Australia
CT = Comparative study, RCT = Randomized control Trial, CON = Control, TC = Tai Chi, TA = Taekkyon, TKD = Taekwondo, BJJ = Brizilian Jiu-Jitsu, JU = Judo, 2S = two-minute step test (reps), 6MWT = six-minute walk test, AC = 30 second arm curl (reps), BS = Back scratch (cms), CS = 30 second sit to stand (reps), FR = functional reach test (cms), FTNT = finger to nose test (seconds), SLS = single leg stance (seconds), SR = Sit and Reach (cms), TUG = Timed up and go (seconds)
Of the available studies, four ( 7 , 8 , 12 , 14 ) evaluated upper body flexibility via the Apleys back scratch test where Judo ( 8 ) was the only study which reported significant improvements (79.2% males, 316.7% females). Conversely, for lower body mobility, four out of six studies ( 7 , 8 , 11 , 12 ) identified significant improvements (11.1 – 111.5%) over the training period via the use of a seated chair sit and reach test. To investigate static balance, a single leg stand test (time in seconds) was reported in three studies ( 11 , 14 , 25 ), with one study ( 25 ) identifying significant improvement (20.5%). A single study ( 14 ) assessed coordination via a finger to nose test (time in seconds) and reported a non-significant finding over six-weeks of taekwondo training.
The aim of this scoping review was to collect, critically appraise and summarize the research available on the effects of hard martial arts training in older adults on functional fitness outcome measures. The mean methodological rating for the studies included in this scoping review was 76.25 percent which is of good quality. Although there were a limited number of studies included in this review, this quality needs to be considered when evaluating our findings.
This scoping review investigated the reported benefits of hard martial arts training on functional fitness in older adults. We identified a total of six studies that met our inclusion criteria and all studies demonstrated varying degrees of benefits in physiological parameters within older adults who completed supervised hard martial arts training. Based upon the limited available literature, training stimulus required a minimum of two sessions a week over a period of greater than eleven weeks, irrespective of previous martial arts exposure to demonstrate benefits. Participants in the six included studies had no prior experience completing hard martial arts training, no severe cardiovascular or musculoskeletal conditions and exercise levels ranged from non-structured to moderately active.
Declines in muscular strength are associated and well documented to the aging process and can result in an individual’s inability to maintain independent living ( 37 ). There is a higher mortality risk for older adults who spend more sedentary time compared with their more active compatriots ( 24 ). Ciaccioni et al ( 8 ) investigated the effects of a four-month judo training program on functional fitness in older adults (69.7 ± 4.2 years). Following the training period, the researchers observed significant improvements (p < 0.05) in both upper (male 27.5%, female 34.6%) and lower body strength (male 9.3%, female 13.6%). Similar findings were identified by de Quieroz et al ( 12 ) when older adults (69.5 ± 6.1 years) undertook twelve weeks of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu training. Cho and Roh ( 7 ) identified strength improvements in the lower limbs (p < 0.05; 17.1%) following sixteen-weeks of Taekwondo training in older women (68.9 ± 4.2 years). In addition, lower limb strength improvements (p < 0.05; 26.3%) were reported by Kim et al ( 25 ) when older women (70.9 ± 4.3 years) completed twelve-weeks of Taekkyon training. Contrary to these findings, Del Vecchio et al ( 14 ) investigated the effects of modified Taekwondo training on functional fitness in older adults (74.4 ± 5.0 years). A small effect size (upper limb 5.0%, lower limb 1.2%) was identified between pre and post-test measures, however no significant improvement on upper or lower limb strength was found. The authors noted promise in the modified Taekwondo training program to improve functional fitness in older adults, however, cited six weeks as possibly insufficient time (i.e., stimulus) for a notable training adaptation. The current research available suggests hard martial arts training may be effective at improving overall body strength favoring lower limbs in older adults. The positive effects support a previous systematic review which reported improvements in lower limb strength when adults (51 to 93 years) participated in Karate and Taekwondo training ( 38 ). Furthermore, the review highlighted lower limb favored movement patterns upwards of 75% for Taekwondo training. Fong and Tsang ( 20 ) have previously reported that lower limb strength adaptations are more dependent on the velocity of kicking techniques, opposed to time spent performing Taekwondo training.
Fell and Williams ( 18 ) have previously highlighted older muscle takes longer to repair than younger muscle. Shorter time periods of training stimulus may not be sufficient for adequate recovery and supercompensation training response. Consequently, additional studies are required before hard martial arts can be recommended to older adults as a complimentary form of training alongside traditional strength training programs.
Older adults are more likely to experience a decline in quality of life with a loss of mobility ( 10 ). There is evidence to suggest a combination of gross motor skills, cognitive and aerobic training are key to improving mobility for older adults and healthy aging ( 40 ). Five studies reported the effects of hard martial arts training on mobility in older adults. Kim et al ( 25 ) examined twelve-weeks of Taekkyon training in lower extremity strength and gait ability in older women (70.9 ± 4.3 years). The researchers reported a significant improvement (p < 0.05; 13.6%) in mobility following the training period. Similarly, de Quieroz et al ( 12 ) investigated the effects of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu training on the functional fitness in older males (69.5 ± 6.1 years). Significant improvements (p < 0.05; 13.6%) in mobility were reported with bi-weekly hard martial arts training. Additionally, Cromwell et al ( 11 ) investigated the effects of an eleven-week Taekwondo training program on balance and walking ability in a group of older adults (72.7 ± 6.1 years). Significant improvements in mobility (p < 0.05; 9.5%) and walking velocity (p < 0.05; 22%) were reported, following the training period. In contrast, more recent Taekwondo studies by Del Vecchio et al ( 14 ) as well as Cho and Roh ( 7 ) failed to reproduce significant improvements in mobility following hard martial arts training, although a small positive effect on mobility (3.6 – 9.5%) was noted in both studies. Taken together, the current research suggests hard martial arts training improves mobility in older adults.
Declining aerobic endurance is associated with complications of the cardiovascular system ( 42 ). Limiting age related declines in aerobic endurance for older adults is paramount to maintaining independent living and quality of life. Cho and Roh ( 7 ) assessed the effect of a sixteen-week Taekwondo training program, on the physical fitness in older women (68.9 ± 4.2 years). Following the training period, the researchers identified significant improvement (p < 0.05; 7.6%) in aerobic endurance. Furthermore, de Queiroz et al ( 12 ) investigated twelve-weeks of Brazilian jiu-jitsu training on the functional fitness in older males (69.5 ± 6.1 years). Similarly, the researchers noted significant improvement (p < 0.05; 13.4%) in aerobic fitness. In contrast to the previous studies, Del Vecchio et al ( 14 ) studied the effect of six-weeks of Taekwondo training on functional fitness in older adults (74.4 ± 5.0 years). The researchers reported a non-significant improvement (15.5%) in aerobic fitness that may necessitate further study over an extended training period. Taken as a whole, the data suggests that hard martial arts training may improve aerobic fitness in older adults; however further studies are required before hard martial arts can be recommended to older adults as an alternative to conventional training modalities.
Reduced flexibility impairs normal muscle performance and is associated with increased risk of falls in the elderly ( 22 ). Ciaccioni et al ( 8 ) examined the effects of a four-month Judo training program on functional fitness in older adults (69.7 ± 4.2 years). The researchers reported significant improvements (p < 0.05) for both upper (male 79.2%, female 316.7%) and lower body flexibility (male 68.3%, female 70.6%). In addition, two Taekwondo related studies ( 7 , 11 ) identified an increase in lower limb flexibility. Firstly, Cho and Roh ( 7 ) noted significant improvement (p < 0.05; 16.9%) in flexibility when older women (68.9 ± 4.2 years) participated in sixteen-weeks of Taekwondo related exercise. Secondly, Cromwell et al ( 11 ) observed flexibility improvements (p < 0.05; 11.1%) when older adults (72.7 ± 6.1 years) participated in eleven-weeks of Taekwondo training.
The available literature suggests hard martial arts can improve flexibility for older adults. To the authors knowledge this is first review that highlights flexibility benefits to older adults following hard martial arts intervention. A review by Guo et al ( 21 ) has previously reported on flexibility improvements for older adults when exposed to traditional Chinese sports. The researchers reported an increase in flexibility following a mixture of soft techniques (Qigong and Yangko dance) and more vigorous movement patterns (Tai Ji Quan). Further studies are required to help strengthen the link between flexibility in older adults and hard martial arts training intervention.
Falls prevention strategies for older adults are well advised to incorporate both strength and balance exercises ( 44 ). Hard martial arts may encourage both falls prevention and safe falling techniques in older adults ( 2 ). A study by Kim et al ( 25 ) compared twelve-weeks of Tai Chi and Taekkyon training in lower extremity strength and walking gait in older women (70.9 ± 4.3 years). The researchers reported significant improvements (p < 0.05; Taekkyon 20.5%, Tai Chi 83.2%) in balance for both martial art modalities. Moreover, Tai Chi showed a greater improvement in single leg stance over Taekkyon. However, this was not supported by the three Taekwondo related studies ( 7 , 11 , 14 ). Del Vecchio et al ( 14 ) identified a non-significant improvement (5.6%) in reaction time when older adults completed five finger coordination tests following Taekwondo training.
Balance improvements have previously been reported when adults (41–71 years) are exposed to a yearlong Taekwondo training program ( 39 ). Furthermore, Douris et al ( 16 ) identified significant improvements when middle aged adults are exposed to Soo Bahk Do, a Korean based martial arts similar to karate. Fong et al ( 19 ) investigated hand eye coordination following Ving Tsun Kung-fu training in middle to older adults (68.5 ± 6.7 years). The researchers reported significant improvements (p = 0.002; 2.9%) between pre and post testing data. Considering the current evidence, further research is required before hard martial arts can be recommended for older adults acquiring balance and coordination improvements.
This scoping review has several limitations. Firstly, the small body of research available on the benefits of hard martial arts training in older adults on functional fitness measures. Secondly, the movement patterns between ‘hard’ and ‘soft’ martial arts styles are often similar. This makes it difficult to attribute functional benefits for older adults solely to ‘hard’ or ‘soft’ martial arts style. Thirdly, the heterogeneity between different hard martial art styles limits the generalizability to the broader population of older adults.
However, the strength of this scoping review is its focus upon the benefits of hard martial arts training on measures of functional fitness in older adults. The focus on older adults of all skill levels brings greater relevance for the results on the broader population. We postulate these benefits are primarily attributed to the static and dynamic muscular contractions involved in hard martial arts training. Further, the muscular contractions associated with striking actions have been estimated at 60% of one-repetition maximum load ( 43 ), which may meet the minimum threshold for improving strength in older populations. Whereas the kicking and punching and stances may provide adequate training stimulus for improvements in static and dynamic balance ( 30 ).
This review provides recommendation of a minimum training stimulus for potential functional benefits for future studies in the hard martial arts style. Kicking on one leg may cause an improvement in single-leg balance ( 39 ), which may be reflected in improved single-leg balance time. Striking a static or dynamic moving target may enhance hand-eye coordination ( 19 ), leading to improved finger-to-nose times. Long, wide stances may improve leg strength due to the sustained isometric contraction of the quadriceps ( 15 ), which may be reflected in improved sit-to-stand scores. Finally, kicking motions stretch the hamstrings ( 1 ), which may enhance sit and reach scores.
This scoping review demonstrates the potential of hard martial arts as a viable evidence-based option for improving functional fitness in older adults. Further research is needed to support the recommendations for hard martial arts training in older adults compared with conventional training. In spite of this, hard martial arts may be seen as a viable, evidence-based choice of exercise regime that offers variety and socialization which may enhance both functional fitness and exercise adherence for older adults. Of the available studies, hard martial arts training was recommended to last 60 to 90 minutes per session for a minimum of two times a week. No upper limit of training duration has been identified, however a minimal training stimulus of at least eleven weeks is supported by the current literature.
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Acta Periodica Duellatorum
Eric Burkart
The paper is organised around the notion of embodied technique. The recent attempts to formulate scientific methodologies for the reconstruction of medieval fighting techniques based on a study of premodern fight books raise questions about the epistemological status of these (re)constructed techniques developed by modern practitioners of Historical European Martial Arts (HEMA). Approaching the subject from a perspective of cultural history and martial arts studies, the following questions are discussed: What is technique and how is it related to practice? How is technique acquired and transmitted? How can technique be recorded? And finally, how can historical records of technique be understood, interpreted and converted into practice? Following Ben Spatz, technique is defined as the knowledge content of specific practices and the semiotic references between practice, technique, and symbols referring to embodied technique are discussed. By looking at the intersubjective communication of subjective fighting skills and relying on the work of Michael Polanyi, the possibility to record the “tacit knowing” of these skills as explicit knowledge is questioned. Given the low knowledge content of the fight books in regard to the execution of the referenced techniques, modern HEMA techniques therefore are to be addressed as purely modern constructions based on modern fighting practices instead of as reconstructions of medieval technique. The discourses in HEMA are also compared to a similar debate in musicology, where the status and the “authenticity” of attempts to recreate the sound of medieval music based on interpretations of early musical notation systems was vividly discussed until the early 2000s. Fighting techniques are furthermore addressed as elements of complex fighting systems that only exist within a given historical culture of fighting and are transformed when transferred to another societal context.
Sean Wauters
Introduction: Martial arts and combat sports are a wide spectrum of sports and disciplines. The spectrum can be divided in several clusters, by origin and geography, content (Striking arts, grappling arts, armed arts, armored arts and others), by contact (non, limited, full) and goal (recreative, competitive, self-development, self-defense, etc.) Aim: The aim is to investigate the place of Historical European Martial Arts in the broad spectrum of Martial Arts and how it relates to other martial arts. Methods: A scoping narrative review of martial arts and Historical European Martial Arts. Results and Conclusion: Historical European Martial Arts is defined by its own properties and aspects that are defined by its origin, content, impact forms and goals. They are a cluster of martial systems developed in Europe and can be seen as the European counterpart of many comparable eastern martial arts such as a.o. the Japanese Budo and Chinese Wushu/kung fu with sometimes comparable techniques and with a variety of (often comparable) weapons. They can consist of grappling arts, striking arts, armed arts, armored arts and any combination thereof, depending on the discipline. Comparable to Budo, Wushu or other (Eastern) martial arts, some European martial arts also incorporate Kata-like drills, exercises, and plays. There are different contact forms ranging from non-contact with no protective equipment to full contact sparring and tournaments with a full set of protective equipment. Due to its own properties, it also has a specific injury profile. It deserves its proper place in the spectrum of martial arts and more research in the field of injury prevention is required.
Introduction: Medieval and early modern sword and buckler fencing treatises of the "German" tradition or systems are often vague and incomplete. Few treatises are fully dedicated to it. Often they combine many different weapons such as grappling, dagger, onehanded or two-handed sword and pole arms. Methods: Scoping narrative review of medieval and the first period of the early modern age (renaissance) treatises in the "German" style of fencing, mainly Liechtenauer Tradition combining and reviewing different sword and buckler sources. Results: Several fencing treatises and manuscripts deal with the use of the sword and buckler, yet none of them explain the complete system. Fecht1 is the only one that is fully dedicated to the subject (100%). Others like the Liechtenauer treatises (Ms.3227a, Cod44.a.8,
George Jennings , Benjamin Judkins
Xilam is a modern Mexican martial art that is inspired by pre-Hispanic warrior cultures of ancient Mesoamerica, namely the Aztecs (Mexica), Maya and Zapotec cultures. It provides a noteworthy case study of a Latin American fighting system that has been recently invented, but aspires to rescue, rediscover and relive the warrior philosophies that existed before the Spanish Conquest and subsequent movements beginning in 1521. Using the thought-provoking work of anthropologist Guillermo Bonfil Batalla, México Profundo, I aim to analyse the Xilam Martial Arts Association through the way that they represent themselves in their three main media outlets: The official webpage, the Facebook group and the YouTube channel. I argue that their portrayal of the art as a form of Mesoamerican culture and wisdom for current and future generations of Mexicans is contrasted to contemporary Mexico, a Western (Occidental) project that is far removed from the foundations of this diverse country. Overall, the data suggests that certain elements of Mesoamerican civilisation may be transmitted to young Mexicans through a mind-body discipline, which in turn acts as a form of physical (re)education. Overall, xilam is both an invented tradition (in a technical sense) and a reinvented tradition (in a cultural sense) that provides lessons on the timeless issues of transformation, transmission and transcendence. Keywords: Mexico Profundo; Mesoamerica; pre-Hispanic; martial arts cultures; warrior philosophies.
Anthropology and Humanism
Derek Sheridan
In a Tanzanian seaside dojo, Sempai Ali Issa Hassan, a Swahili martial artist, filmmaker, and healer, offers an alternative history claiming the East Asian martial arts originate in the Afro-Islamic world. Starting from his reaction to a visit by a Chinese Shaolin master, we trace the contours of our experience making sense of claims which both challenge and recast assumptions about Afro-Asian cultural exchange.
Abel Figueiredo
Martial Arts Studies
Daniel Jaquet
Journal of the Philosophy of Sport
Irena Martinkova , Jim Parry
George Jennings
Xilam is a modern Mexican martial art that is inspired by pre-Hispanic warrior cultures of ancient Mesoamerica, namely the Aztecs (Mexica), Maya and Zapotec cultures. It provides a noteworthy case study of a Latin American fighting system that has been recently invented, but aspires to rescue, rediscover and relive the warrior philosophies that existed before the Spanish Conquest and subsequent movements beginning in 1521. Using the thought-provoking work of anthropologist Guillermo Bonfil Batalla, México Profundo, I aim to analyse the Xilam Martial Arts Association through the way that they represent themselves in their three main media outlets: The official webpage, the Facebook group and the YouTube channel. I argue that their portrayal of the art as a form of Mesoamerican culture and wisdom for current and future generations of Mexicans is contrasted to contemporary Mexico, a Western (Occidental) project that is far removed from the foundations of this diverse country. Overall, the data suggests that certain elements of Mesoamerican civilisation may be transmitted to young Mexicans through a mind-body discipline, which in turn acts as a form of physical (re)education. Overall, xilam is both an invented tradition (in a technical sense) and a reinvented tradition (in a cultural sense) that provides lessons on the timeless issues of transformation, transmission and transcendence.
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Jouer selon les règles du jeu. Playing by the Rules of the Game. Spielen nach den Spielregeln. Sous la direction de / edited by / herausgegeben von Martina Ghosh-Schellhorn & Roland Marti
Agustín Seguí
Augustus J Roe
Book Chapter
Premakumara de Silva
Revista de Artes Marciales Asiáticas (RAMA)
Slavery & Abolition
Matthias Röhrig Assunção
Andreas V Artto
Steve D'Agostino
Daniel Jaquet , Claus Sørensen
Journal of Sport and Social Issues
Kevin S . Y . Tan
Harjeet Singh Grewal
Routledge Handbook of Heritage in Asia
Patrick Daly
International Journal of Martial Arts, Volume 3 (Article 3), pp. 32-51
Evangelos C Papakitsos
Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology
Wojciech Cynarski
Evan Harley
DS Farrer , John Whalen-Bridge
Asian Affairs
James Hoare
Martial Arts and Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Kung Fu Tea
DS Farrer , Benjamin Judkins
Lorenzo Domaneschi
A. Willemsen und H. Kik (Hrsg.), Dorestad and its networks. Communities, Contact and Conflict in Early Medieval Europe. Papers on Archaeology from the Leiden Museum of Antiquities 25
African Arts
COMMENTS
Martial arts, combat sports, and mental health in adults
Background Mental health problems are a significant social issue that have multiple consequences, including broad social and economic impacts. However, many individuals do not seek assistance for mental health problems. Limited research suggests martial arts training may be an efficacious sports-based mental health intervention that potentially provides an inexpensive alternative to ...
The current study assessed whether an extended program of martial arts training was a viable intervention for at-risk youths in improving cognitive and psychological functions. Adolescent boys attending specialized education facilities for at-risk youths took part in regular sport lessons or martial arts practice twice a week for 6 months.
1. Introduction. Martial arts have been practiced for hundreds of years, and today, with modification, they are often used in the form of sports, self-defense, and recreation [].Applying well-organized martial arts programs to children can lead to an increase in physical fitness, although the test results are not unequivocal [].Many studies have explored the application of various martial arts ...
The Social-Psychological Outcomes of Martial Arts Practise ...
Results The final analysis included 28 papers (one general martial arts, one kung fu, sixteen tai chi, six judo, three karate, and one taekwondo). Among the disciplines of martial arts, tai chi was the most well-studied, followed by judo, karate, and taekwondo. ... Difficulties of health research of martial arts. 1)
of martial arts training), this paper is an attempt at an updated review of the existing research in the field, and an examination of the literature from the gender and cultural studies viewpoint.
Martial arts routines have particular movement rules, and the systematic training method has played a positive role in developing martial arts routines. Objective This paper explores the role of ...
Additionally, during the 20th century the martial arts have been defined and practiced as a sport which is exemplified by taekwondo becoming an Olympic sport in 1988 (Finkenberg, 1990), and taekwondo, karate and judo being included in the 2020 Olympics. 1.3. Research regarding martial arts training effects on mental health
While sport psychology research on martial arts has been reviewed in the past (see Fuller's review, 1988; Martin, 2006, for a literature review on the psychological benefits of martial arts training; and Vertonghen & Theeboom, 2010, for a review on the psychological outcomes for youth of martial arts training), this paper is an attempt at an ...
effects of martial arts were included in the study. Results The final analysis included 28 papers (one general martial arts, one kung fu, sixteen tai chi, six judo, three karate, and one taekwondo). Among the disci-plines of martial arts, tai chi was the most well-studied, followed by judo, karate, and taekwondo.
There is substantial evidence that training in Martial Arts is associated with improvements in cognitive function in children; but little has been studied in healthy adults. Here, we studied the impact of extensive training in Martial Arts on cognitive control in adults. To do so, we used the Attention Network Test (ANT) to test two different ...
3.2 Martial arts and health improvements 33 3.3 The impact on everyday life of participation in martial arts 35 3.4 Additional benefits of martial arts practice 36 3.5 Attributes considered important in a martial arts teacher 42 4.1 Martial arts and levels of health awareness 51 4.2 Martial arts and perceptions of improvements in health 53
Research examining the relationship between the martial arts and mental health has typically used a bipartite model which distinguishes between traditional and modern martial arts. The intervention is based on a traditional martial arts perspective, which emphasizes the non-aggressive aspects of martial arts including psychological and ...
different names), 'martial arts studies' is. a loose interdisciplinary formation with. few fixed disciplinary coordinates and. fewer standardised features. This is. because 'martial arts ...
Most relevant to this paper, see, for example: Douglas Wile, Lost T'ai Chi Classics of the Late Ch'ing Dynasty (New York: SUNY Press, 1996); Benjamin N. Judkins and Jon Nielson, The Creation of Wing Chun: A Social History of the Southern Chinese Martial Arts (New York: SUNY Press, 2015); Udo Moenig, Taekwondo: From a Martial Art to a ...
Background: The application of various martial arts programs can greatly contribute to improving the of physical fitness of preschool and school children. The purpose of this review paper was to determine the effects and influence that martial arts program intervention has on children's physical fitness, which includes motor skills and the aerobic and anaerobic abilities of children. Method ...
Feature papers represent the most advanced research with significant potential for high impact in the field. A Feature Paper should be a substantial original Article that involves several techniques or approaches, provides an outlook for future research directions and describes possible research applications. ... The martial arts have been ...
Since Koch , sport psychology research and professional practice has flourished across sports and countries. Mixed martial arts (MMA) compared to the history of sport psychology is a new sport with the first Ultimate Fighting Championship, later titled UFC 1: The Beginning, on 12 November 1993, in Denver, Colorado.
Women are underrepresented in martial arts participation compared to men. The aim of this scoping review was to understand how gender dynamics influence women's experiences of martial arts, in order to inform future interventions and policies which could increase the participation of women in martial arts. Fifty-three studies were eligible for inclusion and thematic analysis was used to ...
Engaging women and girls in martial arts and combat sports: theoretical issues and their implications for practice. On the 5 of February 2016, the Martial Arts Studies Research Network held its first one-day seminar, on the theme of gender issues in theory and practice. Hosted by the University of Brighton, the day drew around 30 delegates ...
Sports rehabilitation focuses on the restoration of physical function and performance of martial arts students and athletes by assisting them in the recovery process during injuries. Each athlete's injury is unique and requires personalized treatment. The conventional approaches lack tailored feedback and precise monitoring to provide personalized treatment, depending on the nature of an ...
The aim of this scoping review was to collect, critically appraise and summarize the research available on the effects of hard martial arts training in older adults on functional fitness outcome measures. The mean methodological rating for the studies included in this scoping review was 76.25 percent which is of good quality.
Martial arts of the world: An Encyclopedia of History and ...