Years
* Intervention success defined as per the original study’s findings. + Not Available.
The most common study design was a case report or case study (n = 9) [ 3 , 13 , 14 , 16 , 25 , 28 , 30 , 33 , 34 ] and qualitative design (n = 9) [ 5 , 11 , 15 , 19 , 21 , 24 , 26 , 36 , 37 ], followed by seven studies conducted as published project implementation and evaluation [ 4 , 9 , 10 , 17 , 18 , 29 , 39 ]. Four studies were prospective or longitudinal in design [ 6 , 23 , 27 , 32 ], including cohort studies, and another four had a quasi-experimental design [ 7 , 35 , 38 , 40 ]. Three studies were community randomised trials [ 20 , 22 , 31 ]. The remaining studies had adopted participatory research [ 12 ] and a community listening exercise [ 2 ].
In most studies, community organising was undertaken by either a charity, a not-for-profit organisation, or a non-government or civil society organisation [ 3 , 5 , 7 , 13 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 26 , 28 , 29 , 34 , 36 , 37 ]. University researchers were the second most common group of community organisers [ 9 , 10 , 15 , 16 , 25 , 27 , 31 , 32 , 38 ], followed by government agencies [ 2 , 4 , 21 , 24 , 40 ]. A diverse group of organisers including community groups or leaders, health professionals, service managers, or a combination of several communities and/or institutional actors were involved in some studies [ 6 , 14 , 23 , 33 , 35 ]. In the remaining studies, it was not clearly stated who the community organisers were [ 11 , 12 , 22 , 30 , 39 ] (See Table 1 ).
The length of time required to undertake the preparatory work at the start of the action phase was reported by 19 studies only. Most studies took 24 months or more to start the action phase [ 3 , 15 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 34 , 38 ], while five took more than 12 months but less than 24 months to do so [ 16 , 27 , 35 , 36 , 37 ]. Three studies took 6–12 months [ 13 , 18 , 24 ], while two took between 1 and 6 months [ 21 , 33 ]. Only one study was found to have initiated the action phase within less than a month following the listening and organising process to initiate its community action [ 19 ].
The review identified 22 different frameworks, models, or processes adopted by the studies (see Table 2 ). A framework usually represents a structure, overview, system, or plan composed of descriptive categories and does not provide an explanation, rather it groups the empirical phenomena into a set of categories. A model, on the other hand, is descriptive and typically involves a deliberate simplification of a phenomenon. Finally, a process is the analytical representation of the program activities. There were 10 studies that explicitly reported the use of a community organising framework [ 5 , 6 , 9 , 24 , 27 , 28 , 31 , 32 , 34 , 35 ]. All studies reported their use of community organising steps, and these varied between four and 10 steps. For instance: Cheadle et al. (2009) utilised community organising in the promotion of physical activity among older adults from southeast Seattle in the US. This study identified and involved champions in partner organisations for support and resources [ 9 ]. Rask et al. (2015) utilised the community organising technique to assess provider engagement and its impact in addressing the root cause of preventable readmissions by identifying participant-defined barriers [ 24 ]. Bezboruah (2013) examined the community organising technique to promote accessible and affordable health care to a marginalised neighbourhood in a large and diverse community [ 5 ].
Core components of frameworks/model/process and details of selected studies (n = 38).
S. No. | Author/Year | Framework Used | Core Components of the Framework | Framework/Model/Process | Power |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Agrusti 2020 [ ] | Community needs assessment methodology model | Nine steps community based participatory approach was created: (1) Identify assessment teams and roles, communities of focus, (2) Review past assessment findings and set aims, (3) Establish study methodology, (4) Collaborate in data collection, (5) Conduct thematic and statistical analysis, (6) Present preliminary findings to stakeholders, (7) Compare results, (8) Prepare reports, (9) Disseminate findings. Throughout the process, stakeholders were engaged in planning, assessment and dissemination. University research team integrated with the government customer and empowered the stakeholders to engage in key decisions. | Model | N/A |
2 | Bauermeister 2017 [ ] | Community-based participatory research | Engage researchers and community partners through shared decision making. This community engagement approach offered an alternative to traditional research by challenging the notion of “researcher-as expert” and centring community expertise and lived experience. Use community dialogues in 1. round tables (community listening) 2. Refinement 3. Prioritisation. The community dialogue process used in this article is consistent with the principles of CBPR, and it helped the authors to ensure that the program was tailored to the specific needs of the community and that it was well-accepted by the community. However, more information about the recruitment process and measures to ensure participants’ confidentiality and safety would have been beneficial. | Framework | Shared power through collaboration with community and researchers. Each minority group e.g., transgender only and youth-only Gives each group a chance to participate in an open space without being intimidated or silenced by older community members and/or professionals. Also considered geographic diversity |
3 | Berman 2018 [ ] | Implementation science framework (Proctor and colleagues) | Healthy Lifestyles Initiative used five implementation strategies to support organizations in using the messaging materials and implementing policy, systems, and environmental activities: (1) educational training, (2) a structured action plan, (3) coalition support, (4) one-on-one support, and (5) materials dissemination and resource sharing. | Framework | N/A |
4 | Bezboruah 2013 [ ] | Community organising conceptual framework | The study adopted a community organising approach where semi structured interviews with executives of several non-profit organisations and community organisers were collected, also participated in events and meetings organised for community organising. Collected da Data collected from the interviews are analysed in a systematic manner that assisted in theory building | Framework | N/A |
5 | Black 2020 [ ] | Green care theory | The study conducted the collaborative performance, working with the garden users and worked in the garden. It was focused on connectedness to the natural environment. Recorded observations of actions and interactions as fieldnotes. Interviews were conducted and recorded with three volunteers and staffs. Also recorded the personal observations and impressions in person. | Framework | N/A |
6 | Bosma 2005 [ ] | Community organizing model | The community organizing component consisted of five stages: (1) Assessment, (2) Action team creation, (3) Creation of an action plan, (4) Mobilization and action, and (5) Implementation | Model | Community members (youth and adults) were empowered to address issues relating to alcohol, tobacco, marijuana, and violence |
7 | Brookes 2010 [ ] | Community organisation and community partnerships | The program was combination of community organising and collaboration. Implemented with five components: Community partnership, parents education programs, major events, online events and a media campaign. For the community partnership, coalition between different partner groups and parents were created. Additionally, community influentials, leading professional, mayors were included in advisory committee. Parents met on regular basis to develop educational programs and events. | Process | N/A |
8 | Bryant 2010 [ ] | Innovative program planning framework, community-based prevention marketing | 9 steps approach: 9-step process: (1) mobilise the community; (2) develop a profile of community problems and assets; (3) select target behaviours, audiences, and when possible, interventions to tailor; (4) build community capacity to address the priority or target problem; (5) conduct formative research; (6) develop a marketing strategy; (7) develop or tailor program materials and tactics; (8) implement the new or tailored intervention; and (9) track and evaluate the program’s impact | Framework | Capacity building activities such as the marketing skills and participatory research techniques for designing, tailoring, and implementing interventions that promote behaviour change were provided to the interested members. |
9 | Cheadle 2009 [ ] | Community organising model | The SESPAN project was implemented on the basis of community organising approach where community organisers were hired to develop partnerships and network among community-based organisations, groups and institutions. These community organisations were focused on physical activity. Relationships between the key organisations were built through coalition and one-on-one networking. Semi structured interviews with community stakeholders, a variety of survey-based measures of older adults including pre/post survey were included. | Process | Partnered with many local organizations and sustain SESPAN activities after the 5-year research funding period ends. |
10 | Cheadle 2010 [ ] | Social ecologic model | Micro, meso and macro level input- combining individual-level programs with larger scale environmental and policy change follows the social ecologic model. The authors used a mixed-methods approach to evaluate the effectiveness of the community-organizing approach. They collected data on changes in physical activity, diet, and body weight through surveys, focus groups, and objective measures. They also collected data on the acceptability and feasibility of the interventions through focus groups and interviews with community members and organizations. Overall, the article describes a community-organizing approach that is grounded in CBPR principles and uses a variety of methods to engage community members in the planning and implementation of interventions to promote physical activity. | Framework | Involvement in coalitions |
11 | Denham 1998 [ ] | Cottrell’s Community Competency framework | Cottrell’s eight dimensions for community to function as a collectively included: (1) Commitment, (2) Self-other awareness and clarity of situational definitions, (3) Articulateness, (4) Communication, (5) Conflict containment and accommodation, (6) Participation, (7) Management of relations with the larger society, and (8) Machinery for facilitating participant | Framework | N/A |
12 | Doherty 2006 [ ] | Citizen Health Care | Core principles of Citizen Health Care model are: (1) The greatest untapped resource for improving healthcare is the knowledge, wisdom, and energy of individuals, families, and communities who face challenging health issues in their everyday lives. (2) People must be engaged as coproducers of healthcare for themselves and their communities, not merely as patients or consumers of services. (3) Professionals can play a catalytic role in fostering citizen initiatives when they develop their public skills as citizen professionals in groups with flattened hierarchies. (4) If you begin with an established program, you will not end up with an initiative that is “owned and operated” by citizens, but a citizen initiative might create or adopt a program as one of its activities. (5) Local communities must retrieve their own historical, cultural, and religious traditions of health and healing and bring these into dialogue with contemporary medical systems. (6) Citizen health initiatives should have a bold vision (a BHAG. a big, hairy, audacious goal) while working pragmatically on focused, specific projects. | Model | N/A |
13 | Douglas 2016 [ ] | Communities Creating Healthy Environments (CCHE) Change Model and Evaluation Frame | Consist of five overarching strategies grounded in individual, organizational, and community empowerment processes and outcomes: (1) Developing a community base sympathetic to, and supportive of, public health change initiatives. (2) Building leader base, (3) Building ally base, supported by an aligned base of organizational allies with shared interests and values poised to work together toward community health equity, (4) Message reframing and (5) Activate and maintain ongoing community base participation in public health initiatives. | Framework | Empowering communities to directly redress health inequities |
14 | Fawcett 2018 [ ] | Playbook for implementing organisational change | (A) Playbook for implementing organizational change for cultural competence: (1) initial orientation and commitment to engage, (2) assessment of the current organization or program, (3) dialogue on identified gaps and priority setting, (4) action planning: draft created by the smaller team and whole group review, (5) implementation and monitoring of progress, and (6) closing dialogue and celebration of achievements (B) playbook for improving quality through access to preventive health services and the Diabetes Prevention Program: (1) initial brief orientation session with potential partners, (2) review of recommendations and plan development, (3) pilot test of implementation protocol to identify prediabetic clients and referral protocols, (4) implementation and monitoring of progress, and (5) dialogue and celebration of achievements. (C) Playbook for improving access and linkage to care through insurance enrolment. The participatory process used five elements (1) initial orientation and dialogue about partnering, (2) review/commit to a level of partnership and related responsibilities, (3) development of an action plan, (4) implementation (typically, during the ACA enrolment period), and (5) monitoring and evaluation. | Process | The Coalition successfully engaged Latinos and other marginalised groups by partnering to enhance access and linkage to quality health services |
15 | Flick 1994 [ ] | Freire’s theory of adult education | Community mobilisation occurs through community participation and control. The professional serves as a resource and catalyst but program ideas and direction come from the community. Partnerships with the communities were made based on reciprocity, trust developed through continuous long-term involvement, social justice with its inherent assumption of equity, and a broad definition of health that includes well-being and a sense of community. Faculty was continuously involved to understand the interpersonal and political relationships among community residents and organisations and to identify when action was taken regarding an existing problem. | Model | Empowered the community as a whole and increase its capacity to improve its own health. |
16 | Haseda 2019 [ ] | JAGES Health Equity Assessment and Response Tool | The research team visualised and figured out community health needs by using a JAGES Health Equity Assessment and Response Tool and developed community diagnosis forms. Municipality health sector staff members were supported to utilise the community assessment data tool (JAGES-HEART) and promote intersectoral collaboration, aiming to develop health-promoting social activities in the community. | Framework | Researchers empowered local health sector staff members |
17 | Hatch 1978 [ ] | Rothman’s locality development model | Community diagnosis was carried out to identify community needs and methods for utilising resources available inside and outside of the community to meet these needs. Field team members and students continue their responsibilities as requested by the committee and became involved in publicity and media reporting for the program. Each committee member functioned as a group leader assuring the completion of his task at the designated time and shared equal responsibilities. Team members continued attending meetings and talking with more community people and recognised and supported the outstanding work of committee members. | Model | N/A |
18 | Hays 2003 [ ] | Alinsky-style organising (also known as IAF style organising) | Hiring coordinators, 2. community assessment 3. community organising through core groups, goal development, Action 4. Linking with another organisation 5. Tailoring project to community. The Mpowerment Project is a community-based intervention that uses a combination of community organising, peer education, and social marketing to empower young gay and bisexual men to take control of their health and reduce their risk of HIV infection. The authors used a CBPR approach and a variety of methods to engage and evaluate the young gay and bisexual men in the project. | Framework | Shared power through involvement of core group who represent the various segments of the target community |
19 | Hedley 2002 [ ] | McKenzie & Smeltzer 1997 community organisation | The eight steps of community organising model were adapted to develop the program which includes, (1) Citizens recognise the problem, (2) Organise the people, (3) Identify specific problems, (4) Set goals and establish priorities, (5) Choose solutions or activities, (6) Implement the action plan, (7) Evaluate the plan and process, (8) Modify and expand the plan | Model | Members took on greater responsibility on leading the implementation and evaluation of the program |
20 | Hildebrandt 1994 [ ] | Eight step process | The initial steps were focused on community contacts and one-to-one relationships with individuals and groups to identify barriers and assets in the community. The intermediate steps facilitated the open meeting to identify the community needs and their solutions. The final steps were focused on maintaining and sustaining the program. Eight steps of the models were: (1) Information seeking, (2) Support seeking, (3) Set up a work group and a plan with goals, (4) Identify tasks with deadlines and person responsible for each, (5) Interim deadlines and startup date, (6) Nurture the new program, (7) Measure against the original goals, (8) Keep the community informed of progress | Model | N/A |
21 | Hilgendorf 2016 [ ] | Collective Impact; Other: Coalition Action | 5 Dimensions of collective impact. 1. Backbone organisation 2. Common agenda 3. shared data platform 4. shared vision 5. Communication | Framework | The organisation supports broad participation of residents in the democratic process, especially through congregation-based community organizing |
22 | Kang 2015 [ ] | Community-based participatory research (CBPR) | An alternative paradigm of knowledge production in which groups who are adversely affected by a social problem undertake collective study to understand and address it. The author implemented CBPR by closely involving the community members in the research process, prioritizing community ownership, and addressing potential biases by inviting multiple perspectives and using techniques such as member-checking and negative peer analysis throughout the data analysis process. | Framework | Shared power through collaboration with the community and researchers-uses an intergenerational approach |
23 | Livingston 2018 [ ] | Communities Mobilizing for Change on Alcohol (CMCA) | An iterative process with six stages of community organising was adopted to implement the intervention CMCA, (a) assessment of community interests through face-to-face, one-on-one or two-on-one meetings with hundreds of community residents; (b) building a base of support through one-on-ones and establishment of a community action team; (c) expanding the base of support through one- or two-on-one meetings, presence and presentations at community events, and media advocacy; (d) development of a plan of action; (e) implementation of actions; and (f) maintenance of effort and institutionalisation of change. | Model | N/A |
24 | McKenzie 2004 [ ] | Community Organizing and Building Model as outlined by McKenzie & Smeltzer (2001). | Mckenzie and Smeltzer used a model with 10 steps to bring behaviour change in the targeted population. Those steps were: 1. Recognizing the concern, 2. Gaining entry into the community, 3. Organizing the people, 4. Assessing the community, 5. Determining the priorities and setting the goals, 6. Arriving at a solution and selecting an intervention, 7. Implementing the plan, 8. Evaluating the outcomes of the plan of action, 9. Maintaining the outcomes in the community, 10. Looping back | Model | N/A |
25 | Parker 2010 [ ] | Community capacity framework (Freudenberg 2004, Goodman et al. 1998) | Community organisers were hired to work with community groups. Interviews with key stakeholders were conducted to prioritise major areas upon which to focus their community capacity-building efforts. Education and data to community members and policy makers were provided to understand the potential health implications of the proposed projects. | Model | Authors has discussed about capacity building among community members. |
26 | Perry 2000 [ ] | Collective Impact; Community Action | Behavioural model to change community efficacy and norms through market and policy levers. Use community organising process. Community listening, community action teams, Action plans, execution of action plan in community | Process | The members of the teams were a small percentage of the entire intervention cohort, and so this direct empowerment opportunity was not experienced by most of the cohort. The purpose of these interviews was to identify each community’s social, economic, and power structures; determine both the community’s and the interviewee’s interest in reducing high school students’ access to alcohol; determine how the problem was perceived in the community; and build a broad base of support for future actions. |
27 | Poole 1997 [ ] | Collective Impact; Other: Community Health Planning Committee | Community organising-not collective impact- Process: Action structures, Community Problem-Solving Process, | Process | To ensure that solving local problems is a shared responsibility, all Metro Commission projects are community partnerships. This reflects the organization’s philosophy that local needs are community owned, and that meeting them is a shared responsibility, not the responsibility of any one sector or service entity. |
28 | Rask 2015 [ ] | Community organising process | The community organising process consists of five phases: community assessment, coalition building, strategic planning, action, and sustainability. | Framework | N/A |
29 | Ross 2011 [ ] | Community-based participatory research | PYD and SJYD are used in the context of CBPR to ensure that the youth are actively involved in the initiative, that their needs and perspectives are taken into account, and that the initiative promotes social justice and addresses health disparities among marginalised youth. By using PYD and SJYD in CBPR, the initiative is able to create a sense of ownership, investment, and empowerment among the youth while also addressing the social and economic determinants of health and reducing health disparities among marginalised youth. The article concludes that PYD and SJYD can be an effective approach for engaging marginalised youth in long-term tobacco control initiatives. | Framework | Shared power. The youth’s research and action on this issue inspired key decision makers, including a city councillor, the director of the city’s Tobacco Control Program, the city’s director of Public Health, and a state senator to embrace the youth’s cause by developing new policies and ordinances. |
30 | Salem 2005 [ ] | MAPP model | Mobilizing for Action through Planning and Partnerships (MAPP). 1. Organise for success- partnership development, 2. Visioning 3. Four MAPP assessments 4. Identify strategic issues 5. Formulate goals and strategies, 6. Action (plan, implement, evaluate) | Framework | Develop coalitions-developing community voices by working with the alderman to ensure that community residents are able to share their concerns |
31 | Santilli 2016 [ ] | Community organizing principles | Worked closely with community residents and community-based organisations to develop trust partnerships and to gain deep knowledge of history, norms and leadership. Before the survey, community organisers were hired, letters were emailed, conducted one-on-one meetings with community members and based on a well-established relationship with the local press, a press conference was held. Community youth volunteers were trained for data collection and survey methods and analysed data were disseminated to the community. | Process | N/A |
32 | Saxon 2021 [ ] | Ganz’s community-organizing model | In the study, community organizing was narrow down to four central components, (1) Building relationships, (2) Telling the story, (3) Devising strategy and (4) Catalysing action | Model | Research has shown that participating in community organizing tends to give people more ownership over local issues. |
33 | Subica 2016 [ ] | Alinsky-style organising (also known as IAF style organising) Community organizing–based health promotion consists of grassroots movements (interventions) that raise individuals’ collective capacity to control their social and built environments by advocating for public policies that balance decision-making power and resource distribution toward health equity | Community grants, the article describes a community organizing approach that is grounded in CBPR principles and uses a variety of methods to engage community members in the identification, prioritization, and addressing of health issues. The study used a mixed-methods approach to evaluate the effectiveness of the approach and gather feedback from community members on acceptability. | Framework | N/A |
34 | Tataw 2020 [ ] | Conceptual framework that combines organizing theory and horizontal participatory approaches | The program used the integrated framework of explanatory, change and organising theories for the community health improvement plan life cycle in three stages: health problems clarification; organising; issue prioritisation, and program activities | Framework | N/A |
35 | Wagenaar 1999 [ ] | Community organizing approach | Intervention community followed an organizing process that included seven stages, 1. Assessing the community, 2. Creating a core leadership group, 3. Developing a plan of action, 4. Building a mass base of support, 5. Implementing the action plan, 6. Maintaining the organization and institutionalizing change, 7. Evaluating changes | Framework | Used power mapping for the data collection, became familiar with the demographics of their communities, the power relationships within the community. |
36 | Wagoner 2010 [ ] | Community organising conceptual model | A full-time community organiser was hired who was familiar with substance abuse prevention, knowledge of environmental approaches to health behaviour change, and had experience in community organising. In-depth interviews of an average 60 min were conducted among community organising members. All interviews were audio-recorded and non-verbal reactions were recorded by a note taker. Data were analysed and presented. | Model | Assessed both the problem of alcohol use and the power dynamics of their campus |
37 | Weeks 2013 [ ] | Community empowerment, social ecology, social learning, innovation diffusion. | Community engagement approach using various theories. Community action advisory board (CAAB), CAAB mobilisation and capacity building. It used a multiple case study design, which allowed the authors to gain a more in-depth understanding of the issues related to creating CAABs in different contexts. The use of both interviews and document review also allowed the authors to triangulate data and strengthen the reliability of the findings. | Framework | Authors approached the CAAB training recognizing that members were grassroots “experts” and “leaders” in key areas of HIV/STIs prevention, women’s health and empowerment and community health needs. |
38 | Zanoni 2011 [ ] | Community organising with a focus on power | Little Village Environmental Justice Organization (LVEJO) hired an organiser (parents with children in community school) to communicate and lead the discussion on youth obesity and overweight with community participants through outreach activities. Parents received the training for the semi structured interview, documenting and reporting. Based on the results action plan was developed | Process | One of the parents/teachers internalised the risk of obesity in her daughter after looking at the program module and developed many activities for her students to prevent obesity. Parents are the main persons who will observe and change their children’s habits |
Similarly, Mckenzie et al. (2004) used community organising to create a community-wide cancer education/screening program [ 35 ]. The study selected local leaders based on their previous professions and contribution to the community in order to assess community needs, followed by the implementation and evaluation of the program [ 35 ]. Zanoni et al. (2011) employed community organising to address the epidemic of asthma and obesity among Latina/o children. They motivated their parents to create knowledge, take action, reflect on outcomes and have their voice heard in dominant-culture schools [ 34 ]. Santilli et al. (2016) were guided by community organising principles to mobilise community members and partners to develop and build community support for neighbourhood-driven intervention in chronic disease prevention [ 27 ]. A community organising approach to counter alcohol abuse through a community randomised trial was outlined by Wagenaar and colleagues [ 31 ]. Bosma et al. in 2005 also adopted a community organising model to prevent substance use and violence among young adolescents in school settings [ 6 ]. Wagoner et al. (2010) employed a practice-based community organising conceptual model using a grounded-theory approach [ 32 ].
Each of the above-mentioned studies conducted a needs assessment as a part of their community organising process. One-to-one networking with the community members and local organisations was the most followed approach for needs assessment. Some of these studies also hired community organisers to assist [ 9 , 27 ]. However, only two studies evaluated their achievements or goals at the end of the program [ 31 , 35 ], and only one had a sustainability strategy in place [ 24 ]. Community members were empowered to address the local issues of alcohol, tobacco and violence [ 6 ]. The logic behind emphasis on the community’s active role in the process was explained by Saxon et. al. [ 28 ], who stressed that participating in community organising tends to give community members more ownership over local issues and maintains power balance between the community members and community organisers.
Collective impact of some kind was employed as the model or framework of community organising, either on its own or as a part of multiple framework structure in at least four studies [ 18 , 22 , 23 , 26 ] (See Table 2 ). The Collective Impact Framework is a collaborative approach centred on the tenet that to create long-term change for complex social and health issues, organisations must coordinate their efforts around a common goal [ 41 ]. There are five core components of the Collective Impact Framework including a common agenda, shared measurement systems, mutually reinforcing activities, continuous communication, and a backbone support organization [ 42 ].
In a study conducted by Poole and Colleagues in 1997, collective impact was set within the broader framework of the utility of action structures and was aimed to be a driver towards the attainment of national goals through a bottom-up approach in Oklahoma, US [ 23 ]. Salem et al. (2005) used the framework to increase the capacity of communities in Chicago, US to participate in public health decision making, promote new partnerships, make decision makers accessible to the communities, and to find a suitable role for the local public health department to support community-based health activities [ 26 ]. Hilgendorf et al. (2016) evaluated the lessons learned from a pilot obesity prevention approach by the Wisconsin Obesity Prevention Initiative for community action, which incorporated coalition as well as community organising efforts in two counties with the long-term goal of empowering community leaders to drive ongoing action [ 18 ]. Perry et al. (2000) represented the second phase of an early adolescent intervention against students’ alcohol use. This study promoted community action to increase community efficacy, integration and resilience to bring about positive changes in community norms [ 22 ].
These studies utilised a community-driven approach and actively involved, engaged or empowered community members, organisations and stakeholders in problem identification, development of solutions, planning and implementation of intervention(s). Community mobilisation activities were implemented and comprised the use of media campaigns and public events [ 22 ]. In addition, seeking support from community leaders in raising awareness of the problem and encouraging community members to take action were their key features. Building coalitions with the community members and sharing responsibilities with them to solve local problems were important power approaches used by Poole [ 23 ] and Salem et al. [ 26 ]. Furthermore, Salem argued that local needs are community owned and meeting them is not a sole responsibility of any organization.
Two studies adopted Alinksy-style organising as their framework of choice [ 17 , 29 ]. Subica et al. (2016) adopted the Alinsky-style community organising (also known as Industrial Areas Foundation (IAF style organising) framework to summarise the community organising initiatives of several grant recipients of projects targeting childhood obesity-causing structural inequities within 21 culturally/ethnically diverse communities through the creation of 72 environmental and policy solutions [ 29 ]. Prior to this in 2003, Hays et al. had employed the same model to build a strong, supportive young gay and bisexual men’s community through different outreach events and team performances where they could protect and support each other, promote having safer sex and help in HIV prevention efforts as a bigger goal through their Mpowerment project [ 17 ].
The Alinsky model begins with “community organising” and is based on a concept of separate public and private spheres [ 43 ]. In the Alinsky model, power and politics both occur in the public sphere, and Alinsky argued that poor communities could gain power through public sphere action, which involves taking public action such as protests and occupation to shift control from entities such as local government to the community [ 43 ]. The studies adopting IAF as their guiding framework [ 17 , 29 ] used a combination of community organising and other methods such as focus groups, interviews, and community meetings to engage community members in the research process. Feedback was gathered from community members on the acceptability and feasibility of their interventions. Outcomes focused on changes in both health behaviours and policy change. Aligned with the Alinsky approach, Hays et.al. [ 17 ] reported on shared power through the involvement of a core group who represent the various segments of the target community. This also signifies one way of maintaining the power balance between community organisers and community “organisee”.
Three studies adopted community-based participatory research framework (CBPR) in their community organising effort [ 3 , 19 , 25 ]. The proponents of community-based participatory research (CBPR) claim that it benefits community participants, health care practitioners, and researchers alike [ 44 ]. They argue that CBPR creates bridges between scientists and communities through the use of shared knowledge and valuable experience [ 45 , 46 ]. Therefore, CBPR is a collaborative approach that emphasises the active involvement of community members in all facets of the research process [ 19 ]. All studies embracing CBPR [ 3 , 19 , 25 ] prioritised community ownership, active involvement of community members, and addressing potential biases in different ways. Following the CBPR framework, community ownership and active involvement were achieved through implementing community dialogue, community problem-solving, participatory action research and social justice approaches. Kang [ 19 ] and Bauermeister [ 3 ] highlighted the shared power achieved through collaboration with community and researchers while considering the geographical diversity. Similarly, Ross et al. [ 25 ] described the power of youth’s research and participation/action on health behaviour change to inspire key decision makers for developing new policies and ordinances.
Two studies that adopted the socio-ecological framework also used a community-based approach [ 10 , 33 ]. One of these two studies aimed to understand the structural issues that affected the creation of a community action and advocacy board (CAAB) and to identify strategies for overcoming those issues [ 33 ], while the other aimed to promote physical activity in older adults [ 10 ]. Community engagement and empowerment were central to both studies. Power was emphasised in both studies. For example: Weeks [ 33 ] recognised that members of the community were grassroots “experts” and “leaders” in key areas of HIV/STIs prevention, women’s health and empowerment, and community health needs. Cheadle [ 10 ] discussed the involvement of community in coalitions, thereby promoting the bottom-up approach.
A range of additional frameworks were applied as a part of community organising in the remaining studies. Coalition between different community partners, formative research, action planning and mobilizing the community members to solve the local needs by utilizing community resources, implementation and dissemination are major focus areas of these additional models or frameworks, including Rothman’s development model [ 16 ], innovative program planning frameworks [ 8 ], implementation science frameworks [ 4 ], community partnership frameworks [ 7 ], community need assessment methodology model [ 2 ], and communities mobilizing for change model [ 20 ]. Green care theory was one of the standalone theories that did not fit under one broad theme and it was used to describe connectedness to the natural environment by a collaborative approach [ 36 ].
The Mckenzie and Smeltzer community organisation model [ 37 ], Cottrell’s Community Competency framework [ 11 ], and the eight steps process [ 39 ] were three models that were bound by the commonality of using the eight step process. In this process, the initial steps were focused on community contacts and one-to-one relationships with individuals and groups to identify barriers and assets in the community. The intermediate steps facilitated the open meeting to identify the community needs and their solutions. The final steps, on the other hand, were focused on maintaining and sustaining the program.
Citizen health care model [ 12 ], Freire’s theory of adult education [ 15 ], and Community capacity framework [ 21 ] were other models with the common aim of emphasising the knowledge, wisdom, and energy of an individual to promote their full participation in healthcare as a coproducer rather than just a patient or consumer. They believed that professionals can serve as catalysts in fostering such citizen initiatives with program ideas and directions through the creation of community partnerships and coalitions. Therefore, they emphasised power between professionals and consumers by enhancing individual capacity to command/demand more control over their health.
Similarly, Tawtaw used a conceptual framework that combines organizing theory and horizontal participatory approaches for the community health improvement plan life cycle [ 30 ]. Fawcett et al. used three playbooks for implementing an organizational change model, where initial briefing were carried out with partners who then reviewed the recommendations and developed an action plan for implementation [ 14 ]. Haseda and colleagues [ 38 ] visualised and figured out community health needs by using a JAGES Health Equity Assessment and Response Tool and developed community diagnosis forms [ 38 ]. Furthermore, Haseda [ 38 ] and Fawcett [ 14 ] both discussed empowering the local health sector and engaging them through coalition.
Non-specific health promotion, health education, or lifestyle modification were the primary objectives of community organising in most studies [ 2 , 10 , 11 , 16 , 19 , 23 , 26 , 27 , 36 , 39 ]. This was followed by substance use (alcohol, tobacco, illicit drugs) and violence and associated behaviours [ 6 , 20 , 22 , 25 , 31 , 32 ]. Chronic disease management was the focus of four studies [ 13 , 21 , 29 , 35 ] including a cancer education/screening program in the UK, childhood obesity among low SES communities in the UK, asthma in Detroit, Michigan and obesity in the US. Health care access was the focus of another four studies [ 14 , 15 , 24 , 38 ], with one study focusing specifically on culturally appropriate healthcare access [ 14 ]. The other areas of specific focus were sexual/reproductive health [ 3 , 7 , 17 , 33 ], healthy eating [ 15 , 37 ], cancer prevention [ 35 ], gender discrimination [ 28 ], local environment factors [ 21 ], physical activity [ 9 ], social activities of older adults [ 38 ], assessment of community partnership [ 30 ], and coordination of health services [ 24 ]. However, it should be noted that many of these studies had overlapping focus areas especially relating to health promotion/healthy eating/healthy lifestyles. The outcomes of most initiatives were promising, with positive changes reported (at least in the short term) in health outcomes for the target populations in most studies (32/38) (see Table 1 ).
Out of 38 included articles, 32 were assessed using MMAT criteria (see Table 3 ). Six articles were excluded from MMAT assessment following the first two screening questions. The methodological quality of the studies was mixed. The quality of the qualitative articles was high, with 13 out of 16 studies meeting the five MMAT criteria. The mixed methods study was also of high quality and met all five criteria. Only two quantitative articles (2/14) met all possible appraisal criteria. Low non-response bias risk and blinded outcome assessors to the intervention were the most frequent unmet criteria for quantitative studies.
Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (Version 2018) for critically appraising quantitative (n = 14), qualitative (n = 16), and mixed methods (n = 2) study reviews.
First Author (Year) | Question | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Qualitative | QS1 | QS2 | Q1.1 | Q1.2 | Q1.3 | Q1.4 | Q1.5 |
Bezboruah 2013 [ ] | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Black 2020 [ ] | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Denham 1998 [ ] | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Doherty 2006 [ ] | Y | Y | Y | U | Y | Y | U |
Douglas 2016 [ ] | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Flick 1994 [ ] | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Hatch 1978 [ ] | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Hedley 2002 [ ] | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Hilgendorf 2016 [ ] | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Kang 2015 [ ] | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Parker 2010 [ ] | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Ross 2011 | Y | Y | Y | Y | U | Y | Y |
Saxon 2021 [ ] | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Tataw 2020 [ ] | Y | Y | Y | N | Y | N | N |
Wagoner 2010 [ ] | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Zanoni 2011 [ ] | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Quantitative (RCT) | QS1 | QS2 | Q2.1 | Q2.2 | Q2.3 | Q2.4 | Q2.5 |
Livingstone 2018 | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | N | U |
Perry 2000 [ ] | Y | Y | Y | Y | N | N | Y |
Wagenaar 1999 [ ] | Y | Y | U | Y | Y | N | Y |
Quantitative (Non-randomised) | QS1 | QS2 | Q3.1 | Q3.2 | Q3.3 | Q3.4 | Q3.5 |
Bosma 2005 [ ] | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | N | Y |
Brookes 2010 [ ] | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | N | Y |
Byrant 2010 | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Cheadle 2010 [ ] | Y | Y | Y | Y | U | U | Y |
Haseda 2019 [ ] | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
McKenzie 2004 [ ] | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | N |
Subica 2016 [ ] | Y | Y | Y | U | Y | N | Y |
Quantitative (Descriptive) | QS1 | QS2 | Q4.1 | Q4.2 | Q4.3 | Q4.4 | Q4.5 |
Bauermeister 2017 [ ] | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | U | Y |
Berman 2018 [ ] | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | N | Y |
Poole 1997 [ ] | |||||||
Salem 2005 [ ] | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | N | Y |
Mixed Methods | QS1 | QS2 | Q5.1 | Q5.2 | Q5.3 | Q5.4 | Q5.5 |
Agrusti 2020 [ ] | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Weeks 2013 [ ] | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y | Y |
Further appraisal is not feasible | |||||||
Cheadle 2009 [ ] | U | Y | |||||
Fawcett 2018 [ ] | Y | N | |||||
Hays 2003 [ ] | Y | N | |||||
Hildebrandt 1994 [ ] | Y | N | |||||
Rask 2015 [ ] | N | Y | |||||
Santilli 2016 [ ] | N | N |
Index Abbreviations: Y = Yes, N = No, U = Unclear, MMAT = Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool. A. Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT) screening questions for all studies—QS1: Are the research questions clear?, QS2: Do the collected data allow to address the research questions? B. Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT) for qualitative studies—Q1.1: Is the qualitative approach appropriate to answer the research questions?, Q1.2: Are the qualitative data collection methods adequate to address the research question? Q1.3: Are the findings adequately derived from the data?, Q1.4: Is the interpretation of results sufficiently substantiated by data?, Q1.5: Is there coherence between qualitative data sources, collection, analysis and interpretation? C. Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT) for quantitative Randomised Controlled Trail—2.1. Is randomization appropriately performed? 2.2. Are the groups comparable at baseline? 2.3. Are there complete outcome data? 2.4. Are outcome assessors blinded to the intervention provided? 2.5 Did the participants adhere to the assigned intervention? D. Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT) for quantitative non-Randomised—3.1. Are the participants representative of the target population? 3.2. Are measurements appropriate regarding both the outcome and intervention (or exposure)? 3.3. Are there complete outcome data? 3.4. Are the confounders accounted for in the design and analysis? 3.5. During the study period, is the intervention administered (or exposure occurred) as intended? E. Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT) for quantitative descriptive studies—Q4.1: Is the sampling strategy relevant to address the research question?, Q4.2: Is the sample representative of the target population?, Q4.3: Are the measurements appropriate?, Q4.4: Is the risk of nonresponse bias low?, Q4.5: Is the statistical analysis appropriate to answer the research question? F. Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT) for mixed-method studies—Q5.1: Is there an adequate rationale for using a mixed methods design to address the research question?, Q5.2: Are the different components of the study effectively integrated to answer the research question?, Q5.3: Are the outputs of the integration of qualitative and quantitative components adequately interpreted?, Q5.4: Are divergences and inconsistencies between quantitative and qualitative results adequately addressed?, Q5.5: Do the different components of the study adhere to the quality criteria of each tradition of the methods involved?
This review synthesised the literature on community organising initiatives that pursued advancements in health. The review aimed to identify the targeted health behaviour or topics that community organising initiatives have addressed as well as models, frameworks, and processes that have been used by those initiatives. Overall, the review found that community organising has been regularly utilised over several decades as a guiding mechanism for community-based health initiatives. Positive changes were reported in health outcomes for the target populations in most of these initiatives.
Despite the use of community organizing frameworks over several decades, there is still no single gold standard framework adopted. A wide variety of models, frameworks, or processes of community organising were applied in the included studies. The variation implies that no one specific model, framework or process seems to have predominance over others in implementing community organising as a vehicle of positive social change within the health domain. Some frameworks that were common between studies that reported positive outcomes were the community organising model [ 6 , 10 , 32 ], socio ecological model [ 9 ], Rothman’s locality development model [ 16 ], and community-based participatory research model [ 19 , 25 ]. Despite such a wide variation, some themes were prevalent across the reviewed studies, including (1) the creation of partnerships and coalitions, (2) community integration and resilience, (3) joint problem-solving, (4) bottom-up approach, (5) community ownership, (6) community empowerment and (7) capacity building. Therefore, regardless of which framework is used, health interventions or initiatives are likely to deliver positive outcomes if they are delivered in a coordinated manner by incorporating these core components. As a result, future research should focus on supporting these key components to be a more common part of community activities.
Most studies (33/38) included in the review were conducted in the United States. This strong adoption of community organising could be because community organising as a vehicle for change began earlier in the United States than in other countries, potentially in Philadelphia with the wages strike in 1786 [ 47 ]. Additionally, the dominant political ideology in the United States (e.g., desire for small governments and lower taxes etc.) along with a largely inequitable, predominantly user-funded healthcare system could be seen as further drivers for more community organising activity since it allows people to organise, unionise, and consolidate their power [ 48 , 49 ]. Countries such as Australia and the United Kingdom, which can be considered comparable to the United States in many aspects such as language, culture, democratic election of government, etc., have also had a long history of labour unions, but these countries are more distinct from the United States due to their publicly funded healthcare systems (Medicare and National Health Services respectively). The health systems in these countries are known to be more equitable [ 50 , 51 ], thereby limiting the need for citizens and communities in these countries to organise for access to healthcare. Despite these factors, there are gaps which could be filled by more community-focused and community driven health initiatives or interventions. However, this review suggested that community organising as a vehicle of health initiatives or interventions has yet to pick up traction in countries outside of the United States. Therefore, it highlights the opportunity for the concept to be expanded in public health initiatives outside of the United States, learning from the experiences of the studies implemented there.
Most studies targeted a broad, general population, while some focused on specific population groups. Despite the heterogeneity in the selection of target population groups, there was consistency among most studies in terms of positive change reported in their targeted health outcomes. Such consistency in positive outcomes despite the variation among target population groups reinforces the argument that community organising has the potential to be an important vehicle for positive change [ 2 , 3 , 12 , 17 , 19 ]. This notion is important, particularly for the marginalised and disadvantaged communities who are more likely to be overlooked by existing mainstream health initiatives or interventions that are perhaps designed using a one-size-fits all approach [ 52 ]. Community organising provides an opportunity to listen to community voices and concerns, engage them deeply, work together with them to address those concerns, and create solutions to the community problems together with them, instead of adopting top-down approaches [ 52 ]. Authors have also referred to this bottom-up approach as a means of power-sharing with the communities to help them solve their own problems [ 53 ]. Power sharing has been recommended as an essential driving force and strategy behind other grassroots community initiatives [ 54 , 55 ]. However, when examining power issues, there are likely to be evaluation challenges. For example, how to measure shared power, Kang [ 27 ] and Bauermeister [ 3 ], or Ross et al. [ 25 ], power of youth’s research and participation/action on health behaviour. While there a range of frameworks identified in this review, they are applied to different contexts. Future research could examine the suitability of different frameworks for different community contexts, taking into consideration their unique issues and starting points.
The reviewed studies did not document long-term outcomes or health impacts. While most studies reviewed reported positive change in the health outcomes, we noted that these measures were typically collected over relatively short and focused project durations. Many studies did not discuss the long-term sustainability of positive impacts, particularly after the funding had been exhausted. Only 18/38 articles in the review mentioned prolonged action or sustainability of community organising efforts beyond their research period. Some of the major strategies employed to sustain the community organising actions beyond the funded period in these studies were: empowering the community leaders and educating community members to engage and maintain the community action; continuing ongoing meetings with stakeholders; and ensuring trust between them and the community organisers. Some articles also discussed influencing public policy change/government support as a strategy to sustain community organising initiatives beyond the life duration of a particular focused project [ 5 , 22 , 31 ]. Utilising “partnership brokers” such as local governments and non-governmental organisations has also been suggested in initiatives beyond the health sector [ 56 ] to ensure the sustainability of community-institution partnership through the establishment of a systems-based approach. Studies included in this review in terms of outcome selection can be categorised into four groups: (1). to identify issues (1/38); (2). description of program implementations (6/38); (3). evaluation of program implementations with lessons learnt and influencing factors (19/38); and (4). effect directly on health outcomes (12/38). However, among the 12 studies directly reporting on health outcomes, five discussed quantitative/statistical conclusions. These four categories show the outcomes with increasing correlation to the ultimate objective: to improve health. Quality of implementation and effect on community capacity is an intermediate outcome to the final health outcome. The inclusion of more direct health measurements would improve the ability to evaluate the impact of these initiatives. Future studies should aim to measure long-term impact from their initiative, not just the measurement of outcomes during the funded period.
This review brought together evidence on the use of community organising in the health domain and the adoption of several frameworks of community organising. However, the review did not systematically assess whether the studies adhered to the framework guidelines in a step-by-step manner. Therefore, the review should not be viewed as an assessment of their level of adherence to these frameworks. This could also be considered this review’s strength as it identified that there is not any standardisation/guideline for reporting such adherence. Another limitation of the study lies in the heterogeneity of topics and community groups, meaning that a rigorous meta-analysis was not possible. Nonetheless, the heterogeneity (of target population groups and frameworks) can also be considered a strength as it is suggestive that the approach can be used in many contexts and is therefore worthy of further consideration. Most studies included in the review also showed that the initiatives successfully improved the targeted health outcomes in the short term, which indicates the positive role of community organising in solving community problems with their active involvement. It needs to be acknowledged that it might also be reflective of selective publishing, where relatively less successful initiatives are not published and of a lack of follow-up studies to check whether these successes sustain over time in the absence of an active implementation team of community organisers/organisations. The assessment of publication bias and sustainability assessment was beyond the scope of this review.
No guidelines exist to inform the development or reporting of tools to implement and evaluate community initiatives or interventions in a consistent way to enable comparison and conclusions to be drawn. Therefore, future studies could emphasise developing such implementation and evaluation guidelines to support the implementation and assessment of implementation fidelity and allow for comparability across initiatives. Furthermore, assessing the sustainability of community organising initiatives beyond the short-term project duration will also be helpful, since a lack of funding and active engagement from community organisers might mean that programs are discontinued, and any community benefits gained could cease or even regress.
This review showed that community organising is a promising approach to community-based health initiatives. Health initiatives with successful outcomes in recent decades include the widespread shift to a bottom-up approach towards including community members in organising efforts to address their identified needs through active participation in their community. There is opportunity for a more standardised approach of implementation and evaluation of these initiatives, including objective measures of success and long-term sustainability. Future research should explore whether long-term sustainability can be achieved by encouraging a more proactive public sector role or by fostering a public- and non-governmental sector partnership to promote community-driven health promotion efforts. Regardless of the approach, ensuring community trust and empowering local leaders should remain the cornerstone of all these initiatives.
We thank the health librarian staff at Griffith University for assisting throughout the data search and with access to electronic databases.
This research received no external funding.
S.K. conducted the preliminary database search, analysed, and interpreted data and took a lead role in writing the manuscript. J.P. conceptualised the study and J.P. and L.B. oversaw and supervised the study and contributed to manuscript development. S.K., L.B., D.C., H.R., J.H., J.M., K.B., L.M. and J.P. contributed to data screening and extraction. S.K., L.B., D.C., H.R., J.H., J.M., K.B., L.M. and J.P. critically reviewed and provided constructive feedback. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Not applicable.
Data availability statement, conflicts of interest.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Aligning community-engaged research methods with diverse community organizing approaches.
2. critical cer and grassroots community organizing, 3. roles for cer in community organizing, examples from the environmental health coalition (ehc), 4. aligning research methods with organizing approaches, 4.1. alinskyite, 4.2. freirean, 4.3. feminist, 4.4. community building and resilience-based organizing, 4.5. transformative, 4.6. examples from the environmental health coalition, 5. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.
1 | ) and social movements (e.g., ). Practical guides to community organizing include ( ), ( ), ( ), and ( ). ( ) provides a guide to campus and community organizing for college students. Curricula on how to do research for organizing and campaigns with environmental justice examples include ( ) and ( ). |
2 |
Elements of Organizing | Research Activities | Research Products |
---|---|---|
Recruiting, educating, healing, and retaining community members to help envision and implement the organization’s work | Background research on effective methods of engaging members Canvassing, surveys, house meetings, interviews, and focus groups to identify community issues and needs, educate and recruit participants, develop goals Community events and social media outreach to share original research, amplify community voices, educate and attract participants, dispel misinformation, celebrate local culture, and build solidarity among members and allies | Internal reports and tools (recruiting plans, canvassing scripts, etc.) Reports and maps of community assets, needs, priorities Presentations, stories, participatory media |
Developing members’ political education, analysis, and practical skills | Background research on effective programs of political education (e.g., critical consciousness, intersectional analysis); skills acquisition (organizing, communication, etc.); and personal healing (physical, psychological, and/or spiritual) Training members to participate in community-engaged research | Education and training curricula (lesson plans, exercises, simulations and games, videos, and readings, etc.) |
Developing capacities to sustain leadership and campaigns, attract new members and allies, and respond to changing conditions | Participatory evaluations Strategic planning Research on funding models and strategies Research and training on campaign development and tools Research on formation and governance of organizations and alliances | Internal evaluation and planning documents Evaluations for funders, members Curricula and case studies on campaigning and governance |
Engaging in sustained efforts to change policies, institutions, individual attitudes and behaviors, or community capacities | Data gathering to document and define problems, causes, and potential solutions (laws, policies, regulations, practices, litigation, etc.) Researching targets and allies Research and training on strategies, tactics, tools Campaign communication research Participatory evaluations (of campaign’s progress toward goals, membership and power built, lessons learned) | White papers, investigative reports, case studies Target and power analyses Fact sheets and toolkits for organizing and research Development and testing of frames, messages, and tools (apps, databases, etc.) Evaluation research reports and articles |
Approach | Activities Prioritized | Developmental Focus | Role of Organizer | Especially Relevant CER Methods |
---|---|---|---|---|
Alinskyite | Mass membership recruitment, campaigns | Organizational power, solidarity | Organizer as agitator, guide | Target and power analysis, crowdsourced community science |
Freirean | Liberation education, critical consciousness (especially of capitalism, colonialism) | Individual and group liberation | Organizer as facilitator, partner in teaching and learning | Role-plays, simulations, games, community mapping and counter-mapping, photovoice, and other participatory media |
Feminist | Integration of personal and political; intersectional analysis of sexism, racism, classism; building alternative organizations | Individual, group, and community liberation and nurturance | Group as organizer, rotating leadership, community- defined levels of contact | Testimony (interviews, oral histories, biomonitoring), popular epidemiology, ground-truthing, healthcare promotoras, guides to self-care and community care |
Community Building and Resilience-based | Developing community capacities and ties | Networks and linkages, social capital, collective problem solving, communities as systems | Organizer as builder of communal ties and consensus across diverse organizations and people | Asset mapping, focus groups, collective decision making, conflict resolution, creative placemaking |
Transformative | Integration of holding actions (campaigns), creating alternative institutions, and personal transformation | Remaking dominant institutions, founding alternative institutions, healing individual and collective trauma | Organizer as inclusive and intersectional relationship builder; horizontal, shared, and rotating leadership | Case studies of, and participatory planning for, grassroots campaigns, governance of alliances, non-market economic institutions, and healing justice programs |
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Raphael, C.; Matsuoka, M. Aligning Community-Engaged Research Methods with Diverse Community Organizing Approaches. Soc. Sci. 2023 , 12 , 343. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci12060343
Raphael C, Matsuoka M. Aligning Community-Engaged Research Methods with Diverse Community Organizing Approaches. Social Sciences . 2023; 12(6):343. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci12060343
Raphael, Chad, and Martha Matsuoka. 2023. "Aligning Community-Engaged Research Methods with Diverse Community Organizing Approaches" Social Sciences 12, no. 6: 343. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci12060343
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Margaret R. Boyd Bridgewater State University Bridgewater, MA, USA
Community-based research challenges the traditional research paradigm by recognizing that complex social problems today must involve multiple stakeholders in the research process—not as subjects but as co-investigators and co-authors. It is an “orientation to inquiry” rather than a methodology and reflects a transdisciplinary paradigm by including academics from many different disciplines, community members, activists, and often students in all stages of the research process. Community-based research is relational research where all partners change and grow in a synergistic relationship as they work together and strategize to solve issues and problems that are defined by and meaningful to them. This chapter is an introduction to the historical roots and subdivisions within community-based research and discusses the core principles and skills useful when designing and working with community members in a collaborative, innovative, and transformative research partnership. The rationale for working within this research paradigm is discussed as well as the challenges researchers and practitioners face when conducting community-based research. As the scholarship and practice of this form of research has increased dramatically over the last twenty years, this chapter looks at both new and emerging issues as well as founding questions that continue to be debated in the contemporary discourse.
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Cognizant of the special needs of indigenous people in the Philippines, the Republic Act No. 8371 of 1997 was established to promote and protect their rights. Over the years, a number of community organizing efforts for the improvement of these communities were conducted by stakeholders from the private and public sectors. However, resistance has been reported due to poor understanding and integration of these indigenous populations’ varied cultures and traditions. This study aims to describe the predominant principles and frameworks used for community organizing among indigenous people. Specifically, it seeks to propose a community organizing approach that is culturally sensitive and appropriate for indigenous communities in geographically isolated and disadvantaged areas in the Philippines. A systematic review was conducted on four databases (PubMed, ScienceDirect, ResearchGate, Google Scholar) by four independent researchers. Inclusion criteria involved studies about community organizing protocols in the Philippines, published in peer-reviewed journals from 2010-2020, and written in the English language. Assessment of the quality of included studies was done using the Critical Appraisal Skills Program (CASP) checklist, and narrative synthesis was employed to summarize and report the findings. Thirteen studies met our inclusion criteria out of a total of fifty-five articles searched. Based on the evidence, our proposed approach builds on Groundwork, Indigenous Capacity Building, Community Participation and Ownership, Mobilization, and Sustainability. We highlight the emphasis of harnessing indigenous knowledge and Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation to involve them in all steps of the planning and decision-making processes. Furthermore, we distill tools and methodologies that could strengthen and precipitate successful community organizing endeavors.
The authors have declared no competing interest.
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
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IMAGES
VIDEO
COMMENTS
1. Introduction. Community involvement in research engages and mobilises people with an aim to achieve their shared goals by addressing structural inequalities in the social and built environment [].Communities that collectively take responsibility to influence and modify their social and built environment for the purposes of better health and wellbeing are increasingly recognised as effective ...
Research from a variety of disciplines has documented, evaluated, and informed many of these changes. This article scrutinizes the evolving field of community organizing, with a particular focus on the current state of social and psychological research on broad-based community organizing processes and outcomes.
developmental psychological perspectiv es. As a phenomenon, community organizing encompasses a number of potential. points of interest for social issues researchers, policymakers, and funders ...
Community organizing—a field of practice in which residents collaboratively investigate and undertake sustained collective action regarding social issues of mutual concern—has often proven an effective method for achieving changes in policies and systems at local, regional, and even national scales. The field is dynamic. It has expanded and has undergone numerous changes over recent decades.
This paper discusses the theoretical concepts of. community organizing, which include its definitions, ideological. background and value orientati ons, assumpt ions and propositions, goals ...
Journal of Community Psychology is a social psychology journal publishing empirical research into community factors that influence human development and behaviour. Abstract There is now wide recognition that grassroots community organizing is a uniquely necessary approach for contending with the persistent and escalating socioeconomic ...
Community engagement: evolution, challenges and ...
Community Organizing. Community organizing processes are bound together by a set of common elements, including: (1) assessment/relationship development, (2) participatory research, (3) action or mobilization, and (4) evaluation and/or reflection. These common elements are often integrated through cycles of learning and action.
This commonality also offers scope for comparative research and reconceptualization of community-organization relationships. Furthermore, by specifying the organizing principles that vary, we extend previous research and explicate the main underpinnings of community organizing. The paper ends by suggesting avenues for future research that further
Social Issues and Policy Review, Vol. 9, No. 1, 2015, pp. 193--222 Community Organizing: Practice, Research, and Policy Implications Brian D. Christens ∗ University of Wisconsin-Madison Paul W. Speer Vanderbilt University Community organizing—a field of practice in which residents collaboratively in- vestigate and undertake sustained collective action regarding social issues of mutual ...
Staples (2004) defined community organizing as, "collective action by community members drawing on the strength of numbers, participatory processes, and indigenous leadership to decrease power disparities and achieve shared goals for social change" (pp. 1-2). The organizing modality is fundamentally linked to distributive justice, equal ...
Understanding communities. The final article by Luria et al. (Citation 2024), "A new level of analysis for climate research: Development of a community involvement climate scale," describes a study in Israel to develop a measure of a community's social climate, focused specifically on community involvement.The goal was to adopt the concept of organizational climate to the study of ...
Community-Engaged Research (CER) often involves partnerships between academic or professional researchers and community organizers. Critical CER and organizing each aim to mobilize people and resources to produce actionable knowledge in order to build grassroots leadership and power that promote equity and justice for marginalized communities. This article argues that critical CER ...
At the heart of the model is the development of social capital and networks among Approaches to Community Organizing and Their Relationship to Consensus Organizing Figure 1.1 The Consensus Organizing Model Social Capital/Networks Activities PAnalyze and identify the contributions of community residents, stakeholders and power structure PAnalyze ...
the community organising models, frameworks, and/or processes reported in the paper. Before data extraction commenced, all members of the research team involved in this step
The epistemology of community-based research can be traced back to many roots—Karl Marx, John Dewey, Paulo Freire, C.W. Mills, Thomas Kuhn, and Jane Addams to name but a few. Community-based research as it is practiced today has been enriched by the diversity of thoughts, methodologies, and practices that has been its foundation.
The goal of this participatory action research was to build the history of community organizing in Central and Southeastern Europe by unearthing new organizing stories. The report documents the findings of community organizers working in Hungary, Poland, Romania, Serbia and Slovakia, though its lessons are broadly applicable.
Full article: What is true community engagement and why it ...
Community development is a process where members of community are supported by government, individuals and agencies to identify and take collaborative actions on issues affecting members which are ...
In this approach, the aim is to increase motivation, responsibility, and skill in recognizing and securing reforms the community considers desirable; and development of community integration and capacity to function as a unit with respect to community problems 19. Other approaches used are project and political action.
INTRODUCTION. For the purposes of this article, we define a community as diverse groups of people who live in a commonly understood location or place. The place may be a neighborhood, a town/city, or a county. Some see community development as a process that helps a community to sustain itself socially, economically, and environmentally (Citation Gertler, 2001; Citation Ketilson, Fulton ...
Specifically, it seeks to propose a community organizing approach that is culturally sensitive and appropriate for indigenous communities in geographically isolated and disadvantaged areas in the Philippines. A systematic review was conducted on four databases (PubMed, ScienceDirect, ResearchGate, Google Scholar) by four independent researchers.
In the Philippines, community organizing was used by social development workers in. empowering people's organizations to address poverty and social inequality 11. As early as. 1985, several ...
Lastly, it can be concluded that community organizing in education is a painstaking and endless process of collaborations, which, if purposeful and sustained, can positively impact the communities.