critical thinking in the classroom...and beyond

• Research Article

Critical Thinking Skills in the Classroom and Beyond

Teaching Strategies

Becoming a critical thinker isn’t an unreachable goal. As Arthur Aufderheide, the Mummy Doctor, once said, “All knowledge is connected to all other knowledge. The fun is in making the connections.”

What does that have to do with critical thinking? Everything! Critical thinking is taking our natural curiosity and making meaningful connections. We solve problems daily, and critical thinking plays an essential role in the process. Observing, analyzing, and maybe even failing as we process solutions to life’s everyday puzzles is necessary. Critical thinking isn’t about acting on your beliefs. It extends to reasoning, communication, reflection, and action.

With roots dating back to the mid-late 20th century , the term "critical thinking" has evolved through the years. It takes discipline to critically think because it requires questioning, open-mindedness, and problem-solving skills . Developing critical thinking skills in students is vital to success in all content areas and extracurricular activities.

What does critical thinking look like in the classroom?

Critical thinking in the classroom looks like examining and brainstorming. It’s a fearlessness to analyze, test, and even reject ideas. It’s metacognition , which is simply thinking about thinking. Critical thinking happens when teachers ask thought-provoking questions and resist the urge to generate ideas for students.

What can teachers do to foster critical thinking?

• Ask questions without one specific answer to find.
• Allow students to explain their thinking with pictures, numbers, or words.
• Support the productive struggle .
• Brainstorm as a whole class so that students hear the thoughts of others.
• Compare and contrast! Get students to recognize and understand different sides to one issue.
• Make connections to prior knowledge.
• Encourage students to dig deeper by considering and analyzing alternatives to their first reactions and answers.
• Have students explain why they chose to do tasks in certain ways.
• Share helpful processes to try when things seem tricky. Invite students to give their tips.
• Provide opportunities for students to gather and evaluate information .
• Don’t stop when an assignment is over. Take valuable time for reflection.

Critical thinking beyond the classroom

Critical thinking is one skill that transfers from the classroom to the real world. It’s also necessary for success in academic and professional careers . Every single one of us has to ask purposeful questions and communicate our thoughts effectively. Critical thinking is more than that! It improves decision-making and objective reasoning. It allows us to move beyond emotional reactions to analysis, conclusions, and positive and negative consequences. True critical thinking also involves reflection to see the cause and effect of our decisions.

Critical thinking is one skill that transfers from the classroom to the real world.

Helping your students develop critical thinking skills benefits the whole child. A lot is going on in their worlds. Understanding how to think through decisions is a crucial skill. Set your students up for success with plenty of opportunities for critical thinking in your classroom!

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Critical Thinking: A Guide For The Classroom And Beyond

“Clear, critical thinking should be at the heart of every discipline in school and a cultivated habit outside it too.” – Sir Ken Robinson

One of the great responsibilities for educators is to prepare students for the future in a complex and ever-changing world. As society and employment opportunities evolve, there is a greater need to develop 21st-century skills , such as critical thinking .

As an experienced educator, I understand the need to adapt to new challenges and equip students with the tools they need to navigate life beyond the classroom. This has become especially important during these uncertain times of the global pandemic.

The pandemic has placed further pressure on educators to adapt to new ways of working which also requires some critical thinking of their own.

This article will guide you through the fundamentals of Critical Thinking and provide tried and tested methods to use in your classroom and everyday life.

Critical Thinking Quick Guide:

• What is Critical Thinking?

Analytical Thinking vs Critical Thinking

Developing thinking skills, critical thinking in the classroom, critical thinking activities, critical thinking practice, barriers to critical thinking, food for thought, what is critical thinking.

“Critical thinking can be defined in a number of different ways consistent with each other, we should not put a lot of weight on any one definition. Definitions are at best scaffolding for the mind. With this qualification in mind, here is a bit of scaffolding: critical thinking is thinking about your thinking while you’re thinking in order to make your thinking better . ” – Richard Paul, author of Critical Thinking: How to Prepare Students for a Rapidly Changing World.

There is often a misconception that critical thinking is a negative process to disprove something. It would be more constructive to consider it as a means of putting an idea into perspective and seeing the bigger picture.

Critical thinking provides an opportunity to analyze and reflect on ideas. It also enables you to suspend past assumptions and self-doubt.

Analytical Thinking is a linear process which allows you to break down and review complex information. This type of thinking uses reasoning and logic to analyze the information presented, identify patterns and trends, and present facts and evidence.

Critical Thinking includes an element of analytical thinking but goes much further. It’s a more holistic process that results in a judgement of the validity of information using other sources. Critical thinking requires a detailed evaluation of the information. You should check for accuracy, any bias or assumptions, assess the conclusions and whether the evidence supports the conclusion.

Both of these skill sets should be developed to allow greater depth of thinking.

“We cannot solve our problems with the same thinking we used when we created them.” – Albert Einstein

When developing an academic curriculum, educators often refer to Bloom’s taxonomy – a model used to classify learning objectives. Within this model, thinking skills are categorized into lower and higher order thinking skills:

Lower order thinking skills – knowledge, comprehension and application Higher order thinking skills – analysis, synthesis and evaluation

The higher order thinking skills that students need for critical thinking can be assessed using a number of criteria:

• Use of information
• Questioning abilities
• Aptitude for communication and collaboration
• Ability to keep an open mind
• Ability to draw conclusions
• Self-awareness

Whilst this is not an exhaustive list, it is a good starting point for identifying learning outcomes and developing specific skills.

There are many tools that students can use to support their learning, such as interactive resources, social media and discussion groups to share thoughts and opinions. Connecting to others and the world around us can also help us to develop a greater understanding of ourselves.

“It is the mark of an educated mind to be able to entertain a thought without accepting it.” – Aristotle

“ How do you know that? ”

These two simple questions formed the basis of many interactions with students in my classroom, regardless of age or subject matter. When a student gave an answer to a question, I would ask one of these questions to encourage them to elaborate on their response. My students knew that I didn’t just want an answer but for them to demonstrate how they had arrived at the answer; I was interested in their critical thinking skills. Students would then consider if there were other ways to arrive at the same conclusion or whether there were alternative answers. They were also encouraged to ask their own questions to probe deeper into their thinking.

This simple resource can help students reflect and question their own thinking and ultimately develop their independent thinking skills for future learning.

Whilst this is just one anecdotal example to enhance critical thinking, there are many effective activities that you can use in the classroom with your students.

Continuum Line: Give students a key statement and a continuum line with ‘Always’ at one end and ‘Never’ at the other end. Students should determine where they would place themselves on the line and provide reasoning for their decisions. This task generates discussion and debate around the key statement. Some students may decide to change their position of the line throughout the course of the debate but persuasion is not the aim here. The purpose of the task is to elicit a range of viewpoints around the statement to support critical thinking.

Silent Debate: Set a number of written statements on large pieces of paper around the classroom. Students are then asked whether they agree or disagree with the statement. They should add their reasoning and also be encouraged to add to the ideas of others. This alternative to the traditional oral debate encourages everyone to contribute at the same time and promotes collaboration. It can be particularly effective for quieter class members.

Fact or Opinion?: Ask students to identify the facts and opinions within authentic articles or editorials. Encourage them to analyze the language and explain how they can distinguish the evidence from their beliefs.

All of these activities can be easily adapted from the classroom to online platforms such as Trello or Zoom breakouts rooms.

Check out this Critical Thinking Workbook for more examples.

“Everything we hear is an opinion, not a fact; everything we see is a perspective, not the truth.” – Marcus Aurelius.

In critical thinking, it is important not to willfully accept the all information presented. Question assumptions and ideas to determine whether or not you are seeing the bigger picture. ‘Fake News’ is a prime example of this.

Try these tips to hone your skills:

• Identify inconsistencies, errors, and omissions
• Find and understand links between ideas
• Develop systematic ways of solving problems
• Recognize problems before building any arguments
• Foster your curiosity – is there something else that hasn’t been explored?

A Closed Mind Everyone has opinions and their own perspective on some issues. If your bias is so strong that you are unwilling to consider any other perspectives, this leads to closed-mindedness. Your bias may be based on research outcomes that you consider unlikely to change. But critical thinkers know that even the basis of some knowledge can change over time. Check your assumptions to apply critical thinking.

Misunderstanding The Truth Or Facts We may occasionally accept beliefs presumed to be true but have little evidence to justify them. To demonstrate critical thinking, it’s crucial to distinguish facts from beliefs and to dig deeper by evaluating the "facts" and how much evidence there is to validate them.

Trusting Your Instincts When you trust your gut instincts, this is largely based on sensing or feeling. Using intuitive judgment is actually the last thing you should do if you want to demonstrate critical thinking, as you are less likely to question your assumptions or bias.

Lack Of Knowledge This barrier could be two-fold. Firstly, you may lack the knowledge and understanding of the higher-order skills required for critical thinking. Secondly, you may lack knowledge of the topic you need to evaluate. Recognizing this lack of understanding and carrying out research to close the knowledge gap will help to reduce the barrier.

Lack Of Effort Recognizing that critical thinking is not necessarily over-thinking is significant to removing this barrier. Even if you have developed the necessary skills, it is important to have the willingness to engage in the process of critical thinking.

Overcoming these barriers will help you to:

• Reinforce your problem-solving skills
• Boost your creativity
• Encourage curiosity
• Foster independence
• Develop your range of skills
• Provide you with a skill for life

Have you been evaluating the information presented in this guide?

Did you find yourself challenging or agreeing with points that have been raised?

Have you considered alternative ideas or new ways of thinking?

Are you think differently after reading this article?

If the answer is YES , you are already on the path to Critical Thinking!

Join us for more discussions at Aristotle’s Café .

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The Will to Teach

Critical Thinking in the Classroom: A Guide for Teachers

In the ever-evolving landscape of education, teaching students the skill of critical thinking has become a priority. This powerful tool empowers students to evaluate information, make reasoned judgments, and approach problems from a fresh perspective. In this article, we’ll explore the significance of critical thinking and provide effective strategies to nurture this skill in your students.

Why is Fostering Critical Thinking Important?

Strategies to cultivate critical thinking, real-world example, concluding thoughts.

Critical thinking is a key skill that goes far beyond the four walls of a classroom. It equips students to better understand and interact with the world around them. Here are some reasons why fostering critical thinking is important:

• Making Informed Decisions:  Critical thinking enables students to evaluate the pros and cons of a situation, helping them make informed and rational decisions.
• Developing Analytical Skills:  Critical thinking involves analyzing information from different angles, which enhances analytical skills.
• Promoting Independence:  Critical thinking fosters independence by encouraging students to form their own opinions based on their analysis, rather than relying on others.

Creating an environment that encourages critical thinking can be accomplished in various ways. Here are some effective strategies:

• Socratic Questioning:  This method involves asking thought-provoking questions that encourage students to think deeply about a topic. For example, instead of asking, “What is the capital of France?” you might ask, “Why do you think Paris became the capital of France?”
• Debates and Discussions:  Debates and open-ended discussions allow students to explore different viewpoints and challenge their own beliefs. For example, a debate on a current event can engage students in critical analysis of the situation.
• Teaching Metacognition:  Teaching students to think about their own thinking can enhance their critical thinking skills. This can be achieved through activities such as reflective writing or journaling.
• Problem-Solving Activities:  As with developing problem-solving skills , activities that require students to find solutions to complex problems can also foster critical thinking.

As a school leader, I’ve seen the transformative power of critical thinking. During a school competition, I observed a team of students tasked with proposing a solution to reduce our school’s environmental impact. Instead of jumping to obvious solutions, they critically evaluated multiple options, considering the feasibility, cost, and potential impact of each. They ultimately proposed a comprehensive plan that involved water conservation, waste reduction, and energy efficiency measures. This demonstrated their ability to critically analyze a problem and develop an effective solution.

Critical thinking is an essential skill for students in the 21st century. It equips them to understand and navigate the world in a thoughtful and informed manner. As a teacher, incorporating strategies to foster critical thinking in your classroom can make a lasting impact on your students’ educational journey and life beyond school.

1. What is critical thinking? Critical thinking is the ability to analyze information objectively and make a reasoned judgment.

2. Why is critical thinking important for students? Critical thinking helps students make informed decisions, develop analytical skills, and promotes independence.

3. What are some strategies to cultivate critical thinking in students? Strategies can include Socratic questioning, debates and discussions, teaching metacognition, and problem-solving activities.

4. How can I assess my students’ critical thinking skills? You can assess critical thinking skills through essays, presentations, discussions, and problem-solving tasks that require thoughtful analysis.

5. Can critical thinking be taught? Yes, critical thinking can be taught and nurtured through specific teaching strategies and a supportive learning environment.

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Classroom Q&A

With larry ferlazzo.

In this EdWeek blog, an experiment in knowledge-gathering, Ferlazzo will address readers’ questions on classroom management, ELL instruction, lesson planning, and other issues facing teachers. Send your questions to [email protected]. Read more from this blog.

Eight Instructional Strategies for Promoting Critical Thinking

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(This is the first post in a three-part series.)

The new question-of-the-week is:

What is critical thinking and how can we integrate it into the classroom?

This three-part series will explore what critical thinking is, if it can be specifically taught and, if so, how can teachers do so in their classrooms.

Today’s guests are Dara Laws Savage, Patrick Brown, Meg Riordan, Ph.D., and Dr. PJ Caposey. Dara, Patrick, and Meg were also guests on my 10-minute BAM! Radio Show . You can also find a list of, and links to, previous shows here.

You might also be interested in The Best Resources On Teaching & Learning Critical Thinking In The Classroom .

Current Events

Dara Laws Savage is an English teacher at the Early College High School at Delaware State University, where she serves as a teacher and instructional coach and lead mentor. Dara has been teaching for 25 years (career preparation, English, photography, yearbook, newspaper, and graphic design) and has presented nationally on project-based learning and technology integration:

There is so much going on right now and there is an overload of information for us to process. Did you ever stop to think how our students are processing current events? They see news feeds, hear news reports, and scan photos and posts, but are they truly thinking about what they are hearing and seeing?

I tell my students that my job is not to give them answers but to teach them how to think about what they read and hear. So what is critical thinking and how can we integrate it into the classroom? There are just as many definitions of critical thinking as there are people trying to define it. However, the Critical Think Consortium focuses on the tools to create a thinking-based classroom rather than a definition: “Shape the climate to support thinking, create opportunities for thinking, build capacity to think, provide guidance to inform thinking.” Using these four criteria and pairing them with current events, teachers easily create learning spaces that thrive on thinking and keep students engaged.

One successful technique I use is the FIRE Write. Students are given a quote, a paragraph, an excerpt, or a photo from the headlines. Students are asked to F ocus and respond to the selection for three minutes. Next, students are asked to I dentify a phrase or section of the photo and write for two minutes. Third, students are asked to R eframe their response around a specific word, phrase, or section within their previous selection. Finally, students E xchange their thoughts with a classmate. Within the exchange, students also talk about how the selection connects to what we are covering in class.

There was a controversial Pepsi ad in 2017 involving Kylie Jenner and a protest with a police presence. The imagery in the photo was strikingly similar to a photo that went viral with a young lady standing opposite a police line. Using that image from a current event engaged my students and gave them the opportunity to critically think about events of the time.

Here are the two photos and a student response:

F - Focus on both photos and respond for three minutes

In the first picture, you see a strong and courageous black female, bravely standing in front of two officers in protest. She is risking her life to do so. Iesha Evans is simply proving to the world she does NOT mean less because she is black … and yet officers are there to stop her. She did not step down. In the picture below, you see Kendall Jenner handing a police officer a Pepsi. Maybe this wouldn’t be a big deal, except this was Pepsi’s weak, pathetic, and outrageous excuse of a commercial that belittles the whole movement of people fighting for their lives.

I - Identify a word or phrase, underline it, then write about it for two minutes

A white, privileged female in place of a fighting black woman was asking for trouble. A struggle we are continuously fighting every day, and they make a mockery of it. “I know what will work! Here Mr. Police Officer! Drink some Pepsi!” As if. Pepsi made a fool of themselves, and now their already dwindling fan base continues to ever shrink smaller.

R - Reframe your thoughts by choosing a different word, then write about that for one minute

You don’t know privilege until it’s gone. You don’t know privilege while it’s there—but you can and will be made accountable and aware. Don’t use it for evil. You are not stupid. Use it to do something. Kendall could’ve NOT done the commercial. Kendall could’ve released another commercial standing behind a black woman. Anything!

Exchange - Remember to discuss how this connects to our school song project and our previous discussions?

This connects two ways - 1) We want to convey a strong message. Be powerful. Show who we are. And Pepsi definitely tried. … Which leads to the second connection. 2) Not mess up and offend anyone, as had the one alma mater had been linked to black minstrels. We want to be amazing, but we have to be smart and careful and make sure we include everyone who goes to our school and everyone who may go to our school.

As a final step, students read and annotate the full article and compare it to their initial response.

Using current events and critical-thinking strategies like FIRE writing helps create a learning space where thinking is the goal rather than a score on a multiple-choice assessment. Critical-thinking skills can cross over to any of students’ other courses and into life outside the classroom. After all, we as teachers want to help the whole student be successful, and critical thinking is an important part of navigating life after they leave our classrooms.

‘Before-Explore-Explain’

Patrick Brown is the executive director of STEM and CTE for the Fort Zumwalt school district in Missouri and an experienced educator and author :

Planning for critical thinking focuses on teaching the most crucial science concepts, practices, and logical-thinking skills as well as the best use of instructional time. One way to ensure that lessons maintain a focus on critical thinking is to focus on the instructional sequence used to teach.

Explore-before-explain teaching is all about promoting critical thinking for learners to better prepare students for the reality of their world. What having an explore-before-explain mindset means is that in our planning, we prioritize giving students firsthand experiences with data, allow students to construct evidence-based claims that focus on conceptual understanding, and challenge students to discuss and think about the why behind phenomena.

Just think of the critical thinking that has to occur for students to construct a scientific claim. 1) They need the opportunity to collect data, analyze it, and determine how to make sense of what the data may mean. 2) With data in hand, students can begin thinking about the validity and reliability of their experience and information collected. 3) They can consider what differences, if any, they might have if they completed the investigation again. 4) They can scrutinize outlying data points for they may be an artifact of a true difference that merits further exploration of a misstep in the procedure, measuring device, or measurement. All of these intellectual activities help them form more robust understanding and are evidence of their critical thinking.

In explore-before-explain teaching, all of these hard critical-thinking tasks come before teacher explanations of content. Whether we use discovery experiences, problem-based learning, and or inquiry-based activities, strategies that are geared toward helping students construct understanding promote critical thinking because students learn content by doing the practices valued in the field to generate knowledge.

An Issue of Equity

Meg Riordan, Ph.D., is the chief learning officer at The Possible Project, an out-of-school program that collaborates with youth to build entrepreneurial skills and mindsets and provides pathways to careers and long-term economic prosperity. She has been in the field of education for over 25 years as a middle and high school teacher, school coach, college professor, regional director of N.Y.C. Outward Bound Schools, and director of external research with EL Education:

Although critical thinking often defies straightforward definition, most in the education field agree it consists of several components: reasoning, problem-solving, and decisionmaking, plus analysis and evaluation of information, such that multiple sides of an issue can be explored. It also includes dispositions and “the willingness to apply critical-thinking principles, rather than fall back on existing unexamined beliefs, or simply believe what you’re told by authority figures.”

Despite variation in definitions, critical thinking is nonetheless promoted as an essential outcome of students’ learning—we want to see students and adults demonstrate it across all fields, professions, and in their personal lives. Yet there is simultaneously a rationing of opportunities in schools for students of color, students from under-resourced communities, and other historically marginalized groups to deeply learn and practice critical thinking.

For example, many of our most underserved students often spend class time filling out worksheets, promoting high compliance but low engagement, inquiry, critical thinking, or creation of new ideas. At a time in our world when college and careers are critical for participation in society and the global, knowledge-based economy, far too many students struggle within classrooms and schools that reinforce low-expectations and inequity.

If educators aim to prepare all students for an ever-evolving marketplace and develop skills that will be valued no matter what tomorrow’s jobs are, then we must move critical thinking to the forefront of classroom experiences. And educators must design learning to cultivate it.

So, what does that really look like?

Unpack and define critical thinking

To understand critical thinking, educators need to first unpack and define its components. What exactly are we looking for when we speak about reasoning or exploring multiple perspectives on an issue? How does problem-solving show up in English, math, science, art, or other disciplines—and how is it assessed? At Two Rivers, an EL Education school, the faculty identified five constructs of critical thinking, defined each, and created rubrics to generate a shared picture of quality for teachers and students. The rubrics were then adapted across grade levels to indicate students’ learning progressions.

At Avenues World School, critical thinking is one of the Avenues World Elements and is an enduring outcome embedded in students’ early experiences through 12th grade. For instance, a kindergarten student may be expected to “identify cause and effect in familiar contexts,” while an 8th grader should demonstrate the ability to “seek out sufficient evidence before accepting a claim as true,” “identify bias in claims and evidence,” and “reconsider strongly held points of view in light of new evidence.”

When faculty and students embrace a common vision of what critical thinking looks and sounds like and how it is assessed, educators can then explicitly design learning experiences that call for students to employ critical-thinking skills. This kind of work must occur across all schools and programs, especially those serving large numbers of students of color. As Linda Darling-Hammond asserts , “Schools that serve large numbers of students of color are least likely to offer the kind of curriculum needed to ... help students attain the [critical-thinking] skills needed in a knowledge work economy. ”

So, what can it look like to create those kinds of learning experiences?

Designing experiences for critical thinking

After defining a shared understanding of “what” critical thinking is and “how” it shows up across multiple disciplines and grade levels, it is essential to create learning experiences that impel students to cultivate, practice, and apply these skills. There are several levers that offer pathways for teachers to promote critical thinking in lessons:

1.Choose Compelling Topics: Keep it relevant

A key Common Core State Standard asks for students to “write arguments to support claims in an analysis of substantive topics or texts using valid reasoning and relevant and sufficient evidence.” That might not sound exciting or culturally relevant. But a learning experience designed for a 12th grade humanities class engaged learners in a compelling topic— policing in America —to analyze and evaluate multiple texts (including primary sources) and share the reasoning for their perspectives through discussion and writing. Students grappled with ideas and their beliefs and employed deep critical-thinking skills to develop arguments for their claims. Embedding critical-thinking skills in curriculum that students care about and connect with can ignite powerful learning experiences.

2. Make Local Connections: Keep it real

At The Possible Project , an out-of-school-time program designed to promote entrepreneurial skills and mindsets, students in a recent summer online program (modified from in-person due to COVID-19) explored the impact of COVID-19 on their communities and local BIPOC-owned businesses. They learned interviewing skills through a partnership with Everyday Boston , conducted virtual interviews with entrepreneurs, evaluated information from their interviews and local data, and examined their previously held beliefs. They created blog posts and videos to reflect on their learning and consider how their mindsets had changed as a result of the experience. In this way, we can design powerful community-based learning and invite students into productive struggle with multiple perspectives.

3. Create Authentic Projects: Keep it rigorous

At Big Picture Learning schools, students engage in internship-based learning experiences as a central part of their schooling. Their school-based adviser and internship-based mentor support them in developing real-world projects that promote deeper learning and critical-thinking skills. Such authentic experiences teach “young people to be thinkers, to be curious, to get from curiosity to creation … and it helps students design a learning experience that answers their questions, [providing an] opportunity to communicate it to a larger audience—a major indicator of postsecondary success.” Even in a remote environment, we can design projects that ask more of students than rote memorization and that spark critical thinking.

Our call to action is this: As educators, we need to make opportunities for critical thinking available not only to the affluent or those fortunate enough to be placed in advanced courses. The tools are available, let’s use them. Let’s interrogate our current curriculum and design learning experiences that engage all students in real, relevant, and rigorous experiences that require critical thinking and prepare them for promising postsecondary pathways.

Critical Thinking & Student Engagement

Dr. PJ Caposey is an award-winning educator, keynote speaker, consultant, and author of seven books who currently serves as the superintendent of schools for the award-winning Meridian CUSD 223 in northwest Illinois. You can find PJ on most social-media platforms as MCUSDSupe:

When I start my keynote on student engagement, I invite two people up on stage and give them each five paper balls to shoot at a garbage can also conveniently placed on stage. Contestant One shoots their shot, and the audience gives approval. Four out of 5 is a heckuva score. Then just before Contestant Two shoots, I blindfold them and start moving the garbage can back and forth. I usually try to ensure that they can at least make one of their shots. Nobody is successful in this unfair environment.

I thank them and send them back to their seats and then explain that this little activity was akin to student engagement. While we all know we want student engagement, we are shooting at different targets. More importantly, for teachers, it is near impossible for them to hit a target that is moving and that they cannot see.

Within the world of education and particularly as educational leaders, we have failed to simplify what student engagement looks like, and it is impossible to define or articulate what student engagement looks like if we cannot clearly articulate what critical thinking is and looks like in a classroom. Because, simply, without critical thought, there is no engagement.

The good news here is that critical thought has been defined and placed into taxonomies for decades already. This is not something new and not something that needs to be redefined. I am a Bloom’s person, but there is nothing wrong with DOK or some of the other taxonomies, either. To be precise, I am a huge fan of Daggett’s Rigor and Relevance Framework. I have used that as a core element of my practice for years, and it has shaped who I am as an instructional leader.

So, in order to explain critical thought, a teacher or a leader must familiarize themselves with these tried and true taxonomies. Easy, right? Yes, sort of. The issue is not understanding what critical thought is; it is the ability to integrate it into the classrooms. In order to do so, there are a four key steps every educator must take.

• Integrating critical thought/rigor into a lesson does not happen by chance, it happens by design. Planning for critical thought and engagement is much different from planning for a traditional lesson. In order to plan for kids to think critically, you have to provide a base of knowledge and excellent prompts to allow them to explore their own thinking in order to analyze, evaluate, or synthesize information.
• SIDE NOTE – Bloom’s verbs are a great way to start when writing objectives, but true planning will take you deeper than this.

QUESTIONING

• If the questions and prompts given in a classroom have correct answers or if the teacher ends up answering their own questions, the lesson will lack critical thought and rigor.
• Script five questions forcing higher-order thought prior to every lesson. Experienced teachers may not feel they need this, but it helps to create an effective habit.
• If lessons are rigorous and assessments are not, students will do well on their assessments, and that may not be an accurate representation of the knowledge and skills they have mastered. If lessons are easy and assessments are rigorous, the exact opposite will happen. When deciding to increase critical thought, it must happen in all three phases of the game: planning, instruction, and assessment.

TALK TIME / CONTROL

• To increase rigor, the teacher must DO LESS. This feels counterintuitive but is accurate. Rigorous lessons involving tons of critical thought must allow for students to work on their own, collaborate with peers, and connect their ideas. This cannot happen in a silent room except for the teacher talking. In order to increase rigor, decrease talk time and become comfortable with less control. Asking questions and giving prompts that lead to no true correct answer also means less control. This is a tough ask for some teachers. Explained differently, if you assign one assignment and get 30 very similar products, you have most likely assigned a low-rigor recipe. If you assign one assignment and get multiple varied products, then the students have had a chance to think deeply, and you have successfully integrated critical thought into your classroom.

Thanks to Dara, Patrick, Meg, and PJ for their contributions!

Please feel free to leave a comment with your reactions to the topic or directly to anything that has been said in this post.

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Critical Thinking in the Classroom…And Beyond

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Critical Thinking in the Classroom…and Beyond

Linda M. Murawski, EdD Adjunct Professor Department of Human Resources Development Graduate & Professional Studies Tusculum College Knoxville, Tennessee

ABSTRACT Critical thinking in the classroom is a common term used by educators. Critical thinking has been called “the art of thinking about thinking” (Ruggiero, V.R., 2012) with the intent to improve one’s thinking. The challenge, of course, is to create learning environments that promote critical thinking both in the classroom and beyond. Teaching and practicing critical thinking provides adults with the opportunity to embrace and take charge of their learning. Adults engaged in critical thinking approach the classroom experience differently. Typically, students who implement critical thinking skills approach the courseware in a more thoughtful and effective manner, ask more challenging questions and participate in the learning process more intensely. This critical thinking process endures beyond the classroom and into the workplace. This session examines the background of critical thinking, its role in the classroom and beyond that to the workplace.

INTRODUCTION of many years of research , analysis, teaching and practice, Ennis concluded that critical thinking is “focused on de- Critical thinking is a common course in college and uni- ciding what to believe or do,” (Ennis, p. 10). versity settings today. Frequently taught as a way to “im- prove” thinking, the art of critical thinking involves an Ennis separated critical thinking into two categories: dis- approach to thinking--more importantly to learning--that positions and abilities. The ideal critical thinker, in his embraces changing how one thinks about thinking. Criti- writings, is disposed to reach a “right” decision, present cal thinking incorporates how learners develop and apply that position honestly and clearly, consider others’ points thought to understand how thinking can be improved. of view, seek to be well informed, and to avoid intimidat- Typically, a person is deemed a critical thinker to the ex- ing or confusing others. Additionally, that critical thinker tent that he or she regularly improves their thinking in an has the ability to focus on a question, analyze and argu- intentional manner. The basic idea undergirding the study ment, judge the creditability of a source, make and value of critical thinking is simple--to determine strengths and judgments, clarify and refine their viewpoint, support weaknesses in one’s thinking in order to maintain the their viewpoints appropriately, and to imaginatively sup- strengths and make improvements by targeting the weak- pose and integrate the logic of a viewpoint with sensitivity nesses. to others (Ennis, 2011). The wordcritical for this paper is not intended to denote a Vincent Ruggiero writing in The art of thinking: A guide negative approach to thinking. Critical implies evaluation to critical and creative thought describes thinking as “any of thoughts , ideas or judgments with awareness, creativity mental activity that helps formulate or solve a problem, and refinement of these processes as needed. make a decision, or fulfill a desire to understand. It is searching for answers while reaching for meaning” (Rug- Critical thinking has its roots in the work of such no- giero, 2012 p. 4). He notes that thinking may not always tables as Socrates , Thomas Aquinas, Francis Bacon , Rene be a conscious effort. There are forces at work--beneath Descartes, John Locke and Sir Issac Newton in its earli- the surface so to speak-- within the unconscious that dic- est times. More modern contributions can be attributed tate one’s overt thinking. An example might be driving to John Dewey , Ludwig Wittgenstein, and Jean Piaget to a daily destination such as work without consciously among others. Work completed by Robert Ennis in the remembering each landmark along the route. This type 1960s gave rise to critical thinking skills taught in the of thinking occurs without much critical thought at all. classroom and reflected in the workplace. Ennis focused Indeed, the brain seems to be on auto-pilot in this situa- on critical thinking as a learned skill that could be trans- tion. Critical thinking according to Ruggiero is more at- ferred to the workplace if taught and practiced. As a result

Journal of Learning in Higher Education 25 Linda M. Murawski Critical Thinking in the Classroom…and Beyond tuned to thinking that occurs to solve problems, analyze ages and one whose definition suits the occasion is the • Take the first approach that occurs to them Acknowledging that critical thinking is an important issues or make decisions. Staying with the aforementioned mostly likely one that a writer will select. skill is fundamental. Critical thinking can be taught and • Judge quickly—maybe too quickly and not criti- example, if the road normally driven is blocked or closed, should be taught in a directed manner providing students cally the driver would need to critically think about an alter- Characteristics of a Critical Thinker with practice while evaluating and testing ideas. Criti- nate route. Which route is shortest to the destination? • Fail to listen actively cal thinking is not a natural byproduct of taking college Which route might not be blocked like the one encoun- Critical thinkers are those persons who can move beyond courses, even courses whose subject matter necessitate • Think their ideas are the best--all others are less tered? What could happen if that route were taken? All “typical” thinking models to an advanced way of thinking. critical thinking for success. In Developing Critical Think- these questions are examples of critical thinking based on Critical thinkers produce both more ideas and improved • Resist change ers, Stephen Brookfield (1987) emphasizes that “a willing- a problem needing to be solved. ideas than poor thinkers (Ruggiero, 2012). They become ness to risk experimentation in one’s teaching is an im- • Think in stereotypes more adept in their thinking by using a variety of probing portant aspect of modeling change and promoting critical Problem solving is the ultimate intent of critical think- techniques which enable them to discover new and often • Deceive themselves often openness in learners” (p.81). To that end, educators influ- ing for many scholars who study the phenomenon. Skills improved ideas. More specifically, critical thinkers tend to ence whether a student will learn critical thinking skills in in problem solving, issue analyses and decision making see the problem from many perspectives, to consider many their academic journey. are increasingly expected of employees. Evidence is grow- CRITICAL THINKING IN THE CLASSROOM different investigative approaches, and to produce many ing that critical thinking is “expected” in the workplace. ideas before choosing a course of action. In addition, they As noted earlier, critical thinking is an oft-used phrase in More than 400 senior HR professionals were asked in a Benefits of Critical Thinking for the Classroom are more willing to take intellectual risks, to be adventur- classroom settings. Adult learners are encouraged to de- survey to name the most important skill their employees ous, to consider unusual ideas, and to use their imagina- velop these skills and practice them situationally. Critical will need in the next five years. Critical thinking ranked Instructors who teach critical thinking provide students tions while analyzing problems and issues. thinking means reviewing the ideas produced, making a the highest – even more than innovation or the applica- with the opportunity to understand and take charge of tentative decision about what action will best solve the tion of information technology. This response reflects Critical thinkers test their first impressions, make impor- their learning. Students who implement critical thinking problem or what belief about the issue is most reasonable, how the nature of work and the skills required have been tant distinctions among choices, and base their conclu- skills approach the courseware in a more thoughtful and and then evaluating and refining that solution or belief changing dramatically (Society for Human Resources sions on evidence rather than their own feelings. Sensitive effective manner, ask more challenging questions and par- (Ruggiero, 2012). The effects of developing keen prob- Management, 2006). to their own limitations and predispositions, they double- ticipate in the learning process more intensely. lem solving skills cannot be understated. Problem solv- check the logic of their thinking and the workability of ing skills have the potential to impact individuals more Students who develop critical thinking skills often prac- their solutions, identifying imperfections and complica- Meaning of Critical Thinking immediately and often with ramifications for the future. tice those skills well into latter life. These skills may, in tions, anticipating negative responses, and generally refin- Those who attend to the notion of improving these skills fact , literally change their lives forever. Developing criti- In a recent survey by the American Associate of Colleges ing their ideas. are characterized in some important ways listed in the cal thinking abilities translates to both academic and job & Universities (AACU), 74 percent of respondents indi- Critical thinkers learn to focus. They do not experience table below as posited by Ruggiero, 2012) success. Using these skills, students tend to expand the cated that critical thinking was a core learning objective fewer distractions than others do; they simply deal with perspectives from which they view the world and increase for the campus’s general education program (AACU Re- them more quickly and more effectively than ineffective their ability to navigate the important decisions in learn- port, 2009, p. 4). While there is a general agreement among thinkers do. There is no magic in what effective thinkers ing and in life. higher education professionals that critical thinking skills do. They practice their skills much like any learned skill. are important, there is a lack of clarity about what exactly Chart of Problem Solvers At one time, educators believed that content knowledge critical thinking is. A California study found that only 19 Critical thinkers typically (Ruggiero, 2012): Effective Ineffective was enough for students to succeed. It was thought that percent of faculty could give a clear explanation of critical --for the most part--information that students learned • Acknowledge personal limitations. Problem Solvers Problem Solvers thinking even though the vast majority (89 percent) in- in school was the same information that their parents Read a problem and Cannot determine where learned. That paradigm has shifted in a changing world dicated that they include it in their curriculum (Paul, El- • See problems as exciting challenges. decide how to attack it. or how to begin. der,& Bartell, 1997). While interviewing a private liberal typified by instant communication, 24/7 news cycles and • Have understanding as a goal. arts college faculty, Halx and Reybold (2005) explored in- Bring their knowledge to Convince themselves they the desire to know as much as possible as quickly as pos- structors’ perspectives of undergraduate thinking. Most • Use evidence to make judgments. bear on the problem. lack sufficient knowledge. sible. The power and speed of technology has created a participants were “eager to promote critical thinking” (p. world where information changes quickly, and new ideas • Are interested in others’ ideas. Solve a problem Jump in haphazardly 300) but the authors noted that none had been specifi- systematically: simplify, jumping from one part can be distributed and adapted almost instantaneously. cally trained to do so. The result was that instructors each • Are skeptical of extreme views. define and break into to another as they justify It has also resulted in inaccurate and mis-information developed and promoted their own distinct definition of which has to be sorted through and questioned critically. • Think before acting. parts their first impressions critical thinking. instead of testing them. Today it is important that students learn critical thinking • Avoid emotionalism skills, so they can be both the inventors and the critics of To arrive at a working definition of critical thinking, a Trust their reasoning and Tend to distrust their the new information. Edward de Bono (2004) in de Bo- review of the literature suggests several definitions as list- • Keep an open mind experience thus boosting reasoning and lack no’s Thinking Course writes, “Knowledge is not enough. ed in Appendix A. These definitions were gleaned from their confidence. confidence in themselves. • Engage in active listening The creative, constructive, design and operating aspects of many that appear in various publications. A consensus is Maintain a critical Lack a critical attitude thinking are just as important as knowledge” (p.6). difficult--if not impossible--to reach. Scholars, journalists Conversely, non-critical thinkers, typically (Ruggiero, attitude throughout the and take many A caution is in order here. To develop critical thinkers and authors of every ilk “poke” at a definition that will 2012): problem solving process. assumptions for granted. satisfy the masses. One could speculate that this attempt is to develop both the best and worst in thinking. Those to qualify critical thinking will continue throughout the • See a limited number of perspectives (sometimes who master critical thinking--a long and winding path-- just one) may at first use their newly found skill in a negative way.

26 Spring 2014 (Volume 10 Issue 1) Journal of Learning in Higher Education 27 Linda M. Murawski Critical Thinking in the Classroom…and Beyond

It is prudent to remember that to thinki critically is not to Evidence is strong that critical thinking skills are need impact daily life in the workplace. May of these decisions Ennis, Robert H. (2006). ‘Probably’. In David Hitchcock criticize in a negative manner but rather to “think deeply and desired by employers. In a 2007 Society for Human extend beyond that individual worker and have a bearing & Bart Verheij (Eds.), Arguing on the Toulmin model. or to question.” According to Michael Roth (2013) “In a Resources Management Report, employers placed the on others in their own decision making. Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Springer. Pp. 145-164. humanities culture in which being smart often means being greatest weight on employee critical thinking and prob- Critical thinking is the lifeblood of the most essential Ennis, Robert H. (2004). Applying soundness standards a critical ‘un-masker,’ our students may become too good at lem solving (47% and 46 % respectively) skills as desired workplace skills, including problem solving, decision to qualified reasoning. , 24, 1, 23-39. showing how things make sense.”The goal of critical skills for new hires. Potential employees reported-- as a Informal Logic don’t making, good judgment and sound analysis. Organiza- thinking is to learn a way to think more deeply, solve prob- recent change in their desired skills before entering the Haix, M. D., & Reybold, L E. (2005). A pedagogy of force: tions that can attract, retain and develop the best critical lems better, communicate, collaborate and innovate more ef- workplace-- critical thinking/problem solving (48%), cre- Faculty perspectives of critical thinking capacity in thinkers have a significant and measurable competitive fectively in our personal as well as organizational lives. ativity/innovation (40%) and leadership (40%) as neces- undergraduate students. advantage in the business world (Facione, 2013). The Journal of General Edu- sary tools for employment. cation, 54(4), 293—315. DOI:10.1353/jge.2006.0009 CRITICAL THINKING IN THE WORKPLACE Benefits of advancing critical thinking are more than a REFERENCES Elder, P.R., & Elder, L. (2008). The thinker’s guide for con- Why is critical thinking important in the workplace? “nice” thing to do. This skill can literally improve profits scientious citizens on how to detect media bias & propa- Anderson, A. (2013) What are the benefits of critical . Dillon Beach: CA: Critical thinking is applicable whenever people are called and capabilities of employees. Given the ability to apply ganda in national and world news thinking in the workplace? Retrieved from: http:// Foundation for Critical Thinking Press. to make a decision or resolve a problem. Working people critically enhanced thinking, companies/organizations smallbusiness.chron.com/benefits-critical-thinking- make decisions. Some are good decisions that move the can expect a different quality of corporate culture. That Elder, P.R, & Bartell, T. (1997). Study of 38 public univer- workplace-11638.htm business forward and increase profit. Others are poor de- improved culture may translate into dollars or more rev- sities and 28 private universities to determine faculty cisions that hurt the business and reduce profit. This is a enue in the long run or improved personal communica- Are They Really Ready to Work? Employers Perspectives emphasis on critical thinking in instruction. Retrieved frequent occurrence in workplaces at any level. tions, cooperation and collaboration in the short run. on the Basic Knowledge and Applied Skills of New En- fromRPAUL-3 8public.cfm Potential organizational impacts of critical thinking are . Study Management and upper level executives are not the only trants to the 21st Century US Workforce (2006) Facione, P. A. (2013). suggested in Appendix B. conducted by The Conference Board, Partnership for Critical thinking: What it is and ones who have the responsibility of making decisions; de- . Millbrae, CA: Measured Reason and the 21st Century Skills, Corporate Voices for Working why it counts cision making and problem solving are a constant in orga- Critical thinking brings new ideas and often processes to California Academic Press. Families, and the Society for Human Resource Man- nizations. Each person in an organization or business no the workplace. For example when approaching a problem agement. Facione, P. A. (1990). . Millbrae, CA: matter what their position makes hundreds of decisions solving issue surfaces in the workplace, a common reac- The Delphi report The California Academic Press. every day and each one is an opportunity for success or tion is to assume that it falls into a predetermined cate- Association of American Colleges and Universities. failure. gory. Critical thinking does not make any assumptions, (2009). Learning and assessment: Trends in under- Ruggiero, V. R. (2012). The art of thinking: A guide to and using the process of critical thinking in the workplace graduate education. Retrieved from www.aacu.org/ critical and creative thought (10th ed.). New York, NY: removes the temptation to immediately classify every is- Benefits of Critical Thinking in the Workplace membership/documents/2009MemberSurvey_Part Longman. sue under something that has happened in the past. Em- 1.pdf Roth, M.S. (2013). Beyond critical thinking. Critical thinking in the workplace has the potential to ployees can look beyond conventional solutions, search for The Chron- Brookfield, S. D. (1987) Developing critical thinkers: April 29, 2013 Retrieved impact people either in a negative or positive way through new ideas, and contemplate the alternatives to address the icle of Higher Education. . challenging adults to explore alternative ways of think- from http://chronicle.com/article/Beyond-Critical- the decision making process. Often decisions are made problem. Using critical thinking as an approach to prob- : ing and acting. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, Inc. Thinking/63288/ and passed along to people within organizations without lem solving, issue resolution or new product or processes much thought based on the need to take some action. In can liberate thinking in many different way. Additionally, Burbach, M. E., Matkin, G. S., & Fritz, S. M. (2004). Society for Human Resources Management (2007). Crit- this case, the impact for “normal” actions may be harmless critical thinking looks at the impact beyond a specific step Teaching critical thinking ical skills needs and resources for the changing workforce. based on daily routine. But for critical issues/ problems, in the decision process; i.e., if step one changes in a deci- Retrieved from: www.shrm.org. in an introductory leadership course utilizing active learn- “bad” decisions can negatively impact or render a serious sion, then the follow-on steps need to be examined criti- ing strategies: A confirmatory study. Wisegeek, (n.d.) Retrieved from: blow to the business. To mitigate the risk of serious nega- cally as well. This approach to thinking opens possibilities College Student What is critical thinking? (3), 482-493. http://www.wisegeek.org/what-is-critical-thinking. tive consequences, it is important to make decisions by that may otherwise lie unfolded. Journal, 38 htm carefully weighing them based on information that has Debono, E. (2004). Debono’s thinking course. London : been thoroughly analysed, evaluated and searched for the SUMMARY Facts on File Publishing Co. most reasonable solution. Critical thinking skills learned in the classroom definitely Dewey, J. (1910). How We Think. Buffalo, NY: Pro- The practice of critical thinking encourages employees and have an impact on future learning in the workplace. Once metheus Books. managers to observe various situations, weigh all possible learned, these skills imprint workers to think deeply and Ennis, Robert H. (2011). Critical thinking: Reflection solutions, then decide on a course of action. This process critically about workplace issues and their individual roles and perspective, Part I. Inquiry , Vol. 26, 1.6 can be a lengthy one that necessitates input from multiple in enhancing corporate cultures while adding value to the sources at different levels within the organization. Using products or services that an organization provides to the Ennis, Robert H. (2007). ‘Probable’ and its equivalents. In critical thinking skills is a benefit for employees as well as community or to the world. Hans V. Hansen & Robert C. Pinto (Eds.), Reason re- management when the practice is modeled and promoted claimed: Essays in honor of J. Anthony Blair and Ralph from the top to the bottom of the organizational hierar- Critical thinking skills are transferable from the class- H. Johnson. Newport News, VA: Vale Press. 243-256. chy (Anderson, 2013). room to the workplace. Transferring critical thinking skills is evidenced by the ability of an individual worker to make effective, well thought out and tested decisions that

28 Spring 2014 (Volume 10 Issue 1) Journal of Learning in Higher Education 29 Linda M. Murawski

APPENDIX A Selected Definitions of Critical Thinking • The art of thinking about thinking (Ruggiero, V.R., 2012, p.5) • Critical thinking focuses on deciding what to believe or do, (Ennis, p. 10). • Critical thinking is a mode of thinking about any subject, content or problem in which the thinker improves the quality of his or her thinking by skillful analyzing, assessing and reconstructing it. (Elder & Elder, 2008) • Critical thinking is purposeful, self-regulatory, judgment which results in interpretation, analysis, evalua- tion, and inference , as well as explanation of the evidential, conceptual, methodological, criteriological, or contextual considerations upon which that judgment is based” (P. A. Facione, 2006, p. 21). • Active, persistent, and careful consideration of a belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds which support it and the further conclusions to which it tends. (Dewey, 1910, P. 9) • Critical thinking is the ability to apply reasoning and logic to new or unfamiliar ideas, opinions , and situa- tions. (Wisegeek, n.d.)

APPENDIX B Potential Organizational Impact of Critical Thinking Critical Thinking Skills Critical Thinking Behaviors Outcomes • Distinguish fact from opinion • Asks questions that furthers • Well-thought out decisions understanding based on a sound rationale and • Seek multiple perspectives evidence • Doesn’t draw conclusions too • Recognize assumptions hastily • Information, conclusions and • Identify bias and persuasion decisions are revised as new • Considers all sides of an argu- information comes to light • Evaluate arguments for rel- ment evance and accuracy • Decisions reflect a “systems • Uses criteria to evaluate infor- thinking” rather than “silo” • Weigh data appropriately mation approach • Use multiple sources rather • Can “push back” effectively • Information evaluated based than a single source • Recognizes other people’s on evidence, logical inference, • Balance logic and emotion agendas and informed guesses • Use diagrams to visually repre- • Explores multiple perspectives • Ideas and plans are presented sent processes and thinking in a coherent and well thought • Adjusts assumptions in light of out fashion new evidence • Understands how conclusions were drawn • Identify what’s not known and what isn’t

30 Spring 2014 (Volume 10 Issue 1)

• Explanation
• Set_(psychology)
• Analysis_(journal)
• Critical_thinking
• Ethics_(Spinoza_book)

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Critical Thinking in the Classroom…and Beyond

2014, Journal of Learning in Higher Education

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Critical Thinking in the Classroom…and Beyond.

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How to Promote Critical Thinking in the Classroom

By elearning inside, february 05, 2024.

Promoting critical thinking is an essential goal in education, equipping students with problem-solving skills that extend beyond the classroom. In this article, we’ll explore practical strategies for teachers and schools to foster critical thinking among students.

Fostering a Growth Mindset

Encouraging a growth mindset is fundamental to promoting critical thinking. Teachers can cultivate this mindset by praising effort rather than innate abilities.

When students understand that their abilities can be developed through dedication and hard work, they are more likely to embrace challenges and think critically to overcome obstacles.

Questioning Techniques

One of the most effective ways to promote critical thinking is through questioning. Teachers can employ various questioning techniques to stimulate thought, such as Socratic questioning.

By asking open-ended questions that require students to think deeply, analyze, and evaluate, teachers can guide students to explore complex issues and construct well-reasoned responses.

Real-World Problem Solving

Incorporating real-world problem-solving scenarios into the curriculum can provide students with practical opportunities to apply critical thinking. These problems can range from scientific experiments to ethical dilemmas, encouraging students to assess situations, weigh evidence, and make informed decisions.

Encouraging group collaboration on these tasks can further enhance critical thinking by promoting different perspectives and solutions.

Creating a Physical Environment that Supports Critical Thinking

Classroom design and furniture also play a role in promoting critical thinking. A flexible classroom setup allows for collaborative learning and group discussions, encouraging students to engage in critical dialogue.

By providing comfortable seating options and ensuring that the classroom layout is adaptable, teachers can foster a more dynamic learning environment conducive to critical thinking.

Encouraging Divergent Thinking

Divergent thinking is a vital component of critical thinking, as it involves generating multiple solutions to a problem. Teachers can encourage this by using brainstorming techniques, mind maps, or role-playing exercises.

By allowing students to explore various angles and creative solutions, educators nurture their capacity for innovative problem-solving.

Analyzing Multiple Perspectives

Critical thinking is not limited to one perspective; it involves considering multiple viewpoints. Teachers can introduce debates, case studies, or simulations where students must analyze and argue from different angles.

Encouraging students to appreciate different viewpoints and make informed judgments fosters a more well-rounded and critical thinker.

Scaffolding Critical Thinking

To ensure that students of all ages can develop critical thinking skills, educators can scaffold the learning process. This involves providing support and gradually increasing the complexity of tasks.

For instance, younger students may begin by identifying problems, while older students progress to proposing solutions and evaluating their effectiveness.

Metacognition and Self-Reflection

Metacognition is the practice of thinking about thinking. It encourages students to assess their thought processes and strategies. Teachers can promote metacognition by encouraging students to self-reflect on their learning experiences.

When students consider how they approach problems and what strategies work best for them, they can refine their critical thinking skills.

Interdisciplinary Learning

Breaking down the barriers between subjects can also promote critical thinking. Interdisciplinary learning allows students to make connections between different fields of knowledge, encouraging them to draw on a wider range of information and skills to address problems.

Teachers can collaborate to create lesson plans that bridge the gaps between subjects, promoting a more holistic approach to critical thinking.

Feedback and Assessment

Effective feedback and assessment play a significant role in promoting critical thinking. Constructive feedback helps students understand where they can improve and refine their thinking.

Moreover, formative assessment strategies can help educators gauge students’ critical thinking abilities and adjust their teaching accordingly.

In summary, cultivating critical thinking within educational settings is a complex task that necessitates fostering a growth mentality, utilizing efficient questioning methods, advocating for real-life problem resolution, and supporting diverse thought processes.

Moreover, it entails emphasizing metacognition, appreciating numerous viewpoints, integrating interdisciplinary education, and offering evaluation and feedback. By adopting these pragmatic strategies, teachers can enable students to develop critical thinking skills, equipping them to face future obstacles effectively.

If you liked this article, check out Higher Education: Using AI to Meet Student Needs . 

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ERIC EJ1143316: Critical Thinking in the Classroom…and Beyond

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Thinking Classrooms: How To Promote Critical Thinking In Class

The Thinking Classroom is an approach to teaching that prioritizes the development of students’ critical thinking skills. In this type of classroom, the teacher acts as a facilitator rather than a traditional lecturer. Students are encouraged to actively engage with the material and collaborate with their peers.

The key to a Thinking Classroom is to focus on the process of learning rather than simply the acquisition of knowledge. This means that teachers must create opportunities for students to think critically, solve problems, and reflect on their learning.

We’ve rounded up the 14 practices of a Thinking Classroom below. 

What are the 14 Practices of a Thinking Classroom?

The fourteen principles of a Thinking Classroom are designed to promote a classroom environment that encourages critical thinking, problem-solving, and collaboration. 

Here’s a summary of each principle to help teachers create an engaging and effective learning environment:

1. Classroom Culture of Thinking

Create a classroom culture that values thinking, learning, and intellectual development. Start with thinking tasks that are separate from your curriculum. This eases the transition to everyday thinking classroom activities. It’s hard for students to think deeper and for longer periods, so this transition should be gradual. You can start with non-curricular tasks as an ice breaker at the beginning of the school year.

2. Opportunities to Think in Groups

Provide opportunities for students to think and engage in meaningful group learning experiences. The Thinking Classroom practices emphasize “visibly random groups” that change frequently. This reduces social anxiety in the group and decreases communication barriers. 

3. Vertical and Non-permanant Workspaces

You may have noticed that the traditional method of having students sit at their desks and take notes is only sometimes the best way to promote active thinking in your classroom. Recent research has shown that students are more engaged and productive when standing and working on vertical non-permanent surfaces (VNPSs) like whiteboards, blackboards, or windows. The fact that the surface is non-permanent encourages risk-taking and experimentation, while the vertical orientation prevents students from disengaging. 

4. Room Layout

Research has shown that traditional, front-facing classrooms promote passive learning. At the same time, a more flexible, de-fronted setup—where students are free to face any direction—can be much more effective in promoting active thinking and engagement. So when designing your classroom layout, it’s essential to consider how the physical space can support the learning you want to see.

5. Answer Questions that Promote Thinking

You answer hundreds of questions each day in class. But not all of the questions encourage your students to keep thinking. Here are the common types:

• Proximity questions: Questions students ask because you’re close by and convenient.
• Stop-thinking questions: Questions students ask so they can mark a task complete. (i.e., Is this right?)
• Keep-thinking questions: Questions that help them along, so they can continue working through a task.

Answer only questions that keep students thinking.

6. Give Tasks in the Right Manner

Give tasks early in class while students are standing around a teacher. Give verbal tasks, and avoid visual cues that promote passive learning. This differs from the traditional manner of giving examples from the textbook or a worksheet.  

7. Homework

Stop giving homework and instead give students opportunities to check their understanding. Make it optional so students can freely engage with authentic practice. 

8. Promote Student Autonomy

As step 5 outlines, don’t solve problems for students. Let them struggle so they build confidence in their independence. This may mean asking a peer for help or looking around the room for a hint. When students are on their own, they take ownership of their learning. 

9. Give Support So Students Can Learn at Their Own Pace

Encourage students to learn at their own pace by creating hints, extensions, and practice that meets them where they are in their learning. This is different from the typical guided practice that occurs in most classrooms. 

10. Consolidate Lessons

Consolidation is crucial to help students combine different parts of a task or activity and ultimately form a more comprehensive understanding of the concept taught. Traditionally, teachers have relied on methods like showing, telling, or explaining to help students achieve their learning objectives.

In a thinking classroom, consolidation takes a different approach. Instead of relying on teacher-led instruction, consolidation works upward from the basic foundation of a concept. By drawing on the student work produced during their thinking on a common set of tasks, teachers can help students develop a deeper understanding of the concept.

To facilitate this process, teachers should provide open-ended questions, encourage peer-to-peer discussions, or engage in activities that allow students to explore and experiment with the concept taught.

11. Give Students Autonomy Over Notes

Only one in five students review their notes again after taking them in class. Give students the option of choosing which notes to take while learning. They are more likely to refer back to notes later.

12. Evaluate Values That Matter Most

If you want your students to participate, take risks, and persevere in the classroom, you should incorporate these values into evaluations. Assessment should go beyond curriculum knowledge. 

13. Bring Students into Formative Assessment

Your students need to understand where they are and where they need to be with their learning. This means that they need to be a partner in formative assessment . Like students taking the lead over homework, they need to take the lead on owning their success in formative assessment. 

14. Assessment Needs to Connect to an Outcome

Use assessments that measure and value thinking and understanding, not just rote memorization. This may look like standards-based grading. Students need to understand what they know and don’t know after they complete an assessment.

By implementing these principles, teachers can create a dynamic and engaging classroom that promotes deep learning and helps students develop the critical thinking and problem-solving skills they need to succeed in school and beyond.

TeacherMade helps teachers infuse technology into their Thinking Classrooms.

TeacherMade does more than convert PDFs into online activities. Teachers use TeacherMade to promote critical thinking skills. You can incorporate the Thinking Classroom practices with TeacherMade:

• Every TeacherMade assignment is a non-permanent surface. Students can complete assignments again and again until they have reached mastery. 
• Create a culture of practice rather than homework and worksheets. With TeacherMade, you can choose to grade or not grade assignments. Students can complete practice as many times as they need.
• TeacherMade supports asynchronous learning so that students can learn at their own pace.
• Students are more involved with formative assessment when they receive instant feedback via auto-grading. 
• You can leave feedback, hints, and notes so that students fully understand their assessment results.

TeacherMade transforms teaching materials into interactive digital lessons and saves teachers time with instant autograding. Our platform integrates seamlessly with major systems for personalized student engagement.

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A Critical Thinking Framework for Elementary Students

Guiding young students to engage in critical thinking fosters their ability to create and engage with knowledge.

Critical thinking is using analysis and evaluation to make a judgment. Analysis, evaluation, and judgment are not discrete skills; rather, they emerge from the accumulation of knowledge. The accumulation of knowledge does not mean students sit at desks mindlessly reciting memorized information, like in 19th century grammar schools. Our goal is not for learners to regurgitate facts by rote without demonstrating their understanding of the connections, structures, and deeper ideas embedded in the content they are learning. To foster critical thinking in school, especially for our youngest learners, we need a pedagogy that centers knowledge and also honors the ability of children to engage with knowledge.

This chapter outlines the Critical Thinking Framework: five instructional approaches educators can incorporate into their instruction to nurture deeper thinking. These approaches can also guide intellectual preparation protocols and unit unpackings to prepare rigorous, engaging instruction for elementary students. Some of these approaches, such as reason with evidence, will seem similar to other “contentless” programs professing to teach critical thinking skills. But others, such as say it in your own words or look for structure, are targeted at ensuring learners soundly understand content so that they can engage in complex thinking. You will likely notice that every single one of these approaches requires students to talk—to themselves, to a partner, or to the whole class. Dialogue, specifically in the context of teacher-led discussions, is essential for students to analyze, evaluate, and judge (i.e., do critical thinking ). 

The Critical Thinking Framework

Say it in your own words : Students articulate ideas in their own words. They use unique phrasing and do not parrot the explanations of others. When learning new material, students who pause to explain concepts in their own words (to themselves or others) demonstrate an overall better understanding than students who do not (Nokes-Malach et al., 2013). However, it’s not enough for us to pause frequently and ask students to explain, especially if they are only being asked to repeat procedures. Explanations should be effortful and require students to make connections to prior knowledge and concepts as well as to revise misconceptions (Richey & Nokes-Malach, 2015).

Break it down : Students break down the components, steps, or smaller ideas within a bigger idea or procedure. In addition to expressing concepts in their own words, students should look at new concepts in terms of parts and wholes. For instance, when learning a new type of problem or task, students can explain the steps another student took to arrive at their answer, which promotes an understanding that transfers to other tasks with a similar underlying structure. Asking students to explain the components and rationale behind procedural steps can also lead to more flexible problem solving overall (Rittle-Johnson, 2006). By breaking down ideas into component parts, students are also better equipped to monitor the soundness of their own understanding as well as to see similar patterns (i.e., regularity) among differing tasks. For example, in writing, lessons can help students see how varying subordinating conjunction phrases at the start of sentences can support the flow and readability of a paragraph. In math, a solution can be broken down into smaller steps.

Look for structure : Students look beyond shallow surface characteristics to see deep structures and underlying principles. Learners struggle to see regularity in similar problems that have small differences (Reed et al., 1985). Even when students are taught how to complete one kind of task, they struggle to transfer their understanding to a new task where some of the superficial characteristics have been changed. This is because students, especially students who are novices in a domain, tend to emphasize the surface structure of a task rather than deep structure (Chi & Van Lehn, 2012).

By prompting students to notice deep structures—such as the characteristics of a genre or the needs of animals—rather than surface structures, teachers foster the development of comprehensive schemata in students’ long-term memories, which they are more likely to then apply to novel situations. Teachers should monitor for student understanding of deep structures across several tasks and examples.

Notice gaps or inconsistencies in ideas : Students ask questions about gaps and inconsistencies in material, arguments, and their own thinking . When students engage in explanations of material, they are more likely to notice when they misunderstand material or to detect a conflict with their prior knowledge (Richey & Nokes-Malach, 2015). In a classroom, analyzing conflicting ideas and interpretations allows students to revise misconceptions and refine mental models. Noticing gaps and inconsistencies in information also helps students to evaluate the persuasiveness of arguments and to ask relevant questions.

Reason with evidence : Students construct arguments with evidence and evaluate the evidence in others’ reasoning. Reasoning with evidence matters in every subject, but what counts for evidence in a mathematical proof differs from what is required in an English essay. Students should learn the rules and conventions for evidence across a wide range of disciplines in school. The habits of looking for and weighing evidence also intersect with some of the other critical thinking approaches discussed above. Noticing regularity in reasoning and structure helps learners find evidence efficiently, while attending to gaps and inconsistencies in information encourages caution before reaching hasty conclusions.

Countering Two Critiques

Some readers may be wondering how the Critical Thinking Framework differs from other general skills curricula. The framework differs in that it demands application in the context of students’ content knowledge, rather than in isolation. It is a pedagogical tool to help students make sense of the content they are learning. Students should never sit through a lesson where they are told to “say things in their own words” when there is nothing to say anything about. While a contentless lesson could help on the margins, it will not be as relevant or transferable. Specific content matters. A checklist of “critical thinking skills” cannot replace deep subject knowledge. The framework should not be blindly applied to all subjects without context because results will look quite different in an ELA or science class.

Other readers may be thinking about high-stakes tests: how does the Critical Thinking Framework fit in with an overwhelming emphasis on assessments aligned to national or state standards? This is a valid concern and an important point to address. For teachers, schools, and districts locked into an accountability system that values performance on state tests but does not communicate content expectations beyond general standards, the arguments I make may seem beside the point. Sure, knowledge matters, but the curriculum demands that students know how to quickly identify the main idea of a paragraph, even if they don’t have any background knowledge about the topic of the paragraph.

It is crucial that elementary practitioners be connected to both evolving research on learning and the limiting realities we teach within. Unfortunately, I can provide no easy answers beyond saying that teaching is a balancing act. The tension, while real and relevant to teachers’ daily lives, should not cloud our vision for what children need from their school experiences.

I also argue it is easier to incorporate the demands of our current standardized testing environment into a curriculum rich with history, science, art, geography, languages, and novels than the reverse. The Critical Thinking Framework presents ways to approach all kinds of knowledge in a way that presses students toward deeper processing of the content they are learning. If we can raise the bar for student work and thinking in our classrooms, the question of how students perform on standardized tests will become secondary to helping them achieve much loftier and important goals. The choice of whether to emphasize excellent curriculum or high-stakes tests, insofar as it is a choice at all, should never be existential or a zero-sum game.

From Critical Thinking in the Elementary Classroom: Engaging Young Minds with Meaningful Content (pp. 25–29) by Erin Shadowens, Arlington, VA: ASCD. Copyright © 2023 by ASCD. All rights reserved.

Student Performance Through 21st-Century Skills: Integrating Critical Thinking, Communication, Teamwork, and Creativity in Modern Education

Posted: 30 Aug 2024

Rujonel Cariaga

Department of Education

Date Written: August 12, 2024

Globalization, quick technological advancement, and the necessity of individuals who can think critically, communicate clearly, collaborate effectively with others, and be creative (the 4Cs) define the demands of the twenty-first century. Our schools must adapt to these requirements. We must cease depending so much on inflexible, set-in-stone instructional approaches and replace them with more flexible, skill-based methods suitable for a future we have yet to learn about. The COVID-19 epidemic is driving more classes and examinations conducted online. This emphasizes the need for robust, flexible educational institutions to manage such issues. While some instructors need more training, some children perform well, and others do not. Local educational systems have to cope with these all-around issues. Regarding the instructors and the tools they use for learning, schools in the country and those in the city differ greatly. More major problems causing students to do poorly on their work include stress before examinations and online proctoring systems failing as they used to be. Problems in the neighborhood that aggravate these include socioeconomic ones influencing entrance into the justice system and the school. Furthermore, people dislike the unequal application of STEM education, which compromises the 21st-century competencies of pupils. Research on best teaching and assessing 21st-century skills in many environments still needs to be completed. This article will examine the 4Cs, teacher independence, and professional development today in light of one another. The aim is to uncover evidence capable of influencing educational policy and practice. Understanding this will help political leaders and educators create better classrooms for every child. Every child will do better in school, enabling them to prepare for difficult circumstances ahead. Researchers must understand how 21st-century abilities influence students' performance in various spheres, including math if they are to create decent educational strategies. Since they determine how well college students do in the classroom, 21st-century skills are applicable at all academic levels. People discuss many issues related to student performance in the twenty-first century, including student knowledge and performance, teacher performance and behavior, technology, and integrated learning approaches, curriculum development policies and plans, and the necessity of significant legislative reforms. Six distinct approaches to viewing and analyzing education assist us in grasping its current dynamics. DiBenedetto and Myers (2016) see things differently regarding preparing children for the year 2000. Williams (2021) explores how federal and state policies may help bridge the achievement disparity among early children by linking policy initiatives to school performance. Many authors have commented on the problems that result from applying contemporary education in various global locations. Voogt and Roblin published a study in 2010 on 21st-century talents. The two guys discussed the difficulties of teaching Latin American children more in 2007. People will consider the issues and opportunities schools worldwide have to handle.

Keywords: Communication, Critical Thinking, Creativity, Teamwork, Student Performance

Suggested Citation: Suggested Citation

Rujonel Cariaga (Contact Author)

Department of education ( email ).

Philippines

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Flipped Classroom Model to Improve Students’ Critical Thinking Skills

Today's students have a characteristic interest in technology. Flipped Classroom is a technology-savvy learning app. Flipped classroom for access to material for more flexibility. The teacher's primary role shifts from the lesson source to the role of the student learning guide. The problem discussed is the difficulty of understanding basic network learning by class XI RPL students at SMKN 2 Cimahi. Learning difficulties include hard-to-understand material, unattractive instruction, abstract material, lack of media, and no preparation for learning. The solution that students want is an LMS-based learning model flipped classroom. The research objective is to develop a flipped classroom model to improve students’ critical thinking skills. A flipped classroom model is designed to increase student involvement and the effectiveness of teacher guidance in learning. Moodle Learning Environment is used as an environment for implementing the flipped classroom learning model. Mixed method is a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods used for data analysis. The success of the model is measured based on functional LMS for the flipped classroom, students’ critical thinking skills, and students’ learning outcomes. The test results show an increase in value of the LMS function for the flipped classroom, students’ critical thinking skills, and students’ learning outcomes. So, it can be concluded that the flipped classroom learning model can improve students’ critical thinking skills.

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Project-Based Learning in Fostering Creative Thinking and Mathematical Problem-Solving Skills: Evidence from Primary Education in Indonesia

The interdependence between the Project-Based Learning (PjBL) Model and the growth and enhancement of Creative Thinking and Mathematical Problem Solving Skills in Elementary Schools is unquestionable nowadays. Prior studies have yet to discover concrete evidence regarding the interdependence being discussed. This study highlighted cognitive abilities related to creative thinking and mathematics problem-solving by implementing the Project-Based Learning Model. This research was a quasi-experiment with a pretest-posttest control group design involving 43 students in the sixth grade of two elementary schools; data was collected through test and classroom observation, and then the data was analyzed using Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA). Conversely, students exposed to project-based learning models exhibit higher skill levels in creative thinking and problem-solving than those instructed using conventional learning models. The project-based learning model significantly impacted elementary school children’s creative thinking and mathematics problem-solving skills. These findings suggest that the Project-Based Learning Model is acceptable for instructors seeking to foster creativity in teaching mathematics at the primary school level in Indonesia or other countries with comparable settings.

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College of Arts and Sciences Welcomes Class of 2028 with Glow Sticks, Ice Cream, and Words of Wisdom

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On Friday, August 16, 2024, the College of Arts and Sciences welcomed its class of 2028 to Kent State University. Many freshmen got their first chance to meet Dean Mandy Munro-Stasiuk , Ph.D., along with several other leaders of the College who shared their advice for success at Kent State. Fun SWAG items, like glow sticks for convocation at the MACC , were handed out at the welcome and t-shirts and ice cream at the afternoon Ice Cream with the Dean event outside Bowman Hall . The A&S freshman class did not disappoint with their loud and enthusiastic chants of “C-A-S” at Convocation. But, most importantly, students got some pretty sage advice from several A&S leaders and university officials.

Here are a few key pieces of advice for freshmen (but it applies to any student at any point in their college journey):

Dean Mandy Munro-Stasiuk , Ph.D., said:  “Welcome to Kent State! The College of Arts and Sciences is big and mighty. But we’re also family. We are here to help you in every which way that we possibly can. Here in the College of Arts and Sciences , we believe in a culture of care. We truly believe in holistic support for you and want to provide everything for you to be successful here at Kent State. College is not scary. Ask questions. Don’t be scared to ask questions.”

She laid out four goals for the students:  1. “Get mentorship from the College faculty and staff , your colleagues, or your family. Seek all of their advice.” 2. “Find research opportunities . If you can do research in a lab or with a professor, you will be so much better off than everybody else who has the same degree as you because employers want you to have those critical thinking skills that you can get from research. Either a semester or even 4-6 weeks over a summer. I thoroughly recommend that you do that.”

3. “Participate in a study abroad or study away experience. It’s life-changing! Not only are you going to have tons of memories, but you will see the world in a very different way after you participate.”

4. “Finish your degree. Get all the way through and walk out of this university with a degree in hand because it will open so many doors for you. It will be phenomenal.”

Kristofer Braxton , director of Academic Diversity Outreach, said: “There is one thing that we cannot do. We cannot read minds. I beg and plead with you to do one thing. Please don’t suffer in silence. There are numerous resources in this institution and in this college to support you. Everything from academic tutoring to professional networking to personal mental health resources . But we won’t know if you need any of these resources if you don’t come and talk to us. We live by the motto that Flashes take care of Flashes .

Hannah Seitz , the undergraduate student government senator for the College of Arts and Sciences, said:  “Join clubs, attend events, and do not hesitate to step outside your comfort zone. These experiences will shape your college journey and help you discover passions you never knew you had. Remember that you are not alone on this journey. The faculty, staff, and your fellow students are here to support you every step of the way. If you ever feel overwhelmed or need assistance do not suffer in silence. We are a community that cares for one another and can overcome any challenges that come our way. As we move forward, let’s embrace the values of curiosity, resilience, and inclusivity. Let’s strive to make our college a place where everyone feels valued and respected; where ideas can flourish and where we can all grow and learn together.

Shannon Brown , the undergraduate university student body president who double majors in psychology and peace and conflict studies, said:  “I want to encourage all of you to explore as much as possible during your first year of your college career. Say hello to the people sitting next to you in class. Meet people. You never know who you will meet at Kent State and the lasting connection that can be made. Good luck and go Flashes!

Kristin Stasiowski , Ph.D.,  assistant dean, International Programs and Education Abroad , joked that she always thought A&S stood for awesome sauce and that it would be appropriate because our college is the “awesome sauce of this university because of all of the variety and brilliance that is represented here today by this college”. She shared a video of a pianist playing two different pianos which concluded with the message: ‘Be together. Not the same.’ Stasiowski said: “The key to being different is to not allow yourself to be just one note. You are more than any one thing. You are more than your major. You are more than one relationship. You are more than one choice. You are more than one success. You are more than one mistake. You are worth more than anything. You are worth something that gives you the sound of the symphony.”

Sean Veney , Ph.D., associate professor in the Department of Biological Sciences , used the word sciences to spell out his eight keys to success and asked the students to yell out each letter before he shared each piece of advice, including:  S: Set goals. Setting goals gives you short and long-term vision as well as motivation. It also helps you motivate and organize your time and resources. When goals are met it gives you a great sense of accomplishment.

C: Challenge yourself. Break through those self-imposed barriers and be open to meeting new people and learning new things that may be outside of your typical comfort zone or typical routine.

I: Initiate conversations with your instructors and not just when you need help or have a problem. Introduce yourself and allow us the opportunity to know you.

E: Expect engaging learning experiences where you will be provided tools and support to be successful. Take advantage of those and use them to your benefit as you progress towards accomplishing your goals.

N: Narrate your own story. Choose coursework and opportunities that will give you a more well-rounded education and help distinguish yourself from others. This will be important when it comes time to apply for jobs.

C: Connect with people and university services that will assist you. This should include regular meetings with your faculty and college advisors who are here to help and make sure that you are fulfilling requirements and making progress towards degree completion.

E: Expand your education training beyond the classroom. Join a university-sponsored club or organization. Study abroad or engage in research under the guidance of a faculty mentor or participate in an exciting internship program.

S: Soar to new heights with all of the new experiences, skills, and knowledge that you will acquire over the next few years. Your time in college will be some of the best and most memorable of your life, so enjoy! 

• Mandy Munro-Stasiuk
• College of Arts and Science
• Convocation

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Effect of Indoor Air Quality on Respiratory Health of Children: An MPPD Model Approach

• Original Paper
• Published: 31 August 2024

Cite this article

• Avnish Shukla   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8532-8088 1 ,
• Rahul Indaliya 1 &
• Bhaven N. Tandel   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8390-7414 1  

Indoor air quality (IAQ) in classrooms is a crucial factor in the growing health of children as they spend significant amounts of time in school. The present work examines indoor air quality in school classrooms, the relationship between indoor air and outdoor air, and a possible risk to children’s learning. Four IAQ parameters, particulate matter (PM 2.5 and PM 10 ), carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), temperature, and relative humidity, are assessed using a sensor-based device. Measurements were taken inside classrooms with windows open for non-air conditioner rooms, closed for air-conditioner rooms, and on the street outside the school boundary. Results indicate the exceedance of particulate matter concentrations beyond the thresholds set by the World Health Organization (WHO). Furthermore, the mean concentration of CO 2 is high for the air conditioner room, and relative humidity was identified as slightly higher for one school classroom. Employing the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) model, the research analyzes the respiratory deposition dose (RDD) of PM 2.5 . It evaluates associated non-carcinogenic risks using the hazard quotient (HQ). Notably, the study reveals that the HQ in all classrooms surpassed the critical value of 1, indicating an elevated risk of bronchial diseases among students. Additionally, the Multiple Path Particle Dosimetry analysis suggests a higher deposition of PM in the lungs, with a predominant occurrence within the respiratory tract, particularly notable in younger children than adolescents. It concludes that urgent interventions are needed to improve school IAQ conditions, particularly in traffic-congested areas.

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Data availability

Some or all data, models, or codes that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Abbreviations

Particulate matter of size less than 2.5-micron meter

Particulate matter of size less than 10-micron meter

International Commission on Radiological Protection

Repository deposition dose

Hazard quotient

Multiple path particle dosimetry

Head airway

Tracheobronchial region

Pulmonary region

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Acknowledgements

The authors gratefully acknowledge the school principals, teachers, and students for their cooperation and participation in the research.

This research received no specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

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Department of Civil Engineering, S.V. National Institute of Technology, Surat, 395007, India

Avnish Shukla, Rahul Indaliya & Bhaven N. Tandel

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Shukla, A., Indaliya, R. & Tandel, B.N. Effect of Indoor Air Quality on Respiratory Health of Children: An MPPD Model Approach. Aerosol Sci Eng (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41810-024-00253-5

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Received : 29 March 2024

Revised : 31 July 2024

Accepted : 12 August 2024

Published : 31 August 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s41810-024-00253-5

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