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How To Write a Bibliography (Plus Printable Guide With Examples)

Give credit where credit is due.

Writing a research paper involves a lot of work. Students need to consult a variety of sources to gather reliable information and ensure their points are well supported. Research papers include a bibliography, which can be a little tricky for students. Learn how to write a bibliography in multiple styles and find basic examples below.

Plus grab our printable Bibliography Guide for Students with examples from all three major style guides: APA (American Psychological Association), MLA (Modern Language Association), or The Chicago Manual of Style . Just fill out the form on this page to get the free guide.

IMPORTANT: Each style guide has its own very specific rules, and they often conflict with one another. Additionally, each type of reference material has many possible formats, depending on a variety of factors. The overviews shown here are meant to guide students in writing basic bibliographies, but this information is by no means complete. Students should always refer directly to the preferred style guide to ensure they’re using the most up-to-date formats and styles.

What is a bibliography?

When you’re researching a paper, you’ll likely consult a wide variety of sources. You may quote some of these directly in your work, summarize some of the points they make, or simply use them to further the knowledge you need to write your paper. Since these ideas are not your own, it’s vital to give credit to the authors who originally wrote them. This list of sources, organized alphabetically, is called a bibliography.

A bibliography should include all the materials you consulted in your research, even if you don’t quote directly from them in your paper. These resources could include (but aren’t limited to):

• Books and e-books
• Periodicals like magazines or newspapers
• Online articles or websites
• Primary source documents like letters or official records

Bibliography vs. References

These two terms are sometimes used interchangeably, but they actually have different meanings. As noted above, a bibliography includes all the materials you used while researching your paper, whether or not you quote from them or refer to them directly in your writing.

A list of references only includes the materials you cite throughout your work. You might use direct quotes or summarize the information for the reader. Either way, you must ensure you give credit to the original author or document. This section can be titled “List of Works Cited” or simply “References.”

Your teacher may specify whether you should include a bibliography or a reference list. If they don’t, consider choosing a bibliography to show all the works you used in researching your paper. This can help the reader see that your points are well supported and allow them to do further reading on their own if they’re interested.

Bibliography vs. Citations

Citations refer to direct quotations from a text that are woven into your own writing. There are a variety of ways to write citations, including footnotes and endnotes. These are generally shorter than the entries in a reference list or bibliography. Learn more about writing citations here.

What does a bibliography entry include?

Depending on the reference material, bibliography entries include a variety of information intended to help a reader locate the material if they want to refer to it themselves. These entries are listed in alphabetical order and may include: ADVERTISEMENT

• Author/s or creator/s
• Publication date
• Volume and issue numbers
• Publisher and publication city
• Website URL

These entries don’t generally need to include specific page numbers or locations within the work (except for print magazine or journal articles). That type of information is usually only needed in a footnote or endnote citation.

What are the different bibliography styles?

In most cases, writers use one of three major style guides: APA (American Psychological Association), MLA (Modern Language Association), or The Chicago Manual of Style . There are many others as well, but these three are the most common choices for K–12 students.

Many teachers will state their preference for one style guide over another. If they don’t, you can choose your own preferred style. However, you should also use that guide for your entire paper, following their recommendations for punctuation, grammar, and more. This will ensure you are consistent throughout.

Below, you’ll learn how to write a simple bibliography using each of the three major style guides. We’ve included details for books and e-books, periodicals, and electronic sources like websites and videos. If the reference material type you need to include isn’t shown here, refer directly to the style guide you’re using.

APA Style Bibliography and Examples

Technically, APA style calls for a list of references instead of a bibliography. If your teacher requires you to use the APA style guide , you can limit your reference list to only items you cite throughout your work.

How To Write a Bibliography (References) Using APA Style

Here are some general notes on writing an APA reference list:

• Title your bibliography section “References” and center the title on the top line of the page.
• Do not center your references; they should be left-aligned. For longer items, subsequent lines should use a hanging indent of 1/2 inch.
• Include all types of resources in the same list.
• Alphabetize your list by author or creator, last name first.
• Do not spell out the author/creator’s first or middle name—only use their initials.
• If there are multiple authors/creators, use an ampersand (&) before the final author/creator.
• Place the date in parentheses.
• Capitalize only the first word of the title and subtitle, unless the word would otherwise be capitalized (proper names, etc.).
• Italicize the titles of books, periodicals, and videos.
• For websites, include the full site information, including the http:// or https:// at the beginning.

Books and E-Books APA Bibliography Examples

For books, APA reference list entries use this format (only include the publisher’s website for e-books):

Last Name, First Initial. Middle Initial. (Publication date). Title with only first word capitalized (unless there’s a proper name/noun) . Publisher. Publisher’s website

• Wynn, S. (2020). City of London at war 1939–45 . Pen & Sword Military. https://www.pen-and-sword.co.uk/City-of-London-at-War-193945-Paperback/p/17299

Periodical APA Bibliography Examples

For journal or magazine articles, use the following format. If you viewed the article online, include the URL at the end of the citation.

Last Name, First Initial. Middle Initial. (Publication date). Title of article. Magazine or Journal Title (Volume number) Issue number, page numbers. URL

• Bell, A. (2009). Landscapes of fear: Wartime London, 1939–1945. Journal of British Studies (48) 1, 153–175. https://www.jstor.org/stable/25482966

Here’s the format for newspapers. For print editions, include the page number/s. For online articles, include the full URL:

Last Name, First Initial. Middle Initial. (Year, Month Date) Title of article. Newspaper title. Page number/s. URL

• Blakemore, E. (2022, November 12) Researchers track down two copies of fossil destroyed by the Nazis.  The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/science/2022/11/12/ichthyosaur-fossil-images-discovered/

Electronic APA Bibliography Examples

For articles with a specific author on a website, use this format:

Last Name, First Initial. Middle Initial. (Year, Month Date). Title . Site name. URL

• Wukovits, J. (2023, January 30). A World War II survivor recalls the London Blitz . British Heritage . https://britishheritage.com/history/world-war-ii-survivor-london-blitz

When an online article doesn’t include a specific author or date, list it like this:

Title . (Year, Month Date). Site name. Retrieved Month Date, Year, from URL

• Growing up in the Second World War . (n.d.). Imperial War Museums. Retrieved May 12, 2023, from https://www.iwm.org.uk/history/growing-up-in-the-second-world-war

When you need to list a YouTube video, use the name of the account that uploaded the video, and format it like this:

Name of Account. (Upload year, month day). Title [Video]. YouTube. URL

• War Stories. (2023, January 15). How did London survive the Blitz during WW2? Cities at war: London [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/uwY6JlCvbxc

For more information on writing APA bibliographies, see the APA Style Guide website.

APA Bibliography (Reference List) Example Pages

MLA Style Bibliography Examples

MLA style calls for a Works Cited section, which includes all materials quoted or referred to in your paper. You may also include a Works Consulted section, including other reference sources you reviewed but didn’t directly cite. Together, these constitute a bibliography. If your teacher requests an MLA Style Guide bibliography, ask if you should include Works Consulted as well as Works Cited.

How To Write a Bibliography (Works Cited and Works Consulted) in MLA Style

For both MLA Works Cited and Works Consulted sections, use these general guidelines:

• Start your Works Cited list on a new page. If you include a Works Consulted list, start that on its own new page after the Works Cited section.
• Center the title (Works Cited or Works Consulted) in the middle of the line at the top of the page.
• Align the start of each source to the left margin, and use a hanging indent (1/2 inch) for the following lines of each source.
• Alphabetize your sources using the first word of the citation, usually the author’s last name.
• Include the author’s full name as listed, last name first.
• Capitalize titles using the standard MLA format.
• Leave off the http:// or https:// at the beginning of a URL.

Books and E-Books MLA Bibliography Examples

For books, MLA reference list entries use the following format. Add the URL at the end for e-books.

Last Name, First Name Middle Name. Title . Publisher, Date. URL

• Wynn, Stephen. City of London at War 1939–45 . Pen & Sword Military, 2020. www.pen-and-sword.co.uk/City-of-London-at-War-193945-Paperback/p/17299

Periodical MLA Bibliography Examples

Here’s the MLA-style format for magazines, journals, and newspapers. For online articles, add the URL at the end of the listing:

For magazines and journals:

Last Name, First Name. “Title: Subtitle.” Name of Journal , volume number, issue number, Date of Publication, First Page Number–Last Page Number.

• Bell, Amy. “Landscapes of Fear: Wartime London, 1939–1945.” Journal of British Studies , vol. 48, no. 1, January 2009, pp. 153–175. www.jstor.org/stable/25482966

When citing newspapers, include the page number/s for print editions or the URL for online articles:

Last Name, First Name. “Title of article.” Newspaper title. Page number/s. Year, month day. Page number or URL

• Blakemore, Erin. “Researchers Track Down Two Copies of Fossil Destroyed by the Nazis.” The Washington Post. 2022, Nov. 12. www.washingtonpost.com/science/2022/11/12/ichthyosaur-fossil-images-discovered/

Electronic MLA Bibliography Examples

Last Name, First Name. Year. “Title.” Month Day, Year published. URL

• Wukovits, John. 2023. “A World War II Survivor Recalls the London Blitz.” January 30,   2023. https://britishheritage.com/history/world-war-ii-survivor-london-blitz

Website. n.d. “Title.” Accessed Day Month Year. URL.

• Imperial War Museum. n.d. “Growing Up in the Second World War.” Accessed May 9, 2023. www.iwm.org.uk/history/growing-up-in-the-second-world-war.

Here’s how to list YouTube and other online videos:

Creator, if available. “Title of Video.” Website. Uploaded by Username, Day Month Year. URL.

• “How did London survive the Blitz during WW2?” Cities at war: London | War stories.” YouTube . Uploaded by War Stories, 15 Jan. 2023. youtu.be/uwY6JlCvbxc.

For more information on writing MLA-style bibliographies, see the MLA Style website.

MLA Bibliography (Works Cited) Example Pages

Chicago Manual of Style Bibliography Examples

The Chicago Manual of Style (sometimes called “Turabian”) actually has two options for citing reference material: Notes and Bibliography and Author-Date. Regardless of which you use, you’ll need a complete detailed list of reference items at the end of your paper. The examples below demonstrate how to write that list.

How To Write a Bibliography Using The Chicago Manual of Style

Here are some general notes on writing a Chicago -style bibliography:

• You may title it “Bibliography” or “References.” Center this title at the top of the page and add two blank lines before the first entry.
• Left-align each entry, with a hanging half-inch indent for subsequent lines of each entry.
• Single-space each entry, with a blank line between entries.
• Include the “http://” or “https://” at the beginning of URLs.

Books and E-Books Chicago Manual of Style Bibliography Examples

For books, Chicago -style reference list entries use the following format. (For print books, leave off the information about how the book was accessed.)

Last Name, First Name Middle Name. Title . City of Publication: Publisher, Date. How e-book was accessed.

• Wynn, Stephen. City of London at War 1939–45 . Yorkshire: Pen & Sword Military, 2020. Kindle edition.

Periodical Chicago Manual of Style Bibliography Examples

Here’s the style format for magazines, journals, and newspapers. For online articles, add the URL at the end of the listing.

For journal and magazine articles, use this format:

Last Name, First Name. Year of Publication. “Title: Subtitle.” Name of Journal , Volume Number, issue number, First Page Number–Last Page Number. URL.

• Bell, Amy. 2009. “Landscapes of Fear: Wartime London, 1939–1945.” Journal of British Studies, 48 no. 1, 153–175. https://www.jstor.org/stable/25482966.

When citing newspapers, include the URL for online articles:

Last Name, First Name. Year of Publication. “Title: Subtitle.” Name of Newspaper , Month day, year. URL.

• Blakemore, Erin. 2022. “Researchers Track Down Two Copies of Fossil Destroyed by the Nazis.” The Washington Post , November 12, 2022. https://www.washingtonpost.com/science/2022/11/12/ichthyosaur-fossil-images-discovered/.

Electronic Chicago Manual of Style Bibliography Examples

Last Name, First Name Middle Name. “Title.” Site Name . Year, Month Day. URL.

• Wukovits, John. “A World War II Survivor Recalls the London Blitz.” British Heritage. 2023, Jan. 30. britishheritage.com/history/world-war-ii-survivor-london-blitz.

“Title.” Site Name . URL. Accessed Month Day, Year.

• “Growing Up in the Second World War.” Imperial War Museums . www.iwm.org.uk/history/growing-up-in-the-second-world-war. Accessed May 9, 2023.

Creator or Username. “Title of Video.” Website video, length. Month Day, Year. URL.

• War Stories. “How Did London Survive the Blitz During WW2? | Cities at War: London | War Stories.” YouTube video, 51:25. January 15, 2023. https://youtu.be/uwY6JlCvbxc.

For more information on writing Chicago -style bibliographies, see the Chicago Manual of Style website.

Chicago Manual of Style Bibliography Example Pages

Get Your Free Printable Bibliography Style Guide

Just fill out the form on this page to grab our printable Bibliography Guide for Students with examples from all three major style guides: APA (American Psychological Association), MLA (Modern Language Association), or The Chicago Manual of Style .

Now that you know how to write a bibliography, take a look at the Best Websites for Teaching & Learning Writing .

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Sample Abstract from ERIC

The image below shows an example Abstract that includes the purpose, methods, results, and implications (in that order). 

Save annotations in EBSCO account

Use the "Create Note" tool and write your annotation. Copy/paste it to your paper.  Or sign up for an EBSCO account (free) so you can save notes.

Save your annotations in your EndNote Basic Account

If you are using your EndNote Basic account to keep track of your references,

• write your annotation in the the "Reference Notes" field,   
• then when you are FORMATING your paper and creating your BIBLIOGRAPHY, choose the STYLE APA ANNOTATION SENTENCE STYLE.

Example of Annotated Bibliographies entries (in APA format)  

Goldschneider, F. K., Waite, L. J., & Witsberger, C. (1986). Nonfamily living and the erosion of traditional family orientations among  young adults.  American Sociological Review,   51,  541-554.

The authors, researchers at the Rand Corporation and Brown University, use data from the National Longitudinal Surveys of Young Women and Young Men to test their hypothesis that nonfamily living by young adults alters their attitudes, values, plans, and expectations, moving them away from their belief in traditional sex roles. They find their hypothesis strongly supported in young females, while the effects were fewer in studies of young males. Increasing the time away from parents before marrying increased individualism, self-sufficiency, and changes in attitudes about families. In contrast, an earlier study by Williams cited below shows no significant gender differences in sex role attitudes as a result of nonfamily living.  

Graybosch, A., Scott, G.M. & Garrison, S. (1998). The Philosophy Student Writer's Manual.  Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Designed to serve as either as a writing guide or as a primary textbook for teaching philosophy through writing, the  Manual  is an excellent resource for students new to philosophy. Like other books in this area, the  Manual  contains sections on grammar, writing strategies, introductory informal logic and the different types of writing encountered in various areas of philosophy. Of particular note, however, is the section on conducting research in philosophy. The research strategies and sources of information described there are very much up-to-date, including not only directories and periodical indexes, but also research institutes, interest groups and Internet resources.

Examples of What Your Bibliography Should Not Look Like:

Marieb, Elaine N. (1992). Human Anatomy and Physiology  Redwood City, CA: The Benjamin/ Cummings Co.

• I use this book to get the basic information about arthritis, it was very informative.

Keefe FJ., (1996) Pain in Arthritis and musculoskeletal disorders.  Journal of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy, 24, 279-290

• I got all the facts about exercising with arthritis and the different types of exercise.

How to write an annotated blbiography

An annotated bibliography is....

• a list of citations to books, articles, and documents
• in an appropriate style format  i.e.,APA, Chicago Manual of Style, etc.
• with brief (usually about 150 words)  descriptive and evaluative  paragraphs -- the annotations (or abstracts).

The annotations  inform the reader of the relevance, accuracy, and quality of the sources;  they expose the  author's point of view, clarity and appropriateness of expression, and authority.

The Process

• First, locate books, articles, reports, etc. Use library databases like ERIC ,   Education Source   or Google Scholar . Get help on this at  http://guides.lib.purdue.edu/education .
• Select those works that provide a  variety of perspectives  on your topic.
• Cite the book, article, or document using the appropriate style.

• Write  ( do not copy the abstract from the database) a concise annotation that  summarizes the central theme and scope  of the book or article. Include  one or more sentences  that:

o    evaluate the authority or background of the author,

o    comment on the intended audience,

o    compare or contrast this work with another you have cited, or

o    explain how this work illuminates your bibliography topic.

The annotation should include most, if not all, of the following:

• Explanation of the  main purpose and scope  of the cited work;
• Brief description of the work's  format and content ;
• Theoretical basis and  currency of the author's argument ;
• Author's  intellectual/academic credentials ;
• Work's  intended audience ;
• Value and significance  of the work as a contribution to the subject under consideration;
• Possible  shortcomings or bias  in the work;
• Any  significant special features  of the work (e.g., glossary, appendices, particularly good index);
• Your own brief impression of the work .

An annotated bibliography is an  original work created by you . Don't copy the annotation from the book introduction or jacket. Write it yourself. Copying is plagiarism and intellectual dishonesty.

How to Write an Abstract

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How to Write a Bibliography (MLA, APA Examples)

Learn how to easily write a bibliography by following the format outlined in this article.

This resource will help your students properly cite different resources in the bibliography of a research paper, and how to format those citations, for books, encyclopedias, films, websites, and people.

What is a bibliography?

According to Infoplease.com, A bibliography is a list of the types of sources you used to get information for your report. It is included at the end of your report, on the last page (or last few pages).

What are the types of bibliography styles (MLA, APA, etc.)?

The 3 most common bibliography/citation styles are:

• MLA Style: The Modern Language Association works cited page style
• APA Style: The American Psychological Association style
• Chicago Style: The bibliography style defined by the Chicago Manual of Style

We’ll give examples of how to create bibliography entries in various styles further down in this article. 

What sources do you put in a bibliography?

An annotated bibliography should include a reference list of any sources you use in writing a research paper. Any printed sources from which you use a text citation, including books, websites, newspaper articles, journal articles, academic writing, online sources (such as PDFs), and magazines should be included in a reference list. In some cases, you may need or want to cite conversations or interviews, works of art, visual works such as movies, television shows, or documentaries - these (and many others) can also be included in a reference list.

How to get started writing your bibliography

You will find it easier to prepare your MLA, APA, or Chicago annotated bibliography if you keep track of each book, encyclopedia, journal article, webpage or online source you use as you are reading and taking notes. Start a preliminary, or draft, bibliography by listing on a separate sheet of paper all your sources. Note down the full title, author’s last name, place of publication, web address, publisher, and date of publication for each source.

Haven't started your paper yet and need an outline? These sample essay outlines include a research paper outline from an actual student paper.

How to write a bibliography step-by-step (with examples)

General Format: Author (last name first). Title of the book. Publisher, Date of publication.

MLA Style: Sibley, David Allen. What It’s Like to Be a Bird. From Flying to Nesting, Eating to Singing, What Birds Are Doing, and Why. Alfred A. Knopf, 2020.

APA Style: Sibley, D.A. (2020). What It’s Like to Be a Bird. From Flying to Nesting, Eating to Singing, What Birds Are Doing, and Why . Alfred A. Knopf.

Notes: Use periods, not commas, to separate the data in the entry. Use a hanging indent if the entry is longer than one line. For APA style, do not use the full author’s first name.

Websites or webpages:

  MLA Style: The SB Nation Family of Sites. Pension Plan Puppets: A Toronto Maple Leafs Blog, 2022, www.pensionplanpuppets.com. Accessed 15 Feb. 2022.

APA Style: American Heart Association. (2022, April 11). How to keep your dog’s heart healthy. https://www.heart.org/en/news/2022/04/11/how-to-keep-your-dogs-heart-healthy

Online news article from a newspaper site:

APA Style: Duehren, A. (2022, April 9). Janet Yellen faces challenge to keep pressure on Russia. Wall Street Journal. https://www.wsj.com/articles/janet-yellen-faces-challenge-to-keep-pressure-on-russia-while-addressing-global-consequences-11650366000

Print journal articles:

MLA Style: Booch, Grady. "Patterns in Object-Oriented Design." IEEE Software Engineering, vol. 6, no. 6, 2006, pp. 31-50.

APA Style: Booch, G. (2006). Patterns in object-oriented design. IEEE Software Engineering, 6(6), 31–50.

Note: It is suggested that you include a DOI and a webpage address when referencing either a printed journal article, and electronic journal article, or an journal article that appears in both formats. 

MLA Style: Gamma, Eric, and Peter A. Coad. “Exceptions to the Unified Modeling Language in Python Patterns.” IEEE Software Engineering, vol. 2, no. 6, 8 Mar. 2006, pp. 190-194. O’Reilly Software Engineering Library, https://doi.org/10.1006/se.20061. Accessed 26 May 2009.

APA Style: Masters, H., Barron, J., & Chanda, L. (2017). Motivational interviewing techniques for adolescent populations in substance abuse counseling. NAADAC Notes, 7(8), 7–13. https://www.naadac.com/notes/adolescent-techniques

ML:A Style: @Grady_Booch. “That’s a bold leap over plain old battery power cars.” Twitter, 13 Mar. 2013, 12:06 p.m., https://twitter.com/Grady_Booch/status/1516379006727188483.

APA Style: Westborough Library [@WestboroughLib]. (2022, April 12). Calling all 3rd through 5th grade kids! Join us for the Epic Writing Showdown! Winner receives a prize! Space is limited so register, today. loom.ly/ypaTG9Q [Tweet; thumbnail link to article]. Twitter. https://twitter.com/WestboroughLib/status/1516373550415896588.

Print magazine articles:

General format: Author (last name first), "Article Title." Name of magazine. Volume number, (Date): page numbers.

MLA Style: Stiteler, Sharon. "Tracking Red-Breasted Grosbeak Migration." Minnesota Bird Journal, 7 Sept. 2019, pp. 7-11.

APA Style: Jordan, Jennifer, "Filming at the Top of the World." Museum of Science Magazine. Volume 47, No. 1, (Winter 1998): p. 11.

Print newspaper articles:

General format: Author (last name first), "Article Title." Name of newspaper, city, state of publication. (date): edition if available, section, page number(s).

MLA Style: Adelman, Martin. "Augustus Announces Departure from City Manager Post." New York Times, late ed., 15 February 2020, p. A1

APA Style: Adelman, M. (2020, February 15). Augustus announced departure from city manager post. New York Times, A1.

Encyclopedias:

General Format: Encyclopedia Title, Edition Date. Volume Number, "Article Title," page numbers.

MLA Style: “Gorillas.” The Encyclopedia Brittanica. 15th ed. 2010.

APA Style: Encyclopedia Brittanica, Inc. (1997.) Gorillas. In The Encyclopedia Brittanica (15th ed., pp. 50-51). Encyclopedia Brittanica, Inc.

Personal interviews:

General format: Full name (last name first). Personal Interview. (Occupation.) Date of interview.

MLA Style: Smithfield, Joseph. Personal interview. 19 May 2014.

APA Style: APA does not require a formal citation for a personal interview. Published interviews from other sources should be cited accordingly.

Films and movies:

General format: Title, Director, Distributor, Year.

MLA Style: Fury. Directed by David Ayer, performances by Brad Pitt, Shia LaBeouf, Jon Bernthal, Sony Pictures, 2014.

APA Style: Ayer, D. (Director). (2014). Fury [Film]. Sony Pictures.

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How to Write a Bibliography for a Research Paper

Do not try to “wow” your instructor with a long bibliography when your instructor requests only a works cited page. It is tempting, after doing a lot of work to research a paper, to try to include summaries on each source as you write your paper so that your instructor appreciates how much work you did. That is a trap you want to avoid. MLA style, the one that is most commonly followed in high schools and university writing courses, dictates that you include only the works you actually cited in your paper—not all those that you used.

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Get 10% off with 24start discount code, assembling bibliographies and works cited.

• If your assignment calls for a bibliography, list all the sources you consulted in your research.
• If your assignment calls for a works cited or references page, include only the sources you quote, summarize, paraphrase, or mention in your paper.
• If your works cited page includes a source that you did not cite in your paper, delete it.
• All in-text citations that you used at the end of quotations, summaries, and paraphrases to credit others for their ideas,words, and work must be accompanied by a cited reference in the bibliography or works cited. These references must include specific information about the source so that your readers can identify precisely where the information came from.The citation entries on a works cited page typically include the author’s name, the name of the article, the name of the publication, the name of the publisher (for books), where it was published (for books), and when it was published.

The good news is that you do not have to memorize all the many ways the works cited entries should be written. Numerous helpful style guides are available to show you the information that should be included, in what order it should appear, and how to format it. The format often differs according to the style guide you are using. The Modern Language Association (MLA) follows a particular style that is a bit different from APA (American Psychological Association) style, and both are somewhat different from the Chicago Manual of Style (CMS). Always ask your teacher which style you should use.

A bibliography usually appears at the end of a paper on its own separate page. All bibliography entries—books, periodicals, Web sites, and nontext sources such radio broadcasts—are listed together in alphabetical order. Books and articles are alphabetized by the author’s last name.

Most teachers suggest that you follow a standard style for listing different types of sources. If your teacher asks you to use a different form, however, follow his or her instructions. Take pride in your bibliography. It represents some of the most important work you’ve done for your research paper—and using proper form shows that you are a serious and careful researcher.

Bibliography Entry for a Book

A bibliography entry for a book begins with the author’s name, which is written in this order: last name, comma, first name, period. After the author’s name comes the title of the book. If you are handwriting your bibliography, underline each title. If you are working on a computer, put the book title in italicized type. Be sure to capitalize the words in the title correctly, exactly as they are written in the book itself. Following the title is the city where the book was published, followed by a colon, the name of the publisher, a comma, the date published, and a period. Here is an example:

Format : Author’s last name, first name. Book Title. Place of publication: publisher, date of publication.

• A book with one author : Hartz, Paula.  Abortion: A Doctor’s Perspective, a Woman’s Dilemma . New York: Donald I. Fine, Inc., 1992.
• A book with two or more authors : Landis, Jean M. and Rita J. Simon.  Intelligence: Nature or Nurture?  New York: HarperCollins, 1998.

Bibliography Entry for a Periodical

A bibliography entry for a periodical differs slightly in form from a bibliography entry for a book. For a magazine article, start with the author’s last name first, followed by a comma, then the first name and a period. Next, write the title of the article in quotation marks, and include a period (or other closing punctuation) inside the closing quotation mark. The title of the magazine is next, underlined or in italic type, depending on whether you are handwriting or using a computer, followed by a period. The date and year, followed by a colon and the pages on which the article appeared, come last. Here is an example:

Format:  Author’s last name, first name. “Title of the Article.” Magazine. Month and year of publication: page numbers.

• Article in a monthly magazine : Crowley, J.E.,T.E. Levitan and R.P. Quinn.“Seven Deadly Half-Truths About Women.”  Psychology Today  March 1978: 94–106.
• Article in a weekly magazine : Schwartz, Felice N.“Management,Women, and the New Facts of Life.”  Newsweek  20 July 2006: 21–22.
• Signed newspaper article : Ferraro, Susan. “In-law and Order: Finding Relative Calm.”  The Daily News  30 June 1998: 73.
• Unsigned newspaper article : “Beanie Babies May Be a Rotten Nest Egg.”  Chicago Tribune  21 June 2004: 12.

Bibliography Entry for a Web Site

For sources such as Web sites include the information a reader needs to find the source or to know where and when you found it. Always begin with the last name of the author, broadcaster, person you interviewed, and so on. Here is an example of a bibliography for a Web site:

Format : Author.“Document Title.” Publication or Web site title. Date of publication. Date of access.

Example : Dodman, Dr. Nicholas. “Dog-Human Communication.”  Pet Place . 10 November 2006.  23 January 2014 < http://www.petplace.com/dogs/dog-human-communication-2/page1.aspx >

After completing the bibliography you can breathe a huge sigh of relief and pat yourself on the back. You probably plan to turn in your work in printed or handwritten form, but you also may be making an oral presentation. However you plan to present your paper, do your best to show it in its best light. You’ve put a great deal of work and thought into this assignment, so you want your paper to look and sound its best. You’ve completed your research paper!

Back to  How To Write A Research Paper .

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STEM Education Portal

Useful references.

Here you will find an annotated bibliography of a small sample of useful papers on STEM education and the related topics of problem-based learning (PBL) and Science-Technology-Society (STS) approaches to curriculum and instruction. These papers are only a small sampling of a vast literature, selected to present important perspectives on the nature of STEM education, benefits and problems of an integrated STEM approach in education, and strategies for integrating the STEM disciplines, including social perspectives. If you are interested in pursuing any of these topics further the references included in each paper provide a wealth of possibilities to guide your research.

STEM, Integrated STEM – Overviews and Analyses

Atkinson, R. D. (2012). Why the current education reform strategy won’t work. Issues in Science and Technology , Spring 2012: 29-36. ( Google Scholar Link )

Over the past 25 years, a consensus has emerged that “the United States needs to do a better job at promoting and supporting STEM education.” But, the author points out, the problem of too few students successfully completing undergraduate and graduate STEM degrees remains. Atkinson, president of the Information Technology and Innovation Foundation, a nonpartisan public policy think tank based in Washington, DC, suggests that perhaps the problem is with the dominant policy strategy of promoting some STEM education for all students, regardless of their interests, rather than focusing on those who do have an interest in the STEM fields. The author suggests that everyone does not need in-depth knowledge of the STEM disciplines. To support this view he points out that currently in the US only about 5% of jobs are STEM jobs, and this figure is not expected to grow significantly. He continues by considering what he calls the myths of STEM education, using the discussion to support his contention that STEM education should focus on a subset of students who are characterized by their interest in STEM, a strategy he calls “All STEM for some” rather than “some STEM for all.” He believes that the “All STEM for some” strategy will accommodate “the central enabler of effective STEM education: motivated and interested students,” and support what the economy needs, “a modest increase in the number of STEM college graduates who have a real increase in their STEM skills…” This paper provides an interesting perspective on the needs of the STEM professions and how those needs affect K-12 education.

Breiner, J. M., S. S. Harkness, C. C. Johnson, and C. M. Koehler. (2012). What is STEM? A discussion about conceptions of STEM education and partnerships. School Science and Mathematics, 112(1): 3-11. ( DOI Link )

The use of the acronym STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) has grown rapidly since the early 2000s. But, as the authors of this paper point out, ideas of what STEM is often vary. Here, the authors present the results of an investigation carried out at the University of Cincinnati. At the time the research was conducted (2009) the University was engaged in several STEM initiatives. The goal of the study was to clarify how (or whether) university faculty understood the meaning of STEM, and how STEM influenced their lives. This was accomplished using an open-ended survey asking 1) What is STEM?, and 2) How does STEM influence/impact your life? Results of the survey showed that about 73% of respondents knew what STEM was, and 27% who did not. Responses to the second question ranged widely, from no influence on the individual, to various personal and social influences. The authors conclude that even in an institute of higher education with active STEM initiatives in progress, faculty still have no “common operational definition or conceptualization of STEM.” Further, they question whether such a definition would be easily achievable or useful. This is an interesting study that clearly points out the importance of being clear with our ideas about STEM and unambiguously defining the terms that we use in our discussions on the subject.

Bybee, R. W. (2010). Advancing STEM education: A 2020 vision. Technology and Engineering Teacher, September, 2010: 30-35. ( Google Scholar Link )

This paper by stating, in reference to STEM, that “…the education community has embraced a slogan without really taking the time to clarify what the term might mean…” He goes on to say that it is important to clarify what STEM means for educational policies, programs, and practices. Some possibilities, all related to one another, include increased emphasis on technology and engineering, the opportunity to stress “21st Century skills,” and the development of “an integrated curricular approach to studying grand challenges of our era,” such as energy efficiency, resource use, and other socio-environmental topics. These areas can all be useful in developing and supporting STEM literacy. Two challenges to STEM education are discussed. The first is the difficulty of truly integrating technology and engineering in STEM. At present the scale at which they are present in schools at all is relatively low. Even when they are present, they are often taught separately, rather than integrated with science and math courses. Second, is the challenge of introducing STEM-related real-world issues that students will need to understand and address as citizens. This requires an approach that places these issues in a central position and uses the STEM fields to understand them and analyze possible ways of addressing them. Such problem-based, integrated approaches are difficult to implement given the traditional, separate structure of the STEM disciplines. The author provides a model to advance STEM education that he suggests may mitigate some of these challenges.

Sanders, M. (2009). STEM, STEM education, STEMmania. The Technology Teacher, December/January, 2009: 20-26. ( Google Scholar Link )

The meaning of STEM is often ambiguous. The author of this paper, a professor of Technology Education at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, points out that for many years the National Science Foundation has used the acronym to refer simply to the four separate and distinct fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. Although others have suggested that STEM implies some sort of interaction among the disciplinary stakeholders, the author disagrees, stating that the term STEM education, as it is usually used, seems “suspiciously like the status quo educational practices…of disconnected science mathematics, and technology education.” The focus of this paper is to introduce the concept of “integrative STEM education,” an approach that integrates teaching and learning between and among “any two or more of the STEM areas, and/or between a STEM subject and one or more other school subjects.” That is, the STEM subjects are explicitly integrated with each other and with other non-STEM subjects as well. The author believes that such an approach has a greater potential to interest and motivate students than standard teaching practices, resulting in better learning outcomes and increasing the percentage of students who become interested in STEM subjects and STEM fields.

Wang, H., T. J. Moore, G. H. Roehrig, and M. S. Park. (2011). STEM integration: Teacher perceptions and practice. Journal of Pre-College Engineering Education Research. 1(2): 1-13. ( DOI Link )

Educators and researchers do not consistently agree or understand what STEM education should be about in K-12 education. Though the STEM disciplines are generally taught in silos (as separate subjects), the work of STEM professionals does not stop at disciplinary boundaries. Therefore an integrated approach to STEM education is closer to the true nature of the STEM fields. STEM integration is defined as the merging of the four STEM disciplines to 1) deepen student understanding by contextualizing the concepts; 2) broaden student understanding by integrating socially and culturally relevant STEM contexts; and 3) increasing student interest by increasing the pathways for students to enter STEM fields. Here, the authors present the results of a study they conducted to document the effect of professional development on STEM integration in three middle school teachers. The two questions that guided this case study were, 1) what are the beliefs and perceptions that teachers have about “STEM integration” after a one year professional development training, and 2) what is the connection between these beliefs and perceptions and the teachers’ classroom practices? Data collection consisted of observations, interviews, and the analysis of teacher documents. Findings from the study indicate that 1) a key component to integrating the STEM disciplines is the problem-solving process; 2) teachers from different STEM disciplines have different perceptions about STEM integration and these perceptions lead to different classroom practices; 3) technology is the hardest of the STEM disciplines to integrate; and 4) teachers are aware of the need to add more content knowledge into STEM integration. Case studies such as this often lead to a wealth of information and detailed perspectives but readers should careful not to assume that the results of such a study can be generalized too broadly.

Weber, E., S. Fox, S. B. Levings, and J. Bouwma-Gearhart. (2013). Teachers’ conceptualizations of integrated STEM. Academic Exchange Quarterly, 17(3): 1-9. ( Google Scholar Link )

Improvement in STEM education is often thought to lead to an improved workforce in the STEM fields. Often these improvements are based on the integration of the STEM disciplines, or even abandoning the teaching of specific STEM disciplines in favor of more integrated science courses. In this paper the authors present the results of a study that considers three interrelated questions regarding STEM education. These are, How do secondary school teachers in the STEM disciplines 1) understand the acronym and disciples of STEM; 2) envision a STEM curriculum and enact instruction in the classroom, and 3) recognize and respond to the integrated STEM movement and associated policies and mandates? The study consisted of semistructured interviews with 20 educators in 3 high schools. The students were predominantly “white” but socioeconomic status (SES) of the students varied widely. The results of the study show that teachers were aware of what the STEM acronym means, but that they envisioned STEM as a collection of “siloed” subjects, very much as in traditional education, rather than an integrated consideration of the STEM areas. Closely related to this finding was that few teachers created an environment for integrating the STEM disciplines in their classrooms. Finally, teachers reported that they were not under pressure from state or local education agencies to implement STEM education. Although the demographic composition of the schools might lead one to question the generalizability of the results, this paper presents some interesting perspectives that are worth considering.

Problem-based Learning (PBL) Approach to Integrated Curriculum

Ertmer, P. A. (2006). Jumping the PBL implementation hurdle: Supporting the efforts of K-12 teachers. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning. 1(1): 40-54. ( DOI Link )

Problem-based learning (PBL) has a long history of use in medical and other professional education programs but has not been widely adopted by K-12 teachers. The goals of PBL include the development of a deep understanding of content while at the same time developing higher order thinking skills in students, and both goals are closely aligned with those of K-12 educators. In this paper the author examines some of the obstacles teachers face when implementing PBL strategies and provides suggestions for supporting teachers who are interested in using this learning approach in their classrooms. Factors that influence a teachers decision to use PBL are reviewed. These include the ability to create a collaborative culture in the classroom where students work with each other to accomplish their problem-solving objectives, and being able to adjust to a very different role as a teacher, one that requires the teacher to be a facilitator in the learning process. This is a different approach to pedagogy than what many are used to and may discourage teachers from using this approach. The ability to scaffold student learning is considered by the author to be of special importance in PBL and is considered in some detail. Problem-based learning has great potential in the context of integrated STEM and NGSS focused approaches to curriculum and instruction. This paper provides important insights on the implementation of PBL from the perspective of K-12 teachers.

Savery, J. R. (2006). Overview of problem-based learning: Definitions and distinctions.  Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning. 1(1): 9-20. ( DOI Link )

Problem-based learning (PBL) is both an instructional and a curricular approach to learning. It is learner-centered focused on empowering learners to “conduct research, integrate theory and practice, and apply knowledge and skills to develop a viable solution to a defined problem,” (p. 9). In this paper the author provides an overview of the historical origins of PBL in the health sciences followed by widespread adoption of the approach by many different disciplines and age groups. Characteristics of PBL that are essential to the success of the approach are reviewed and include the selection of an ill-defined problem that allows students to collaboratively explore possible solutions and a role of the teacher as a facilitator who guides the learning process and provides a debriefing with the students at the end of the process. Briefly, students work in collaborative groups to first identify what they need to know (learn) in order to solve the problem, engage in self-directed learning to generate the information and perspectives needed, apply this knowledge to the problem to attempt to solve it, and then reflect on what they learned and how effective their problem-solving strategies were. The author then compares and contrasts PBL with similar learning strategies such as project- and case-based learning and an inquiry-based approach to learning. PBL is highly relevant to both integrated STEM and the NGSS focused approaches to curriculum and instruction and this paper provides an excellent overview of the topic.

Science, Technology, and Society (STS) Approach to Integrated Curriculum

Mansour, N. (1999). Science-technology-society (STS): A new paradigm in science education. Bulletin of Science, Technology, and Society, 29(4): 287-297. ( DOI Link )

Science, Technology, and Society (STS) is a curriculum approach designed to make science and the related field of technology relevant to students by integrating science concepts and their technological applications to real-world issues. The author points out that the STS movement has been closely identified with the goal of developing knowledgeable citizens who understand the relationships that exist between science, technology, and society, but that putting this goal into practice has been difficult. This paper includes an overview of the historical context in which the STS approach evolved as well as a consideration of important barriers to its effective implementation. These barriers include teacher’s understandings of science and science teaching that are, at least partly, based on the way in which they have been trained. Although focused on STS, this paper provides interesting perspectives on the nature of science education, the attempts to reform science education during the latter half of the 20th century, and on teachers views of science and science teaching. The value of this paper in the context of STEM education is that STS represents an effort to integrate different disciplines to provide a more complete understanding of the STEM disciplines by highlighting the relationship between them and the social context in which they exist. These perspectives are highly relevant to both integrated STEM education and approaches found in the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS).

Yager, R. E., and M. V. Lutz. (1995). STS to enhance total curriculum. School Science and Mathematics, 95(1): 28-35. ( DOI Link )

This paper provides important perspectives on integrated STEM education and the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) through its consideration of an approach to integrated science education called Science, Technology, and Society (STS). The author points out that the way science is usually taught in K-12 education is with a focus on content, information that is to be learned. This approach is limiting to a clear understanding of the nature of science and a more comprehensive view would consider science to be a process of exploration, explanation, and testing the explanations. Issue-based approaches to school science are exemplified by STS. This approach focuses the teaching and learning of science in the context of human society and human experiences, including the application of technology. Such an issue-based approach makes information (content) relevant by presenting it in the context of an issue or problem to be resolved by the student(s). Such an approach also involves multiple activities that develop relevant skills such as questioning, analyzing, debate, and decision making, and are more likely to elicit student interest than decontextualized, text and memorization focused activities. The ideas and perspectives presented here are very relevant to integrating the various STEM disciplines using issue-based or problem-based learning. They also reflect the objectives of the NGSS with its emphasis on practices, cross-cutting concepts, and disciplinary core ideas. Last, but certainly not least, the incorporation of an STS approach makes education relevant beyond the classroom, connecting student learning to issues in the real world.

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Grading and ungrading: an annotated bibliography.

This document brings together a number of resources on the topic of ungrading, drawn from publications ranging from popular press to academic venues. These resources were curated by facilitators and members of a Fall 2023 learning community on this topic. They have included discussion questions as well as citations. Rather than endorsing a single perspective, these resources should be used to prompt discussion and consideration of grading and its alternatives.

Ungrading: Why Rating Students Undermines Learning (And What to Do Instead). Edited by Susan D. Blum. Morgantown: West Virginia University Press, 2020. 

Abstract: This interdisciplinary edited collection brings together theoretical and practical explorations of ungrading, exploring different models and offering both practical examples and reflections from practitioners across the disciplines. Examples include contract grading in writing-driven courses as well as an organic chemistry course restructured around ungraded work.

Suggested discussion questions: Why do we grade? What does it feel like to be graded? What do we want grading to do or not do in our classrooms? Could you imagine implementing one of these models in your classroom? Why or why not? 

Tags: ungrading, contract grading, distance-traveled

Bowles, Samuel. The Moral Economy: Why Good Incentives Are No Substitute for Good Citizens. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2016.

Abstract: In reviewing the economic research on moral and economic motives, the author emphasizes the potential crowding out effect for both economic rewards/ relevant penalties. This may be transferable to our thinking about assessment, because penalty or better grades may not be the best way to encourage students to truly devote themselves to learning.

Suggested discussion question(s): How can we focus on rewarding positive behavior, rather than just censuring negative behavior? How can we build intrinsic motivation through fostering relationships in the classroom (between students; between instructors and students), rather than creating transactional relationships?  

Tags: incentives, intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation

Cimino, Adria J. “An Inside Look at Sorbonne Grades,” Medium (February 15, 2015). https://medium.com/paris-stories/an-inside-look-at-sorbonne-grades-66ee4a87b0e5

Abstract: A short blog post from an American experiencing the French education system through her children and her husband’s past experience. The author explores the differences between French and American grades, while reflecting on how those differences shape engagement and reflect cultural norms. 

Suggested discussion question(s): How does culture impact grading? How do past experiences shape students’ perceptions of our grading or ungrading systems? How do we instill intrinsic motivation in our students? Does written feedback change the way that students perceive their own progress, and which disciplines prioritize that kind of feedback?

Tags: grading systems, culture, international education

Gorichanaz, Tim.  “‘It Made Me Feel Like It Was Okay to Be Wrong’: Student Experiences with Ungrading.” Active Learning in Higher Education, May 2022: 1-23. 

Abstract: A qualitative study that includes in-depth interviews with eight students and reports on four experiential themes that characterize the switch to un-grading. These themes include “de-gamification, or unsettling the “gamified” nature of evaluation in the traditional grading system; time to think and reflect, creating space for review and the deepening of learning; rich communication, or continual feedback between teacher and student; and learning community, in which students felt like they were part of a team effort rather than siloed individuals.” 

Suggested discussion question(s): What characteristics of ungrading can best equip students to maximize their learning and succeed in an ever-changing fast-paced world?

Tags: ungrading, gamification, reflection, communication, feedback

Miller, Michelle D. “Ungrading Light: 4 Simple Ways to Ease the Spotlight off Points.” The Chronicle of Higher Education. August 2, 2022. 

This brief piece considers both the appeal of ungrading and some ways of easing into the process – yielding some of the benefits of the process without redesigning a course entirely. Those include ideas like implementing some ungraded required assignments, dropping late work penalties, and offering two-stage exams, among others. 

Suggested discussion questions: Which of these ideas seem practicable to you? What drawbacks or benefits might you see after implementation? 

Ren, Eva. “What Your Grades Really Mean: A TEDx Talk.” April 19, 2017, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yu5GPsnxBS4 .  

Abstract: Grades don’t tell the full story. This Ted Talk, from the perspective of a twelfth grade student, explores how grades limit creativity, discourage students from taking classes outside of their comfort zone, and impinge their self-confidence. 

Suggested discussion question(s): Does grading impede creativity and long-term knowledge? 

Tags: Grading, motivation, student voice

Scheinfield, Daniel R., Karen M. Haigh, and Sandra J.P. Scheinfeld. We Are All Explorers: Learning and Teaching with Reggio Principles in Urban Setting. 

Abstract: A real world case study of education using the Reggio Emilia approach which focuses on preschool and elementary learning as a student-focused, self-guided experience. “While focusing on the application, meaning, and value of Reggio Emilia principles in preschool classrooms, the authors also describe how those same principles and processes pervade relationships with parents, the professional development of teachers, and the overall organization of the program. Offering a powerful combination of theory and practice, this comprehensive model: Provides 10 years of lessons learned from successfully implementing the Reggio Approach in American inner-city schools.”

Suggested discussion question(s): How can the 11 pedagogical principles (or any one of them) be adapted to higher education? If graduate education is already shaped by students’ individual interests, how can we build curricula and assessment mechanisms that honor that? What systems and practices have prevented these approaches from being accepted as valid pedagogical tools for higher education?

Tags: Interest-driven, exploratory, early childhood, perspective-taking

These resources were curated by members of the Fall 2023 Grading and Ungrading Learning Community for graduate students and postdoctoral scholars, facilitated by Gina Marie Hurley and Rachel Wilson. 

Members of this group included Tianyi Zeng, Devin Thomas, Jasper Eastman, Kasturi Roy, Emma Mew, Fiona Bell, Hannah Keller, Thomas Zapadka, Alana Felton, Leonardo Carvalho, Patricia DuCharme, Allegra Ayida, Brielle Januszewski, and Isabelle Chouinard.

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Bibliography: Definition and Examples

Glossary of Grammatical and Rhetorical Terms

• An Introduction to Punctuation
• Ph.D., Rhetoric and English, University of Georgia
• M.A., Modern English and American Literature, University of Leicester
• B.A., English, State University of New York

A bibliography is a list of works (such as books and articles) written on a particular subject or by a particular author. Adjective : bibliographic.

Also known as a list of works cited , a bibliography may appear at the end of a book, report , online presentation, or research paper . Students are taught that a bibliography, along with correctly formatted in-text citations, is crucial to properly citing one's research and to avoiding accusations of plagiarism . In formal research, all sources used, whether quoted directly or synopsized, should be included in the bibliography.

An annotated bibliography includes a brief descriptive and evaluative paragraph (the annotation ) for each item in the list. These annotations often give more context about why a certain source may be useful or related to the topic at hand.

• Etymology:  From the Greek, "writing about books" ( biblio , "book", graph , "to write")
• Pronunciation:  bib-lee-OG-rah-fee

Examples and Observations

"Basic bibliographic information includes title, author or editor, publisher, and the year the current edition was published or copyrighted . Home librarians often like to keep track of when and where they acquired a book, the price, and a personal annotation, which would include their opinions of the book or of the person who gave it to them" (Patricia Jean Wagner, The Bloomsbury Review Booklover's Guide . Owaissa Communications, 1996)

Conventions for Documenting Sources

"It is standard practice in scholarly writing to include at the end of books or chapters and at the end of articles a list of the sources that the writer consulted or cited. Those lists, or bibliographies, often include sources that you will also want to consult. . . . "Established conventions for documenting sources vary from one academic discipline to another. The Modern Language Association (MLA) style of documentation is preferred in literature and languages. For papers in the social sciences the American Psychological Association (APA) style is preferred, whereas papers in history, philosophy, economics, political science, and business disciplines are formatted in the Chicago Manual of Style (CMS) system. The Council of Biology Editors (CBE) recommends varying documentation styles for different natural sciences." (Robert DiYanni and Pat C. Hoy II, The Scribner Handbook for Writers , 3rd ed. Allyn and Bacon, 2001)

APA vs MLA Styles

There are several different styles of citations and bibliographies that you might encounter: MLA, APA, Chicago, Harvard, and more. As described above, each of those styles is often associated with a particular segment of academia and research. Of these, the most widely used are APA and MLA styles. They both include similar information, but arranged and formatted differently.

"In an entry for a book in an APA-style works-cited list, the date (in parentheses) immediately follows the name of the author (whose first name is written only as an initial), just the first word of the title is capitalized, and the publisher's full name is generally provided.

APA Anderson, I. (2007). This is our music: Free jazz, the sixties, and American culture . Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.

By contrast, in an MLA-style entry, the author's name appears as given in the work (normally in full), every important word of the title is capitalized, some words in the publisher's name are abbreviated, the publication date follows the publisher's name, and the medium of publication is recorded. . . . In both styles, the first line of the entry is flush with the left margin, and the second and subsequent lines are indented.

MLA Anderson, Iain. This Is Our Music: Free Jazz, the Sixties, and American Culture . Philadelphia: U of Pennsylvania P, 2007. Print. The Arts and Intellectual Life in Mod. Amer.

( MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers , 7th ed. The Modern Language Association of America, 2009)

Finding Bibliographic Information for Online Sources

"For Web sources, some bibliographic information may not be available, but spend time looking for it before assuming that it doesn't exist. When information isn't available on the home page, you may have to drill into the site, following links to interior pages. Look especially for the author's name, the date of publication (or latest update), and the name of any sponsoring organization. Do not omit such information unless it is genuinely unavailable. . . . "Online articles and books sometimes include a DOI (digital object identifier). APA uses the DOI, when available, in place of a URL in reference list entries." (Diana Hacker and Nancy Sommers, A Writer's Reference With Strategies for Online Learners , 7th ed. Bedford/St. Martin's, 2011)

• What Is an Annotated Bibliography?
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• What Is an Annotation in Reading, Research, and Linguistics?
• Learn How to Use Extended Definitions in Essays and Speeches
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• listeme (words)
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• What Is Plagiarism?
• Forth vs. Fourth: How to Choose the Right Word
• How is a Daffynition Word Used?
• Stipulative Definitions in English
• Definition of Appendix in a Book or Written Work
• Meiosis (Rhetoric)
• What Is Aphesis?
• Definition and Examples of Science Writing

• Introduction
• Conclusions
• Article Information

eAppendix 1. CLS Background

eAppendix 2 . CPC Program Description

eAppendix 3. SDH Definitions and Justification

eTable 1. Index of Structural Equality and Support (I-SES) as Operationalized in Chicago Longitudinal Study

eAppendix 4. Covariates in Model Specification

eAppendix 5. Inverse Probability Weighting

eAppendix 6. Educational Attainment Mediator

eTable 2. Group Equivalence at Age 35 Follow Up and for Original Chicago Longitudinal Study Cohort (N=1,124)

eFigure. Standardized Mean Differences for 2 Child-Parent Center (CPC) Program Contrasts for Low (0-3), Middle (4-6), and Top (7-9) Scores on the I-SES [Index of Structural Equality and Support] for the Total Sample and by Neighborhood Poverty Status (40% or More vs. Less in Poverty by Child’s Age 3 years) as Assessed at Midlife

eAppendix 7. Alternative Model Estimates

eTable 3. Alternative Models for CPC Preschool Participation and Index of Structural Equality and Support (I-SES) at Midlife

eReferences.

Data Sharing Statement

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Morency MM , Reynolds AJ , Loveman-Brown M , Kritzik R , Ou S. Structural Equality and Support Index in Early Childhood Education. JAMA Netw Open. 2024;7(8):e2432050. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.32050

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Structural Equality and Support Index in Early Childhood Education

• 1 Institute of Child Development, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis
• 2 Human Capital Research Collaborative, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis

Question   Does a comprehensive early childhood education program promote engagement in more supportive and resource-rich communities in adulthood?

Findings   This cohort study that followed-up 1124 individuals from preschool age to adulthood found that participation in the Child-Parent Center early education program was associated with higher scores on the Index of Structural Equality and Support at midlife.

Meaning   These findings suggest that early childhood programs can strengthen sociostructural and community supports well into adulthood.

Importance   Whether early childhood education is associated with a wide range of adult outcomes above and beyond individual- and family-level outcomes is unknown. As a consequence of improving educational and career success, it is postulated that participation in high quality, comprehensive programs can promote residence in more supportive community contexts in adulthood.

Objective   To investigate whether participation in high-quality early childhood programs (ECP) in high-poverty neighborhoods is associated with neighborhood-level social determinants of health (SDH) at midlife.

Design, Setting, and Participants   This cohort study analyzed data from the Chicago Longitudinal Study, a prospective cohort investigation following-up 989 children aged 3 to 4 years attending the Child-Parent Center (CPC) preschool program between 1983 and 1985 and a comparison group of 550 children using a nonrandomized trial design. Participants from the original sample who completed a telephone interview on health and well-being between ages 32 and 37 years were included in this analysis. Data analysis was conducted from April to June 2024.

Exposure   Participation in a CPC program, which includes preschool (ages 3 to 4 years) and school-age (kindergarten through third grade), vs usual early education programs.

Main Outcomes and Measures   The study used a new SDH measure (Index of Structural Equality and Support [I-SES]) based on the Healthy People 2030 framework. This 9-item index score included neighborhood-level assessment, measurement of the quality of education and health services, and assessment of racial discrimination in social and community contexts. Years of education by age 34 years was assessed as the key mediator of influence.

Results   A total of 1124 individuals (mean [SD] age at survey completion, 34.9 [1.4] years; 614 women [54.6%]; 1054 non-Hispanic Black [93.8%]; 69 Hispanic [6.2%]; 1 non-Hispanic White [<0.1%]) were included in the study, of whom 740 were in the CPC cohort and 384 were in the comparison cohort. After adjustment for baseline attributes and attrition, compared with no CPC preschool, CPC preschool was associated with significantly higher mean (SD) I-SES scores (5.93 vs 5.53; mean difference, 0.40; 95% CI, 0.16-0.65; standardized mean difference = 0.22). Compared with CPC participation for 0 to 3 years, CPC participation for 4 to 6 years showed a similar pattern of positive associations (adjusted mean I-SES score, 5.97 vs 5.69; mean difference, 0.28; 95% CI, 0.06-0.50; P  = .01; SMD = 0.15). CPC participation had a larger-magnitude association with I-SES in married vs single-parent households. Years of education partially mediated the association of CPC with I-SES (up to 41%), especially among those growing up in the highest-poverty neighborhoods.

Conclusions and Relevance   This cohort study found that early childhood programming is associated with SDH in adulthood. These findings reinforce the importance of early childhood education in addressing health disparities and contributing to healthier, more equitable communities and suggest that educational attainment is a key mechanism for health promotion.

Among early life experiences, participation in high-quality early childhood programs (ECP) is associated with a wide range of adult outcomes that include greater economic well-being, better cardiovascular and mental health, and reduced involvement in the criminal justice system. 1 , 2 Due to the breadth of outcomes affected and the major role of educational success in creating cumulative advantages over time, 1 , 3 ECPs that engage families intensively at multiple ecological levels may have carryover benefits to community-level social determinants of health (SDH). 4 Whether it is neighborhood poverty or discrimination, these environmental stressors and other sociostructural factors have pervasive influences on health and well-being across the life course. 4 Living in economically disadvantaged areas can limit access to essential resources such as quality health care and safe housing. Finally, despite the detrimental role of systemic racism and discrimination in areas such as health care, housing, and employment, studies show that Black communities greatly value education and view it as an avenue to social mobility, reflecting the importance of drawing value and satisfaction from one’s education as an SDH. 5

One of the 5 overarching goals for Healthy People 2030 4 is to create social, physical, and economic environments that promote attaining the full potential for health and well-being for all. Emerging research continues to explore the fundamental contributors underlying SDH as well as the health-related sequelae of these conditions, typically delineating the underlying modifiable determinants of health and grouping them according to categories like health behaviors, economic stability, physical environment, community safety, and clinical care. 6 , 7 It is critical to adopt a holistic, upstream approach in SDH research to address risk and protective factors and behaviors, rather than disease outcomes, enabling the development of prevention and interventions to mitigate compounding health issues. Early childhood education is intertwined with SDH through its influence on educational attainment, nutrition, parental employment, and access to support services. 1 Investing in high-quality programs can have far-reaching outcomes for individuals’ health and well-being, playing a vital role in addressing health disparities and promoting overall population health, which indicates the importance of investigating the association of ECPs with composite measures of SDH.

In this study, we assess, to our knowledge, for the first time whether an evidence-based, comprehensive ECP in high-poverty neighborhoods is associated with a new SDH index at midlife based on the 5-component framework of Healthy People 2030. The SDH variables proposed for this index have strong empirical bases that associate educational attainment with social mobility, which motivated us to also assess whether educational attainment mediates this association. 2 - 5

This cohort study was approved by the University of Minnesota institutional review board. Participants provided written and oral informed consent upon survey initiation. The reporting of the study follows the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology ( STROBE ) reporting guideline. 8

Data were analyzed from the Chicago Longitudinal Study (CLS), a prospective cohort investigation following 989 children aged 3 to 4 years attending the Child-Parent Center (CPC) preschool program between 1983 and 1985 and a comparison group of 550 children using a nonrandomized trial design. 9 , 10 The comparison group participants attended the usual early education programs primarily in randomly selected schools matched to CPC locations based on poverty and neighborhood characteristics. A subset of participants from the original cohort completed a telephone interview on health and well-being between ages 32 and 37 years, which constituted our study sample. Some participants mailed in surveys. Questions concerned education, employment, health behavior, community resources, safety, and experiences of discrimination. Previous data from participants has been collected at ages 10 years, 15 to 18 years, 18 to 24 years, and 26 to 28 years. 10 , 11 Participant sociodemographic data was collected from various sources, such as children, parents, teachers, and school administrative records. Race and ethnicity of participants were ascertained through self-report. Race and ethnicity categories included non-Hispanic Black, Hispanic, and non-Hispanic White. Race and ethnicity were included because it is an important attribute of the study sample for description, life circumstances, and influences.

The CLS design (eAppendix 1 in Supplement 1 ) is methodologically strong in that the CPC group included all children enrolled in these centers (none were excluded) and that they resided in the highest poverty-level neighborhoods. 10 , 11 Any comparison group would by necessity be more advantaged in sociostructural attributes. These attributes minimize any potential selection bias. Moreover, all comparison group participants enrolled in alternative, usual treatment services (other preschool or kindergarten programs). Continuing school-age program enrollment was a combination of family and administrative selection and choice because children who moved from CPC schools left the program by definition, but schools also varied by number of years of school-age services offered (2 years vs 3 years). Assessment of key covariates and baseline attributes showed equivalence on nearly all factors, and this finding has been confirmed in many previous reports. 10 - 13 This included achievement growth prior to enrollment in school-age services for program and comparison groups, suggesting equal performance between groups and no positive selection that would confound estimates of outcomes for program duration. 13 , 14

CPC provides comprehensive education and family support services aimed at mitigating the impacts of poverty (eAppendix 2 in Supplement 1 ). 3 , 9 Enrichment experiences emphasize engagement at family, school, and community levels. After a half-day preschool program (3 hours, 5 days per week) at ages 3 and/or 4 years in small classes with child-teacher ratios of 17:2, CPC components in kindergarten through third grade include reduced class sizes (maximum of 25 students), teacher aides for each class, health services, continued parent involvement opportunities, and enriched classroom environments for enhancing holistic well-being, including physical health. Following 1 to 2 years of half-day preschool, services extend to third grade for a total of up to 6 years. The overarching goal is to promote school success, ultimately leading to better health and well-being over the life course. Many prior studies have documented program structures, impacts, and validity of program estimates. Findings have corroborated this goal with the hypothesis that benefits carryover to SDH. 3 , 5 , 11

The Healthy People 2030 SDH framework is comprised of the following components: economic stability, neighborhood and built environment, health care access and quality, education access and quality, and social and community context. 4 It is unique among sociostructural indexes in its focus on neighborhood-level assessment, measurement of the quality of services and experiences in community settings, and assessment of racial discrimination as part of social and community context. We created an overall measure using 9 dichotomous indicators for the 5 components called the Index of Structural Equality and Support (I-SES). The survey items make the index and were completed by both CPC and comparison participants. See eAppendix 3 and eTable 1 in Supplement 1 for detailed information on variable definitions. As a positive measure of supports at midlife, scores range from 0 to 9, with higher scores meaning greater endorsement of positive environment structures at midlife.

The family risk index comprised of 8 sociodemographic indicators measured by age 3 years (eg, high school dropout or income near the federal poverty level) and its squared term were also included to assess cumulative risk. Receipt of c hild welfare services and adverse child experiences from birth to age 5 years, whether the mother attended college, neighborhood poverty status by age 3 years, single-parent family status by age 3 years (from birth records), and self-reported chronic health conditions as assessed in the age 35-year survey were also included. Models with CPC preschool included school-age participation to adjust for the influence of later intervention.

Linear regressions were analyzed with inverse probability weighting (IPW) to adjust for attrition bias and 12 covariates, including baseline family socioeconomic status and neighborhood poverty (eAppendix 4 and eAppendix 5 in Supplement 1 ). SPSS software version 29 (IBM) was used to calculate 95% CIs, with a 2-tailed P  < .05 set as the level of significance. Standardized mean differences (SMDs) of 0.20 denote practical significance. They are equivalent to a 15% to 20% change near the midpoint of the outcome distribution. CPC preschool and CPC preschool plus school-age participation were analyzed separately along with 3 subgroups: household structure (married vs single-parent status), multiple family risk status, and neighborhood poverty at preschool entry. The mediator was years of education completed by age 34 years . It was taken from administrative records (eg, National Student Clearinghouse) and supplemented with survey reports over time (eAppendix 6 in Supplement 1 ).

We also examined the distribution of scores in three categories: low (0-3), middle (4-6), and top (7-9). This reveals if group differences were similar across the full range of structural supports. SMDs were calculated at each of these levels for the model adjusted for baseline covariates and attrition.

Mediation was assessed by the difference-in-difference method (or percentage reduction). This is the mean difference in program estimates between groups without the mediator and estimates between groups with the mediator included in the model, and then divided by the unmediated program coefficient. This proportion is multiplied by 100 to denote the percentage reduction in the program group difference associated with the mediator, which is years of education completed. This approach to mediation provides conservative estimates by definition because complex indirect effects through paths of intervening mediators are not considered. However, our estimates are readily interpretable as direct contributors to understanding long-term associations. Data analysis was completed from April to June 2024.

A total of 1124 individuals (mean [SD] age at survey completion, 34.9 [1.4] years; 614 women [54.6%]; 1054 non-Hispanic Black [93.8%]; 69 Hispanic [6.2%]; 1 White [<.01%]) were included in the study, of whom 740 were in the CPC cohort and 384 were in the comparison cohort ( Table 1 ). Of all participants, 560 (49.8%) resided in low-income neighborhoods. Participants had completed a mean (SD [range]) 12.90 (2.13 [7-22]) years of education by age 34 years, with 161 (14.3%) having received a bachelor’s degree or higher. The mean (SD) I-SES score for the entire cohort was 5.77 (1.84), with 281 cases (25.0%) with a score less than or equal to 4 and 414 cases (36.8%) with a score of 7 or greater. The unadjusted mean (SD) I-SES scores for the CPC preschool and comparison groups were 5.91 (1.84) and 5.53 (1.82), respectively, with values for continuing program group following a similar pattern. Study participants growing up in high poverty neighborhoods (>40% of residents below federal poverty level) had lower mean (SD) I-SES scores than the lower poverty group (5.73 [1.87] vs 5.82 [1.80]). At midlife, however, the differential was accentuated (mean [SD] score, 5.01 [1.87] vs 6.03 [1.76]). Table 2 shows that I-SES indicators were positively associated with educational attainment (years of education), the preeminent individual-level SDH in Healthy People 2030. The total index score had a correlation of with educational attainment ( r  = 0.21). Correlations with overall life satisfaction ( r  = 0.41) and self-rated health ( r  = 0.17) followed a similar pattern. See eTable 2 in Supplement 1 for group equivalence at age 35 years for the original CLC cohort.

Table 3 shows that after adjusting for baseline characteristics including early family and social environments, compared with no CPC, CPC preschool was associated with a significantly higher mean I-SES score (5.93 vs 5.53; mean difference, 0.40; 95% CI, 0.16-0.65; P  = .03; SMD = 0.22). A similar pattern of differences was found for adjusted mean I-SES scores for CPC preschool plus school-age participation (4 to 6 years) compared with 0 to 3 years of participation (5.97 vs 5.69; mean difference, 0.28; 95% CI, 0.06-0.50; P  = .01; SMD = 0.15).

The eFigure in Supplement 1 shows the pattern of adjusted program group differences (SMDs) at low, middle, and top categories of the I-SES distribution. For the total sample, X participants (12.4%) were in the low category, X (50.8%) in the middle category, and X (37.X%) in the top category. For the CPC preschool vs none contrast, program participants were more likely to be in the top group of I-SES scores of 7 to 9 of 9 points (SMD = 0.25). They were less likely to be in the lower 2 groups (CPC preschool, SMD  = −0.12; no CPC, SMD = −0.23). The pattern was similar for the dosage groups (4-6 years vs 0-3 years). When separated by neighborhood poverty status at the time of program participation, children in CPC growing up in relatively lower poverty settings (<40% of residents below poverty) experienced the largest benefits in I-SES. For the top score group, SMDs were 0.33 and 0.25, respectively, for CPC preschool vs none and higher vs lower dosage groups (eFigure in Supplement 1 ).

Subgroup findings overall showed similar associations across groups, but there were larger-magnitude associations among more advantaged groups. One significant subgroup interaction was identified. CPC preschool was had a larger-magnitude association with I-SES in married households (adjusted mean score, 6.36 vs 5.42; mean difference, 0.94; 95% CI, 0.46 to 1.44; P  < .001; SMD = 0.51) than in single-parent households (adjusted mean score, 5.65 vs 5.56; mean difference, 0.09; 95% CI, −0.06 to 0.62; P  = .67; SMD = 0.05). This pattern was also found for the dosage groups of 4 to 6 years vs fewer years ( Table 3 ). Similarly, the lower neighborhood poverty group had significantly higher adjusted mean I-SES scores, including both the preschool vs comparison contrast (6.07 vs 5.58; mean difference, 0.49; 95% CI, 0.14 to 0.84; P  = .02; SMD = 0.27) and preschool plus school age vs comparison contrast (6.07 vs 5.73; mean difference, 0.34; 95% CI, 0.03 to 0.65; P  = 0.1; SMD = 0.18). The lone comparison favoring higher risk groups was for family risk status, which was found in both the preschool vs comparison contrast (adjusted mean I-SES score, 5.91 vs 5.47; mean difference, 0.44; 95% CI, 0.13 to 0.71; SMD = 0.24) and preschool plus school age vs comparison contrast (adjusted mean I-SES score, 5.90 vs 5.65; mean difference, 0.25; 95% CI, −0.06 to 0.76; P  = X.X; SMD = 0.14). No differences for the full program groups were detected ( Table 3 ).

Alternative estimates support robustness (eAppendix 7 and eTable 3 in Supplement 1 ). Estimated program outcomes were similar between IPW and non-IPW models, suggesting that attrition occurred at random and was not associated with baseline characteristics (eAppendix 6 in Supplement 1 ).

For the mediation results for the total sample, years of education accounted for 16% to 18% of the association of CPC with I-SES. Mediation increased with economic disadvantage. Among those growing up in the highest poverty neighborhoods, 31% to 41% of the association was mediated by years of education ( Table 3 ). These values are above and beyond the influence of baseline characteristics and program participation. These results reflect only the direct association with educational attainment. More complex associations are possible. Robustness testing using different model specifications did not alter the pattern of findings and was consistent with results reported here (eTable 3 in Supplement 1 ).

The findings of this cohort study provide evidence suggesting that a multilevel, comprehensive-service ECP is associated with SDH in adulthood. To our knowledge, this is the first study to find such an association. Findings also document that this new index measure of SDH comprised of impactful neighborhood indicators can discriminate between the early life experiences of children who do or do not participate in intensive educational enrichment. The findings also establish that the benefits of ECPs extend beyond individual-level education and occupational success to the broader sociostructural environment. Although in general CPC participation had similar positive associations with I-SES across subgroups, the SMD for children growing up in married households exceeded those in single-parent households and in other subgroups by a factor of 2 or higher. This finding suggests that economic and family resources available in the early years of life create cumulative advantages that are unlikely to be overcome by social intervention alone, even comprehensive programs like CPC. Concerted efforts at multiple levels over extended periods of time, however, can improve well-being.

The finding that educational attainment, a leading individual-level SDH, accounted for a sizable share of observed differences for the most economically disadvantaged groups suggests that educational success is one mechanism for reducing disparities in supportive social environments. This finding is consistent with a large body of research demonstrating that ECPs have compensatory and protective effects for children and families growing up in the most economically disadvantaged communities. 1 , 2 , 9 However, only programs high in quality have these benefits, and the barriers to such quality have increased in recent years.

Nevertheless, the developmental origins of educational attainment are complex and involve socioeconomic position, home and school environments, motivational and socioemotional influences, and achievement behaviors. 3 , 11 , 15 Investigation of these and related influences were beyond the scope of the present study. Previous findings in the CLS and related studies show that the cumulative advantages initiated by ECPs are complex and circuitous, including individual and personal, family, school, and community processes. 3 , 11 The early cognitive and scholastic advantages of CPC, for example, carryover to strengthened parental involvement in school, enrollment in higher quality schools, avoidance of delinquent behaviors, and ultimately higher educational attainment. 3 , 11 This process and others warrant further investigation and confirmation, especially in comprehensive frameworks such as the 5-Hypothesis Model. 3

This study has limitations. The main limitation is that our SDH measure, although broad and based on a well-documented framework, may not fully represent community and structural influences. Moreover, results are correlational and warrant replication.

This cohort study found that ECP was associated with SDH in adulthood. These findings suggest that CPC and similar programs can contribute to broader efforts to mitigate health disparities and create healthier, more equitable communities. Educational attainment appears to be a key transmitter of observed benefits, which reinforces its importance as a major goal of ECPs.

Accepted for Publication: July 11, 2024.

Published: August 30, 2024. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.32050

Open Access: This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the CC-BY License . © 2024 Morency MM et al. JAMA Network Open .

Corresponding Author: Arthur J. Reynolds, PhD, Human Capital Research Collaborative, University of Minnesota, 51 E River Rd, Minneapolis, MN 55455 ( [email protected] ).

Author Contributions: Ms Morency and Dr Reynolds had full access to all of the data in the study and take responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis.

Concept and design: Reynolds, Morency, Loveman-Brown, Kritzik.

Acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data: Reynolds, Morency, Loveman-Brown, Ou.

Drafting of the manuscript: Reynolds, Morency, Loveman-Brown, Kritzik.

Critical review of the manuscript for important intellectual content: All authors.

Statistical analysis: Reynolds, Morency, Ou.

Obtained funding: Reynolds.

Administrative, technical, or material support: Reynolds, Ou.

Supervision: Reynolds, Ou.

Conflict of Interest Disclosures: None reported.

Funding/Support: This study was supported by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (grant No. HD034294) and the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation of Education (grant No OPP1173152).

Role of the Funder/Sponsor: The sponsors had no role in the design and conduct of the study; collection, management, analysis, and interpretation of the data; preparation, review, or approval of the manuscript; and decision to submit the manuscript for publication.

Data Sharing Statement: See Supplement 2 .

Additional Contributions: We thank the Chicago Public School District and participating schools for cooperation in data collection and collaboration in this study. Finally, we are especially grateful to the children and families who have participated over many years and have been supremely generous with their time and input about their lives and for providing so many valuable insights.

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What is Bibliography?: Meaning, Types, and Importance

A bibliography is a fundamental component of academic research and writing that serves as a comprehensive list of sources consulted and referenced in a particular work. It plays a crucial role in validating the credibility and reliability of the information presented by providing readers with the necessary information to locate and explore the cited sources. A well-constructed bibliography not only demonstrates the depth and breadth of research undertaken but also acknowledges the intellectual contributions of others, ensuring transparency and promoting the integrity of scholarly work. By including a bibliography, writers enable readers to delve further into the subject matter, engage in critical analysis, and build upon existing knowledge.

1.1 What is a Bibliography?

A bibliography is a compilation of sources that have been utilized in the process of researching and writing a piece of work. It serves as a comprehensive list of references, providing information about the various sources consulted, such as books, articles, websites, and other materials. The purpose of a bibliography is twofold: to give credit to the original authors or creators of the sources used and to allow readers to locate and access those sources for further study or verification. A well-crafted bibliography includes essential details about each source, including the author’s name, the title of the work, publication date, and publication information. By having a bibliography, writers demonstrate the extent of their research, provide a foundation for their arguments, and enhance the credibility and reliability of their work.

1.2 Types of Bibliography.

The bibliography is a multifaceted discipline encompassing different types, each designed to serve specific research purposes and requirements. These various types of bibliographies provide valuable tools for researchers, scholars, and readers to navigate the vast realm of literature and sources available. From comprehensive overviews to specialized focuses, the types of bibliographies offer distinct approaches to organizing, categorizing, and presenting information. Whether compiling an exhaustive list of sources, providing critical evaluations, or focusing on specific subjects or industries, these types of bibliographies play a vital role in facilitating the exploration, understanding, and dissemination of knowledge in diverse academic and intellectual domains.

As a discipline, a bibliography encompasses various types that cater to different research needs and contexts. The two main categories of bibliographies are

1. General bibliography, and 2. Special bibliography.

1.2.1. General Bibliography:

A general bibliography is a comprehensive compilation of sources covering a wide range of subjects, disciplines, and formats. It aims to provide a broad overview of published materials, encompassing books, articles, journals, websites, and other relevant resources. A general bibliography typically includes works from various authors, covering diverse topics and spanning different periods. It is a valuable tool for researchers, students, and readers seeking a comprehensive collection of literature within a specific field or across multiple disciplines. General bibliographies play a crucial role in guiding individuals in exploring a subject, facilitating the discovery of relevant sources, and establishing a foundation for further research and academic pursuits.

The general bibliography encompasses various subcategories that comprehensively cover global, linguistic, national, and regional sources. These subcategories are as follows:

• Universal Bibliography: Universal bibliography aims to compile a comprehensive list of all published works worldwide, regardless of subject or language. It seeks to encompass human knowledge and includes sources from diverse fields, cultures, and periods. Universal bibliography is a monumental effort to create a comprehensive record of the world’s published works, making it a valuable resource for scholars, librarians, and researchers interested in exploring the breadth of human intellectual output.
• Language Bibliography: Language bibliography focuses on compiling sources specific to a particular language or group of languages. It encompasses publications written in a specific language, regardless of the subject matter. Language bibliographies are essential for language scholars, linguists, and researchers interested in exploring the literature and resources available in a particular language or linguistic group.
• National Bibliography: The national bibliography documents and catalogs all published materials within a specific country. It serves as a comprehensive record of books, journals, periodicals, government publications, and other sources published within a nation’s borders. National bibliographies are essential for preserving a country’s cultural heritage, facilitating research within specific national contexts, and providing a comprehensive overview of a nation’s intellectual output.
• Regional Bibliography: A regional bibliography compiles sources specific to a particular geographic region or area. It aims to capture the literature, publications, and resources related to a specific region, such as a state, province, or local area. Regional bibliographies are valuable for researchers interested in exploring a specific geographic region’s literature, history, culture, and unique aspects.

1.2.2. Special Bibliography:

Special bibliography refers to a type of bibliography that focuses on specific subjects, themes, or niche areas within a broader field of study. It aims to provide a comprehensive and in-depth compilation of sources specifically relevant to the chosen topic. Special bibliographies are tailored to meet the research needs of scholars, researchers, and enthusiasts seeking specialized information and resources.

Special bibliographies can cover a wide range of subjects, including but not limited to specific disciplines, subfields, historical periods, geographical regions, industries, or even specific authors or works. They are designed to gather and present a curated selection of sources considered important, authoritative, or influential within the chosen subject area.

Special bibliography encompasses several subcategories that focus on specific subjects, authors, forms of literature, periods, categories of literature, and types of materials. These subcategories include:

• Subject Bibliography: Subject bibliography compiles sources related to a specific subject or topic. It aims to provide a comprehensive list of resources within a particular field. Subject bibliographies are valuable for researchers seeking in-depth information on a specific subject area, as they gather relevant sources and materials to facilitate focused research.
• Author and Bio-bibliographies: Author and bio-bibliographies focus on compiling sources specific to individual authors. They provide comprehensive lists of an author’s works, including their books, articles, essays, and other publications. Bio-bibliographies include biographical information about the author, such as their background, career, and contributions to their respective fields.
• Bibliography of Forms of Literature: This bibliography focuses on specific forms or genres of literature, such as poetry, drama, fiction, or non-fiction. It provides a compilation of works within a particular literary form, enabling researchers to explore the literature specific to their interests or to gain a comprehensive understanding of a particular genre.
• Bibliography of Materials of Particular Periods: Bibliographies of materials of particular periods compile sources specific to a particular historical period or time frame. They include works published or created during that period, offering valuable insights into the era’s literature, art, culture, and historical context.
• Bibliographies of Special Categories of Literature: This category compiles sources related to special categories or themes. Examples include bibliographies of children’s literature, feminist literature, postcolonial literature, or science fiction literature. These bibliographies cater to specific interests or perspectives within the broader field of literature.
• Bibliographies of Specific Types of Materials: Bibliographies of specific materials focus on compiling sources within a particular format or medium. Examples include bibliographies of manuscripts, rare books, visual art, films, or musical compositions. These bibliographies provide valuable resources for researchers interested in exploring a specific medium or format.

1.3 Functions of Bibliography

A bibliography serves several important functions in academic research, writing, and knowledge dissemination. Here are some key functions:

• Documentation: One of the primary functions of a bibliography is to document and record the sources consulted during the research process. By providing accurate and detailed citations for each source, it can ensure transparency, traceability, and accountability in scholarly work. It allows readers and other researchers to verify the information, trace the origins of ideas, and locate the original sources for further study.
• Attribution and Credit: The bibliography plays a crucial role in giving credit to the original authors and creators of the ideas, information, and materials used in research work. By citing the sources, the authors acknowledge the intellectual contributions of others and demonstrate academic integrity. This enables proper attribution and prevents plagiarism, ensuring ethical research practices and upholding the principles of academic honesty.
• Verification and Quality Control: It acts as a means of verification and quality control in academic research. Readers and reviewers can assess the information’s reliability, credibility, and accuracy by including a list of sources. This allows others to evaluate the strength of the evidence, assess the validity of the arguments, and determine the scholarly rigor of a work.
• Further Reading and Exploration: The bibliography is valuable for readers who wish to delve deeper into a particular subject or topic. By providing a list of cited sources, the bibliography offers a starting point for further reading and exploration. It guides readers to related works, seminal texts, and authoritative materials, facilitating their intellectual growth and expanding their knowledge base.
• Preservation of Knowledge: The bibliography contributes to the preservation of knowledge by cataloguing and documenting published works. It records the intellectual output within various fields, ensuring that valuable information is not lost over time. A bibliography facilitates the organization and accessibility of literature, making it possible to locate and retrieve sources for future reference and research.
• Intellectual Dialogue and Scholarship: The bibliography fosters intellectual dialogue and scholarship by facilitating the exchange of ideas and enabling researchers to build upon existing knowledge. By citing relevant sources, researchers enter into conversations with other scholars, engaging in a scholarly discourse that advances knowledge within their field of study.

A bibliography serves the important functions of documenting sources, crediting original authors, verifying information, guiding further reading, preserving knowledge, and fostering intellectual dialogue. It plays a crucial role in maintaining academic research’s integrity, transparency, and quality and ensures that scholarly work is built upon a solid foundation of evidence and ideas.

1.4 Importance of Bibliographic Services

Bibliographic services are crucial in academia, research, and information management. They are a fundamental tool for organizing, accessing, and preserving knowledge . From facilitating efficient research to ensuring the integrity and credibility of scholarly work, bibliographic services hold immense importance in various domains.

Bibliographic services are vital for researchers and scholars. These services provide comprehensive and reliable access to various resources, such as books, journals, articles, and other scholarly materials. By organizing these resources in a structured manner, bibliographic services make it easier for researchers to locate relevant information for their studies. Researchers can explore bibliographic databases, catalogues, and indexes to identify appropriate sources, saving them valuable time and effort. This accessibility enhances the efficiency and effectiveness of research, enabling scholars to stay up-to-date with the latest developments in their fields.

Bibliographic services also aid in the process of citation and referencing. Proper citation is an essential aspect of academic integrity and intellectual honesty. Bibliographic services assist researchers in accurately citing the sources they have used in their work, ensuring that credit is given where it is due. This not only acknowledges the original authors and their contributions but also strengthens the credibility and authenticity of the research. By providing citation guidelines, formatting styles, and citation management tools, bibliographic services simplify the citation process, making it more manageable for researchers.

Another crucial aspect of bibliographic services is their role in preserving and archiving knowledge. Libraries and institutions that provide bibliographic services serve as custodians of valuable information. They collect, organize, and preserve various physical and digital resources for future generations. This preservation ensures that knowledge is not lost or forgotten over time. Bibliographic services enable researchers, students, and the general public to access historical and scholarly materials, fostering continuous learning and intellectual growth.

Bibliographic services contribute to the dissemination of research and scholarly works. They provide platforms and databases for publishing and sharing academic outputs. By cataloguing and indexing research articles, journals, and conference proceedings, bibliographic services enhance the discoverability and visibility of scholarly work. This facilitates knowledge exchange, collaboration, and innovation within academic communities. Researchers can rely on bibliographic services to share their findings with a broader audience, fostering intellectual dialogue and advancing their respective fields.

In Summary, bibliographic services are immensely important in academia, research, and information management. They facilitate efficient analysis, aid in proper citation and referencing, preserve knowledge for future generations, and contribute to the dissemination of research. These services form the backbone of scholarly pursuits, enabling researchers, students, and professionals to access, utilize, and contribute to the vast wealth of knowledge available. As we continue to rely on information and research to drive progress and innovation, the significance of bibliographic services will only grow, making them indispensable resources in pursuing knowledge.

References:

• Reddy, P. V. G. (1999). Bio bibliography of the faculty in social sciences departments of Sri Krishnadevaraya university Anantapur A P India.
• Sharma, J.S. Fundamentals of Bibliography, New Delhi : S. Chand & Co.. Ltd.. 1977.  p.5.
• Quoted in George Schneider, Theory of History of Bibliography. Ralph Robert Shaw, trans., New York : Scare Crow Press, 1934, p.13.
• Funk Wagnalls Standard Dictionary of the English language – International ed – Vol. I – New York : Funku Wagnalls Co., C 1965, p. 135.
• Shores, Louis. Basic reference sources. Chicago : American Library Association, 1954. p. 11-12.
• Ranganathan, S.R., Documentation and its facts. Bombay : Asia Publishing House. 1963. p.49.
• Katz, William A. Introduction to reference work. 4th ed. New York : McGraw Hill, 1982. V. 1, p.42.
• Robinson, A.M.L. Systematic Bibliography. Bombay : Asia Publishing House, 1966. p.12.
• Chakraborthi, M.L. Bibliography : In Theory and practice, Calcutta : The World press (P) Ltd.. 1975. p.343.

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National bibliography, bibliographic services.

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• Open access
• Published: 26 August 2024

Using a flipped teaching strategy in undergraduate nursing education: students’ perceptions and performance

• Shaherah Yousef Andargeery 1 ,
• Hibah Abdulrahim Bahri 2 ,
• Rania Ali Alhalwani 1 ,
• Shorok Hamed Alahmedi 1 &
• Waad Hasan Ali 1  

BMC Medical Education volume  24 , Article number:  926 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Flipped teaching is an interactive learning strategy that actively engages students in the learning process. Students have an active role in flipped teaching as they independently prepare for the class. Class time is dedicated to discussion and learning activities. Thus, it is believed that flipped teaching promotes students’ critical thinking, communication, application of knowledge in real-life situations, and becoming lifelong learners. The aim of this study was to describe the students’ perception of flipped teaching as an innovative learning strategy. And to assess if there was a difference in students’ academic performance between those who participated in a traditional teaching strategy compared to those who participated in flipped teaching intervention.

A quasi-experimental design with intervention and control groups. A purposive sampling technique of undergraduate nursing students was used.

A total of 355 students participated in both groups, and 70 out of 182 students in the intervention group completed the survey. The students perceived a moderate level of effectiveness of the flipped teaching classroom as a teaching strategy. The result revealed that there is a statistically significant difference in the mean students’ scores for the intervention group (M = 83.34, SD = 9.81) and control group (M = 75.57, SD = 9.82).

Flipped teaching proves its effectiveness in improving students’ learning experience and academic performance. Also, students had a positive perception about flipped teaching as it allowed them to develop essential nursing competencies. Future studies must consider measuring the influence of flipped teaching on students’ ability to acquire nursing competencies, such as critical thinking and clinical reasoning.

Peer Review reports

The successful outcome of individualized nursing care of each patient depends on effective communication between nurses and patients. Therapeutic communication consists of an exchange of verbal and non-verbal cues. It is a process in which the professional nurse uses specific techniques to help patients better understand their conditions and promote patients’ open communication of their thoughts and feelings in an environment of mutual respect and acceptance [ 1 ]. Effective educational preparation, continuing practice, and self-reflection about one’s communication skills are all necessary for becoming proficient in therapeutic communication. Teaching therapeutic communication to nursing students explains the principles of verbal and non-verbal communication that can be emphasized through classroom presentation, discussion, case studies and role-play. It also helps them develop their ability to communicate effectively with patients, families, and other health care professionals. Nursing students should be able to critically think, conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and evaluating information generated by observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, and communication. Utilizing a traditional teaching strategy can be a challenge to meet the previously stated requirements [ 2 ]. Therefore, nurse educators should adapt unique teaching methods to help students learn and participate in their own education.

The “flipped classroom” is a pedagogical approach that has gained popularity worldwide to foster active learning. Active learning is defined as instructional strategies that actively engage students in their learning. It requires them to do meaningful learning activities and reflect on their actions [ 3 ]. Flipped teaching is a teaching strategy that promotes critical thinking and the application of information learned outside of the classroom to real-world situations and solves problems within the classroom. It is used in a way that allows educators to deliver lectures by using technologies such as video, audio files, PowerPoint or other media. Thus, the students can read or study those materials on their own at home before attending the class. As a result, discussions and debates about the materials take place throughout the lecture time. Some of the main principles of flipped teaching are increasing interaction and communication between students and educators, allocating more time for content mastery and understanding, granting opportunities for closing gaps and development, creating opportunities for active engagement, and providing immediate feedback [ 4 , 5 ]. This teaching/learning methodology is supported by constructivism learning theory. A “problem-solving approach to learning” is how constructivism is frequently described. In which, it requires a shift in the nurse educator’s epistemic assumptions about the teaching-learning process. Constructivism requires nursing educators to take on the role of a learning facilitator who encourages collaboration and teamwork as well as guides the students in building their knowledge. The underlying assumptions of constructivism include the idea that learning occurs as a result of social interaction in which the student actively creates their own knowledge, while prior experiences serve as the foundation for the learning process. The “flipping classroom” reflects that approach, which integrates student-centered learning [ 6 ].

Flipped teaching approach has students learning before lectures, teaching the material to better use classroom time for cooperative learning. The discussed herein represents studies and case studies from primary through graduate schools. The literature indicated students did see value in this pedagogical approach. Most of the studies found that flipped teaching was associated with better understanding of the material learned, higher academic achievement/performance, and potentially improved psychosocial factors (self-esteem, self-efficacy) that are associated with learning. Interestingly, one article pointed out that non-didactic material used in flipped-teaching lead to an increase in performance and this did not happen with didactic material.

According to Jordan et al. [ 7 ], a flipped teaching is a methodology that was developed as a response to advancements and changes in society, pedagogical approaches, and rapid growth and advancement of technology; The flipped teaching was evolved from the peer instruction and just in time teaching approaches. Jordan and colleagues [ 7 ] state that independent learning happens outside the classroom prior to the lesson through instructional materials while classroom time is maximized to fosters an environment of collaborative learning. Qutob [ 8 ] states that flipped teaching enhances student learning and engagement and promotes greater independence for students.

Jordan et al. [ 7 ] studied the use of flipped teaching on the teaching of first- and fourth-year students’ discrete mathematics and graphs, models, and applications. Across all the classes studied (pilot, graph, model and application, practices, computer and business administration), students preferred flipped teaching compared to traditional teaching. According to Jordan et al. [ 7 ], the quality of the materials and exercises, and perceived difficulty of the course and material are important to student satisfaction with this method. Additionally, it was found that interactions with teachers and collaborative learning were positive. Likewise, Nguyen et al. [ 9 ] found students favorably perceive flipped teaching. This is especially true for those students who have an understanding that the method involves preparation and interaction and how these affect the outcomes. Vazquez and Chiang [ 10 ] discuss the lessons learned from observing two large Principles of Economics Classes at the University of Illinois; each class held 900 students. Vazquez and Chiang [ 10 ] found that the students preferred watching videos over reading the textbook. Secondly, students were better prepared after they watched pre-lecture videos compared to reading the textbook beforehand. The third finding involved the length of time pre-lecture work should take; the authors state pre-lecture work should be approximately 15 to 20 min of work ahead of each in-class session. The fourth finding is that the flipped teaching is a costly endeavor. Finally, it was found that having the students watch videos before the lectures reduced the time spent in class covering the material; the end result of this is students spend more time engaging in active learning than reviewing the material.

Qutob [ 8 ] studied the effects of flip teaching using two hematology courses. One of the courses was delivered using traditional teaching and the other course was flipped teaching. Qutob [ 8 ] found that students in the flipped course not only performed better on academic tasks, but also they had more knowledge and understanding of the material covered compared to those in the traditional format class. Additionally, Qutob [ 8 ] revealed that students in the flipped classroom found this style of learning is more beneficial than traditional teaching. Moreover, Florence and Kolski [ 11 ] found an improvement in high school students’ writing post-intervention. The authors further found that students were more engaged with the material and had a positive perception of the flipped model. Bahadur and Akhtar [ 12 ] conducted a meta-analysis of twelve research articles on flipped teaching; the studies demonstrated that students taught in the flip teaching classroom performed better academically and were more interactive and engaged in the material than students taught through traditional methods. Galindo-Dominguez [ 13 ] conducted a systematic review using 61 studies and found evidence for the effectiveness of this approach compared to other pedagogical approaches with regards to academic achievement, improved self-efficacy, motivation, engagement, and cooperativeness. Webb et al. [ 14 ] studied 127 students taking microeconomics and found the delivery of flipped material (didactic vs. non-didactic) influenced students’ improvements. They further found performance improvements for the students who attended flipped classes using non-didactic pre-class material. At the same time, Webb et al. [ 14 ] further found non-improvement associated with flipped classes that used didactic pre-class materials; these materials are akin to traditional lectures.

In the context of nursing education, flipped teaching strategy has demonstrated promising and effective results in enhancing student motivation, performance, critical thinking skills, and learning quality. The flipped teaching classrooms were associated with high ratings in teaching evaluations, increased course satisfaction, improved critical thinking skills [ 15 ], improved exam results and learning quality [ 16 ] and high levels of personal, teaching, and pedagogical readiness [ 17 ]. Another study showed that student performance motivation scores especially in extrinsic goal orientation, control beliefs, and self-efficacy for learning and performance were significantly higher in the flipped teaching classroom when compared to the traditional classroom strategy [ 16 ].

Regardless of these important findings, there have been limited studies published about the flipped teaching strategy in Saudi Arabia, particularly among nursing students. Therefore, implementing the flipped teaching strategy in a therapeutic communication course would be effective in academic performance and retention of knowledge. The flipped teaching method will fit best with the goals of a therapeutic communication course as both focus on active learning and student engagement. This approach is well-matched for a therapeutic communication course as it allows students to apply and practice the communication techniques and strategies, they have learned outside of class from the flipped teaching materials and freeing up class time for interactive and experiential activities. The filliped teaching method can provide opportunities for students to apply effective interpersonal communication skills in classes, provide more time to observe students practicing therapeutic communication techniques through role-play, group discussions, and case studies. It also allows instructors to refine and provide individualized feedback and offer real-time guidance to help students improve their interpersonal communication skills.

The current study aims to examine the students’ perception of a teaching innovation based on the use of the flipped teaching strategy in the therapeutic communication course. Further, to compare if there is a difference in students’ academic performance of students who participate in a traditional teaching strategy when compared with students who participate in flipped teaching intervention.

Students who participated in the intervention group perceived a high level of effectiveness of the flipped teaching classroom as a teaching/learning strategy.

There is a significant difference in the mean scores of students’ academic performance between students who participate in a traditional teaching strategy (control group) when compared with those students who participate in flipped teaching classroom (intervention group).

Design of the study

Quantitative method, quasi-experimental design was used in this study. This research study involves implementing a flipped teaching strategy (intervention) to examine the effectiveness of the flipped teaching among the participants in the intervention group and to examine the significant difference in the mean scores of the students’ performance between the intervention and control group.

College of Nursing at one of the educational universities located in Saudi Arabia.

A purposive sampling technique was conducted in this study. This sampling technique allows the researcher to target specific participants who have certain characteristics that are most relevant and informative for addressing the research questions. The advantages of the purposive sampling lie in gathering in-depth, detailed and contextual data from the most appropriate sources and ensure that the study captures a more comprehensive understanding of the concept of interest by considering different viewpoints [ 18 ]. Participants were eligible to participate in this study if they were (1) Enrolled in the undergraduate nursing programs (Nursing or Midwifery Programs) in the College Nursing; (2) Enrolled in Therapeutic Communication Course; (3) at least 18 years old or older. Participant’s data was excluded if 50% of the responses were incomplete. The sample size was calculated using G-Power. The required participants for recruitment to implement this study is 152 participants to reach a confidence level of 95% and a margin error of 5%.

Measurement

Demographic data including the participants’ age and GPA were collected from all the participants. Educational characteristics related to the flipped teaching were collected from the participants in the intervention group including the level of English proficiency, program enrollment, attending previous, attending previous course(s) that used flipped teaching strategy, time spent each week preparing for the lectures, time spent preparing for the course exams, and recommendation for applying flipped teaching in other classes.

The student’s perception of the effectiveness of the flipped teaching strategy was measured by a survey that focused on the effectiveness of flipped teaching. This data was collected only from the participants in the intervention group. The survey involves 14 items that used 5-point Likert-type scale (5 = strongly agree, 4 = agree, 3 = neutral, 2 = disagree and 1 = strongly disagree). The sum of the scores was calculated for the item, a high score indicates a high effectiveness of flipped teaching. The survey was developed by Neeli et al. [ 19 ] and the author was contacted to obtain permission to use the survey. The reliability of the scale was tested using Cronbach alpha, which was 0.91, indicating that the scale has an excellent reliability.

Also, student academic performance was measured for both the intervention and control groups though the average cumulative scores of the assessment methods of students who were enrolled in the Therapeutic Communication Course, given a total of 100. The students’ grades obtained in the course were calculated based grading structure of the Ministry of Education in Saudi Arabia (The Rules and Regulations of Undergraduate Study and Examination).

Ethical approval

Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval (No. 22-0860) was received before conducting the study. Participants were provided with information about the study and informed about the consent process. Informed consent to participate was obtained from all the participants in the study.

Intervention

Therapeutic communication course was taught face-to-face for students enrolled in the second year in the Bachelor of Science in Midwifery and Bachelor of Science in Nursing Programs. There were eight sections for the therapeutic communication course, two of them were under the midwifery program and the remaining (six sections) were under the nursing program. Each section was held once a week in a two-hour length for 10 weeks during the second semester of 2022. Students in all sections received the same materials, contents, and assessment methods, which is considered the traditional teaching strategy. The contents of the course included the following topics: introduction of communication, verbal and written communication, listening skills, non-verbal communication, nurse-patient relationship, professional boundaries, communication styles, effective communication skills for small groups, communication through nursing process, communication with special needs patient, health education and principles for empowering individuals, communication through technology, and trends and issues in therapeutic communication. The course materials, course objectives and learning outcomes, learning resources, and other supporting materials were uploaded to the electronic platform “Blackboard” (A Learning Management System) for all sections to facilitate students’ preparation during classes. The assessment methods include written mid-term examination, case studies, group presentation, and final written examination. The grading scores for each assessment method were also the same for all sections.

The eight course sections were randomly assigned into traditional teaching strategy (control group) or flipped teaching strategy (intervention group). Figure  1 shows random distribution of the course sections. The intervention group ( n  = 182) included one section of the Bachelor of Science in Midwifery program ( n  = 55 students) and three sections of Bachelor of Science in Nursing program ( n  = 127 students). The control group ( n  = 173) included one section of the Bachelor of Science in Midwifery program ( n  = 50 students) and three sections of Bachelor of Science in Nursing program ( n  = 123 students). Although randomization of the participants is not possible, we were able to create comparison groups between participants who received the flipped teaching and traditional teaching strategy. To ensure the consistency of the information given to the students and reduce the variability, the instructors were meeting periodically and reviewed the materials together. More importantly, all students received the same topics and assessment methods as stated in the course syllabus and as mentioned above. The instructors in all sections were required to answer students’ questions, provide clarification to the points raised throughout the semester, and give constructive feedback after the evaluation of each assessment method. Students were encouraged to freely express their opinions on the issues discussed and to share their thoughts when the opinions were inconsistent.

Random Distribution of the Course Sections

The intervention group were taught the course contents by using the flipped teaching strategy. The participants in the intervention group were asked to read the lectures and watch short videos from online sources before coming to classes. Similar materials and links were uploaded by the course instructors into the Blackboard system. During the classes, participants were divided into groups and were given time to appraise research articles and case scenarios related to the topics of the course. During the discussion time, each group presented their answers, and the course instructors encouraged the students to share their thoughts and provided constructive feedback. Questions corresponded to the intended objectives and learning outcomes were posted during the class time in Kahoot and Nearpod platforms as a competition to enhance students’ engagement. By the end of the semester, the flipped teaching survey was electronically distributed to students who were involved in the intervention group to examine the educational characteristics and assess the students’ perceptions about the flipped teaching.

Data collection procedure

After obtaining the IRB approval, the PI sent invitation letters to the potential participants using their official university email accounts. The invitation letter included a Microsoft Forms’ link with the description about the study, aim, research question, and sample size required to conduct the study. All students gave their permission to participate, and informed consent was obtained from them ( N  = 355). The link also included questions related to age, GPA, and approval to use their scores from assessment methods for research purposes. The first part of data collection was obtained immediately after the therapeutic communication course was over. The average cumulative scores of all the assessment methods (out of 100) were calculated to measure the students’ academic performance for both the intervention and control groups.

The second part of data collection was conducted after the final exam of the therapeutic communication course ( n  = 182). A Microsoft Forms link was sent to the participants in the intervention group only. It included questions related to educational characteristics and students’ perception of the effectiveness of flipped teaching. Students needed a maximum of 10 min to complete the study survey.

Data analysis

Data was analyzed using the SPSS version 27. Descriptive analysis was used to analyze the demographic and educational characteristics and perception of flipped teaching strategy. An independent t-test was implemented to compare the mean scores of the intervention and control groups to examine whether there is a statistically significance difference between both groups. A significance level of p  < 0.05 was determined as statistical significance in this study.

The total number of students who enrolled in therapeutic communication course was 355 students. The intervention group included 182 students and the control group included 173 students. The mean age of all participants in the study was 19 years old (M = 19.56, SD = 1.19). The mean GPA was 3.53 (SD = 1.43). Of those enrolled in the intervention group, only 70 out of 182 students completed the survey. Table  1 represents the description of the educational characteristics of the participants in intervention group ( n  = 70). Around 65% of the participants reported that their level of English proficiency is intermediate, and they were enrolled in the nursing program. Half of the students had precious courses that used flipped teaching strategy. About one-third of the students indicated that they spent less than 15 min each week preparing for lectures. Around 65% of the students stated that they spent more than 120 min preparing for the course exam. Half of the students gave their recommendation for applying flipped teaching strategy in other courses. The mean score of the students’ performance in Therapeutic Communication course who enrolled in the intervention group is 83.34 (SD = 9.81) and for those who were enrolled in the control group is 75.57 (SD = 9.82).

The students perceived a moderate level of effectiveness of the flipped teaching classroom as a teaching strategy (M = 3.49, SD = 0.69) (Table  2 ). The three highest items that improved students’ perception about the flipped teaching strategy were: flipped classroom session develops logical thinking (M = 3.77, SD = 0.99), followed by flipped classroom session provides extra information (M = 3.68, SD = 1.02), then flipped classroom session improves the application of knowledge (M = 3.64, SD = 1.04). The three lowest items perceived by the students were: Flipped classroom session should have allotted more time for each topic (M = 3.11, SD = 1.07), flipped classroom session requires a long time for preparation and conduction (M = 3.23, SD = 1.04), and flipped classroom session reduces the amount of time needed for study when compared to lectures (M = 3.26, SD = 1.07).

An independent sample T-test was implemented to compare the mean scores of the students’ academic performance between the intervention group ( n  = 182) and control group ( n  = 173) (Table  3 ). The results of Levene’s test for equality of variances ( p  = 0.801) indicated that equal variances assumed, and the assumption of equal variances has not been violated. The significant level value (2-tailed) is p  ≤ 0.001, indicating that there is a statistically significant difference in the mean scores of students’ academic performance for the intervention group (M = 83.34, SD = 9.81) and control group (M = 75.57, SD = 9.82). The magnitude of the differences in the means (Mean difference= -7.77%, CI: -10.02 to -5.52) is very small (Eta squared = 0.00035).

Flipped teaching is a learning strategy that engages students in the learning process allowing them to improve their academic performance and develop cognitive skills [ 20 ]. This study investigated the effect of implementing flipped teaching as an interactive learning strategy on nursing students’ performance. Also, the study examined students’ perceptions of integrating flipped teaching into their learning process. Flipped teaching is identified as an interactive teaching strategy that provides an engaging learning environment with immediate feedback allowing students to master the learning content [ 4 , 5 ]. Improvement in the student’s academic performance and development of learning competencies were expected outcomes. The flipped classroom approach aligns with the constructivist theory of education, which posits that students actively construct their own knowledge and understanding through engaging with the content and applying it in meaningful contexts. By providing pre-class materials (e.g., videos, readings) for students to engage with independently, the flipped classroom allows them to build a foundational understanding of the concepts before class, enabling them to actively participate in discussions, problem-solving, and collaborative activities during the class. By shifting the passive acquisition of knowledge to the pre-class phase and dedicating in-class time to active, collaborative, and problem-based learning, the flipped classroom approach creates an environment that fosters deeper understanding, the development of critical thinking and clinical reasoning skills as well as the ability to apply knowledge in clinical practice [ 21 ].

Effectiveness of the flipped teaching on students’ academic performance

The influence of flipped teaching on students’ academic performance was identified by evaluating students’ examination scores. The results of this study indicated that flipped teaching had a significant influence on students’ academic performance ( p  = 0.000). This significant influence implies the positive effectiveness of flipped teaching on students’ academic performance (M = 83.34, SD = 9.81) compared to traditional classroom (M = 75.57, SD = 9.82). These results are in line with other researchers regarding improving students’ academic performance [ 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 ]. Qutob’s [ 8 ] study shows that flipped teaching positively influences students’ performance. Preparation for class positively influenced students’ academic performance. The flipped classroom approach is underpinned by the principles of constructivism. These principles emphasize the active role of students in constructing their own understanding of concepts and ideas, rather than passively receiving information [ 21 ].

In a traditional classroom, the teacher typically delivers content through lectures, and students are tasked with applying that knowledge through homework or in-class activities. However, this model often fails to engage students actively in the learning process. In contract,

Flipped classroom requires students to prepare for the class which allows them to be exposed to the learning material before the class. During class time, students are giving opportunities to interact with their classmates and instructors to discuss the learning topic which can positively influencing their academic performance later [ 7 , 9 ]. Furthermore, the flipped classroom approach aligns perfectly with the core tenets of constructivism. Its adherence to the constructivist 5E Instructional Model further demonstrates its grounding in this learning theory. The 5E model, which includes the phases of engagement, exploration, explanation, elaboration, and evaluation, provides a framework for facilitating the active construction of knowledge [ 22 ].

It first sparks student interest and curiosity about the concepts (engagement), then enables students to investigate and experiment with the ideas through hands-on activities and investigations (exploration). This is followed by opportunities for students to make sense of their explorations and construct their own explanations (explanation). The flipped classroom then allows students to apply their knowledge in new contexts, deepening their understanding (elaboration). Finally, the evaluation phase assesses student learning and provides feedback, completing the cycle of constructivist learning [ 22 ]. This alignment with the 5E model, along with the flipped classroom’s emphasis on active learning and create environment that nurtures deeper understanding, the development of higher-order thinking skills, and the ability to transfer learning to real-world contexts.

In this study, one third of the students indicated that the preparation time was less than fifteen minutes a week. According to Vazquez and Chiang [ 10 ], preparation time for classroom should be about 15 to 20 min for each topic. Preparation for class did not take much time but positively influenced students’ academic performance. Furthermore, preparation for class allows students to develop the skills to be independent learners [ 8 ]. Independence in learning develops continuous learning skills, such as long-life learning which is a required competency for nursing. Garcia et al. [ 22 ] found out that focusing on shifting teachers’ practices towards active learning approaches, such as the 5E Instructional Model, can have lasting, positive impacts on students’ conceptual understanding and learning.

Students’ perception of flipped teaching as a teaching strategy

Students’ perception of flipped teaching as a learning strategy was examined using a survey developed by Neeli et al. [ 19 ]. Students recognize flipped teaching as an effective teaching strategy (M = 3.49, SD = 0.69) that had a positive influence on their learning processes and outcomes. Several studies identified the positive influence of flipped teaching on students’ learning process and learning outcomes [ 8 , 19 ]. Flipped teaching provides a problem-based learning environment allowing students to develop clinical reasoning, critical thinking, and a deeper understanding of the subject [ 5 , 8 , 19 , 23 ]. The flipped teaching approach introduces students to the learning materials before class. Class time is then utilized for discussion, hands-on, and problem-solving activities to foster a deeper understanding of the studied subject [ 5 ]. Consequently, flipped teaching provides a problem-based learning environment as it encourages students to be actively engaged in the learning process, work collaboratively with their classmates, and apply previously learned knowledge and skills to solve a problem. The result of this study is consistent with the results from a systematic review conducted by Youhasan et al. [ 5 ]. Implementing flipped teaching in undergraduate nursing education provides positive outcomes on students’ learning experiences and outcomes and prepares them to deal with future challenges in their academic and professional activities [ 5 ].

Implications

The results from this study identified that flipped teaching has a significant influence on students’ academic performance. The results also indicated that students have positive perception of flipped teaching as an interactive learning strategy. Flipped teaching pedagogy could be integrated in nursing curriculum to improve the quality of education process and outcomes which will result in improving the students’ performance. Flipped teaching provides an interactive learning environment that enhances the development of essential nursing competencies, such as communication, teamwork, collaboration, life-long learning, clinical reasoning, and critical thinking. For example, flipped teaching allows students to develop communication skills throughout discussion in the classroom, and collaboration skills by working with their classmate and instructor. In this study, flipped teaching was implemented in a theoretical course (therapeutic communication course). This interactive learning strategy could also be applied in clinical and practice setting for effective and meaningful learning process and outcomes.

Strengths and limitations

This research study reveals the effectiveness of flipped teaching on students’ academic performance. This study used a quasi-experimental design with control and intervention groups to investigate the influence of flipped teaching on nursing education. Nevertheless, this study has limitations. One of the study’s limitations is the lack of randomization, thus causal association between the variables cannot be investigated. In addition, this study used a self-administered survey which may include respondents’ bias; thus, it may affect the results. Also, this study investigated students’ perceptions of flipped teaching as a learning strategy. The results from examining students’ perceptions indicated that students had a positive perception of flipped teaching as it allowed them to develop essential nursing competencies. This study did not focus on identifying and measuring competencies. Therefore, future studies must consider measuring the influence of flipped teaching on students’ ability to acquire nursing competencies, such as critical thinking and clinical reasoning.

Flipped teaching is an interactive learning strategy that depends on students’ preparation of the topic to be interactive learners in the learning environment. Interactive learning environment improves learning process and outcomes. This study indicated that flipped teaching has significant influence on students’ academic performance. Students perceived flipped teaching as a learning strategy that allowed them to acquire learning skills, such as logical thinking and application of knowledge. These skills allow students to have meaningful learning experience. Also, students could apply these skills in other learning content and/or environments, for example, in clinical. Thus, we believe that flipped teaching is an effective learning approach to be integrated in the nursing curriculum to enhance students’ learning experience.

Data availability

The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are not publicly available due to data privacy but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Abbreviations

Institutional Review Board

Standard deviation

The level of marginal significance within a statistical test

Confidence Interval of the Difference

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Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful for the facilities and other support given by Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University Researchers Supporting Project number (PNURSP2024R447), Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

This research was funded by Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University Researchers Supporting Project number (PNURSP2024R447), Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia

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Conceptualization, H.B, S.Y.A, W.A.; methodology, S.Y.A., S.H.A.; validation, S.Y.A.; formal analysis, S.Y.A.; resources, H.B, S.Y.A, W.A, R. A.; data curation, S.Y.A, S.H.A.; writing—original draft preparation, R.A, H.B, S.Y.A., S.H.A, W.A; writing—review and editing, R.A, H.B, S.Y.A, S.H.A, W.A; supervision, R.A, H.B, S.Y.A, S.H.A.; project administration, R.A, S.Y.A, S.H.A.; funding acquisition, S.Y.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

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Andargeery, S.Y., Bahri, H.A., Alhalwani, R.A. et al. Using a flipped teaching strategy in undergraduate nursing education: students’ perceptions and performance. BMC Med Educ 24 , 926 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05749-9

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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section Artificial Intelligence and Learning

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Artificial Intelligence and Learning by Jaekyung Lee , Richard Lamb , Sunha Kim LAST REVIEWED: 12 January 2021 LAST MODIFIED: 12 January 2021 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199756810-0269

Rapid technological advances, particularly recent artificial intelligence (AI) revolutions such as digital assistants (e.g., Alexa, Siri), self-driving cars, and cobots and robots, have changed human lives and will continue to have even bigger impact on our future society. Some of those AI inventions already shocked people across the world by wielding their power of surpassing human intelligence and cognitive abilities; see, for example, the examples of Watson (IBM’s supercomputer) and AlphaGo (Google DeepMind’s AI program) beating the human champions of Jeopardy and Go games, respectively. Then many questions arise. How does AI affect human beings and the larger society? How should we educate our children in the AI age? What changes are necessary to help humans better adapt and flourish in the AI age? What are the key enablers of the AI revolution, such as big data and machine learning? What are the applications of AI in education and how do they work? Answering these critical questions requires interdisciplinary research. There is no shortage of research on AI per se, since it is a highly important and impactful research topic that cuts across many fields of science and technology. Nevertheless, there are no effective guidelines for educational researchers and practitioners that give quick summaries and references on this topic. Because the intersection of AI and education/learning is an emerging field of research, the literature is in flux and the jury is still out. Thus, our goal here is to give readers a quick introduction to this broad topic by drawing upon a limited selection of books, reports, and articles. This entry is organized into three major sections, where we present commentaries along with a list of annotated references on each of the following areas: (1) AI Impacts on the Society and Education ; (2) AI Enablers: Big Data in Education and Machine Learning ; and (3) Applications of AI in Education: Examples and Evidence .

AI Impacts on the Society and Education

This section presents an overview of AI-related changes and issues at the societal level. We provide commentary accompanied by annotated references, organized into the following sections: Overviews of AI Trends, Challenges, and Issues ; and the Role of the Human Mind and Education in the AI Age .

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U.S. Surgeon General Issues Advisory on the Mental Health and Well-Being of Parents

Washington, D.C. – Today, United States Surgeon General Dr. Vivek Murthy released a Surgeon General’s Advisory on the Mental Health and Well-Being of Parents, highlighting the urgent need to better support parents, caregivers, and families to help our communities thrive.

Over the last decade, parents have been consistently more likely to report experiencing high levels of stress compared to other adults. 33% of parents reporting high levels of stress in the past month compared to 20% of other adults. When stress is severe or prolonged, it can have a harmful effect on the mental health of parents and caregivers, which in turn also affects the well- being of the children they raise. Children of parents with mental health conditions may face heightened risks for symptoms of depression and anxiety and for earlier onset, recurrence, and prolonged functional impairment from mental health conditions.

“Parents have a profound impact on the health of our children and the health of society. Yet parents and caregivers today face tremendous pressures, from familiar stressors such as worrying about their kids’ health and safety and financial concerns, to new challenges like navigating technology and social media, a youth mental health crisis, an epidemic of loneliness that has hit young people the hardest. As a father of two kids, I feel these pressures too,” said U.S. Surgeon General Dr. Vivek Murthy. “With this Advisory, I am calling for a fundamental shift in how we value and prioritize the mental health and well-being of parents. I am also outlining policies, programs, and individual actions we can all take to support parents and caregivers.”

There are approximately 63 million parents living with children under the age of 18 in the United States, and there are millions of additional caregivers who hold the primary responsibility for caring for children. This population experiences a range of unique stressors that come with raising children; including common demands of parenting, financial strain and economic instability, time demands, concerns about children’s health and safety, parental isolation and loneliness, difficulty managing technology and social media, and cultural pressures. In addition to the common stressors listed above, mental health conditions disproportionately affect some parents and caregivers, including those facing circumstances like family or community violence, poverty, and racism and discrimination, among others.

The work of parenting is essential not only for the health of children but also for the health and future of society. Better supporting parents will require policy changes and expanded community programs that will help ensure parents and caregivers can get paid time off to be with a sick child, secure affordable child care, access reliable mental health care, and benefit from places and initiatives that support social connection and community.

This Surgeon General’s Advisory calls for a shift in culture, policies, and programs to ensure all parents and caregivers can thrive. The American public can do more to support parents and caregivers by shifting norms to foster a culture that values, supports, and empowers parents/caregivers and addresses stressors that can impact their mental health and well-being. This Advisory builds on the Biden-Harris Administration’s critical steps to ensure families have the support they need, pushing for increased access to paid family leave, improving early childhood education and childcare, and delivering historic investments in mental health care.

The Surgeon General’s Advisory also provides recommendations for several stakeholders that can help reduce stress for and better support the mental health and well-being of parents and caregivers through policy changes, community programs, and individual actions. These stakeholders include national, territorial, state, local and tribal governments; employers; communities, community organizations, and schools; health and social service systems and professionals; researchers; family and friends; and parents and caregivers.

Surgeon General’s Advisories are public statements that call the American people’s attention to a critical public health issue. Advisories are reserved for significant public health challenges that require the nation’s immediate awareness and action. As the Nation’s Doctor, the 21 st Surgeon General of the United States, Dr. Murthy, has issued Surgeon General’s Advisories on Firearm Violence , Loneliness and Isolation , Social Media and Youth Mental Health , Youth Mental Health , Health Worker Well-Being , and a Framework on Workplace Well-Being .

You can read the full Advisory here . For more information about the Office of the Surgeon General, please visit www.surgeongeneral.gov/priorities .

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Journal articles on the topic "Bantu Education Act (1953)"

Hunter, Mark. "THE BOND OF EDUCATION: GENDER, THE VALUE OF CHILDREN, AND THE MAKING OF UMLAZI TOWNSHIP IN 1960s SOUTH AFRICA." Journal of African History 55, no. 3 (September 22, 2014): 467–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021853714000383.

Ball, Tyler Scott. "Sof’town Sleuths: The Hard-Boiled Genre Goes to Jo’Burg." Cambridge Journal of Postcolonial Literary Inquiry 5, no. 1 (November 27, 2017): 20–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/pli.2017.38.

Verhoef, M. "Funksionele meertaligheid in Suid-Afrika: 'n onbereikbare ideaal?" Literator 19, no. 1 (April 26, 1998): 35–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/lit.v19i1.511.

Campbell, Kurt. "Philological Reversion in Post-Apartheid South Africa: The Sand Writing and Alternate Alphabets of Willem Boshoff." Philological Encounters 3, no. 4 (November 27, 2018): 524–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/24519197-12340053.

giliomee, hermann. "A NOTE ON BANTU EDUCATION, 1953 TO 1970." South African Journal of Economics 77, no. 1 (March 2009): 190–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1813-6982.2009.01193.x.

Klein, Melanie. "Creating the Authentic? Art Teaching in South Africa as Transcultural Phenomenon." Culture Unbound 6, no. 7 (December 15, 2014): 1347–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.3384/cu.2000.1525.1461347.

Bologna, Matthew Joseph. "The United States and Sputnik: A Reassessment of Dwight D. Eisenhower's Presidential Legacy." General: Brock University Undergraduate Journal of History 3 (December 18, 2018): 29–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.26522/gbuujh.v3i0.1722.

Mária, Péter H. "Commemoration of Kárpáti Gizella, the first woman who took her degree in medical science in Kolozsvár at Ferenc József University." Bulletin of Medical Sciences 91, no. 1 (July 1, 2018): 67–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/orvtudert-2018-0001.

Kolbiarz Chmelinová, Katarina. "University Art History in Slovakia after WWII and its Sovietization in 1950s." Artium Quaestiones , no. 30 (December 20, 2019): 161–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.14746/aq.2019.30.8.

Anderson, R. Bentley. "‘To Save a Soul’: Catholic Mission Schools, Apartheid, and the 1953 Bantu Education Act." Journal of Religious History , May 21, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-9809.12664.

Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Bantu Education Act (1953)"

Moore, Nadine Lauren. "In a class of their own : the Bantu Education Act (1953) revisited." Diss., University of Pretoria, 2015. http://hdl.handle.net/2263/53445.

Leleki, Msokoli William. "A Critical Response of the English Speaking Churches to the Introduction and Implementation of Bantu Education Act in South Africa." Thesis, University of Pretoria, 2014. http://hdl.handle.net/2263/46253.

Rundle, Margaret. "Accommodation or confrontation? Some responses to the Eiselen commission report and the Bantu education act with special reference to the Methodist church of South Africa." Master's thesis, University of Cape Town, 1991. http://hdl.handle.net/11427/19520.

Legodi, Mapula Rosina. "Issues and trends in shaping black perspectives on education in South Africa : a historical-educational survey and appraisal." Diss., 1996. http://hdl.handle.net/10500/17195.

Legodi, Mapula Rosina. "The transformation of education in South Africa since 1994 : a historical-educational survey and evaluation." Thesis, 2001. http://hdl.handle.net/10500/17196.

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How ethical behavior is considered in different contexts: a bibliometric analysis of global research trends.

1. Introduction

2. literature review, 2.1. ethical behavior, 2.2. bibliometric, 3. methodology, 4.1. countries and their concerns about ethical behavior, 4.2. key themes in research terms, 4.3. bibliographic coupling analysis, 4.3.1. journals, 4.3.2. authors, 4.4. co-citation analysis, 4.4.1. publications, 4.4.2. journals, 4.4.3. authors, 5. discussion, 5.1. ethical behavior in consumption, 5.2. ethical behavior in leadership, 5.2.1. social learning theory (slt), 5.2.2. social exchange theory (set), transformational leadership, authentic leadership, spiritual leadership, 5.3. ethical behavior in business.

• Focus on social responsibility;
• Emphasis on honesty and fairness;
• Focus on “Golden Rules”;
• Values that are consistent with a person’s behavior or religious beliefs;
• Obligations, responsibilities, and rights towards dedicated or enlightened work;
• Philosophy of good or bad;
• Ability to clarify issues in decision making;
• Focus on personal conscience;
• Systems or theories of justice that question the quality of one’s relationships;
• The relationship of the means to ends;
• Concern with integrity, what should be, habits, logic, and principles of Aristotle;
• Emphasis on virtue, leadership, confidentiality, judgment of others, putting God first, topicality, and publicity.

Values, Business Ethics, and Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)

5.4. ethical behavior in the medical context, 5.4.1. autonomy, 5.4.2. beneficence, 5.4.3. non-maleficence, 5.4.4. fairness, 5.5. ethical behaviour in education, 5.5.1. violation of school/university regulation, 5.5.2. selfishness, 5.5.3. cheating, 5.5.4. computer ethics, 5.6. ethical context in organization, 5.6.1. context of organizational ethical climate, 5.6.2. context of organizational ethical culture, 6. conclusions, 7. limitations and future research, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

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Vu Lan Oanh, L.; Tettamanzi, P.; Tien Minh, D.; Comoli, M.; Mouloudj, K.; Murgolo, M.; Dang Thu Hien, M. How Ethical Behavior Is Considered in Different Contexts: A Bibliometric Analysis of Global Research Trends. Adm. Sci. 2024 , 14 , 200. https://doi.org/10.3390/admsci14090200

Vu Lan Oanh L, Tettamanzi P, Tien Minh D, Comoli M, Mouloudj K, Murgolo M, Dang Thu Hien M. How Ethical Behavior Is Considered in Different Contexts: A Bibliometric Analysis of Global Research Trends. Administrative Sciences . 2024; 14(9):200. https://doi.org/10.3390/admsci14090200

Vu Lan Oanh, Le, Patrizia Tettamanzi, Dinh Tien Minh, Maurizio Comoli, Kamel Mouloudj, Michael Murgolo, and Mai Dang Thu Hien. 2024. "How Ethical Behavior Is Considered in Different Contexts: A Bibliometric Analysis of Global Research Trends" Administrative Sciences 14, no. 9: 200. https://doi.org/10.3390/admsci14090200

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