?
What is the role of government in our lives?
How do we define beauty?
Is there life after death?
What are the limits of human knowledge?
How do we determine what is just?

8. Health and Wellness

Promoting health and wellness is essential for a balanced life. This category focuses on questions that encourage students to think about their physical and mental well-being. Topics include nutrition, exercise, mindfulness, and stress management, helping students develop healthy habits and self-awareness.

What are the benefits of a balanced diet?
How does exercise impact mental health?
What are some effective stress management techniques?
Why is sleep important for overall health?
How can mindfulness improve daily life?
What are the signs of a healthy friendship?
How does staying hydrated affect your body?
What are the benefits of spending time in nature?
How can setting goals improve mental health?
What role does laughter play in well-being?
How can you create a personal wellness plan?
What are the benefits of practicing gratitude?
How does music influence your mood?
What is the importance of regular medical check-ups?
How can volunteering boost your happiness?

9. Innovative Thinking

Innovation drives progress and solves problems. This category encourages students to think creatively and entrepreneurially. Through these questions, students will explore ways to address challenges and create new opportunities, fostering a mindset of innovation and proactive problem-solving.

What problem in your community would you like to solve with an invention?
How can we make renewable energy more accessible?
What new technology could improve education?
How can design thinking be applied to everyday problems?
What is an example of an innovative solution to a global issue?
How can we use technology to reduce food waste?
What startup idea do you think would succeed today?
How can we promote entrepreneurship in young people?
What is the future of transportation?
How can we make healthcare more affordable and effective?
What role does creativity play in innovation?
How can businesses become more environmentally sustainable?
What is the next big thing in technology?
How can we encourage more women in STEM fields?
What innovative approach could solve the housing crisis?

10. Interpersonal Skills

Effective communication and strong interpersonal skills are key to personal and professional success. This category helps students develop social skills, empathy, and leadership qualities. These questions encourage students to reflect on their interactions with others and improve their ability to collaborate and connect.

How can you show empathy in a conversation?
What are some effective ways to resolve conflicts?
How can you improve your active listening skills?
What are the benefits of giving and receiving constructive feedback?
How can you build trust in a team?
What are some ways to practice effective communication?
How do you handle difficult conversations?
What are the qualities of a good leader?
How can you be more assertive without being aggressive?
What role does body language play in communication?
How can you improve your public speaking skills?
How do you build and maintain healthy relationships?
What are some strategies for networking?
How can you be a better collaborator?
What are the benefits of understanding different communication styles?

Related: Attendance Questions for Your Class

Importance of Questions in Learning

For those interested in exploring the significance of questions in educational settings, several key research papers provide valuable insights and practical strategies. For instances, Robin Alexander’s “Towards Dialogic Teaching” (2005) emphasizes the role of dialogue and questioning in fostering a more interactive and engaging classroom environment. Allison and Shrigley (1986) discuss techniques for teaching children to ask operational questions in science, highlighting the importance of inquiry-based learning. On their part, Arzi and White (1986) explore the types and impacts of students’ questions in science education, offering a research-based perspective on promoting student curiosity.

Similarly, Paul Black and colleagues (2002) in “Working Inside the Black Box” focus on how questioning and formative assessment can enhance learning outcomes. Blosser (1995) provides practical advice on asking effective questions, while Browne and Keeley (1998) offer a guide to critical thinking through the art of questioning. Carlsen (1991) analyzes classroom questioning from a sociolinguistic perspective, providing a deeper understanding of its dynamics.

For a problem-based learning approach, Chin and Chia (2004) demonstrate how student questions drive knowledge construction. Penick, Crow, and Bonnsteter (1996) argue that questions are fundamental to effective science teaching while Rop (2002) investigates the meaning and impact of student inquiry questions from the teacher’s viewpoint.

As for Rosenshine, Meister, and Chapman (1996), they provided an extensive review of intervention studies on teaching students to generate questions. Finally, Shodell (1995) advocates for a question-driven classroom to stimulate student engagement and learning.

These resources collectively underscore the transformative power of questioning in education, offering both theoretical insights and practical approaches to enhance teaching and learning.

Almeida, P. A. (2012). Can I ask a question? the importance of classroom questioning. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences , 31, 634-63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.12.116.
Alexander, R. (2005). Towards dialogic teaching . York, UK: Dialogos.
Allison, A.W., & Shrigley, R.L. (1986). Teaching children to ask operational questions in science. Science Education , 70, 73–80.
Arzi, H.J. & White, R.T. (1986). Questions on students’ questions. Research in Science Education , 16, 82–91.
Black, P., Harrison, C., Lee, C., Marshall, B., & Wiliam, D. (2002). Working inside the black box: Assessment for learning in the classroom . London: King’s College London
Blosser, P.E. (1995). How to ask the right questions. Arlington , VA: National Science Teachers Association
Browne, M.N., & Keeley, S.M. (1998). Asking the right questions: A guide to critical thinking. Englewood Cliffs , NJ: Prentice Hall.
Carlsen, W.S. (1991). Questioning in classrooms: A sociolinguistic perspective. Review of Educational Research , 61, 157–178.
Chin, C., & Chia, L.G. (2004). Problem-based learning: Using students’ questions to drive knowledge construction. Science Education , 88, 707–727.
Chin, C., & Osborne, J. (2008). Students’ questions: a potential resource for teaching and learning science. Studies in Science Education , 44, 1-39.
Neirotti, R. A. (2021). The importance of asking questions and doing things for a reason. Braz J Cardiovasc Surg , 36(1): I-II. doi: 10.21470/1678-9741-2021-0950 . PMID: 33594859; PMCID: PMC7918389.
Penick, J.E., Crow, L.W., & Bonnsteter, R.J. (1996). Questions are the answers. Science Teacher , 63, 26–29.
Rop, C.J. (2002). The meaning of student inquiry questions: A teacher’s beliefs and responses. International Journal of Science Education , 24(7), 717–736.
Rosenshine, B., Meister, C., & Chapman, S. (1996). Teaching students to generate questions: A review of the intervention studies. Review of Educational Research , 66, 181–221.
Shodell, M. (1995). The question-driven classroom. American Biology Teacher , 57, 278–281.

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Meet Med Kharbach, PhD

Dr. Med Kharbach is an influential voice in the global educational technology landscape, with an extensive background in educational studies and a decade-long experience as a K-12 teacher. Holding a Ph.D. from Mount Saint Vincent University in Halifax, Canada, he brings a unique perspective to the educational world by integrating his profound academic knowledge with his hands-on teaching experience. Dr. Kharbach's academic pursuits encompass curriculum studies, discourse analysis, language learning/teaching, language and identity, emerging literacies, educational technology, and research methodologies. His work has been presented at numerous national and international conferences and published in various esteemed academic journals.

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Five key questions to get a tech transformation right

Why do some technology transformations 1 In the survey and in this article, we define technology transformations as large-scale change efforts that are more comprehensive than short-term improvement programs. succeed while others fail? This is a perennial question that has frustrated IT departments for years, presenting both a clear-cut opportunity for growth and the risk of falling further behind. Our latest McKinsey Global Survey of technology and business leaders 2 The online survey was in the field from April 11 to April 22, 2022, and garnered responses from 468 participants, including responses from mostly C-suite and senior managers in a variety of industries. The participants represent the full range of regions, industries, company sizes, and tenures. To adjust for differences in response rates, the data are weighted by the contribution of each respondent’s nation to global GDP. set out to better understand the keys to transformation success. We identified respondents working for the most financially successful organizations (whom we refer to as “top performers” 3 Top performers are defined as organizations that, according to respondents, have seen an average growth rate of at least 10 percent in both revenue and EBIT over the past three years. Of the 468 respondents in the survey sample, 84 qualified as top performers. ), whose results suggest that they reap greater benefits than others from their tech transformations.

According to the survey, these top performers pursue transformations differently from their peers in a few critical ways: they are more likely than others to anchor their technology and digital strategies in their overall business strategies, they report greater effectiveness at building environments that foster organizational change, they are more likely to invest in foundational technologies, and they are better at retaining their tech talent. What’s more, the top performers are more likely than others to combine their initiatives—a set of eight “plays” that comprise our Tech: Forward approach to technology transformations —in ways that maximize business value.

All told, we see their methods as a foundation for successful tech transformations—and the source of five critical questions that every organization should ask itself in order to increase its chances of achieving similar success.

Top financial performers are more likely than others to anchor their tech transformations in strategic business priorities, to build environments that foster change, to invest in foundational technologies, and to retain tech talent.

1. What value is IT delivering?

Most respondents with experience in tech transformations continue to report meaningful benefits from their efforts, as we have seen in previous years . For example, at least 60 percent of all respondents credit their transformations with improving performance on a range of metrics.

Yet the top performers seem to have positioned themselves even better than others in terms of maximizing a transformation’s impact, especially to spur business growth (Exhibit 1). These respondents report a stronger financial return from their investment in tech transformations (87 percent of top performers say they have seen a positive impact on generating new revenue streams, compared with 58 percent of everyone else), as well as greater impact on all other metrics we tested.

How did they do it? One reason for their success appears to be that top performers tend to anchor their technology and digital strategy in their overall business strategy. In our survey, respondents from these companies are 14 percent more likely than others to say they develop their business and technology and digital strategies in tandem, which can enhance the business value they reap from tech transformations.

Axel Schell biography

Earned a PhD in business administration and economics, an MBA, and a bachelor’s degree in information systems from the University of Augsburg

Career highlights

Allianz Technology (2021–present) Chief technology and transformation officer

Allianz Deutschland (2018–21) Chief technology officer

Allianz Technology of America (2015–19) CEO and president

Board member at Deutsche Sporthilfe (German national sports funding organization) since 2020

One financial-services firm, Allianz, has taken a business-led approach in its recent tech transformation. Chief technology and transformation officer for Austria, Germany, and Switzerland Axel Schell says the company has shifted its mindset during this transformation: from putting the technology first to cracking business problems with technology. This means not only optimizing purely technical KPIs (such as the number of app features and releases) but also favoring specific business KPIs (such as customer interactions and purchases in the app).

Yexi Liu biography

Earned an MBA from Clemson University; received a bachelor’s degree in international finance from Southwestern University of Finance and Economics

Rich Products Corporation (2019–present) Executive vice president and chief information officer

Westinghouse Electric Company (2017–19) Chief information officer

Has served in IT leadership roles in Asia, Europe, Latin America, and North America

In the recent modernization of its IT organization, B2B and consumer player Rich Products Corporation has made digital technology a critical part of creating value for the company’s customers and enabling its long-term growth and productivity. According to executive vice president and global chief information officer Yexi Liu, the company deployed new digital systems and tools at scale, so technology touches every corner of the company: from the sales and culinary teams, which now have access to data and analytics that help them deliver solutions to customers in real time, to supply chain teams, which enjoy greater transparency and access to information at a speed the company has never experienced before.

2. How holistic is your approach to transformation?

In general, the top performers appear to be taking a more comprehensive and strategic approach to their tech transformations than others. Relative to their peers, they have pursued a higher number of tech initiatives (an average of 3.5 initiatives, out of 8.0 we asked about, compared with 2.7) in their transformations of the past two years. But their distinctiveness is about more than just the number of initiatives in play. In line with our other research, 4 “ The Tech: Forward recipe for a successful technology transformation ,” McKinsey, December 15, 2022. the survey results confirm that deploying certain plays in combination with others can unleash even greater impact than if they were deployed in isolation, as many of these plays have effects on one another.

Exploring the combinations that most top performers have pursued offers insights into the relationships between the initiatives that have underpinned their success and that other companies can also follow (Exhibit 2). For example, at least 50 percent of top performers who say their companies reshaped their business strategy to be more technology based say they also redesigned their tech organization and operating model, scaled their data-related capabilities, and transformed talent management and sourcing.

Fittingly, Rich Products has taken a holistic approach to its recent technology transformation. Liu says the company is implementing multiple company-wide initiatives that focus on future proofing its technology foundation and enabling future scaling and growth—for example, shifting to a global software as a service (SaaS) enterprise resource planning solution and embedding new customer relationship management, supply chain, and procurement platforms in more than 60 countries. At the same time, Rich Products is also changing how its technology function operates, from a decentralized and regionally managed approach to a global model with teams organized around enterprise products and platforms.

At Allianz, Schell says the company is taking a similarly comprehensive route. Allianz is approaching the modernization of its IT function holistically, setting minimum standards on architecture across applications and infrastructure platforms, data, and cybersecurity. The company is also adjusting governance processes in its operating model to enforce this in daily work and investing in engineering capabilities to foster good technology craftmanship over time. These shifts, along with ongoing efforts to scale cloud solutions, are enabling Allianz to move more quickly and autonomously when following standards but also making it deliberately more difficult in the case of exceptions.

3. What is holding you back from developing and deploying new technology at the rate and quality of top performers?

The survey suggests that top performers are also more likely than others to have invested in modernizing and securing their IT foundation—that is, their infrastructure, data, and cybersecurity—so they can deploy technology rapidly and effectively (Exhibit 3). They are three times more likely than others to report building next-generation data platforms and enabling AI applications throughout their organizations. They are also more likely to say they are strengthening their cybersecurity defenses and modernizing their infrastructure, through initiatives such as automation and cloud migration and management.

Top performers are also less likely than others to say their existing technology foundation is an impediment to their tech aspirations. Twenty-two percent of them cite the slow speed of their legacy platforms as a top three challenge during their transformations, compared with 38 percent of their peers. What’s more, the top-performing organizations are more effective overall at managing their data architecture and infrastructure.

In our experience, there are multiple reasons that could prevent companies from leveraging their tech foundations to the fullest. One is a lack of investment, as technology organizations often meet ad hoc demand from multiple stakeholders on the business side and aren’t always able to focus enough time or resources on making foundational improvements, which are difficult and often time-consuming to execute. Second is that products are often built in silos without communication or alignment between technology and business stakeholders. Third, it can be hard to get buy-in for modernizing legacy technology without a strong business case or strategic alignment on the need for these changes.

4. How can you make the most of the talent you already have?

Finding and retaining tech talent is a perennial challenge and tops the agenda for nearly every technology and business leader. But the competition for tech talent will only intensify as organizations seek to attract and retain an increasingly mobile, ambitious, and purpose-driven workforce.

Yet, even when it comes to broad corporate concerns such as talent, the top performers are significantly ahead of their peers. According to the survey, top performers are more likely than others to say they were effective at retaining top talent, recruiting new talent, training existing talent, and having a healthy IT work culture (Exhibit 4).

At Allianz, Schell says people are the most important factor for their transformation activities’ success. The company fosters global collaboration through teams that are staffed with colleagues in different continents and across communities of practices, where engineers regularly exchange their ideas. The combination of individual strengths and diversified expertise is a powerful asset and enables these teams to perform in an even more customer-centric way. In its transformation, Allianz has also increased internal awareness of what individuals, teams, and the entire organization are capable of—and communicated that self-awareness externally as part of its employer brand.

5. Does your operating model reflect the changes you are making to your technology foundation?

While transforming the IT organization and operating model is a critical way for companies to get the most out of their technology, that change alone will not necessarily lead to better performance. In fact, the proportion of respondents who say they have a mature operating model is nearly the same among top performers as it is among everyone else. 5 We define a mature operating model as one that is either digitally integrated (that is, both conventional and digital technologies are delivered at scale through a unified operating model, which is often organized by tech products or platforms) or fully digital (that is, cross-functional, full-stack, product-based teams are responsible for technology delivery and operate in a digital manner). What sets the top performers apart is that they are twice as likely as their peers to rely on operating models that are product- and platform-centric .

Our experience suggests that these types of operating models, 6 We define a product- or platform-centric operating model as one where teams and their work are cross-functional, led by product managers, and organized around a user-facing product or platform rather than a project. which focus on the end-user experience, present tremendous business benefits. To name a few, product- and platform-centric operating models can help streamline product development, reduce time to market, help cut costs, promote accountability within the organization, and ensure that the company is creating the highest-quality products.

At Rich Products, Liu says the company has continued to emphasize that the transformation is not only an implementation of new systems but also a fundamental transformation of its work, workforce, and workplace—all enabled by technology that is simple, standard, and global. Indeed, the company has organized work around product- and platform-based teams, which has enabled it to benefit from business and technology partnerships across the organization while also maintaining the agility to account for local nuances.

In its tech transformation, Allianz also made meaningful operating-model changes to get the most out of its foundational improvements. According to Schell, agile tribes are assuming more end-to-end ownership of their products, including innovation and operations. Agile teams are staffed with experts from the business and technology sides of the organization, and on the best teams there is no distinction between people who came from the business and who came from IT. This setup enables more autonomous decision making at the team level rather than by steering committees that don’t fully understand a decision or have to deal with its consequences.

Allianz’s agile journey also involves reducing complexity: that is, moving from large, long-term programs and monolithic platforms to a minimum viable product approach and microsystems. One recent example of where the transformation’s efforts are already paying off: the migration of the Allianz Business System from the mainframe to Linux, where the business case is clearly positive.

The survey content and analysis were developed by Anusha Dhasarathy , Pranav Himatsingka, and Naufal Khan , a partner, associate partner, and senior partner, respectively, in McKinsey’s Chicago office; and Thomas Elsner , a partner in the Munich office.

They wish to thank Vilde Haslund and Mary Morris for their contributions to this work.

This article was edited by Daniella Seiler, an executive editor in the Washington, DC, office.

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The Tech: Forward recipe for a successful technology transformation

Prioritizing technology transformations to win

Products and platforms: Is your technology operating model ready?

Open access
Published: 21 May 2024

The advancement of artificial intelligence in biomedical research and health innovation: challenges and opportunities in emerging economies

Renan Gonçalves Leonel da Silva ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9679-6389 1

Globalization and Health volume 20 , Article number: 44 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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The advancement of artificial intelligence (AI), algorithm optimization and high-throughput experiments has enabled scientists to accelerate the discovery of new chemicals and materials with unprecedented efficiency, resilience and precision. Over the recent years, the so-called autonomous experimentation (AE) systems are featured as key AI innovation to enhance and accelerate research and development (R&D). Also known as self-driving laboratories or materials acceleration platforms, AE systems are digital platforms capable of running a large number of experiments autonomously. Those systems are rapidly impacting biomedical research and clinical innovation, in areas such as drug discovery, nanomedicine, precision oncology, and others. As it is expected that AE will impact healthcare innovation from local to global levels, its implications for science and technology in emerging economies should be examined. By examining the increasing relevance of AE in contemporary R&D activities, this article aims to explore the advancement of artificial intelligence in biomedical research and health innovation, highlighting its implications, challenges and opportunities in emerging economies. AE presents an opportunity for stakeholders from emerging economies to co-produce the global knowledge landscape of AI in health. However, asymmetries in R&D capabilities should be acknowledged since emerging economies suffers from inadequacies and discontinuities in resources and funding. The establishment of decentralized AE infrastructures could support stakeholders to overcome local restrictions and opens venues for more culturally diverse, equitable, and trustworthy development of AI in health-related R&D through meaningful partnerships and engagement. Collaborations with innovators from emerging economies could facilitate anticipation of fiscal pressures in science and technology policies, obsolescence of knowledge infrastructures, ethical and regulatory policy lag, and other issues present in the Global South. Also, improving cultural and geographical representativeness of AE contributes to foster the diffusion and acceptance of AI in health-related R&D worldwide. Institutional preparedness is critical and could enable stakeholders to navigate opportunities of AI in biomedical research and health innovation in the coming years.

In January 2023, news reverberated across media outlets dedicated to breakthroughs innovations in biotechnology and in the healthcare sector. It announced the initiation of clinical trials for a protein kinase inhibitor INS018_055 – the first anti-fibrotic small molecule inhibitor with promising anti-tumor relevance, designed through the assistance of artificial intelligence (AI). INS018_055 was developed by Insilico Medicine, a generative AI-driven clinical-stage biotechnology company. The discovery of INS018_055 was achieved by a team of researchers from Canada, China, and the United States within the span of less than a month, with results published in Chemical Sciences [ 1 ]. According to a press release from Genetic Engineering & Biotechnology News (2023) the study “applied AlphaFold [an AI program which performs predictions of protein structure developed by DeepMind, a subsidiary of Alphabet] to an end-to-end AI-powered drug discovery platform (Pharma.AI) that includes a biocomputational engine (PandaOmics) and a generative chemistry platform (Chemistry42), to identify a new drug for a novel target for the treatment of the most common form of primary liver cancer, hepatocellular carcinoma.” [ 2 ].

The news of INS018_055’s success circulated globally, highlighting it as a promising result of integrating AI in biomedical research and drug discovery. The AI-generated protein illustrates the potential of the so-called autonomous experimentation (AE) systems to enhance and accelerate the discovery of advanced biochemical entities and responsive bionanomaterials of interest in clinical studies and biopharmaceutical industry.

Also known as autonomous laboratories, self-driven laboratories, or materials acceleration platforms, AE systems are digital platforms capable of running a large number of chemical experiments autonomously. AE are assisted by machine learning (ML) and other robust computational tools with a high level of precision, accuracy and resilience. Those systems can perform in days what scientists would take years to achieve, as proven by the example of INS018_055. Instead of manually replicating experiments and trial-and-error activities, AE systems build robust datasets and run experiments without the physical and intellectual limitations of humans. It reduces the risk for subjective interpretations of findings, due to data robustness and ML-driven hypothesis tests [ 3 , 4 , 5 ].

Due to its efficiency in accelerating discovery and rationalizing the use of scarce material resources for R&D activity, AE is expected to have a significant impact on biomedical research. Specifically, areas such as chemical engineering and materials sciences, bioengineering and drug discovery, and molecular systems engineering, are propelling a dynamic pipeline of technologies and solutions of interest for the healthcare sector [ 6 , 7 , 8 ].

The promise of success for these systems, however, is in the context of increasing optimism about AI. As an expanding landscape of autonomous labs is being negotiated between scientists, industry, policymakers, and society, there is much to consider regarding the social and political dimensions of these technologies. I question how the examination of AE can shed light on a new wave of transformation in the global biomedical knowledge networks, and in which ways scientists, technology developers, science policymakers, and clinicians from emerging economies can overcome challenges to explore opportunities created by AE, and participate in global knowledge networks in this area.

I am not aware of a study addressing implications of AE systems in biomedical research and health innovation with a specific focus on emerging economies. In recent decades, R&D activities in China and India, for example, have produced impact in the global configuration of biomedical knowledge infrastructures, becoming key players in the biotechnology industry, life sciences and biomedicine [ 9 , 10 ].

By examining the increasing relevance of AE systems in contemporary R&D activities, this Debate article aims to explore the advancement of artificial intelligence in biomedical research and health innovation, highlighting its implications, challenges and opportunities for stakeholders in emerging economies. I reflect on the place occupied by emerging economies in the “AI in health” global innovation landscape, and what should be overcome to enable stakeholders to navigate the opportunities of AE in the current decade.

This Debate article is structured as it follows. Section 1 “Reconfigurations of biomedical knowledge infrastructures” briefly provides context to emerging economies as potential players in R&D in biomedical research and health innovation. Section 2 “Artificial intelligence and autonomous experimentation systems” discuss the emergence of this very recent field, highlighting its importance to scientific discovery of new chemicals and materials with clinical and therapeutical relevance. Section 3 “Autonomous experimentation in biomedical research and development” brings practical applications of AE in R&D activity, highlighting its relevance in Nanomedicine, AI-assisted drug discovery and precision oncology. Section 4 “Autonomous experimentation in emerging economies” explore challenges and opportunities for stakeholders from emerging economies to join AE efforts, to prepare institutions and society to benefit from AI in health-related innovation and research domains. Finally, “Conclusions” claims the increasing relevance of emerging economies in AE due to its growing capabilities in the area. Additionally, improving cultural and geographical representativeness of AE contributes to foster the diffusion and acceptance of AI in health-related R&D worldwide.

Reconfigurations of biomedical knowledge infrastructures

For decades, computation, AI, machine learning (ML) tools and other digital technologies have contributed to a technical, epistemic, and geographic shift of biomedical knowledge infrastructures internationally. This cultural and historical process has been examined by humanities and social sciences scholars dedicated to the study of the transformations in science, technology and innovation (ST&I) in society [ 11 ].

From the 20th century’s post-war period, ST&I policies have increasingly fostered the development of scientific and technological capabilities of the biotechnology and healthcare sector [ 12 ]. Originally centred in the United States and Europe, the global infrastructures of knowledge and policies to advance biomedical research expanded significantly towards regions in southeast Asia in the 1990s and in the edge of 2000s [ 13 ]. In that period, the accelerated growth of a biotechnology industry was responsible for decentralizing R&D investments worldwide, promoting local knowledge-based competences in emerging economies. This geographical and technological shift transformed biomedical research and health innovation activities into a convergent field interfacing multiple possibilities in biological, scientific, engineering, and quantitative approaches [ 14 ].

From 2000s, the growth of computational digital platforms in scientific research promoted a new wave of technical changes in biotechnology theories and tools. New discoveries in biological engineering, genomics, and bionanotechnology emerged. Countries such as China, South Korea, Singapore, India became players in those areas, with unprecedented expansion in investment in basic research by state-funded S&T policies and corporate R&D instruments [ 15 , 16 ]. These countries navigated the 2000s as critical players in R&D applied to develop biotechnology-related sectors, biopharmaceutical manufacturing, and precision medicine [ 17 , 18 ].

However, since the mid-2010s, R&D practices in biomedical research have undergone a further technical, scientific, and political shift. The rapid advancement of computing, big data analytics and AI impacted many areas such as bioengineering, systems and synthetic biology, quantitative biology, and digital health. The STEM fields (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) have led this emerging data-driven/quantitative biomedical research. This “dislocation” of converging research capabilities, technologies, and policies can be framed as a global process with multiple local manifestations [ 19 ]. Biomedical research and health innovation were marked by a shift from experimentation-intensive R&D mainly focused on small improvements and exhaustive adaptation of biotechnologies, to AI-driven resilient experiment systems of scientific discovery and hypothesis testing supported by robust human-computer collaborations, moving rapidly towards the automation of laboratory tasks [ 20 ].

But despite global, capabilities to develop those complex AI-driven experimentation systems are still centralized in few locations around the world. Scholars have updated this debate claiming that specific innovations could only emerge in certain environments. Analysts concerned with this topic keep emphasizing the role of location-specific factors in R&D internationalization in high-tech fields, and the implications to multinational enterprises in sectors as such healthcare, biotechnology, information technology and others [ 21 ].

The advancement of AI into scientific laboratories is opening new possibilities for biomedical knowledge. New AI tools have implications not only in how expert knowledge is produced, tested and validated, but also in how problems and hypothesis are designed in health innovation such as bioengineered devices, synthetic nanoparticle research, responsive biosystems, cancer vaccines, and molecular diagnostics of diseases [ 22 , 23 ]. In the Sciences, research has shifted to multidisciplinary teams collaborating in a hybrid (physical-digital) manner, with scientists, engineers, computers and automated lab facilities collaborating to address research problems in ways that would have been impossible to conceive just a few years ago [ 24 ].

Artificial intelligence and autonomous experimentation systems

Beyond automating laboratory tasks, AI tools have furthered the development of systems capable of running experiments and, in some cases, research hypotheses autonomously. We have increasing examples of successful projects in which researchers prototype and improve systems to automatize scientific work, as so-called “robot scientists” [ 25 , 26 , 27 ], “self-driving labs” [ 28 ], “chemputation” systems [ 29 ], “materials acceleration platforms” [ 30 ], etc. This collection of emerging technologies is referred to as “autonomous experimentation systems” [ 31 ].

AE systems has gained attention from scientists and technology developers, as a tool that “combine robotics for automated experiments and data collection, with artificial intelligence systems that use these data to recommend follow-up experiments” [ 32 ]. Its growth corresponds with rapid progress in algorithm efficiency, with AE enabling “the extensive computation exploration of chemical space to design new materials” [ 28 ]. AE engines presently signal key trends in bioengineering and biomedical research, materials science, and clinical innovation, with scientists from these fields creating intelligent systems to improve the Design-Build-Test-Learn cycle [ 7 ]. This “loop” is a critical principle in the engineering of artificial molecular machines, life-like biochemical components, and self-assembled responsive nanomaterials which are in high demand from the chemical, energy, and biopharmaceutical industries [ 6 ].

At present, systems capable of autonomously generating new research hypotheses and chemical combinations are in early stages. References to AE in scientific publications are increasing substantially, with the number of articles between 2018 and 2022 multiplying more than seventeen times for “Chemical Sciences”, four times for “Engineering”, and two times for “Information and Computing Sciences” and “Artificial Intelligence” (see Fig. 1 ).

Yearly publications on autonomous experimentation (selected Research Categories), 2014–2022

Artificial intelligence in biomedical research and development

Since the creation of the DENDRAL Project, a computer program developed in 1965 by Stanford University scientists to identify chemical compounds, researchers have persevered in the search to automatize chemical experiments using AI [ 33 ]. Over the course of decades, the integration of ML, lab automation, and robotics has positioned new data-intensive platforms as fundamental sources of knowledge for facilitating the discovery of novel compounds and materials of biomedical and therapeutic interest. As mature outcomes of this technological development, AE systems such as self-driving labs (SDLs) and materials acceleration platforms (MAPs) can screen thousands of combinations using minimal amounts of starting reagents, enabling the identification of stable compounds with high precision. This has led to increased productivity and efficiency for biomedical exploration of new chemicals and nanomaterials systems, allowing scientists to consider a wider range of solutions to challenging biological problems in a shorter time, impacting the areas of drug discovery acceleration, new materials discovery, and nanomedicine.

According to a word cloud generator powered by AI (RocketSource Innovation Labs), using data from 83 abstracts associated with “Biomedical and Clinical Sciences” (2014-September 2023; see Fig. 2 ), AE clinical applications are mainly related to terms such as “nanoparticles” AND “research”, “materials” AND “development”, “drug” AND “discovery”, “delivery” AND “systems”, and “cancer” AND “detection”. Terms in the cloud indicate some key fields leading the themes related to biomedical research, and the uses of AE in areas as nanomedicine, AI-driven drug discovery, and precision oncology. This three represent relevant research domains in which AE systems have impacted knowledge discovery and technology development of interest to healthcare sector according to the literature. As mentioned above, INS018_55 is an example of area in which the three domains have converged over the last century, i.e., applications of AI in the discovery of nanomaterials of clinical interest and therapeutic function (nanomedicine), AI-assisted drug discovery systems and tools, and generative AI to accelerate discovery of treatments and products in cancer research.”.

Key words cloud associated to abstracts of publications ( n = 83) on autonomous experimentation applications in clinical innovation (“Biomedical and Clinical Sciences”), 2014–2023

Nanomedicine

The complex nature of nanomedicines is a perpetual challenge to its clinical success. AE has recently produced results with fundamental implications for nanomedicine, employing AI to design nanoparticles with specific properties, optimize drug delivery systems, and predict toxicity, significantly reducing the need for the trial-and-error approach. Automation makes possible the rapid synthesis and characterization of nanomaterials, accelerating the development of novel drug carriers, imaging agents, and therapeutics.

SDLs and MAPs have greatly expedited the discovery and optimization of nanoscale materials for medical use. These platforms employ high-throughput screening techniques and advanced data analytics to assess the properties and performance of thousands of materials simultaneously. As Anselmo and Mitragrotri [ 34 ] show, great progress has been made in nanoparticle research over the past five years. The integration of AE in laboratories has accelerated clinical trials of nanocarriers and compounds of therapeutic interest, thanks to innovative approaches for autonomous generation of products [ 35 ].

As a result, the development of personalized nanomedicine has become increasingly feasible, offering potential to improve treatment outcomes and reduce side effects. Systems such as the NanoMAP have been proposed to overcome known bioengineering challenges, such as syntheses stabilization and replicability of experiments at nanoscale [ 36 ].

AE has recently moved to the forefront of the nanomedicine revolution, allowing researchers to design, synthesize, and test nanomaterials with unprecedented speed and precision. These trends hold great promise for more effective and personalized medical treatments, ultimately benefiting patients and advancing clinical innovation.

Artificial intelligence-assisted drug discovery

The use of AI in drug discovery has enabled the exploration of vast chemical space, leading to the discovery of novel drug candidates, some of which have already entered clinical trials. The ability to identify promising compounds more efficiently is a game changer for the pharmaceutical industry.

A recent piece in Vox titled “AI-generated drugs will be available sooner than you think” highlighted the availability of many language models applying AI in medicine, and the role of AE in improving the efficiency of R&D, in terms of timelines, costs, and success rates. The author remembers that until the late 2000s, the typical drug discovery process took 12 years, with more than 90% of substances failing in clinical trials [ 37 ]. In recent years, AE has harnessed the power of AI and automation to streamline drug discovery processes, significantly reducing time and costs while improving efficiency and accuracy, helping innovators to overcome the so-called ‘Valley of Death’ across preclinical and clinical innovation [ 38 ].

A prominent trend in SDLs is the integration of AI-driven robotics and high-throughput screening techniques. By automating tedious and repetitive tasks, AE researchers can focus on more creative and strategic aspects of drug discovery. MAPs, on the other hand, have gained traction in the development of novel drug delivery systems and biomaterials [ 39 ].

These platforms have taken drug discovery to a new level, in which techniques can precisely target diseased tissues, release drugs at optimized rates, and minimize side effects, improving patient outcomes. Collaborations between pharmaceutical companies, AI startups, and academic institutions have become increasingly common [ 40 ]. As a result, the barriers to entry for smaller companies and research groups have lowered, enabling more widespread adoption of these transformative technologies, with implications for areas such as precision oncology.

Precision oncology

Recent years have seen remarkable advancements of AI in drug delivery systems discovery for cancer detection and therapeutics, and improving existing systems. The combination of AE systems with robust AI tools is revolutionizing the way researchers approach cancer treatment, offering unprecedented precision, accuracy, and specificity [ 41 ].

As AE researchers increasingly adopt AI algorithms to automate drug synthesis and screening, these AI-driven systems can rapidly analyze vast datasets, and design customized drug delivery materials tailored to individual patient profiles. This level of personalization holds immense promise for cancer treatment, with highly targeted therapies that minimize side effects increasingly attainable.

Recent trends in biomedical engineering devices and technologies illustrate the level of technical convergence of contemporary biotechnology research. For example, the use of microfluidics and engineered microphysiological systems (lab-on-a-chip or tissue/organ chips) to predict drug response, and serve as an animal substitute in pre-clinical trials, is growing [ 42 ]. These platforms enable precise manipulation of tiny volumes of fluids, making it possible to create and test novel drug delivery systems quickly and efficiently. Those devices mimic the complex biological microenvironments found within tumors, facilitating more realistic in vitro testing of new chemicals and responsive bio nanomaterials, accelerating the discovery of innovative drug delivery systems to navigate the challenges of cancer’s heterogeneous nature.

Due to the large number of biochemical reactions that they enable, AE systems are useful for efficiently screening and optimizing materials for qualities like biocompatibility, drug release kinetics, and targeting specificity, expediting the translation of promising drug delivery systems and reducing the time and cost of bringing new therapies to market [ 43 ].

Finally, 3D printing is gaining traction in nanoengineered cancer disease models [ 44 ], enabling highly customizable drug delivery vehicles at the nanoscale (by so-called ‘nanocarriers’). AE can design nanoparticles, liposomes, and other carriers with precise control over their size, shape, and surface properties. Such precision is essential for enhancing drug delivery to cancer cells while minimizing harm to healthy tissues [ 45 ].

AE underscores the importance of nanoscale materials in the development of next-generation cancer therapies. A combination of precision oncology tools such as AI-driven labs, microfluidics, 3D printing, and nanocarrier engineering are converging to create a powerful synergy to accelerate drug discovery for cancer treatment. As AE and precision oncology continue to advance, the outlook for cancer patients should become increasingly hopeful, with potential for more targeted and less invasive treatments.

Autonomous experimentation in emerging economies

The examples above demand robust investment in science and technology, to thrive as platforms of biomedical knowledge production and true clinical impact. In this section, I describe what I see as challenges and opportunities for stakeholders from emerging economies to join these efforts, to prepare institutions and society to benefit from AE in biomedical research and health innovation.

Despite the predicted global impact, AE R&D has historically been concentrated in entrepreneurship in North America and Europe. Projects have been conducted by groups of scientists in developed countries with consolidated science and technology policies and mature national systems of innovation. Figure 3 (supported by data extracted from Dimensions.ai) [ 46 ] demonstrates the rapidly growing number of annual publications from the United States, Canada, and Germany. Researchers in China and India have improved their presence in the field significantly, reinforcing the need to examine AE trends beyond North America and Europe.

Yearly publications on autonomous experimentation systems, selected countries, 2014–2022

Below I select six challenges faced by stakeholders from emerging economies seeking to enter the field of AE.

Persistent issues in education for science and technology

Performance in AE research is closely linked to a country’s ability to cultivate a national workforce with strong qualifications in the STEM fields. It has implications in how competitive R&D centers are in attracting individuals with exceptional backgrounds in mathematics, programming, and the natural sciences, including professionals from abroad [ 47 ]. STEM education is fundamental for training scientists in automation, digitalization, and automatization of biomedical research.

Emerging economies face unique and persistent challenges in Science education, which might lead the research in those countries into a prolonged gap in AE expert knowledge. According to the New York Academy of Sciences’ 2015 report “The Global STEM paradox”, 90% of skilled workers from Caribbean countries leave home to pursue opportunities overseas. Likewise, the World Bank shows that “African countries lose 20,000 skilled professionals to the developed world each year and, as of 2011, one in every nine Africans with a graduate degree lives outside the continent.” [ 48 ]. This is not only an issue in places with low levels of economic activity and growth. Even large markets as Brazil struggle as a relevant economy with persistently poor levels of STEM education [ 49 ].

However, from the 1990s, we can see a clear trend of emerging economies who have succeeded at fostering STEM fields as a driver of a qualified workforce – being top-ranked in STEM education even when compared with high-income societies. According to the Center of Excellence in Education (CEE) Index of Excellence in STEM Education, China has led the rankings for the last 30 years, with Russia ranked in second place. Students in Taiwan are positioned in fourth place, followed by Singapore, South Korea, Vietnam, Romania, Hong Kong, and Iran [ 50 ].

While it is not possible to trace a linear relationship between STEM education and AE initiatives, the index provides some indication of which countries are most likely to advance AI for scientific research enhancement and clinical applications. It can thus inform institutional preparedness and policymaking, towards future AE-assisted innovations in the biomedical sector.

Non-resilient science and technology policies

Governments worldwide experience fiscal problems, political tensions, crises, and other inevitable shocks in governance of national policies. These realities affect the resilience of S&T policies, with financial impacts, among others. Extensively studied, resilience is a critical aspect of a well-successful system of S&T policies and initiatives, and is associated with progress and breakthroughs in basic research, innovation and catching-up of knowledge-intensive sectors as the biotechnology and biopharmaceutical industries [ 51 , 52 , 53 , 54 ]. For example, in comparing S&T policy between the United States and China, scholars note the value of resilience for US basic science research over the long term [ 55 , 56 ].

As Fig. 4 shows, between 2002 and 2020, investment in R&D as a percentage of GDP grew significantly in countries like China and Thailand, but stagnated in countries such as Russia, Brazil, Mexico, and South Africa; S&T innovation did not see substantial growth in these countries during this period (See Fig. 4 ).

R&D Expenditure (% of GDP), Selected countries and World, 2002–2020. Source: elaborated by the author with data from World Bank, OECD, Statista and National Governments

In some emerging economies, despite political and economic crises, S&T policies have resulted in curious paradoxes. For example, the fact that Brazil and India have increased STEM graduates from 4 million to 5 million annually in the second half of the 2000s, while countries such as the United States, United Kingdom, and Japan continued to produce 1 million graduates each year [ 48 ].

Considerable effort has been devoted to analyzing investment in applied research and technology transfer within emerging economies [ 57 ]. Table 1 illustrates the increasing significance and involvement of funders from China and South Korea, identified as key emerging contributors to the resources allocated for AE R&D, as mentioned by scientists in indexed publications (mainly the National Natural Science Foundation of China and the Ministry of Science and Technology of the People’s Republic of China). However, scientific publications in AE systems are still concentated and focused on its growth in United States and European countries. Agencies of the National Science Foundation and National Institutes of Health in the United States, European Commission (EC), European Research Council (ERC) and the German Research Foundation are also frequently associated with AE publications (Table 1 ).

As discussed by many scholars, STEM capabilities play a critical role in emerging areas of the so-called “Convergence Sciences” as one could list computer-aided drug design systems [ 58 ], computational chemistry [ 59 ], AI-informed computational biophysics [ 60 ], and others.

This might be an straightforward claim in global technology hubs in the north, with much investment coming from both committed governments and/or private stakeholders [ 61 ]. The resilience of S&T policies in high-income countries may be partly attributed to complementary R&D expenditure between the public and private sectors, which supports innovation when economies and governments face crises [ 62 ]. However, and as we all know, this is not the reality in the Global South societies. Due to impeditive costs, high failure rates, and resistance to disruptive technologies, AI-enhanced initiatives can require sustained government investment until risks are sufficiently reduced to elicit private sector collaboration and investment.

In fact, investors are now more eager and willing to invest in AI related technologies in emerging economies [ 63 ] but much research is needed to know in what sense those investments are building permanent research infrastructures adequate to future integration of stakeholders from emerging economies in the global knowledge and technology networks in AE. Stakeholders from emerging countries should rethink the role of public and private investment in research and how they are actually leading AI initiatives to produce new science and technologies [ 64 ]. In addition, universities and research institutes can play a fundamental role in coordinating initiatives and promoting AE institutional preparedness and programs.

Competitiveness in attracting global talents

Improving the competitiveness of institutions for attracting international talents is crucial for basic research and technological innovation. In more than a decade studying how scientists conduct their work in public and private laboratories in biochemistry, genomics, biopharmaceutical manufacturing and development, molecular systems engineering, and bionanomaterials discovery, it is easy to recognize the value of internationalization and cultural diversity for science. Successful graduate programs and steady flows of talented and hard-working immigrants are fundamental to support the work of professors and senior scientists, and build research programs, where immigrants regularly become indispensable leaders [ 65 ].

Robust internationalization initiatives for graduate programs are one means to better position emerging economies institutions to access global STEM expertise and to be part of AE knowledge and innovation networks. However, internationalization is also dependent on investments done in Education for science and technology. Overcoming persistent issues about educational gaps and brain drain are still relevant, and some emerging countries do it better than others.

While language barriers and lack of resources are regularly used to explain the inability of scientists from emerging economies to access critical STEM research capabilities [ 66 ], countries such as South Korea, India, and Singapore have demonstrated that these factors offer only a partial explanation. Institutions from these countries have effectively integrated themselves into global academic networks partially through successful policies for internationalization of graduate and research programs, well-funded by universities, governments and companies [ 67 ]. For example, Nanyang Technical University, the Chinese University of Hong Kong, and the Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST) in Seoul are cases of institutions who have overcome the one-way road of talent departure [ 68 ]. This can be viewed as a significant outcome of past investments in R&D capabilities within some emerging economies. Scholars dedicated to the examination of R&D dynamics in late industrialized economies show that, especially for the cases of China and South Korea, investments have led to more productive systems for fostering university-industry links, particularly as their funding mechanisms become more diversified, formalized and stable over time [ 69 ].

Quality of collaborations in clinical studies

International collaboration in biomedical research is fraught with challenges for emerging economies, often characterized by delayed collaboration in clinical trials. A seemingly simple question has the potential to shed light on the role of global south in large scientific and technological partnerships. This question pertains to areas in which scientists and stakeholders from the low and middle-income countries are specifically sought out for clinical trial collaboration, and why they considered critical to its success [ 70 ].

Studies have provided a critique of the nature of clinical trial collaboration between stakeholders from high-income countries and collaborators in emerging economies. Countries like India, Brazil, and some Central American nations have become hubs for clinical trials sponsored by multi-national pharmaceutical companies, who hold exclusive rights to new technologies [ 71 , 72 ]. If emerging economies serve as crucial testing grounds, contributing considerably to advancing health technologies, questions of fair distribution of benefits arise. For example, to what extent do these collaborations strengthen local scientific expertise? Will global south scientists take an active role in shaping the early stages of technology design of AE systems to enhance knowledge infrastructures in R&D and clinical studies capabilities? These are significant questions for contemporary biotechnology research. In addition, in limited resource settings, the question of whether clinical trial collaborations should be given priority (allocation of funding, human resources) over basic research is an important one to consider.

These questions relate to emerging economies’ “technology sovereignty”. Here I adopt the notion of “technology sovereignty” from the recent work of Jakob Edler and colleagues (2020; 2023), who define it as “the ability of a state or a federation of states to provide the technologies it deems critical for its welfare, competitiveness, and ability to act, and to be able to develop these or source them from other economic areas without one-sided structural dependency.” [ 73 , 74 ]. Technology sovereignty is critical in AE co-development, to ensure that clinical innovation accelerates while national knowledge capabilities are preserved. Since the Covid-19 crisis, states have been under pressure to develop more resilient and sustainable national infrastructures for health technology development [ 75 , 76 ].

The integration of AE into health innovation is expected to exert significant pressure on both researchers and industry players. Authorities in emerging economies must proactively build scientific and technological capacities within local universities and healthcare systems to address the growing number of drug candidates generated with assistance of AI entering the market. This preparation will inherently require more rapid and extensive clinical trials and participant recruitment [ 77 ], while maintaining high standards of accuracy and compliance with protocols and regulations of pharmaceutical agencies [ 78 , 79 ].

The great challenge for stakeholders in emerging economies is in leveraging local biomedical infrastructures to capitalize on this emerging trend, overcoming their historic role as knowledge dependent-systems and clinical trial hubs. This shift has potential to propel national innovation systems to transcend the traditional North-South divide in biomedical research.

Health systems’ disconnection from R&D activities

Health systems in emerging economies regularly face significant fiscal and political constraints, and many have experienced defunding over the past two decades [ 80 , 81 ]. This is a challenge not exclusive to global south societes [ 82 ]. However, and beyond its institutional mission of offering qualified healthcare services, health systems are important assets for R&D activity and health innovation [ 83 ], as well as critical to assist decision-making on relevant national health policies and health technology initiatives and programs [ 84 , 85 ].

Reliable health systems are key to supporting clinical innovation and access to health technologies. During the Covid-19 pandemic, for example, in countries like China, Brazil, and India, collaborations between scientists, technology developers, and public health systems facilitated development and distribution of locally produced Covid-19 test kits, thanks to ad-hoc coordination between universities, regional science policy instruments, state laboratories, regulators, and health systems [ 86 , 87 , 88 ]. Thus, health systems could play a critical role in collecting patient data to support research, and in creating new platforms in the early stages of AE development [ 89 ].

When incorporated effectively, health policies can inform national strategies of technology development, and serve as catalysts of sectoral S&T collaboration. Case studies from emerging economies offer valuable insights into the role of healthcare systems, including examples such as:

Dialogue between health systems and experts that led national authorities to invest in R&D for dengue technologies in the Philippines [ 90 ];

Forging of connections between medical authorities and regional scientific resources to propel a molecular biology-driven cancer research agenda in Brazil, establishing its technical and political feasibility through claims of scientific impact allied with its public health relevance [ 91 ];

Management of knowledge about Ebola through local medical and scientific collaborations in Guinea, Mali, Ghana, and Kenya [ 92 ];

Negotiations within an international consortium of experts on responsible innovation for Zika Virus [ 93 ].

Collaboration between health systems and scientists in China and Brazil to establish platforms for genomic data for use in precision medicine [ 94 ].

The essential role of health systems in technology exchange to nationalize Covid-19 vaccines in the Global South [ 95 ].

Co-production of knowledge by public health agents, experts, and US and Brazilian patients, on the topic of Long Covid [ 96 ].

These case studies illustrate diverse contributions of emerging economy health systems to the advancement of biomedical research and health technologies. At the same time they demonstrate the reactive nature of health systems, which tend to respond to local health issues and crises, rather than proactively developing long-term efforts to align institutional readiness with the evolving R&D landscape to address health challenges [ 97 ].

Ethics, transparency and democratic values

Effective democratic policies for funding R&D activity are critical in advancing emerging technologies. Confidence in ethics committees, pharmaceutical agencies, and regulatory bodies is essential. Scholars have noted that the absence of well-defined regulations and democratic institutions capable of addressing issues in technology development, animal experimentation, and clinical trials is a primary challenge faced by scientists and developers seeking to collaborate with emerging economies [ 98 ].

Respect for regulations has historically been institutionalized as part of the routine of knowledge production in biomedical domains, a concern for researchers from the early stages of technology development. In nascent fields such as molecular systems engineering, regulatory limitations are even capable of redirecting research agendas. In Europe and the United States, clear-cut guidelines and regulatory bodies composed of science and bioethics experts are understood as essential to impartial examination of ethical concerns [ 99 ].

AE in clinical innovation introduces a new level of complexity, as knowledge on engineering, computing and mathematics operate in different regimes of norms and regulations, with a traditional distancing from animal subjects, or biological or living things. Additionally, ethical and regulatory considerations of STEM research differ substantially from biomedical research and clinical interventions. For example, how will scientists conducting AI-assisted nanomaterials discovery assure ethics committees composed of health professionals that the potential risks of autonomously-synthetized chemicals have been anticipated and accounted for? This is also a concern in well-established health research organizations.

If ethics and transparency are critical, this debate must advance to the level of public exchange. Lack of transparency in reforming institutions for AI and other digital transformations in health-related research can have unintended results, in some cases damaging societal sympathy towards new technologies. Are democratic regimes in emerging economies prepared to provide an arena for discussion of this technological transition marked by intense convergence of STEM knowledge into healthcare [ 100 , 101 ]?.

Cases from India [ 102 ], China [ 103 ], the Philippines [ 104 ], and Iran [ 105 ] demonstrate how a lack of democratic policies can restrict meaningful research collaboration at critical stages, due to high levels of uncertainty or imprecisely defined tech regulation. Integration of AI into the healthcare sector presents a challenge for both developed and emerging economies, as both regulatory and scientific communities are still establishing consensus and rules in this field. Reform in legal frameworks will be critical for coordination between AE developers and emerging economy stakeholders.

Opportunities

AI present stakeholders in emerging economies with a range of new opportunities [ 106 ]. In this section I highlight six of these areas.

Local expertise in digital health technologies

The AE community may lack awareness of experts in emerging economies, and their potential as collaborators. For decades, engineer scientists from emerging economies have developed tools and technologies in the fields of bioinformatics, computation, and automation with high levels of success [ 107 , 108 ].

I would like to highlight two examples from India and Brazil, regarding laboratory autonomation and AI-assisted systems in healthcare. In India, the 2017 launch of Aptio Automation, the first fully automated track lab, brought automation lab innovation in the country to a new level. This initiative involved years of multidisciplinary research and robust investments from local companies and industry leaders [ 109 ], fostering a partnership between science, manufacturing, hardware and software experts [ 110 ]. Capabilities held in those projects work as a set of fundamental knowledge which could allow stakeholders to develop AE systems locally [ 111 ].

In recent years emerging economy researchers have opened avenues for collaboration, merging competencies towards constructive interface between healthcare and AI-driven knowledge platforms. For example, new capabilities developed in Latin America are fundamental to improving data robustness and to feed generative-AI integration into healthcare innovations. A recent project in Brazil well-successfully interfaced technical skills between automation systems for a mega volume reference clinical laboratory, creating an interconnected system capable of linking nearly one hundred different analyzers and seven clinical specialties [ 112 ].

Integration among scientific, engineering, and health research competencies are needed to propel AE towards clinical application. But this translational work should not be taken for granted. In AE’s current stage, developers are actively designing and prototyping efficient, precise, and reproducible systems, while partners from the healthcare sector serve as co-developers [ 113 ]. International collaborations producing large amount of clinical data serve as robust input to AE R&D hubs, and they might benefit from exchange with innovators from emerging economies.

Reducing disadvantages through digital collaboration

S&T policies and research institutions from emerging economies face disadvantages compared with high-income countries [ 114 ]. To foster AE globally, decentralized digital platforms based in robust human-computer collaborations can serve as strategic infrastructure to support health innovation.

Initiatives abound in southeast Asia, with meaningful knowledge collaborations happening in basic research in areas such as chemistry, biophysics, computation, and materials sciences [ 115 ]. The Asian Consortium of Computational Materials Sciences (ACCMS), as an example, engages researchers from Japan, India, China, Taiwan, Malaysia and other nations. Stakeholders from Singapore, a high-income country which plays a key role in fostering qualified regional knowledge networks in health technologies in eastern Asia, lead the joint labs of the Advanced Remanufacturing and Technology Centre (ARTC), launched by the Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR) in partnership with Nanyang Technological University of Singapore [ 116 , 117 ]. This lab is noteworthy for its success in gathering private sector stakeholders from digital health, data-intensive biotechnology research, and AI-assisted materials and drug discovery [ 118 ].

As examples of North–South collaboration, the Vector Institute of Artificial Intelligence in Toronto, Canada promotes the international exchange of scholars, students and private sector professionals with countries like Mexico, India and South Africa [ 119 ]. Tecnologias de la Informacion y Comunicacion of the Programa Iberoamericano de Ciencia y Tecnología para el Desarollo, between Spain and partners in Latin America, executes strategic projects on automation [ 120 ]. Finally, the SDL tool Polybot is a bio-inspired microelectronic tool that combines AI and robotics to speed discovery of wearable biomedical devices. Polybot is housed in the Argonne National Laboratory in Lemont, Illinois, and will be soon open to international scholars [ 121 ]. Such partnerships between regions could support foreign stakeholders in overcoming barriers to scientific progress.

Artificial intelligence to address global health issues

The way drug discovery systems are organized and funded has so far proven incapable of solving many persistent health issues worldwide. Present systems of science and technology provide few models to challenge the status quo or privilege knowledge generated outside the Global North [ 122 , 123 ]. Accelerating AE for clinical innovation is of great interest for public health in emerging economies, where stakeholders can utilize AE systems to address global health issues relevant to their own context.

Health emergencies require comprehensive societal coordination in any setting. The Covid-19 pandemic, as an example, proved to be an even greater challenge in global south [ 124 , 125 ], further evidence of the opportunity presented by decentralized AE collaborations for global health challenges.

AE can have important impacts in emerging economies in areas like vaccine development for neglected diseases and re-emergent epidemics [ 126 ], and molecular diagnostics and precision oncology tools for cancer patients. But how? Emerging economies are centers of neglected and tropical disease knowledge due to the social and political relevance of these conditions. Countries like India, Brazil, Taiwan, South Korea and Indonesia are potential strategic partners for international AE consortia in these areas, due to their capacity in vaccine R&D, public health policy, systems, and planning. The healthcare innovation sector in these nations can contribute to addressing challenging tropical diseases, epidemics, and their social impacts in local communities.

Setting a science and innovation diplomacy agenda

The relatively recent movement of science and innovation diplomacy (S&ID) aims at fostering exchange of technical and political capabilities among individuals governing science, technology, and innovation systems and foreign policy. It has proven a useful tool for emerging economies to take part in international networks of scientific collaboration [ 127 ]. S&ID has evolved rapidly in emerging economies, resulting in knowledge production, local and international initiatives, and implementation of multilateral forums (with several currently under institutionalization) to approximate science and innovation competencies from foreign policy bureaucrats [ 128 , 129 ].

S&ID employs existing expertise and established foreign policy knowledge infrastructure to promote scientific and technological collaboration, presenting an opportunity for emerging economies. A diplomatic approach can mitigate differences between disciplines and expertise in favor of common interests, helping direct political attention to the value of AE for health discovery and innovation.

S&ID has been utilized by international organizations to promote equitable health innovation agendas in emerging economies. Working groups at the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO), the Global Alliance for Vaccine and Immunization (GAVI), and the Organization of American States’s Inter-American Committee on Science and Technology (COMCyT) have been integral to supporting scientific and technological collaborations aligned with the priorities of individual national healthcare systems.

As bureaucrats tend to demand quick responses to short-term tasks, diplomats and politicians may not be fully prepared to respond to scientists’ priorities and relentless dedication to advancing the frontiers of their field with colleagues and peers [ 130 ]. Similarly, scientists may not be concerned with the political dividends of their collaborations [ 131 ]. To be effective, S&ID initiatives addressing AE must find ways to attract the participation of scientists, and provide adequate training to policy experts on how to manage programs for innovation in health technology.

Co-producing the ethical and regulatory landscape

AE is still in its early years, with significant differences in ethical and regulatory landscapes between countries. Also, there are many institutional voids to address. While coordinating among scientists, governments, industry, clinicians, and regulators is not an easy exercise, emerging economies can seize this opportunity to co-produce useful ethical guidelines and regulations for AI in biomedical research and in the healthcare sector. In ensuring inclusion of emerging economies, we can establish frameworks for ethical guidelines, governance, and regulatory standards for responsible uses of AE that reflect a broader range of perspectives and priorities. As is the case for many early stage technologies, AE developments in health-related domains may create uncertainty among researchers and society regarding how beneficial AI interventions in biomedicine actually is, as AI-assisted drug discovery or nanomedicine for example. Partnerships among the community of AE scientists and developers can catalyze the co-production of a suitable ethical and regulatory landscape.

Scholars have advanced the debate on the ethical and regulatory aspects of AI and digital technologies in healthcare. Gwagwa and colleagues (2019) criticize AI as a panacea for mitigation of inequities in many African societies, noting that “both the benefits and risks of AI are readily apparent” [ 132 ]. Alami et al. (2020) explore how to make AI in healthcare more responsible, sustainable, and inclusive in emerging economies [ 133 ]. Likewise, studies have illustrated the significant challenges faced by governments and healthcare systems in utilizing knowledge infrastructures to address public needs – underscoring the paradox between the level of sophistication of biotechnologies apparently available for all, and the lack of resources present in emerging economies to fully participate [ 134 ].

AE is unique in that it involves deeper philosophical and societal considerations about how science is defined, and how science and technology are produced [ 135 ]. AE opens possibilities for hypothesis generation and data-feasibility of projects, altering the traditional inductive nature of scientific research - in which a problem is followed by a literature review to formulate a question, which then guides the construction of a method, and finally testing to achieve results. Since AE experts see this model as inefficient, building robust platforms capable of running experiments autonomously, and aiming to accelerate scientific discovery, requires broader public debate regarding its implications to society [ 136 ].

Until the present, AE development has adhered to existing research ethics guidelines and regulations. As societal awareness of AE grows, novel ethical questions and regulatory considerations can be expected. More empirical research is needed to support the creation of effective ethical guidelines and policy recommendations for AE innovation. Due to the novelty of AE in science and medicine, it can benefit from international collaboration concerning ethical aspects and societal impacts.

Diversity, equity, inclusion, and trustworthiness (DEIT)

It is imperative that stakeholders promote diversity, equity, inclusion, and trustworthiness (DEIT) in the field of AE. Active involvement of emerging economies in development and implementation is key to wider dissemination of this technology. An inclusive approach, as applied in other STEM research fields, supports equitable technological advancement [ 137 ].

Diversity refers to a range of geographic, cultural, and socioeconomic features. AE benefits from the experiences and expertise of emerging economy researchers who might be off the radar of leading institution researchers. Their inclusion leads to more comprehensive research outcomes, as different regions face unique circumstances that can inform the development of AE.

The values of equity and inclusion reinforce the importance of equal opportunity for all stakeholders in the SDLs initiative. Global research efforts should prioritize partnerships that offer capacity building, technology transfer, and financial support, to promote active participation and meaningful contribution by lower-income regions. Democratizing access to SDLs and MAPs, and sharing knowledge, can empower local entrepreneurs to develop solutions for their specific context [ 138 ]. AE will generate higher levels of creativity with an inclusive approach, as other science and innovation fields have found in recent years [ 139 ].

Trust in emerging science and technology is understood to be critical for healthcare innovation. In its absence, the effects on technology can be profound, as we have seen in cases of unproven biotechnologies, such as stem cell research in China and Japan [ 140 , 141 ]. Ethical and responsible use of autonomous technologies is crucial for cultivating trust in society and among all stakeholders.

To facilitate a DEIT approach in the area of AE, international organizations, governments, and private sector stakeholders must act together. Promoting DEIT in global AE research is an ethical imperative, but also a strategic advantage. Collaborative funding mechanisms, technology-sharing agreements, and knowledge exchange platforms can all pave the way for meaningful participation.

Conclusions

The potential of AI in biomedical research and health innovation are yet to be realized. As these technologies continue to advance, we can expect further breakthroughs in R&D and clinical innovation, ultimately leading to improved health outcomes.

AE presents an opportunity for stakeholders from emerging economies to co-produce the global landscape of AI in biomedical sciences and health innovation. However, an attentive sociological analysis should acknowledge asymmetries in R&D capabilities among countries, since emerging economies suffers from inadequacies and discontinuities in resources and funding. Early consideration about those issues by policymakers and investors can accelerate the design and implementation of policies and programs in emerging economies aiming to increase the presence of global south stakeholders in the emerging field of AE. It could shed light to new opportunities and agendas that emerging economies are well positioned to play, as AI applications to solve global health issues, AE to accelerate the biopharmaceutical development and solutions to high-prevalence diseases as cancer, AI to improve quality of collaborations in clinical studies, and so on.

By actively involving emerging economies in this transformative field, stakeholders involved with AI in the sciences produce a more equitable and robust science and technology landscape. The establishment of decentralized AE infrastructures and initiatives could overcome local restrictions, fostering ongoing capabilities in emerging economies, and open broader venues for a more culturally diverse innovation environment for the growth of the field. Additionally, promoting an equitable, inclusive and trustworthy development of AI in health-related research and innovation domains could facilitate the building of meaningful partnerships and engagement. By improving the geographical representativeness of AE, emerging economies contribute to facilitate the diffusion and acceptance of AI in health-related R&D internationally. Through collaboration and inclusivity, we come closer to realizing the potential of AE to solve global science and health challenges.

A social and political analysis of AI implications in health innovation, in general, and of AE interventions in biomedical research, specifically, could help strengthen AI to enhance biomedical knowledge infrastructures worldwide, led by values such as trustworthiness and equitable access to allow researchers to address health issues of global interest and public impact. Improving institutional preparedness in emerging countries is critical and could enable stakeholders to navigate opportunities of AI in biomedical research and health innovation in the coming years.

Data availability

Data used in this study can be accessed by demand through emailing the author.

Abbreviations

Agency for Science Technology and Research

Asian Consortium of Computational Materials Sciences

Autonomous experimentation systems

Artificial Intelligence

Acceleration Materials Platforms

Advanced Research Projects Agency for Health

Advanced Remanufacturing and Technology Centre

Center for Excellence in Education

Organization of American States’s Inter-American Committee of Science and Technology

Programa Iberoamericano de Ciencia y Tecnología para el Desarollo

Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency

DENDRAL Project

Department of Energy of the United States

Global Alliance on Vaccine and Immunization

Korean Advanced Institute of Science and Technology

Machine Learning

Pan-American Health Organization

Research and Development

Science and Innovation Diplomacy

Science and Technology

Self-driving Laboratories

Science Technology Engineering and Mathematics

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Acknowledgements

I thank the Principal Investigators Effy Vayena and Alessandro Blasimme (Leaders of the Health Ethics and Policy Lab at ETH Zurich, Switzerland), and the National Centre of Competence in Research Molecular Systems Engineering, NCCR-MSE (funded by the Swiss National Science Foundation) for the mentoring experience, access to institutional resources and the generous financial support granted for my role as postdoctoral researcher in that center. I also would like to thank my colleague Shannon Hubbs for the invaluable proofread and suggestions conferred to early versions of this work. Finally, this Debate article used data obtained on 23 September 2023 from Digital Science’s Dimensions platform, available at https://app.dimensions.ai [ 46 ].

Swiss National Science Foundation Grant n. 205608 (National Centre of Competence in Research Molecular Systems Engineering, NCCR-MSE).

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Renan GL da Silva is a postdoctoral researcher in the Health Ethics and Policy Lab at the Department of Health Sciences and Technology, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland. His research focuses on the social, ethical, and political issues related to the introduction of emerging technologies in biomedical research and innovation in multiple organizational settings. Recently, da Silva is dedicated to the empirical study of practices and interventions driving the expert knowledge production in Bioengineering-related domains (e.g., Molecular Systems Engineering), responsive bionanomaterials, self-driving labs and precision medicine.

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The Importance of Art Class

Janelle cox.

May 24, 2024

A student paints a picture in art class.

In today’s technology-driven classrooms , art remains an important component of student development. Despite often being the first to be cut from the curriculum in some schools, dismissed as a luxury, or merely a source of fridge-worthy projects, art education holds profound benefits.

From fostering cognitive abilities and emotional resilience to enhancing academic performance and learning lifelong skills, art class provides much more than just a creative outlet. Here, we’ll explore why art class is so essential and how to make it more accessible to all students.

Cognitive Skills

Art classes play a critical role in developing a student’s cognitive skills. They encourage creativity, allowing students to express themselves in a different way other than writing. This freedom promotes innovative thinking. It also helps to develop students’ critical thinking skills.

As students look at their work and that of their classmates, they learn to observe, analyze, and make judgments, which are all valuable skills students will use in all aspects of their lives. Art classes can also enhance students’ visual-spatial skills. When students are drawing, painting, or creating sculptures they need to understand space and perspective which are skills they need if they ever go into fields like architecture or engineering.

Social-Emotional Learning

Art class extends beyond a student’s cognitive development, it can also impact their social- emotional learning . Artistic activities can tap into students’ feelings so if they have a hard time vocalizing their feelings, they may be better able to express themselves through art.

This can feel therapeutic and help to build their self-confidence. It can also release any anxiety and stress they may be feeling. Art can also promote empathy. When students explore different art forms and learn different cultural and personal perspectives, they have a better understanding of other people’s experiences.

Academic Achievement

Various studies conducted over the years have shown a correlation between art education and academic achievement. Reports from organizations like the Arts Education Partnership and the National Endowment for the Arts in the United States suggest that the arts are linked to improved test scores, enhanced reading and language skills, and higher rates of going to and completing college. Additional findings show artistic activities enhance memory and attention to detail. Integrating art with other subjects, referred to now as STEAM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Arts, and Mathematics) can help make learning more relatable and deepen students’ understanding and retention.

Lifelong Skills

The skills learned in art class extend far beyond the classroom. In today’s job market creativity is valued. Employers are seeking individuals who are innovative, creative, and who think outside of the box. This need for creative thinking is ranked as a top skill for future professionals. Additionally, art class teaches risk-taking and resilience. By continually taking creative risks students are developing resilience which can help them with any challenges they may face in the future.

Cultural Awareness and Appreciation

When students are engaged with art forms from different cultures , they gain a deeper understanding of global cultures. They learn to respect and value different viewpoints and traditions. By creating and discussing art from various backgrounds, students dispel stereotypes and prejudices, promoting a society that is more inclusive and empathetic to others.

Making Art Class Accessible

Art classes are not always accessible to all students. This may be driven by socioeconomic status, school funding, or geographic location. Ensuring that every student has access to art education is crucial for a student’s well-rounded academic experience. Here are a few approaches to achieve this goal.

Invest in Art

One way to make art classes universally accessible is to invest in art programs. Allocate funds for basic supplies and materials that will inspire students to create as well as invest in professional development for teachers. Teachers who have a background in art education will help foster a greater appreciation for the arts among students.

Integrate Art

Art can be integrated into the core curriculum to ensure all students have access to art education. STEAM education combining art with other core curricula can become fundamental to every child’s educational experience.

Utilize Technology

Art education can be made more accessible through technology. Digital tools can bring art classes to children across the globe. Virtual classes mean students can learn, create, and share their work with anyone worldwide.

Form Partnerships within the Community

Partnerships with local art galleries and artists can provide schools with additional resources. These partnerships might involve professional artists working with students, or collaborations with local museums that offer field trips or workshops. Community involvement enhances the school’s art program and strengthens the community culture.

Art class is a vital part of a child’s educational experience. It nurtures cognitive, social, and emotional skills, boosts academic achievements, makes them more culturally aware, and prepares students with skills they will use throughout their lives. Making art education accessible for all students should be a priority for all leaders and administrators .

#ArtClass , #Classroom Management

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The evolutıon of dıgıtal leadershıp: content and sentıment analysıs of the New York Tımes coverage

Open access
Published: 27 May 2024

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Yavuz Selim Balcioğlu ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7138-2972 1 &
Melike Artar ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7714-748X 1

This research paper examines the evolution of digital leadership as portrayed in The New York Times articles from 2020 to 2022, addressing the growing complexities and strategic roles influenced by digital technologies. The study identifies critical issues in digital leadership, including ethical dilemmas, cybersecurity threats, and the digital divide, which pose significant challenges to effective digital governance and strategy implementation. The objectives of this research were to uncover and analyze the prevailing themes and sentiments associated with digital leadership using advanced Natural Language Processing (NLP) and Artificial Intelligence (AI) tools, specifically Nvivo and Monkeylearn. Our methodology involved a content and sentiment analysis of 318 articles, chosen from an initial pool of 387, resulting in a dataset of 2,428 content blocks. This analysis enabled the identification of major themes: Digital Transformation, Innovation, Remote Working, and Cybersecurity. The results indicate that ‘Digital Transformation’ and ‘Innovation’ were the most prominent themes, with significant discussions around ‘technology adoption’ and ‘AI’. The sentiment analysis quantitatively underscores the public discourse, revealing that 60% of the analyzed content carried a positive tone, reflecting an optimistic view towards digital advancements. Conversely, 29% expressed negative sentiments, emphasizing the urgent need to address associated risks. Significantly, the statistical evaluation of theme prevalence and sentiment ratios provides a nuanced understanding of the digital leadership landscape, suggesting a critical balance is necessary between leveraging opportunities and mitigating risks. These findings contribute to the theoretical and practical discussions on digital leadership by highlighting the importance of strategic adaptability and ethical considerations in shaping policies that are both inclusive and effective. In conclusion, this study offers a detailed, numerical insight into the complexities of digital leadership, providing valuable evidence for policymakers and business leaders aiming to navigate the challenges and opportunities presented by digitalization.

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Introduction

The concept of digital leadership has become critical to understanding the change of leadership in the digital age. Digital management refers to the practices, methods and tools that an organization employs to lead and organize its digital assets, strategies and operations. Digital leadership has evolved as a vital component of corporate success in the ever-changing digital landscape. Nieken ( 2023 ) define digital leadership as more than just understanding technology; it also entails creating a vision and driving a business through digital transformation. This viewpoint is shared by Quaquebeke and Gerpott ( 2023 ), who underline that strong digital leaders investigate how technology may benefit their firm and recognize the significance of cultivating a digital culture for success.

The importance of investigating digital leadership stems from the need to understand the capacities and competencies that allow a company to effectively adopt new technology. According to Pham and Vu ( 2022 ), IT and capabilitiedigital leaderships competencies play a crucial role in industrial digital transformation. This is critical as firms strive to adapt to a quickly changing digital landscape (Esamah et al., 2023 ; Yadav et al., 2020 ).

Furthermore, research in this discipline lays the groundwork for developing and assessing digital leadership competencies, which are critical for driving innovation and navigating digital difficulties. AlAjmi ( 2022 ) examine the development of tools for measuring digital leadership competency, emphasizing workforce certification. The value of investigating digital leadership stems from its potential to provide insights into how digital technology might be used to improve corporate processes (Benitez et al., 2022 ). Research can assist discover best practices, emerging trends, and potential hazards linked with digital efforts. It also promotes a better grasp of how to match digital strategies with overall corporate objectives in order to increase productivity, growth and efficiency (Brunner et al., 2021 ).

The New York Times, as a premier source of news and analysis, provides an excellent foundation for investigating this history (Zhang, 2021 ). Digital leadership entails not only understanding company objectives, but also recognizing the comprehensive responsibilities that support these objectives in a digital environment (Bartsch et al., 2021 ).

The New York Times’ coverage of digital leadership indicates a purposeful shift toward a more comprehensive approach to informed decision-making and digital initiatives. This transformation is accompanied by a growing scholarly interest in charting and comprehending the growth of leadership models fit for the digital age (Alieva, 2023 ). The New York Times, as a key figure in documenting the developments and patterns that define organizational leadership in the context of digital advancements, has made major contributions to the discussion of how firms handle technological transformation. Analyzing the substance and tone of the publication’s articles provides significant insights into evolving leadership paradigms, highlighting digital technology’s substantial impact on management practices.

Despite considerable discussion on digital leadership (Pasolong & Setini, 2021 ; Peng, 2022 ; Petry, 2018 ), there remains a gap in comprehensive empirical studies that analyze how digital leadership is portrayed in major media and its impact on public perception and organizational strategies. Previous research primarily focuses on theoretical frameworks or case studies within specific sectors (Prince, 2018 ; Stana, et al., 2018; Volschenck, 2019). However, an analysis of digital leadership through the lens of a globally influential publication like The New York Times has not been extensively explored. Such an investigation can reveal how digital leadership themes are communicated to the public and their alignment with real-world business practices and challenges.

The research addresses the following research questions:

What are the most prominent themes and concepts in digital leadership and phenomena, as identified through content analysis? How do these concepts relate to one another, and what does their interaction reveal about the junction of leadership and technology?

What are the positive and negative attitudes in debates about digital leadership, and how do they impact social and policy considerations?

How might NLP and AI techniques help us grasp complex textual data in social science research?

This work makes a multidimensional addition to the social sciences by improving our understanding of digital leadership and related issues. Methodologically, it describes a unique use of powerful natural language processing (NLP) and artificial intelligence (AI) tools, such as Nvivo and Monkeylearn, to conduct a comprehensive content and sentiment analysis on a large body of text. This demonstrates the ability of such systems to extract important insights from large amounts of unstructured data, a discovery that has the potential to transform social science research. With a focus on digital leadership, the study explores deeply into the characteristics and perspectives that define leadership in the digital age. Furthermore, analyzing attitudes and themes in New York Times articles gives predictive indicators of future digital trends, making it a valuable resource for governments, scholars, and corporations, projecting the direction of digital growth. The report also emphasizes the importance of taking a balanced approach to digital leadership—one that capitalizes on the benefits of digitalization while limiting its risks—and contributes to the conversation about developing responsible and inclusive digital policies. Finally, it recognizes the social implications of digital trends, emphasizing both positive and negative aspects, and emphasizes the importance of addressing social challenges such as the ethical AI usage, cybersecurity dangers, and digital divide.

\This study aims to fill this gap by analyzing the portrayal of digital leadership in The New York Times, examining how digital trends are represented and their implications for business and society. Using advanced Natural Language Processing (NLP) and Artificial Intelligence (AI) tools, including Nvivo and Monkeylearn, this research conducts a detailed content and sentiment analysis of articles published from 2020 to 2022. This approach not only identifies the key themes and sentiments associated with digital leadership but also assesses the broader implications of these narratives.

This research contributes uniquely by quantitatively decoding the discourse around digital leadership, offering insights into how key themes such as technology adoption, AI integration, and cybersecurity are interwoven with leadership narratives. Furthermore, it provides a critical evaluation of the positive and negative sentiments surrounding digital leadership, highlighting the dual nature of digital advancements. Our findings suggest the need for balanced digital leadership that strategically embraces digital opportunities while mitigating associated risks, advocating for responsible and inclusive digital policies.

By harnessing NLP and AI, this study demonstrates the capability of these technologies to parse and interpret complex textual data, setting a precedent for future social science research that seeks to integrate quantitative content analysis with qualitative insights. The ultimate goal is to enhance the understanding of digital leadership dynamics, offering predictive insights for policymakers, business leaders, and academics about future trends in digital governance and strategy.

Evolution of digital leadership

Digital leadership is a concept created to satisfy the complicated demands of leadership in the digital age, which necessitates the integration of traditional leadership approaches with digital-specific strategies and skills (Brunner et al., 2021 ). The digital leadership framework includes macro leadership components such as stakeholder engagement, promoting an innovation culture and, vision setting, as well as harnessing digital technologies (Pham & Vu, 2022 ).

In the digital age, the concept of leadership has changed dramatically, moving away from traditional hierarchies and toward more flexible and dynamic models of functioning (Finch et al., 2017 ; Hargitai & Bencsik, 2023 ). As technology advances at an unprecedented rate, digital leadership has emerged as a vital aspect in the success and longevity of enterprises across all industries. This evolution is marked by the adoption of new technology, the reconfiguration of organizational structures, and the shifting nature of workforce management (Ziadlou, 2021 ).

The advent of the internet, as well as the introduction of basic digital communication tools and email in the workplace, defined the first wave of digital leadership (Kane et al., 2019 ). Leaders had to adapt to the new reality of rapid information sharing and communication, which significantly accelerated collaboration and decision-making. The aim was to create more transparent work settings in which information flowed freely and choices were made more swiftly (Brunner et al., 2021 ).

As digital technology advanced, social media developed as an effective tool for leaders to interact with their staff and customers (Bresciani et al., 2021 ). Platforms such as LinkedIn and Twitter, enabled executives to engage directly with their stakeholders, establishing a feeling of community and transparency. This era of digital leadership stressed the need of being accessible and responsive, and leaders who were able to effectively use social media acquired a competitive advantage (AlAjmi, 2022 ).

Mobile technology and cloud computing have further broadened the potential for digital leadership, allowing leaders to govern their enterprises from anywhere in the world (Zulu et al., 2023 ). With internet-accessible resources and apps, the limits of physical office space were reduced, paving the path for remote work and worldwide collaboration. Digital executives had to learn the art of virtual management, which involved creating trust and maintaining productivity in the absence of face-to-face interactions (Ardi et al., 2020 ).

To summarize, the growth of digital leadership is an ongoing process characterized by the constant appearance of new technologies and trends. As digital leaders navigate this ever-changing market, they must stay nimble, aware, and dedicated to ethical principles (Borah et al., 2022 ). By embracing innovation and cultivating a culture of continuous learning, digital leaders can steer their enterprises toward a successful and responsible future.

The influence of technology on leadership styles and business models

The development of technology has profoundly influenced leadership styles and business models, fundamentally reshaping the corporate landscape. As technological innovations speed, the impact on how businesses run and how executives manage their teams is increasingly pronounced (Abbu et al., 2022 ). The convergence of technology and leadership has resulted in new tactics, structures, and ways of thinking that define current corporate practices.

Technology has accelerated the transition to more collaborative and interactive leadership styles. The traditional top-down leadership model is being supplemented, and in some cases replaced, by models that stress flat hierarchies and distributed decision making (Ardi et al., 2020 ). Digital tools offer real-time cooperation and communication across organizational levels, allowing executives to leverage their teams’ collective intelligence. As a result, leaders who can effectively use these tools are better able to promote innovation and agility in their firms (Nieken, 2023 ).

The digital resources have democratized information, transforming leadership Dynamics (Hargitai & Bencsik, 2023 ). Employees now have unparalleled access to information that was previously only available to management. This has leveled the playing field, requiring leaders to react by becoming more transparent and establishing an environment where knowledge sharing is the norm (Kane et al., 2019 ). Leaders that embrace this transformation can enable their teams to take ownership and contribute more significantly to the organization’s objectives (Brunner et al., 2021 ).

Technology has impacted business models in similar ways. The rise of the digital economy has resulted in the emergence of platform-based models, with companies disrupting established sectors by developing ecosystems that connect suppliers and customers directly. These models rely significantly on technology for scalability and operations, and they push leaders to think beyond traditional limits, focusing on network effects and user experience (Pham & Vu, 2022 ).

In conclusion, technology’s impact on business structures and leadership styles is evident and transformational (Hargitai & Bencsik, 2023 ). Leaders must constantly adapt to the quick rate of technology change, adopting new tools and processes to improve decision-making, innovation, and collaboration (Zulu et al., 2023 ). As technology advances, so will the manner in which leaders inspire their teams and drive their businesses forward, ensuring that adaptation and foresight remain important components of effective leadership in the digital era (Porfírio et al., 2021 ).

Methodology

To conduct a comprehensive analysis of digital leadership and trends, we registered with The New York Times API, enabling us to access a wide range of articles on these topics. Our research focused on articles published between January 1, 2020, and December 31, 2022. We used keywords related to "Digital Leadership” and “Popular Digital Trends” to identify relevant articles for our study. The initial data mining process was facilitated by the Orange 3.36 Text Data Mining tool, which was configured with a developer key provided by The New York Times API. This search yielded a total of 318 articles ( n = 318). Upon reviewing this dataset, we excluded 69 articles that were not directly relevant to our specific research focus, such as articles that only tangentially mentioned digital leadership or trends. Once the relevant articles were collected, the next critical phase involved breaking down each article into distinct textual blocks. These blocks, each representing a coherent unit of text such as a paragraph or a section, were then prepared for further analysis.

This data purification process ensured the relevance and quality of our analysis. The remaining 249 articles were then subjected to thematic content analysis using Nvivo. This involved focusing on the “Content” sections of the articles, leading to the creation of a new dataset comprising 2428 textual blocks ( n = 2428) that were directly related to digital leadership and popular digital trends. Each block of text was analyzed using the Nvivo tool to identify and map the emergent themes, key concepts, and their interrelationships. This process resulted in a Concept Map, visually representing the connections and associations between different themes and concepts identified in the articles. Following the thematic analysis, we utilized Python to code the dataset using the Valence Aware Dictionary and Sentiment Reasoner (VADER) method. This coding process classified the text according to sentiment types: positive, negative, or neutral. The results of the sentiment analysis were then individually reviewed and categorized, providing a detailed understanding of the prevailing sentiments in the discourse around digital leadership and trends. The final phase of our analysis involved the use of Monkeylearn classifiers. These classifiers were applied to categorize the data based on the sentiment scores derived from the VADER analysis. The classification categories included roles, businesses, and events related to digital leadership and trends. This comprehensive process enabled us to analyze and interpret the large volume of data efficiently and effectively, providing valuable insights into the prevailing themes and sentiments associated with digital leadership and trends as reported in The New York Times.

In our study, the Nvivo Concept Map (NCM) played a crucial role in visually representing and analyzing the relationships between key themes identified in the dataset. After conducting an initial content analysis with Nvivo, we utilized the NCM tool to create a visual depiction of how frequently identified themes such as ‘Digital Transformation,’ ‘Innovation,’ ‘Remote Working,’ and ‘Cybersecurity’ interconnected. The NCM grouped related concepts and displayed them in clusters, where the proximity and size of each cluster corresponded to the frequency and strength of the theme’s presence in the text. This visual tool not only enhanced our understanding of the thematic structure of the content but also facilitated the identification of dominant narratives and emerging trends within the digital leadership discourse.

Further, to quantify the sentiments expressed in the articles, we employed Python along with the Valence Aware Dictionary and Sentiment Reasoner (VADER) method—a lexicon and rule-based sentiment analysis tool that is specifically attuned to sentiments expressed in social media and news settings. Python scripts were written to automate the extraction and classification of sentiment from textual data. Each block of text extracted from the articles was fed into the VADER analyzer, which assessed and assigned a sentiment score reflecting positive, negative, or neutral tones. This sentiment analysis provided quantitative support to the qualitative insights from Nvivo, allowing us to measure the prevalence of sentiments and correlate them with the themes identified through Nvivo’s conceptual mapping.

In this study, the Nvivo Concept Map (NCM) was utilized to visualize the results of the Nvivo analysis, focusing on digital leadership and popular digital trends as covered in The New York Times. The NCM effectively illustrates the key concepts that frequently appear in the text and their relationships with other concepts. In the NCM, concepts are organized into higher-level “themes,” with their association determined by frequency and coexistence. These themes are represented as colored circles on the map, where the size, intersection, distance, proximity, and relationship of these circles indicate the most prominent overarching concept clusters. For our analysis, we configured the NCM to display the top 42% of concepts to capture the most significant themes.

From our analysis, the NCM indicated several prominent themes: “Digital Transformation,” “Innovation,” “Remote Working,” and “Cybersecurity.”

“Digital Transformation” (represented in red) emerged as the most prominent and interconnected theme. Central concepts within this theme included “technology adoption,” “business model,” “strategy,” “leadership,” and “change management.” Key relationships identified were “technology-business integration,” “strategy-digital shift.”

The “Innovation” theme (represented in green) formed the second most important cluster. Core concepts here were “emerging technologies,” “AI,” “blockchain,” and “new markets.” Prominent conceptual relationships included “AI-driven solutions,” “blockchain for transparency,” and “technology-market adaptation.”

“Remote Working” (represented in blue) was another significant theme. Key concepts within this theme were “virtual teams,” “collaboration tools,” “work-life balance,” and “productivity.” Important relationships noted were “virtual teams-collaboration,” “remote work challenges,” and “technology-enabled productivity.”

The “Cybersecurity” theme (represented in orange) highlighted the growing concern over digital security in leadership. Core concepts included “data protection,” “privacy,” “threats,” and “security policies.” Noteworthy relationships were “data protection strategies,” “privacy-technology conflict,” and “leadership in cybersecurity.”

These findings from the NCM analysis were critical in demonstrating and identifying key concepts and clusters related to digital leadership and trends, as well as their associations. The coherence of the NCM results validates our approach, ensuring that the analyzed concepts are relevant and consistently represent the subjects of digital leadership and popular digital trends. This step forms the foundation for the subsequent sentiment analysis, which further explores the tone and nature of discourse in the selected articles.

Findings and discussion

Our comprehensive analysis of digital leadership and popular digital trends, as presented in The New York Times, has unearthed a rich tapestry of themes and sentiments. The Nvivo Concept Map revealed key themes such as ‘Digital Transformation’, ‘Innovation’, ‘Remote Working’, and ‘Cybersecurity’, each encompassing a range of sub-themes and concepts. ‘Digital Transformation’ emerged as the most dominant theme, emphasizing the integration of technology into business models and leadership strategies. ‘Innovation’ highlighted the role of emerging technologies like AI and blockchain in reshaping markets and business practices (Semin et al., 2023 ). The theme of ‘Remote Working’ captured the evolving dynamics of virtual teams and collaboration tools in the digital era, while ‘Cybersecurity’ stressed the importance of data protection and security policies in digital leadership. These findings reflect a broad spectrum of challenges and opportunities in the field of digital leadership, illustrating a landscape where technological advancement is continuously reshaping leadership paradigms and business strategies.

The sentiment analysis of the digital leadership and trends articles from The New York Times, as summarized in Table 1 , reveals a predominantly positive outlook on the subject. With 60% of the content (1450 articles) carrying a positive sentiment, it is evident that digital leadership and trends are generally viewed as beneficial and progressive. However, a significant portion, 29% (700 articles), expressed negative sentiments, underscoring the challenges, risks, and concerns associated with digital transformation and emerging technologies. The presence of neutral sentiment in 11% of the content (278 articles) indicates a cautious or balanced perspective on certain aspects of digital leadership. These sentiments collectively paint a nuanced picture of the digital leadership landscape, suggesting optimism tempered by realistic appraisal of the complexities and challenges inherent in embracing digital trends and technologies.

The analysis delineated in Table 2 provides insightful categorization of content based on the role industry classifier, drawing from the extensive dataset of 2428 articles focused on digital leadership and trends as reported in The New York Times. The predominant presence of Technology Development/IT (450 articles, avg. compound score 0.3421) underscores the significant emphasis placed on technological advancements and their integration into modern business practices. This is closely followed by Business Strategy/Management (400 articles, avg. compound score 0.2804), highlighting the centrality of strategic planning and management in navigating the digital landscape. Notably, Marketing/Advertising/PR emerges as a key theme (350 articles, avg. compound score 0.2103), reflecting the growing importance of digital marketing in contemporary business models. Conversely, the negative average compound scores in domains such as Legal/Compliance (-0.1206) and Government/Public Administration (-0.1004) indicate prevailing apprehensions or challenges in these areas, possibly stemming from regulatory complexities or ethical considerations in digital practices. These results collectively shed light on the multifaceted impact of digital transformation across various industries, revealing a complex interplay between technological adoption, strategic management, and sector-specific challenges and opportunities in the era of digital leadership. The analysis delineated in Table 2 provides insightful categorization of content based on the role industry classifier, drawing from the extensive dataset of 2428 articles focused on digital leadership and trends as reported in The New York Times. The predominant presence of Technology Development/IT (450 articles, avg. compound score 0.3421) underscores the significant emphasis placed on technological advancements and their integration into modern business practices. This is closely followed by Business Strategy/Management (400 articles, avg. compound score 0.2804), highlighting the centrality of strategic planning and management in navigating the digital landscape. Notably, Marketing/Advertising/PR emerges as a key theme (350 articles, avg. compound score 0.2103), reflecting the growing importance of digital marketing in contemporary business models. Conversely, the negative average compound scores in domains such as Legal/Compliance (-0.1206) and Government/Public Administration (-0.1004) indicate prevailing apprehensions or challenges in these areas, possibly stemming from regulatory complexities or ethical considerations in digital practices. These results collectively shed light on the multifaceted impact of digital transformation across various industries, revealing a complex interplay between technological adoption, strategic management, and sector-specific challenges and opportunities in the era of digital leadership.

The classification of events in Table 3 , derived from the analysis of digital leadership and trends in The New York Times, offers a compelling overview of the diverse range of topics that shape the discourse in this field. Predominantly, the category of ‘Technological Advancements’ (500 articles, avg. compound score 0.1824) signifies the paramount importance and generally positive sentiment associated with continuous innovation in technology. This is closely followed by ‘Corporate Strategies’ (400 articles, avg. compound score 0.2053) and ‘Market Trends’ (350 articles, avg. compound score 0.1902), both of which underscore the critical role of strategic adaptation and market awareness in the digital era. The significant representation of ‘Leadership Conferences’ (200 articles, avg. compound score 0.2105) reflects the ongoing dialogue and exchange of ideas among leaders striving to navigate the digital landscape effectively. Notably, areas such as ‘Digital Ethics’ (100 articles, avg. compound score -0.1435) and ‘Cybersecurity Measures’ (8 articles, avg. compound score -0.1103) exhibit negative average compound scores, indicating concerns and challenges inherent in these critical aspects of digital leadership. This suggests a degree of apprehension or controversy surrounding these topics, possibly due to the complex ethical dilemmas and security risks that emerge with digital advancements. In contrast, ‘Remote Working Innovations’ (80 articles, avg. compound score 0.1677) and ‘Sustainability in Business’ (50 articles, avg. compound score 0.2011) demonstrate a positive sentiment, highlighting their perceived benefits in the context of evolving workplace dynamics and a growing emphasis on sustainable practices. Overall, Table 3 encapsulates the multifaceted nature of digital leadership and trends, illustrating a landscape where innovation, strategic thinking, and ethical considerations converge. This classification not only reflects the current state of digital leadership but also hints at the evolving priorities and challenges that leaders and businesses must navigate in an increasingly digital world.

The business classifier analysis in Table 4 , derived from The New York Times articles on digital leadership and trends, reveals a nuanced landscape of sector-specific sentiments. The ‘Technology and Innovation’ sector, with the highest count of content (550 articles) and a positive average compound score of 0.2321, underscores the optimistic view towards technological advancements in shaping business practices. This is closely followed by ‘Strategic Management’ and ‘Digital Marketing,’ highlighting the critical role of strategic insight and digital marketing strategies in the digital era, evidenced by their substantial representation and positive sentiment scores. Notably, sectors like ‘Financial Technology’ and ‘Healthcare Innovation’ reflect the growing intersection of digital trends with traditional industries, suggesting a positive but cautiously optimistic sentiment (avg. Compound scores of 0.1978 and 0.1865, respectively). The presence of ‘Environmental Sustainability’ with a notably high positive score (0.2431) indicates an increasing recognition of the role of digital technologies in promoting sustainable practices. Conversely, ‘Legal and Compliance’ and ‘Government and Public Policy’ sectors show negative average compound scores (-0.1214 and -0.1342, respectively), reflecting potential concerns or challenges in these areas, possibly stemming from regulatory complexities and policy implications in digital transformation. Overall, Table 4 provides a comprehensive view of how different business sectors perceive and are influenced by digital leadership and trends. The varied sentiment scores across sectors suggest a complex interplay between enthusiasm for digital innovation and cautiousness regarding its broader implications, particularly in areas where regulation and policy play significant roles.

The sentiment analysis of digital leadership and trends

As summarized in Table 1 , provides a comprehensive insight into the prevailing attitudes toward this evolving field. The analysis, encompassing 2428 articles, revealed a majority sentiment to be positive, with 60% (1450 articles) reflecting an optimistic view of digital leadership and trends. This positive sentiment is indicative of the general perception that digital advancements and leadership strategies are beneficial and progressive, possibly focusing on successful case studies, innovative technologies, and effective digital transformation strategies. On the other hand, a significant proportion of the content, 29% (700 articles), expressed negative sentiments, highlighting challenges such as ethical dilemmas, technological disruptions, and management hurdles in the digital domain. The presence of a neutral sentiment in 11% of the content (278 articles) points to a balanced or cautious perspective, possibly representing articles that discuss the complex or uncertain aspects of digital leadership and trends without leaning towards overtly positive or negative viewpoints. These findings collectively paint a nuanced picture of the digital leadership landscape, suggesting a general trend of optimism tempered by a realistic appraisal of the challenges inherent in the digital transformation of leadership and business practices. Positive content subheadings; innovative technologies, strategic digital leadership, digital transformation success stories, remote work and flexibility, data-driven decision making, cybersecurity advances, educational technology, sustainable digital practices, healthcare technology ınnovations, e-commerce growth. Negative content subheadings; ethical concerns and digital dilemmas, cybersecurity threats, digital divide and ınequality, privacy concerns, misinformation in digital media, workforce displacement, regulatory and compliance challenges, overreliance on technology, remote work challenges, ımpact on mental health.

Positive content

The analysis of digital leadership and trends from The New York Times demonstrates a predominantly positive outlook on the integration of digital technologies in various sectors. Despite the potential challenges and risks, the sentiment generally leans towards an optimistic view of the digital transformation (Ghobakhloo, 2020 ). This positive sentiment can be attributed to the successful adoption and implementation of digital strategies that have led to significant improvements in efficiency, innovation, and competitive advantage (Sarfraz et al., 2022 ). For instance, companies leveraging digital tools have seen enhancements in customer engagement (Fitzgeral et al., 2014), operational agility, and market penetration (Chintalapati & Pandey, 2022 ). The articles also highlight the transformative role of digital leadership in reshaping organizational structures and business models, fostering a culture of innovation and adaptability. These findings suggest that, despite the complexities and challenges inherent in the digital era, there is a prevailing confidence in the potential of digital technologies to drive business growth and societal advancement.

Innovative technologies

The coverage of innovative technologies in The New York Times articles reflects a significant enthusiasm for the transformative potential these advancements hold in the field of digital leadership. Emerging technologies such as artificial intelligence, blockchain, and the Internet of Things (IoT) are frequently cited as key drivers of change, enabling businesses to unlock new efficiencies and capabilities (Finch et al., 2017 ). For instance, AI is lauded for its ability to provide deep insights into customer behavior (Chintalapati & Pandey, 2022 ), streamline operations (Ernst, 1987 ), and foster data-driven decision-making (Korherr et al., 2022 ). Similarly, blockchain technology is recognized for its potential to revolutionize industries by introducing unparalleled levels of transparency (Javaid et al., 2021 ), security, and efficiency in transactions. These technologies are not just seen as tools but as foundational elements that redefine how businesses operate and compete. The positive sentiment surrounding these technologies underscores a belief in their capacity to lead to groundbreaking innovations and reshape industry landscapes (Allioui & Mourdi, 2023 ).

Strategic digital leadership

In the context of strategic digital leadership, The New York Times articles highlight the crucial role of visionary leadership in navigating the digital landscape successfully. This aspect of digital leadership involves not only the adoption of new technologies but also the strategic foresight to integrate these technologies into the core business strategy (Singh et al., 2023 ). The coverage indicates that effective digital leaders are those who can anticipate technological trends (Avidov-Ungar et al., 2022 ), understand the implications of digital disruption (Sun, 2017 ), and skillfully steer their organizations through digital transformation initiatives (Ismail et al., 2023 ). This includes adapting to changing market conditions, fostering a culture that embraces innovation (Vogel & Fischler-Strasak, 2013 ), and investing in talent and technologies that align with long-term strategic goals (Turyadi et al., 2023 ). The sentiment in these articles suggests an acknowledgment of the complexities involved in digital leadership but also a recognition of its indispensable role in ensuring organizational resilience and competitiveness in a rapidly evolving digital world (Razavi Hajiagha et al., 2023 ).

Digital transformation success stories

The New York Times articles often highlight success stories in digital transformation, illustrating the impactful changes organizations achieve through strategic digital initiatives (Ziadlou, 2021 ). These narratives provide tangible examples of companies that have not only adapted to digital technologies but have also reaped significant benefits from their digital journeys (Imison et al., 2016 ). From small startups to large corporations, these success stories span a variety of industries, demonstrating that digital transformation is not confined to the tech sector alone (Esamah et al., 2023 ; Rogers, 2016 ). Positive sentiment in these stories often stems from the remarkable adaptability and foresight of these organizations (Yi et al., 2016 ), which have managed to turn digital challenges into opportunities for growth, thereby setting benchmarks in their respective fields.

Remote work and flexibility

Articles on remote work and flexibility reflect a notably positive sentiment, emphasizing the significant shift in work culture and the adoption of more flexible work arrangements. The New York Times coverage often highlights how the digital era has enabled a more dynamic and adaptable workforce (Xue & Xu, 2021 ), allowing employees to work from anywhere (Choudhury et al., 2021 ), leading to improved work-life balance and employee satisfaction. The transition to remote work, accelerated by the COVID-19 pandemic, is portrayed not just as a temporary shift but as a lasting change in the professional landscape. This change has also driven innovations in digital collaboration tools and technologies (Marion & Fixson, 2021 ), enabling seamless communication and productivity regardless of physical location (Haynes et al., 2017 ). The sentiment around this topic suggests an appreciation of the newfound flexibility and the potential for remote work to be a mainstay in the future of work.

Data-driven decision making

The trend towards data-driven decision-making is another area receiving positive attention in The New York Times articles. This approach to decision-making is increasingly viewed as a critical component of successful digital leadership, where reliance on data and analytics supersedes intuition or traditional methods. Coverage often points to how data analytics, big data, and predictive modeling have empowered organizations to make more informed (Olaniyi et al., 2023 ), strategic decisions. This includes optimizing operations, enhancing customer experiences, and predicting market trends (Korherr et al., 2022 ; Yoshihara et al., 2014 ). The positive sentiment here is largely attributed to the efficacy and precision that data-driven practices bring to business operations, leading to smarter, more efficient, and effective business processes (McCarthy et al., 2022 ). This shift towards a data-centric approach in decision-making underscores a broader trend of leveraging technology to gain a competitive edge in the digital age.

Cybersecurity advances

The coverage of cybersecurity advances in The New York Times conveys a strong positive sentiment, reflecting the critical importance and ongoing progress in this domain. As digital transformation accelerates (Nath et al., 2020 ), so does the need for robust cybersecurity measures to protect sensitive data and maintain trust in digital systems. Articles often highlight innovative cybersecurity solutions, including advanced encryption techniques (Thambiraja et al., 2012 ), AI-driven threat detection systems (Vegesna, 2023 ), and blockchain for secure transactions. The emphasis is on how these technological advancements are bolstering defenses against cyber threats (Pamar & Domingo, 2019), thereby enhancing the overall security posture of organizations. This positive outlook is also tied to the growing awareness and proactive measures being taken by companies to address potential vulnerabilities, demonstrating a commitment to safeguarding digital assets in an increasingly interconnected world (Abdel-Rahman, 2023 ).

Educational technology

The discussion of educational technology in The New York Times is marked by optimism, reflecting its transformative impact on learning and teaching methodologies. The integration of digital tools in education– from virtual classrooms and online learning platforms to interactive educational software– has revolutionized the learning experience (Avidov-Ungar et al., 2022 ; Yang & Liu, 2007 ). Coverage often focuses on the increased accessibility and personalization of learning that these technologies facilitate (Alamri et al., 2021 ), enabling students to learn at their own pace and in their preferred styles (Jameson et al., 2022 ). Furthermore, the pandemic-induced shift to remote learning has underscored the essential role of educational technology in ensuring continuity of education (Barbour et al., 2020 ). The sentiment surrounding this topic is predominantly positive, acknowledging educational technology as a crucial driver for inclusive and innovative learning solutions in the digital age.

Sustainable digital practices

Articles on sustainable digital practices in The New York Times depict an encouraging trend towards integrating sustainability in digital business models. This positive sentiment is rooted in the growing recognition of digital technology’s role in promoting environmental sustainability (Karakose et al., 2022 ). Coverage often includes examples of how digital tools and data analytics are being used to optimize resource use, reduce carbon footprints (Jones & Kammen, 2011 ), and support sustainable practices across various industries. The focus is also on how digital platforms are enabling more sustainable consumer behaviors and business operations (Calderon-Monge et al., 2020 ). This positive outlook suggests an evolving business ethos where sustainability is increasingly viewed as a core component of digital strategy, aligning technological advancement with environmental responsibility.

Healthcare technology ınnovations

The New York Times’ coverage of healthcare technology innovations reflects a highly positive sentiment, highlighting groundbreaking advancements transforming healthcare delivery. Innovations in telemedicine (Schlieter et al., 2022 ), electronic health records, wearable health-monitoring devices (Takei et al., 2015 ), and AI-driven diagnostic tools are frequently discussed, underscoring their role in enhancing patient care and medical efficiency. These technologies have enabled remote patient monitoring (Cheikhrouhou et al., 2023 ), personalized medicine, and data-driven treatment plans (Ge & We, 2019), thereby improving patient outcomes and expanding access to healthcare services. The pandemic has particularly accentuated the value of these technologies, with telehealth becoming a critical component of healthcare during lockdowns (Garfan et al., 2021 ). This positive sentiment suggests a recognition of digital technology as a pivotal force in reshaping healthcare, making it more accessible, efficient, and patient-centered.

E-commerce growth

Articles on the growth of e-commerce in The New York Times depict a robustly positive sentiment, reflecting the sector’s rapid expansion and innovation. This growth is attributed to advancements in digital payment systems (Sumalthy & Vipin, 2017 ), online retail platforms, and logistics technology, which have collectively transformed the shopping experience. The coverage often highlights how e-commerce platforms have made shopping more convenient, personalized, and accessible, leading to their widespread adoption by consumers. The surge in e-commerce is also linked to the integration of AI for customer insights (Kalkha et al., 2023 ), AR for virtual try-ons, and enhanced data security for safe transactions (Gupta & Sharma, 2011 ; Kalkha et al., 2023 ). This positive outlook is further bolstered by the resilience of e-commerce during economic downturns, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, which saw a significant shift in consumer behavior towards online shopping (Calderon-Monge et al., 2020 ). The sentiment around e-commerce growth underscores its role as a key driver of digital economic transformation (Zhuravlev & Glukhov, 2021 ), offering vast opportunities for businesses and consumers alike.

Negative content

The analysis of negative content in digital leadership and trends articles from The New York Times reveals several critical concerns and challenges associated with the rapid advancement of digital technologies. Despite the overall positive outlook on digital transformation, there are apprehensions about its potential drawbacks and unintended consequences. These concerns are multifaceted, spanning ethical issues, privacy breaches, and the impact of digitalization on workforce dynamics (Ozkan-Ozen & Kazancoglu, 2022 ). One significant area of concern highlighted is the ethical implications of emerging technologies, particularly AI and data analytics. Debates around algorithmic bias, ethical use of AI, and the potential for misuse of personal data are recurrent themes. These articles often caution against the unregulated use of advanced technologies and advocate for stronger ethical frameworks and governance. Privacy issues constitute another major area of negative sentiment. With the increasing digitization of personal information (Matt et al., 2019 ), there is growing unease over data security, surveillance, and the potential for data breaches. This has led to discussions about the need for more robust data protection laws and practices to safeguard individual privacy in the digital age (Mitrou, 2017 ). The impact of digital transformation on the workforce is also a subject of concern. While digital technologies have brought about efficiency and innovation, they have also led to fears of job displacement due to automation and the skill gaps emerging in the digital economy. These articles often highlight the need for reskilling and upskilling initiatives to prepare the workforce for the changing job landscape (Espinoza, 2017 ). Another aspect of negative content relates to the social and psychological effects of digitalization. Issues such as the digital divide, screen addiction, and the impact of social media on mental health are explored (Karim et al., 2020 ), indicating a need for a more balanced and mindful approach to technology adoption.

Ethical concerns and digital dilemmas

The New York Times articles on digital leadership and trends frequently address ethical concerns and digital dilemmas, highlighting the complex moral landscape of the digital age. This negative sentiment revolves around the ethical challenges posed by AI and machine learning algorithms, including issues of bias, transparency, and accountability. Concerns are also raised about the ethical use of consumer data, where the boundary between personalization and privacy invasion becomes blurred. The discussion extends to the responsibility of tech companies in moderating content and preventing the spread of misinformation (Tyagi et al., 2019 ), emphasizing the need for ethical standards in digital governance (Milakovich, 2021 ). These articles reflect an increasing awareness and debate over the ethical implications of digital technologies, suggesting a growing recognition of the need for ethical frameworks and guidelines to navigate these challenges responsibly.

Cybersecurity threats

Cybersecurity threats are a prominent theme in the negative content spectrum, as highlighted in The New York Times’ articles. The sentiment here is underscored by concerns over the rising number of cyberattacks, data breaches, and digital scams (Safitra et al., 2023 ). Articles often detail incidents of hacking, ransomware attacks (Brewer, 2016 ; Vegesna, 2023 ), and other forms of cybercrime (Bossler & Berenblum, 2019 ), emphasizing their disruptive impact on businesses and individuals. The coverage also reflects on the challenges in protecting digital infrastructure and the constant need to evolve cybersecurity strategies to counter sophisticated threats (Safitra et al., 2023 ). This ongoing battle against cyber threats underscores the critical importance of robust cybersecurity measures and constant vigilance in the digital field.

Digital divide and ınequality

The New York Times also sheds light on the negative aspect of digital divide and inequality, a pressing issue exacerbated by the rapid pace of digital transformation. Articles discuss how access to digital technology remains uneven, creating a divide between those who have access to digital resources and those who do not. This divide extends to various sectors, including education, healthcare, and employment, where lack of digital access can lead to significant disadvantages (AlNuaimi et al., 2022 ). The sentiment in these articles underscores the need for inclusive digital policies and initiatives to bridge the gap and ensure that the benefits of digital transformation are accessible to all segments of society (Martínez-Peláez et al., 2023 ), thereby reducing inequality and promoting digital inclusivity.

Privacy concerns

Privacy concerns are a significant issue frequently addressed in The New York Times articles related to digital leadership and trends, reflecting a negative sentiment in the field of digital transformation. Concerns are predominantly centered around the collection, use, and potential misuse of personal data by corporations and governments. The discourse often highlights how advancements in technology, while beneficial, have led to increased surveillance capabilities and data collection practices that raise questions about individual privacy rights and data security (Klose et al., 2020 ). The coverage also touches upon the implications of privacy breaches, including identity theft and unauthorized data sharing, emphasizing the need for stricter data protection regulations and more robust privacy-preserving technologies (Aldeen et al., 2015 ). This ongoing conversation reflects a growing public awareness and concern over maintaining privacy in an increasingly digital world.

Misinformation in digital media

The New York Times’ coverage of misinformation in digital media highlights a pervasive negative aspect of the digital age. Articles frequently discuss the spread of false information through social media platforms and other digital channels (Guo et al., 2020 ), underscoring the challenges in combating fake news and its implications for society. The discussion often revolves around the role of tech companies in moderating content and their efforts (or lack thereof) to prevent the spread of misinformation (Erhan et al., 2022 ). This includes debates over censorship, freedom of speech, and the ethical responsibilities of digital platforms (Johnson, 2017 ). The sentiment in these articles suggests a critical need for effective strategies to address misinformation, emphasizing its potential to mislead the public, disrupt democratic processes, and undermine trust in digital media.

Workforce displacement

Workforce displacement due to digitalization is a recurring theme in The New York Times, reflecting concerns over the impact of automation and digital technologies on employment. The sentiment here revolves around the fear that advancements in AI, robotics, and other digital technologies could lead to significant job losses, particularly in sectors highly susceptible to automation. Articles often highlight the need for workforce reskilling and upskilling to prepare for a future where the demand for digital skills is likely to increase (Li, 2022 ). The coverage also explores the broader economic and social implications of workforce displacement, including the potential for increased inequality and the challenges of transitioning to a digital economy (Helsper, 2021 ). These discussions underscore the importance of proactive measures to mitigate the negative impacts of digital transformation on the workforce.

Regulatory and compliance challenges

The New York Times’ articles addressing regulatory and compliance challenges in the digital field highlight significant concerns. This negative sentiment is focused on the complexities that businesses face in adhering to evolving digital regulations and laws. Coverage often includes the difficulties encountered in navigating data protection laws like GDPR (Becker et al., 2020 ), compliance with cybersecurity standards, and the challenges of global regulatory inconsistencies. The sentiment in these articles points to the need for clearer, more consistent regulatory frameworks and the challenges businesses face in keeping up with rapid regulatory changes. This ongoing discussion reflects the increasing importance of compliance in a digital world, where failure to comply can result in substantial penalties and damage to reputation.

Overreliance on technology

Overreliance on technology is another critical issue discussed in The New York Times, reflecting concerns about the potential drawbacks of dependence on digital solutions. Articles often caution against the risks of technology becoming a crutch rather than a tool, leading to issues such as diminished human interaction, over-automation (Endsley, 2017 ; Weber et al., 2022 ), and a lack of critical thinking skills. The coverage also highlights concerns about what happens when technology fails, emphasizing the need for balanced approaches that integrate technology with human insights and expertise (Patrick & Sturgis, 2015 ). This sentiment underscores the importance of maintaining a healthy balance between technological advancement and retaining essential human elements in both personal and professional contexts.

Remote work challenges

The New York Times also sheds light on the challenges associated with remote work, despite its many benefits. Articles discuss issues such as the blurring of work-life boundaries, challenges in team communication and collaboration, and the potential for decreased employee engagement and company culture in a virtual environment (Yadav et al., 2020 ). The coverage highlights the need for effective management strategies and tools to address these challenges, ensuring that remote work is sustainable and productive in the long term (Carroll & Conboy, 2020 ). This sentiment reflects an understanding that while remote work offers flexibility and potential productivity gains, it also requires careful consideration of its impact on employees and organizational dynamics.

Impact on mental health

The impact of digital trends on mental health is a recurring theme with a negative sentiment in The New York Times articles. Coverage often includes concerns about the psychological effects of prolonged screen time, social media overuse, and the constant connectivity demanded by digital lifestyles. Articles discuss issues such as digital burnout (Sharma et al., 2020 ), the erosion of personal time, and the effect of digital media on self-esteem and social relationships. The sentiment in these articles emphasizes the need for awareness and strategies to mitigate the potential negative impacts of digital culture on mental health (Pelea, 2023 ). This includes advocating for digital detoxes, setting boundaries around technology use, and promoting a more mindful approach to digital consumption.

Statistical analysis of sentiment distribution across business roles

Chi-square test of ındependence.

To determine whether the distribution of sentiments (positive, negative, neutral) significantly varies across different business roles, we employed the Chi-square test of independence. This test evaluates whether the observed distribution of sentiments across roles such as Technology Development/IT, Business Strategy, and Marketing differs from what might be expected if there were no association between role and sentiment.

The Chi-square test yielded a statistic of 155.14 with a p-value of 1.61 × 10 −32 , indicating a highly significant statistical deviation from the expected frequencies under the null hypothesis of independence. This result suggests a strong association between business roles and the sentiment of articles, confirming that sentiment distribution is not uniform across roles.

Expected vs. observed frequencies

The analysis provided further insights into how sentiments are aligned with specific business roles in Table 5 .

The discrepancies between the observed and expected frequencies highlight specific trends: for instance, Technology Development/IT shows a higher than expected occurrence of neutral sentiments, whereas Marketing exhibits a greater prevalence of positive sentiments than anticipated. Such variations indicate that certain business roles may inherently carry more optimistic or critical perspectives within digital leadership discourse (Eryeşil, 2021 ).

In response to the need for a more nuanced understanding of our findings, we have deepened our analysis beyond the mere presentation of results to explore the underlying factors influencing these outcomes. Specifically, we investigated the drivers behind the predominantly positive sentiments observed in the discourse around digital leadership. This positivity largely stems from the recognition of how digital technologies facilitate innovation and efficiency, particularly in sectors such as healthcare and education, which have seen significant advancements due to digital integration (Zulu et al., 2023 ).

Conversely, we also scrutinized the causes of concern highlighted in the sentiment analysis, such as cybersecurity threats and the digital divide. These negative sentiments are often linked to broader socio-economic issues and the rapid pace of technological change, which can outstrip the ability of organizations to secure their digital infrastructures and widen the gap between technology adopters and those with limited Access (Vegesna, 2023 ). For example, the discussions on cybersecurity reveal an acute awareness of the escalating challenges posed by data breaches and cyber-attacks, emphasizing the urgency for robust digital security measures. Similarly, the digital divide is exacerbated by the rapid shift towards digital solutions, leaving behind segments of the population without adequate access to technology or the internet, thus impeding equal opportunities for participation in the digital economy (Abdel-Rahman, 2023 ).

In further examining our dataset for additional insights, we conducted a more detailed breakdown of sentiment scores across different themes identified in our analysis of The New York Times articles. This breakdown revealed distinct patterns in how sentiments toward digital leadership vary across themes such as Digital Transformation, Innovation, Remote Working, and Cybersecurity. For instance, Digital Transformation and Innovation generally received positive sentiments, reflecting widespread optimism about their potential to enhance business operations and market adaptability. In contrast, themes like Cybersecurity were more likely to elicit negative sentiments due to ongoing concerns about data breaches and privacy issues.

Additionally, our temporal analysis of sentiment trends over the three-year period from 2020 to 2022 provided critical insights into how digital leadership discourse has responded to global events and technological advancements. Notably, we observed a significant shift in sentiment during key events such as the COVID-19 pandemic, which prompted an increased focus on themes like Remote Working, highlighting both its challenges and its critical role in maintaining business continuity during crises.

Comparative analysis

Our study’s analysis of digital leadership through content from The New York Times has revealed several themes that resonate with findings from other scholarly work, yet also presents unique insights into the evolving nature of digital leadership.

Comparison with related studies

Leadership competencies for digital transformation.

The study by (Gilli et al., 2023 ) on leadership competencies required for digital transformation, as identified through job advertisements, highlights that technical skills are secondary to collaboration, strategic thinking, leadership, customer orientation, and communication skills. This aligns with our findings where themes like ‘Digital Transformation’ and ‘Innovation’ emphasized similar competencies. However, unlike the job advertisement analysis, our study identified a strong emphasis on the ability to navigate cybersecurity challenges and the digital divide, underlining the importance of security-oriented leadership traits not heavily featured in job ads.

Leadership characteristics in the era of digital transformation

Another study by (Klein, 2020 ) discusses the characteristics of digital leaders in the context of Industry 4.0, emphasizing rapid and flexible action within networked organizational structures. This is consistent with our observation of ‘Remote Working’ and ‘Cybersecurity’ as key themes, which require agility and adaptiveness from leaders. Our study extends these findings by illustrating how these characteristics are not only theoretical ideals but are actively being discussed and valued in major media narratives, reflecting real-world applications and public perceptions.

Digital leadership role in developing business strategy

The research by (Türk, 2023 ) explores how digital leadership supports the development of business strategies suitable for digital transformation. It highlights the crucial role of digital leadership in enhancing system efficiency and transformation adaptation, a viewpoint that complements our findings about the strategic role of digital leaders in managing change. Our study builds on this by providing evidence of how these roles are portrayed in public discourse, offering a broader societal perspective on the strategic impact of digital leadership.

Theoretical implications

The study’s findings have important theoretical implications for our understanding of digital leadership in the social sciences. By analyzing a huge corpus of articles using AI and advanced NLP methods, this study provides quantitative support for the qualitative assessments commonly made in technology research and leadership. The use of computational qualitative analysis tools like Nvivo and Monkeylearn to analyze and interpret complicated textual data is a methodological breakthrough, implying a new paradigm for doing content and sentiment analysis at scale.

The identification of significant themes such as “Cybersecurity”, “Remote Working,” “Digital Transformation,” and “Innovation,” via the Nvivo Concept Map adds to the theoretical debate on digital leadership. It emphasizes how important these topics are in creating the responsibilities and tactics of leaders in the digital age. The rise of important words such as “data protection”, “AI,” and “technology adoption,” “virtual teams,” within these topics suggests a theoretical movement toward a more technology-centric approach of leadership. This transition implies that future leadership theories must account for how technology not only supports, but also redefines and challenges leadership positions and organizational structures.

The study’s findings on the complex interplay of market adaption and technology, as well as collaboration issues in distant work contexts, highlight the dynamic character of digital leadership (Porfírio et al., 2021 ). These findings stimulate a theoretical rethinking of traditional leadership paradigms, pushing for more adaptable frameworks capable of navigating the uncertainties of digitalization (AlNuaimi et al., 2022 ). The findings emphasize the strategic importance of cybersecurity in leadership roles, which demands for a theoretical expansion of leadership competencies to ethical considerations and incorporate risk management in technology use.

The sentiment analysis component of the study, which discovered that 60% of the content had a positive tone while 29% had negative attitudes, provides a nuanced perspective on the cultural reception of digital trends. The prevalence of favorable emotion toward strategic triumphs demonstrates and innovation a general belief in digital transformation’s potential (Ardi et al., 2020 ). Conversely, negative attitudes linked with cybersecurity vulnerabilities and ethical quandaries hint to fundamental concerns that must be addressed in theoretical debates. This dichotomy feeds theories by implying that future study should not only acknowledge advances in digital leadership, but also critically explore the potential repercussions and problems (Brunner et al., 2021 ).

Finally, the methods and conclusions of this study support the development of a balanced theoretical framework for digital leadership. Such a framework should not only emphasize the opportunities and capabilities provided by digital trends, but also be mindful of the ethical implications (Kane et al., 2019 ) This balanced approach is necessary for creating inclusive digital practices and policies that benefit society as a whole. Theoretical models derived from this research will most likely need to account for the dual nature of digital trends, ensuring that they are grounded in the practical realities of the digital landscape while also wanting to steer leaders toward sustainable digital futures.

Managerial implication

The insights gained from content and sentiment analysis of The New York Times stories have a number of managerial implications that can be applied to present and future leadership practices. The popularity of themes like “Innovation” and “Digital Transformation” indicates that managers must stress constant adaptation and learning inside their organizations. As the digital landscape changes, executives must stay current on technical innovations and be ready to adopt new tools and procedures in order to preserve a competitive advantage (Nieken, 2023 ).

The study’s findings on “Remote Working” and the problems of managing “virtual teams” emphasize the importance of establishing strong remote work regulations and investing in collaborative tools. Managers should prioritize creating a culture that encourages remote work, stressing clear accountability, trust and communication (Cheikhrouhou et al., 2023 ). This involves providing opportunities for virtual team development and making remote employees feel as integrated and appreciated as their office colleagues.

Cybersecurity’s importance as a strategic imperative in leadership argues that managers should prioritize protecting their digital assets. The managerial strategy should include not just the adoption of strong security measures, but also the promotion of a security-conscious culture throughout the firm (Safitra et al., 2023 ). Managers must ensure that all workers are trained on cybersecurity best practices and that clear processes and policies are in place to address possible breaches.

The sentiment analysis indicating a mix of positive and negative tones around digital trends implies that managers should be aware of the dual nature of digitalization. The sentiment analysis, which revealed a mix of positive and negative tones surrounding digital trends, suggests that managers should be mindful of the dual nature of digitalization. While it is critical to harness the enthusiasm for emerging technology, managers must also be cautious in identifying and minimizing the hazards connected with digital advancements. This entails addressing ethical quandaries, closing the digital divide, and ensuring that the advantages of digitalization are divided fairly among stakeholders.

The emphasis on balanced digital leadership reflects a managerial obligation to achieve responsible and inclusive digital policy. Managers should aim to establish an atmosphere in which technical advancements are consistent with the societal expectations and organization’s values (Quaquebeke & Gerpott, 2023 ). Managers may lead their firms toward sustainable and socially responsible outcomes by understanding the larger implications of digital trends, as well as exploiting digitalization’s full potential to create corporate success.

In conclusion, the study presents a plethora of information that can help create managerial strategies in the context of digital leadership (AlNuaimi et al., 2022 ). Managers may better prepare their firms for the opportunities and challenges of the digital era by knowing the common themes and sentiments in the debate surrounding digital developments.

The comprehensive analysis of digital leadership and trends articles from The New York Times, utilizing advanced tools like Nvivo, NLTK, and Monkeylearn, reveals a multifaceted perspective on the current state and future trajectory of digital transformation. The sentiment analysis indicates a predominantly positive outlook, with a significant focus on innovative technologies, strategic digital leadership, and the success stories of digital transformation. These positive sentiments reflect the optimism surrounding the advancements and opportunities that digitalization brings to various sectors, including healthcare, education, e-commerce, and more. However, alongside these positive aspects, the analysis also uncovers a range of concerns and challenges. Notable among these are ethical dilemmas, cybersecurity threats, and issues stemming from the digital divide and inequality. Privacy concerns and the spread of misinformation in digital media are other critical areas that call for attention and action. Workforce displacement, regulatory and compliance challenges, and the psychological impacts of digitalization on mental health highlight the need for a balanced approach to digital adoption. The findings suggest that while digital technologies and leadership practices are driving significant advancements and efficiencies, they also bring forth new challenges that require careful consideration and proactive management. The negative sentiments, particularly around ethical concerns, privacy, and workforce displacement, underscore the necessity for ongoing vigilance, ethical considerations, and strategic planning in the digital era.

Key findings from the sentiment analysis indicate that;

60% of the analyzed content showed a positive outlook, reflecting a strong belief in the benefits of digital technologies for enhancing business strategies and operational efficiency.

29% of the content expressed concerns, particularly highlighting issues such as privacy breaches, the spread of misinformation, and the potential for workforce displacement due to automation.

This study, by offering a detailed and nuanced understanding of the digital leadership landscape, contributes valuable insights into both the positive transformations and the potential pitfalls of the digital era. It underscores the importance of adopting a holistic approach to digital leadership, one that embraces innovation while also addressing the accompanying challenges responsibly. Moreover, the methodology employed in this study, involving the analysis of large volumes of unstructured textual data, highlights the potential of AI and NLP tools in extracting meaningful insights from complex datasets. This approach not only provides a deeper understanding of digital trends but also sets a precedent for future studies in social sciences and business, emphasizing the growing significance of AI and data analytics in research.

Practically, this research highlights the need for organizations to;

Enhance their cybersecurity measures to protect against increasing digital threats.

Adopt inclusive digital policies that address not only technological advancements but also mitigate the risks associated with these technologies.

Implement strategic planning that incorporates both the positive potential of digitalization and its inherent risks.

In summary, the findings from this study paint a comprehensive picture of the digital landscape, indicating a world where innovation and challenges coexist. It becomes evident that the path forward requires a balanced approach, one that leverages the benefits of digitalization while mitigating its risks and ensuring ethical, equitable, and sustainable practices.

Data availability

The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current studies are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Balcioğlu, Y.S., Artar, M. The evolutıon of dıgıtal leadershıp: content and sentıment analysıs of the New York Tımes coverage. Curr Psychol (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-024-06149-4

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Adapting to Innovate: Stepstone Group’s Critical Challenge in the Face of Technological Disruption

May 26, 2024 — 02:00 am EDT

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TrendyDigests

On May 16, 2024:F-35 Program Faces Delays Amid Tech Upgrade Challenges

Posted: May 27, 2024 | Last updated: May 27, 2024

<p>The Government Accountability Office (GAO) released a report detailing significant delays in the F-35 Joint Strike Fighter program, which will extend the backlog in delivery by approximately a year.</p>

The Government Accountability Office (GAO) released a report detailing significant delays in the F-35 Joint Strike Fighter program, which will extend the backlog in delivery by approximately a year.

<p>The Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II represents the latest fifth-generation fighter aircraft for the United States, possessing the ability to undertake numerous roles akin to the F-22 Raptor while being more cost-effective.</p>

The primary cause of these delays is the implementation of the Technology Refresh 3 (TR-3) upgrade, a $1.8 billion initiative designed to enhance computing power and support the upcoming Block 4 suite of upgrades.

<p>The GAO's findings articulate that the Defense Contract Management Agency and Lockheed Martin, the prime contractor for the F-35, have been working in tandem to deliver roughly 13 new F-35 stealth fighters monthly.</p>

The GAO's findings articulate that the Defense Contract Management Agency and Lockheed Martin, the prime contractor for the F-35, have been working in tandem to deliver roughly 13 new F-35 stealth fighters monthly.

<p>However, TR-3's software validation delay since July 2023 has disrupted this flow, necessitating plans to expedite production to an average of 20 jets a month to clear the backlog, which includes jets sitting idle at Lockheed's facilities.</p>

However, TR-3's software validation delay since July 2023 has disrupted this flow, necessitating plans to expedite production to an average of 20 jets a month to clear the backlog, which includes jets sitting idle at Lockheed's facilities.

<p>“Even at this faster rate, delivering the parked aircraft will take about a year once TR-3 software has been completed and certified,” the GAO report stipulates.</p>

“Even at this faster rate, delivering the parked aircraft will take about a year once TR-3 software has been completed and certified,” the GAO report stipulates.

<p>Lockheed Martin has attested to having “the necessary secure infrastructure and capacity to park all aircraft until they are ready for delivery," though they refrained from elaboration on the specifics, citing security concerns. The delay, as flagged by Lockheed executives, could lead to 100 to 120 jets being undelivered by year-end if TR-3 issues persist.</p>

Lockheed Martin has attested to having “the necessary secure infrastructure and capacity to park all aircraft until they are ready for delivery," though they refrained from elaboration on the specifics, citing security concerns. The delay, as flagged by Lockheed executives, could lead to 100 to 120 jets being undelivered by year-end if TR-3 issues persist.

<p>Delays associated with TR-3's integrated core processor supplied by L3Harris have not only halted deliveries of new jets but also impeded retrofit plans.</p>

Delays associated with TR-3's integrated core processor supplied by L3Harris have not only halted deliveries of new jets but also impeded retrofit plans.

L3Harris has addressed these challenges, asserting an increased development program requirement as the cause of the initial production ramp delay. They maintain commitment to their delivery ramp-up, with the GAO expecting recovery by December 2024.

<p>These actions have effectively discouraged Iran from aggressive acts against maritime shipping in the region. Grynkewich further highlighted the moderation of Russian tactics post-deployment, noting, "They still fly in the airspace, but not directly overhead of our forces, so I welcome that shift in behavior."</p>

The F-35 program has not been bereft of broader production woes. Engine supplier Pratt & Whitney delivered all engines late in 2023, a pattern mitigated by a buffer pool of powerplants that forestalled production impacts.

<p>However, the prowess of the F-35A comes with a considerable price tag. The cost of flying the Joint Strike Fighter is a hefty $44,000 per hour, significantly higher than its predecessor, the F-16. The financial aspect of such exercises is not trivial, with this particular elephant walk estimated to cost around $4.5 million for a two-hour sortie per aircraft. Despite the costs, the exercise provided invaluable training and assessment opportunities for airmen, from maintenance professionals to pilots and command and control teams.</p> <p>related images you might be interested.</p>

Nevertheless, Lockheed Martin delivered 91 percent of its aircraft late that same year, with TR-3 difficulties, supply chain issues, and manufacturing challenges contributing to this unwelcome statistic, marking the highest level of delays in six years, as per GAO data.

<p>The elephant walk itself is a historic concept dating back to the Second World War, and Hill AFB's recent demonstration is one of many that continue to highlight the U.S. military's aerial prowess. Notably, Hill AFB received its full complement of 78 F-35As in December 2019, with this exercise serving as a commemoration of the completed delivery.</p>

On the customer side, the Joint Program Office (JPO) has expressed determination in surmounting these hurdles, prioritizing a “safe, stable, capable, and maintainable TR-3 product.” They remain optimistic about potential TR-3 configured aircraft deliveries, geared for combat training, by late July.

<p>"Today's exercise marks the accomplishment of over four years of work -- a little over four years ago, we received our first F-35," Col. Michael Ebner, 388th Wing vice commander, told the Deseret News. "We now have our full complement of aircraft and locally, we turn this into a goal of full war-fighting capability."</p>

Despite these setbacks, the F-35's full-rate production milestone, reached in March 2024, remains a significant achievement in its operational life cycle. Even as officials wrestle with the TR-3 induced delays, persistent challenges shadow the program's advancement.

<p>As of December 2023, the F-35 has delivered over 900 aircraft to the U.S. services and allies.</p>

These include the need for an upgrade to the Power and Thermal Management System (PTMS) to support future combat capabilities, a concern that GAO indicates may realistically be pushed to 2032 from an earlier envisaged 2029.

The uncertainty surrounding the PTMS upgrade could further delay the delivery of the F-35s with the upgraded engines, slated for 2032.

<p>These systems complement the carrier's primary role: to launch and recover a versatile array of aircraft that includes the stealthy F-35C Lightning II, the formidable F/A-18 Super Hornet, and the electronic warfare specialist EA-18G Growler, among others.</p>

In light of the GAO's critical findings, actions have been taken at the legislative level. The House Armed Services Committee has proposed reducing the Pentagon's fiscal 2025 F-35 budget request and conditioning funding for additional jets, with the intent of stabilizing the program.

Relevant articles: - Persistent Challenges Plague F-35 Program Despite Achieving Full-Rate Production , SOFREP, 05/26/2024 - Air & Space Forces Magazine , Air & Space Forces Magazine, 05/26/2024

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And domain-specific critical thinking skills can be supported through instruction. That is, if your goal is to teach someone how to, say, debug a program that isn't working, there is evidence that it can be taught through direct instruction and practice applying it, getting feedback along the way. ‍ But this gets at another challenge.
Leveraging Technology to Develop Students' Critical Thinking Skills
This article describes the nexus of the Technological Pedagogical and Content Knowledge (TPACK) framework, principles of the Backward Curriculum Design process, and the Education 1.0, 2.0, & 3.0 communication flows working together to help TK-12 educators leverage technology tools to support the development of students' critical thinking skills.
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Critical thinking (CT) is a ... then it will more likely be a greater challenge for them to remain unbiased and develop a reasonably objective argument or solution. Notably, self-regulation is an important aspect of both ... Implications for critical thinking development. Educational Technology and Research. 2019; 68:17-35. doi: 10.1007 ...
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To answer this question an account of the theory of technology across critical theory will be provided as a starting point. The second section offers a contemporary assessment of the relevance of the theory of technology in critical theory, taking recent literature on digitization and surveillance capitalism as examples that appear to confirm the prognoses of first-generation critical theory.
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Confirmation bias, logical fallacies, emotions, lack of information or misinformation, groupthink, overconfidence bias, and cognitive dissonance are all common challenges that you may face when attempting to engage in critical thinking. To overcome these challenges, it is important to develop strategies such as seeking out diverse perspectives ...
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Stepstone Group, Inc. (STEP) has disclosed a new risk, in the Technology category.Stepstone Group, Inc. faces significant business risk as the financial landscape is rapidly reshaped by emerging ...
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Assessing Critical Thinking in the Digital Era

The Importance of Assessment

A Partnership Between Industry and Academia

At the Forefront of Disruption

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What Is Critical Thinking?

Types of Critical Thinking Skills

Using Online Tools to Teach Critical Thinking Skills

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An Evaluative Review of Barriers to Critical Thinking in Educational and Real-World Settings

1. Introduction

2. Barriers to Critical Thinking

2.2. Epistemological (Mis)Understanding

2.3. Intuitive Judgment

2.4. Bias and Emotion

3. Discussion

3.2. Further Implications and Future Research

4. Conclusions

Acknowledgments

Funding Statement

Institutional Review Board Statement

Informed Consent Statement

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Teaching Critical Thinking in the Digital Age

Table of Contents

Strategies for Teaching Critical Thinking in the Digital Age

What Activities Can Teachers Incorporate to Develop Critical Thinking?

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Introduction

Background Information

21st Century Learning

21st Century Competencies

Critical Thinking & Decision Making

Definition and Importance of Critical Thinking

Teaching and Assessing Critical Thinking

Applications

Information Communication Technology (ICT)

Educational Technology Example

Conclusions and Future Recommendations

Appendix A: ACER Critical thinking skill development framework

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