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• 16 Jul 2024

Corporate Boards Are Failing in Their No. 1 Duty

General Electric, Wells Fargo, and Boeing all chose the wrong CEOs for the job, says Bill George, creating big problems for the companies. George outlines five common mistakes boards of directors make when selecting leaders and provides advice for picking the appropriate person for this all-important role.

• 02 Jul 2024

Five Essential Elements to Build the Capital You Need to Lead

The path to leadership can seem unclear in competitive organizations. In the book The Treasure You Seek, Archie L. Jones offers a roadmap to help aspiring leaders discover their strengths, communicate effectively, and build meaningful connections.

• 11 Jun 2024
• In Practice

The Harvard Business School Faculty Summer Reader 2024

What's on your vacation reading list? Harvard Business School faculty members plan to explore not only sober themes, such as philosophy and climate policy, but classic mysteries and hip-hop history.

• 01 May 2024
• What Do You Think?

Have You Had Enough?

James Heskett has been asking readers, “What do you think?” for 24 years on a wide variety of management topics. In this farewell column, Heskett reflects on the changing leadership landscape and thanks his readers for consistently weighing in over the years. Open for comment; 0 Comments.

• 26 Apr 2024

Deion Sanders' Prime Lessons for Leading a Team to Victory

The former star athlete known for flash uses unglamorous command-and-control methods to get results as a college football coach. Business leaders can learn 10 key lessons from the way 'Coach Prime' builds a culture of respect and discipline without micromanaging, says Hise Gibson.

• 26 Mar 2024
• Cold Call Podcast

How Do Great Leaders Overcome Adversity?

In the spring of 2021, Raymond Jefferson (MBA 2000) applied for a job in President Joseph Biden’s administration. Ten years earlier, false allegations were used to force him to resign from his prior US government position as assistant secretary of labor for veterans’ employment and training in the Department of Labor. Two employees had accused him of ethical violations in hiring and procurement decisions, including pressuring subordinates into extending contracts to his alleged personal associates. The Deputy Secretary of Labor gave Jefferson four hours to resign or be terminated. Jefferson filed a federal lawsuit against the US government to clear his name, which he pursued for eight years at the expense of his entire life savings. Why, after such a traumatic and debilitating experience, would Jefferson want to pursue a career in government again? Harvard Business School Senior Lecturer Anthony Mayo explores Jefferson’s personal and professional journey from upstate New York to West Point to the Obama administration, how he faced adversity at several junctures in his life, and how resilience and vulnerability shaped his leadership style in the case, "Raymond Jefferson: Trial by Fire."

• 24 Jan 2024

Why Boeing’s Problems with the 737 MAX Began More Than 25 Years Ago

Aggressive cost cutting and rocky leadership changes have eroded the culture at Boeing, a company once admired for its engineering rigor, says Bill George. What will it take to repair the reputational damage wrought by years of crises involving its 737 MAX?

• 02 Jan 2024

Do Boomerang CEOs Get a Bad Rap?

Several companies have brought back formerly successful CEOs in hopes of breathing new life into their organizations—with mixed results. But are we even measuring the boomerang CEOs' performance properly? asks James Heskett. Open for comment; 0 Comments.

• Research & Ideas

10 Trends to Watch in 2024

Employees may seek new approaches to balance, even as leaders consider whether to bring more teams back to offices or make hybrid work even more flexible. These are just a few trends that Harvard Business School faculty members will be following during a year when staffing, climate, and inclusion will likely remain top of mind.

• 12 Dec 2023

Can Sustainability Drive Innovation at Ferrari?

When Ferrari, the Italian luxury sports car manufacturer, committed to achieving carbon neutrality and to electrifying a large part of its car fleet, investors and employees applauded the new strategy. But among the company’s suppliers, the reaction was mixed. Many were nervous about how this shift would affect their bottom lines. Professor Raffaella Sadun and Ferrari CEO Benedetto Vigna discuss how Ferrari collaborated with suppliers to work toward achieving the company’s goal. They also explore how sustainability can be a catalyst for innovation in the case, “Ferrari: Shifting to Carbon Neutrality.” This episode was recorded live December 4, 2023 in front of a remote studio audience in the Live Online Classroom at Harvard Business School.

• 05 Dec 2023

Lessons in Decision-Making: Confident People Aren't Always Correct (Except When They Are)

A study of 70,000 decisions by Thomas Graeber and Benjamin Enke finds that self-assurance doesn't necessarily reflect skill. Shrewd decision-making often comes down to how well a person understands the limits of their knowledge. How can managers identify and elevate their best decision-makers?

• 21 Nov 2023

The Beauty Industry: Products for a Healthy Glow or a Compact for Harm?

Many cosmetics and skincare companies present an image of social consciousness and transformative potential, while profiting from insecurity and excluding broad swaths of people. Geoffrey Jones examines the unsightly reality of the beauty industry.

• 14 Nov 2023

Do We Underestimate the Importance of Generosity in Leadership?

Management experts applaud leaders who are, among other things, determined, humble, and frugal, but rarely consider whether they are generous. However, executives who share their time, talent, and ideas often give rise to legendary organizations. Does generosity merit further consideration? asks James Heskett. Open for comment; 0 Comments.

• 24 Oct 2023

From P.T. Barnum to Mary Kay: Lessons From 5 Leaders Who Changed the World

What do Steve Jobs and Sarah Breedlove have in common? Through a series of case studies, Robert Simons explores the unique qualities of visionary leaders and what today's managers can learn from their journeys.

• 06 Oct 2023

Yes, You Can Radically Change Your Organization in One Week

Skip the committees and the multi-year roadmap. With the right conditions, leaders can confront even complex organizational problems in one week. Frances Frei and Anne Morriss explain how in their book Move Fast and Fix Things.

• 26 Sep 2023

The PGA Tour and LIV Golf Merger: Competition vs. Cooperation

On June 9, 2022, the first LIV Golf event teed off outside of London. The new tour offered players larger prizes, more flexibility, and ambitions to attract new fans to the sport. Immediately following the official start of that tournament, the PGA Tour announced that all 17 PGA Tour players participating in the LIV Golf event were suspended and ineligible to compete in PGA Tour events. Tensions between the two golf entities continued to rise, as more players “defected” to LIV. Eventually LIV Golf filed an antitrust lawsuit accusing the PGA Tour of anticompetitive practices, and the Department of Justice launched an investigation. Then, in a dramatic turn of events, LIV Golf and the PGA Tour announced that they were merging. Harvard Business School assistant professor Alexander MacKay discusses the competitive, antitrust, and regulatory issues at stake and whether or not the PGA Tour took the right actions in response to LIV Golf’s entry in his case, “LIV Golf.”

• 01 Aug 2023

As Leaders, Why Do We Continue to Reward A, While Hoping for B?

Companies often encourage the bad behavior that executives publicly rebuke—usually in pursuit of short-term performance. What keeps leaders from truly aligning incentives and goals? asks James Heskett. Open for comment; 0 Comments.

• 05 Jul 2023

What Kind of Leader Are You? How Three Action Orientations Can Help You Meet the Moment

Executives who confront new challenges with old formulas often fail. The best leaders tailor their approach, recalibrating their "action orientation" to address the problem at hand, says Ryan Raffaelli. He details three action orientations and how leaders can harness them.

How Are Middle Managers Falling Down Most Often on Employee Inclusion?

Companies are struggling to retain employees from underrepresented groups, many of whom don't feel heard in the workplace. What do managers need to do to build truly inclusive teams? asks James Heskett. Open for comment; 0 Comments.

• 14 Jun 2023

Every Company Should Have These Leaders—or Develop Them if They Don't

Companies need T-shaped leaders, those who can share knowledge across the organization while focusing on their business units, but they should be a mix of visionaries and tacticians. Hise Gibson breaks down the nuances of each leader and how companies can cultivate this talent among their ranks.

• Open access
• Published: 09 December 2020

Impact of transformational leadership on work performance, burnout and social loafing: a mediation model

• Hira Khan 1 ,
• Maryam Rehmat   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3377-0082 2 , 3 ,
• Tahira Hassan Butt 3 ,
• Saira Farooqi 2 , 3 &
• Javaria Asim 2 , 3  

Future Business Journal volume  6 , Article number:  40 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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The aim of this research was to study the effect of transformational leadership on employees’ work outcomes which include their work performances and working burnout, and their working behavior such as social loafing at workplace. Also, it studies the impact of intrinsic motivation as a mediator between transformational leadership and other stated variables. A cross-sectional survey was conducted to collect data from 308 employees working in the telecommunication sector. To test the hypotheses, Model 4 of Process Hayes was used to test direct and mediating effects among transformational leadership and employees’ work outcomes and working behavior. The results showed that transformational leadership has a significant positive relationship with mediator intrinsic motivation. The results also concluded that work performance has positive significant relationship with transformational leadership. However, there is indirect and insignificant relationship of transformational leadership with working burnout and social loafing. Therefore, it can be stated that organizational leaders must have transformational attributes by getting informed of their employees well because transformational leader can inspire employees to achieve anticipated or significant outcomes. It gives employees self-confidence over specific jobs, as well as the power to make decisions once they have been trained.

Introduction

During the last two decades, transformational leadership has gained most conspicuous place in philosophy of leadership [ 81 ]. Therefore, it is not surprising that the current evolution in leadership theory and practice has attracted the interest of both practitioners and researchers and they exhibited great deal of interest toward exploring its ascendancy for organization and individuals as well [ 72 , 87 ]. Particularly, the studies conducted during the previous decades recommends that transformational leadership is considerably related to followers’ behaviors and performance [ 20 , 65 ]. In a review on progress in the domain of leadership printed in “Annual Review of Psychology,” Avolio et al. [ 8 ] stressed the need to establish mechanisms that connect leadership to vital organizational and individual outcomes. They further stressed the need to investigate the role of mediators, so as to clarify the noteworthiness of leadership for organizations. Chan and Mak [ 20 ] in their research contended that “a variety of different influence processes may be involved in transformational leadership yet there is still room for research to further examine the process of the relationship between transformational leadership and follower attitudes and behaviors.” Transformational leadership defined as leadership approach in which a leader transforms his followers, inspires them, builds trust, encourages them, admires their innovative ideas, and develops them [ 12 ], is presently the most extensively acknowledged definition in the leadership literature.

Transformational leadership can be implicated to managerial context. Transformational leadership which is the leader’s competency to get performance of employees beyond expectations, can be more helpful and beneficial in enhancing one’s ability to intrinsically motivate them. It can improve psychological empowerment as well [ 85 ]. Transformational leadership has four components which are: (i) idealized influence, (ii) inspirational motivation to enhance confidence, (iii) intellectual stimulation, and (iv) individualized consideration [ 13 ]. Idealized influence is shown when a leader efficiently makes provision of accurate sense of mission and appropriately visualizes it. Inspirational motivation can be defined as leadership attitude which deals with emotional traits of employees, builds confidence in employees about their performances, appropriately communicates and provides actual feedback [ 68 ]. Individual consideration refers to the support of leader for each follower. It may include training and coaching, allocating tasks according to the competence of each individual and supervision of performances [ 92 ]. Intellectual stimulation describes the effort of leader to motivate and encourage his employees to be more adaptive and follow new technical approaches according to the varied situation. It may be advantageous to overcome the cues and hindrances which occur at multi stages [ 14 ]. Transformational leaders can anticipate that employees will need transformational leadership when the work is more stressful and when the work is more meaningful [ 84 ].

Extant research on the transformational leadership tried to explore its “black box” and presented empirical confirmation of its direct fruitful consequences for followers’ outcomes including work performance [ 16 , 44 , 52 , 90 ], burnout [ 40 , 82 ], and social loafing [ 5 ]. Nevertheless, there exists some room for further research, explaining the specific mechanisms by which transformational leadership influence such individuals’ behavior and psychological state particularly at organizational level [ 16 ]. Hence, this study aims at providing new comprehension of how and why and under what circumstances transformational leadership influences work performance, burnout and social loafing of employees, in Pakistani context.

Transformational leadership tends to maximize the level of professional performance of work In addition to provided literature on association of transformational leadership and work performance; researchers indicate that organizations of diverse structures highly depend upon the performance of its workers. Past studies have empirically established the positive association between work performance and transformational leadership [ 9 ]. Transformational leaders inspire their followers to have shared vision of targeted goals and standards of performance defined by the organization and also facilitate them achieve it [ 4 ]. Another factor which is highly influenced by transformational leadership is employee’s burnout which may be decreased through this particular style of leadership. Prevalence of stress is highly probable in any organizational sector [ 73 ]. Transformational leadership is most influencing factor which enhances the employee’s ability to deal with all kind of circumstances as such leader provide supportive circumstances to employees so that they can maintain the optimum level of mental health through inspirational motivation and also enhances their confidence level [ 28 , 93 ].

“Social loafing is the inclination of putting less effort while working in a team than working alone” [ 5 ]. Transformational leader, while working in a group, follows a strategy in which he can allocate various assignments and tasks according to the competencies of employee and he must evaluate performances of each individual. Social loafing is a psychological aspect of an individual which may differ from situation to situation and individual to individual [ 55 ]. Leadership literature has established that individualized consideration by the leader may deflate the degree of social loafing [ 45 ].

Building on the previous literature, this research incorporated employee intrinsic motivation as a factor that explains the linkage of transformational leadership with employee work performance, burnout and social loafing. Intrinsic motivation which is “the implementation of an action for the inherent satisfaction rather than for external reasons” [ 63 ]. Undeniably, the motivation of current workforce is not much reliant on extrinsic rewards. Rather material rewards may decline job performance in complex jobs with diverse responsibilities [ 30 ]. Further, in order to perform their duties effectively in today’s dynamic work environment, the employees need to have an elastic and highly flexible work arrangement. For that reason and for instilling good motivation among workers, organizations not only offer extrinsic rewards to them but also plan to enhance their intrinsic motivation [ 63 ]. Transformational leadership is the leadership approach which contributes to present a clear and justified organizational vision and mission by motivating workers to work toward idea through developing association with employees, consider employees’ requirements and assisting them to exert their potential positively, participates to positive outcomes for an organization [ 31 ]. Employees whose work competencies are encouraged by the leader are more likely to have higher intrinsic motivation and resultantly perform better at work. They become more focused and try to accomplish organizational goals by taking their own interests. There also exists indirect association between employees’ burnout and transformational leadership through mediating effect of intrinsic motivation [ 28 ]. Transformational leaders focus more on individual requirements and they build strong association with their employees who are supposed to perform with higher objectives, which enhances employees’ intrinsic motivation. Such motivation keeps them away from burning out [ 6 ]. We further argued that intrinsic motivation mediates the relationship between transformational leadership and social loafing. Previous studies indicate that role of intrinsic motivation discourages social loafing as it does not happen circumstantially only, but it also happens whenever an employee is low in intrinsic motivation [ 5 ].

This research makes provision of significant contribution in the literature of organizational behavior by enriching our understanding of the conditions under which transformational leadership influences employee performance, burnout and social loafing. The findings of our research allow organizations and its management to comprehend how efficiently and effectively they can follow a policy or some kind of advanced strategy in order to intrinsically motivate their employees so that they can increase the level of work performance and deflate burnout and social loafing in employees.

Literature review

Transformational leadership and intrinsic motivation.

Envisioning visions and motivating are two core jobs of effective leadership [ 24 ]. According to traditional transformational leadership literature, transformational leaders guide and encourage employee mindfulness by enunciating a vision that escalates employees’ consciousness and consideration for the significance of organizational values, goals, and performances [ 42 ]. Thusly, fundamental to the theory on transformational leadership is a strong accentuation on the part of a combined vision; that is, an idealized arrangement of objectives that the organization seeks to accomplish one day [ 18 ]. Transformational leaders, through clear enunciation, have their utmost influence on the followers’ sentiments by cultivating a feeling of success and proficiency in them. Transformational leaders are much capable to improve organizational outcomes according to the market requirements by developing human resources and creating justified modifications [ 34 ]. The reason to acquire specific knowledge is associated with the degree that what is the level of intrinsic motivation of a person and how he is keen to get knowledge by developing particular competencies and meaningful learning [ 78 ]. Transformational leadership has power to enhance the ability of psychological empowerment which is referred as intrinsic motivation [ 85 ]. According to [ 74 ], the idea of motivation is known as “the set of reasons why people behave in the ways they do”, for example, intrinsic motivation is “the motivational state in which the employees are driven by their interests in the work rather than a contract-for-rewards approach to completing a task” [ 24 ]. A study by Koh et al. [ 51 ] identified that intrinsic motivation is highly influenced by the transformational leadership, as the transformational leader guides and supports effectively, self-motivation to be an effective and beneficial part of an organization increases as well.

Transformational leadership comprises four interconnected behavioral dimensions including “idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration” [ 11 ]. All behavioral dimensions can influence employees’ intrinsic motivation. First, transformational leaders utilize idealized influence and offer inspirational motivation through communicating an alluring collective vision [ 91 ]. This collective vision provides a meaningful idea of team’s tasks by a leader which increase the intrinsic motivation of employees [ 75 ]. Transformational leadership can develop positive outcomes such as optimism and high self-interests in all members of team which ultimately increase the pleasure and job satisfaction relevant to the task [ 26 ]. Second, the intellectual stimulation of transformational leaders boosts team members’ confidence to develop more effective emotional and situational stability and resolving their problems by their own selves [ 11 ]. They are also motivated to understand and encourage the basic knowledge and skills of other coworkers to share new ideologies. Third, transformational leaders differentiate individuals’ ideas and interests, promote their ideas to describe their uniqueness, and consider them through individualized consideration [ 11 ]. When employees observe the behaviors of their leaders, all of them feel motivated and try to construct one another’s ideas and competencies to create innovative solutions of problems. Therefore, in this article, we expect that all dimensions of transformational leadership encourage employees to invest higher willingness and energy in their work and tasks which exhibit their higher intrinsic motivation. Therefore, it can be hypothesized that:

Transformational leadership relates positively to intrinsic motivation.

Transformational leadership, intrinsic motivation and work performance

Intrinsic motivation is highly associated with the work performance. Intrinsic motivation may be defined as “the doing of an activity for its inherent satisfactions rather than for some separable consequence but it is rare for employees to experience intrinsic motivation in all of their tasks” [ 76 ]. Intrinsic motivation is generated for self-developing attributes that refers to make an individual ready to be the part of learning procedure without having interests of extrinsic rewards [ 83 ]. Intrinsic motivation is basically the degree of an individual’s interest in a task completion and how he engages himself in work [ 3 ]. It describes the psychological development process with an employee’s performance [ 85 ].

According to recent operational settings, enhancing the employees’ motivation has become one of most impactful human resources strategy. Most of the organizations are tending to build up, sustain and grow their HR strategies, just to motivate their employees so that short-term and long-term goals and objectives can be achieved. In recent researches, there are numerous variables which can be influenced by employees’ intrinsic motivation like performance, creativity, and relevant outcomes. For example, it has been stated that behavior of an individual influences the work outcomes which are performance and quality as well [ 10 ]. It is strongly evidenced that motivation has a most important role between cognitive abilities and work performance. Gist [ 37 ] suggested that short term goals can be achieved through self-interest of an individual. Also, a research indicates that there is a significant and direct relationship of intrinsic motivation and job performance [ 43 ]. Furthermore, an employee’s intrinsic motivation illustrates an important contribution in organizational progress and growth [ 39 ]. The work performance indices are constructed for the degree of performance, not only for the individual level always; it also includes group and organizational performances [ 2 ]. In most employment situations, where intrinsic motivation of an employee is supposed to be high, the employee usually tries to acquire continual employment,and he/she develops interpersonal associations with his subordinates, perform better at job as they take pleasure in the process of finishing their tasks effectively [ 38 ]. Conversely, if the worker feels de-motivated, it can be resulted in low performance of work. Thus intrinsic motivation may be concluded with better performance of work while meeting organizational targets and goals [ 7 ].

As we propose the direct relationship of intrinsic motivation and performance, it may be stated that the intrinsic motivation can actively influence the performance of work as a significant workplace outcome [ 19 ]. Therefore, we hypothesize that:

Intrinsic motivation relates positively to employee work performance.

In current research, we posit that intrinsic motivation is one of the main mechanisms by which transformational leaders influence employees’ job performance. Transformational leaders may help to ensure individual’s inner motivation to perform a task efficiently which in turn increases their work performance .These leadership approaches are advantageous for both individual and organizational growth [ 36 ]. In fact, it is justified to examine how leaders motivate their employees and this motivation enhances their performance [ 12 ]. In line with the previous literature [ 22 , 23 ], we expect that transformational leadership enhances individuals’ intrinsic motivation which in turn will significantly predict employee job performance. Intrinsic motivation is known as self-directed type of motivation and represents the highest commitment and stability with the self [ 25 ]. A variety of researches indicate that higher intrinsic motivation result in better performance [ 89 ] as intrinsic motivation inspires and encourages employees to work more efficiently. Therefore, it can be hypothesized:

Intrinsic motivation mediates the relationship between transformational leadership and work performance.

Transformational leadership, intrinsic motivation and employee’s working burnout

Intrinsically motivated employees persistently focus on their tasks and jobs because they find themselves more focused, attentive and exert their best efforts while being a part of an organization and in achieving the goals of their employing organization [ 76 ]. Burnout is a psychological and mental condition which happens in response to high stress level at job; it is a multi-dimensional concept which covers the following three aspects: emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and decreased personal focus for accomplishment of goals [ 77 ]. Burnout affects the interpersonal relationship of employees too [ 58 ].

Prior research indicates that there is contrary effect of intrinsic motivation on employee’s working burnout [ 70 ]. Intrinsically motivated employees find their jobs more interesting, are more optimistic, put more effort in their work, and have higher perseverance level because they gain contentment and fulfillment from performing a task itself [ 15 ]. Vallerand [ 88 ] in his study exhibit that “employees with high intrinsic motivation have higher level of vitality, positive effect, self-esteem, absorption, concentration, effort, and persistence” and when such employees went through the felling of burnout, they have more personal resources to surmount this situation. Such employees feel less exhausted, less stressed and more focused toward contributing in organization’s progress [ 49 ]. Intrinsically motivated employees feel less pressure and low stress level rather than the employees who are low in motivation [ 69 , 71 ]. Intrinsic motivation of employees’ can be negatively associated with their burnout [ 70 ].Therefore; the employees who are high in intrinsic motivation can decrease their burnout at workplace [ 50 ]. Thus, it can be hypothesized that:

Intrinsic motivation is negatively associated to employee’s working burnout.

In current research, we propose that intrinsic motivation plays a mediating role between transformational leadership and burnout. Burnout is the major concern for organizations as it influences the relevant outcomes. It results in low productivity and commitment. Hence, it causes the high turnover and absenteeism in employees [ 82 ]. Studies indicate that leaders highly contribute to employees’ health and welfare as well [ 80 ]. But the relationship between leadership behaviors and employee burnout is less studied yet [ 41 ]. As mentioned earlier, there exists a positive relationship between transformational leadership and intrinsic motivation which in turn make them more competent, teach them how to handle and manage stressful conditions and reduce their burnout. Therefore, we hypothesize that:

Intrinsic motivation mediates the relationship of transformational leadership and employee’s working burnout.

Transformational leadership, intrinsic motivation and social loafing

Social loafing is defined as the tendency of individuals who exert less effort and their productivity decreases when working in groups than working individually [ 21 , 33 , 57 , 79 ]. It is a negative employee behavior and is particularly shown by individuals with lower motivation [ 1 ]. These kinds of behaviors can be resulted in low productivity and poor commitment toward a task [ 62 ] and organization as well.

Social loafing is common practice and can be observed in every organizational setting, across age and gender and in different professions and various cultures [ 46 ]. This is more alarming that it can be seen at every single workplace and considered as misconduct. The variety of factors is studied in influence of social loafing, but there is still an insufficiency of individual inherent factors such as intrinsic motivation which is part of this research framework.

“Intrinsic motivation which describes an inherent tendency that individuals engage in activities due to their inner interests, pleasure and satisfaction” [ 70 ] is negatively linked to Social loafing. George [ 33 ] established in his study on 221 salespeople that intrinsic task involvement is negatively linked to social loafing. He further exerted that intrinsically motivated individuals may have self realization that their efforts are vital for the success of their team/group and for organization as well and therefore they are less likely to be engaged in social loafing. He/she would try his/her own best to exert extra effort to accomplish the goals and tasks assigned by the leader.

Therefore, we hypothesize that:

Intrinsic motivation is negatively linked to social loafing.

Intrinsic motivation may be described as the inherent process that initiates attributes, behaviors and what defines people to moves or act [ 27 ]. Self-determination theory indicates that there are different levels of motivation. Intrinsic motivation is at the most independent end of the scale because an individual opts to get engaged in any conduct according to his own choice [ 32 ]. A leader motivates his employees by incorporated strategies which results in better achievement of goals and objectives of a firm or organization. Gilbert et al. [ 35 ]. Social loafing is defined as a reduced amount of effort and motivation while being a part of group or working in a team as compared to working individually [ 46 ]. Social loafing is well-known phenomena and can be found in all of the organizations, across gender, and age and in various occupations and different cultures [ 46 ].

Social loafing is considered as a big hindrance in organizational growth as well. It causes low potential [ 61 ], low productivity [ 29 ], and low motivation of other team members too [ 67 ]. It decreases the overall efficiency, productivity and performance of the team [ 47 ]. Social loafing is widely spread term which is also known as social disease [ 54 ].

In line with this connection, social loafing is a big moral and social issue since it is an option that “involves modifying the life plan of another individual or group of individuals” [ 60 ]. On contrast, if a transformational leader motivates his employees and encourages their performance on individual basis, then through individualized considerations and inspirational motivation, social loafing can be decreased. Therefore, it can be hypothesized:

Intrinsic motivation mediates the relationship of transformational leadership and social loafing.

Mediating role of intrinsic motivation between transformational leadership and social loafing

(Fig.  1 ).

Theoretical framework

Sample and data collection

The data was collected through survey via emails, online surveys and printed questionnaires through convenience sampling from individuals working in the telecommunication sector. The participants were informed about the objective of this study and the assurance of confidentiality and anonymity of their responses. Respondents were assured that their information will not be assessed by any individuals except those who are authorized. After removing the duplicates, outliers and responses with missing data, we obtained 308 valid responses for further data analysis Table  1 depicts the demographic characteristics of the respondents.

• Transformational leadership

Transformational leadership was measured by McColl-Kennedy and Anderson [ 59 ] four-item scale. Six-point Likert scale (1—strongly disagree to 6 —strongly agree) was used to measure responses. This is the most widely used scale to measure transformational leadership. Cronbach’s alpha for transformational leadership scale is 0.84.

• Intrinsic motivation

In this study, Liu et al. [ 56 ] four-item scale was adopted to measure intrinsic motivation. To record the responses five-point Likert scale was used (1 —strongly disagree to 5—strongly agree). Cronbach’s alpha for intrinsic motivation scale is 0.89.

• Work performance

To measure work performance [ 19 ] four-item scale was adopted. Five-point Likert scale (1—much worse to 5—much better) was used to measure responses. Cronbach’s alpha of work performance scale is 0.80.

• Working burnout

Working burnout was measured by Kristensen et al. [ 53 ]. Seven items with five-point Likert scale (1 –never to 5—always) was used. Cronbach’s alpha of burnout scale is 0.88.

• Social loafing

Social loafing was measured by Akgunduz and Eryilmaz [ 1 ]. Four items with five-point Likert scale (1—strongly disagree to 5—strongly agree) was used. Cronbach’s alpha of social loafing scale is 0.80.

Data analysis

After data collection, the reliability, correlation was calculated by using SPSS software. Research model was tested using Hayes Process Model 4.

Descriptive statistics

Table  2 describes descriptive statistics of all the study variables including the mean, standard deviation, and correlation. Correlation coefficients are in the anticipated directions and provide preliminary support for our study hypotheses. Our results depicts that transformational leadership and intrinsic motivation ( r  = 0. 29, p  < 0.01) are positively and significantly correlated. Further intrinsic motivation is significantly associated with work performance ( r  = .30, p  < 0.01); working burnout ( r  = − 0.59, p  < 0.01); social loafing ( r  = − 0.15, p  < 0.01).

Reliability analysis

To examine the consistency of the variables, reliability analysis is calculated. The reliabilities of all the variables with number of items are summarized in Table  3 . The values between 0.84 and 0.8 indicate good reliability. The reliability of transformational leadership is 0.84 which is good, and intrinsic motivation shows another good reliability which is 0.89. Working burnout shows 0.88 reliability. The reliability of work performance is 0.8 and the reliability of social loafing is 0.8 which is also good. So this explains that the data used is reliable.

Hypothesis testing

Results of mediation for work performance.

Firstly, we investigated the impact of Transformational Leadership (X) on Work Performance (Y) through mediating factor of Intrinsic Motivation (M). Results justify that total effect of transformational leadership on work performance (path c, Fig.  2 ) is significant ( β  = 0.13, t  = 3.07, p  < 0.01) as shown in Table  4 . The relationship between transformational leadership and intrinsic motivation (path a, Fig.  4 ) is highly significant and positive which support Hypothesis 1 also ( β  = 0.31, t  = 5.20, p  < 0.01). Furthermore, the findings showed that the relationship between Intrinsic Motivation and Work Performance (path b, Fig.  2 ) is positive and significant relationship ( β  = 0.19, t  = 4.79, p  < 0.01).

Mediation model—work performance

Our overall findings represent that there is positive and significant impact of transformational leadership on work performance (path c ′, Fig.  2 ) through the mediation of intrinsic motivation ( β  = 0.07, t  = 1.68, p  > 0.01) which accepts Hypothesis 3.

Results for mediation for working burnout

In this model we studied the relationship of Transformational Leadership(X) and Working Burnout (Y) through mediating role Intrinsic Motivation (M). Results indicated that total effect of transformational leadership on working burnout is significant ( β  = − 0.19, t  = − 3.51, p  < 0.01 We examined the relationship between the mediator, Intrinsic Motivation and the dependent variable, Working Burnout (path b , Fig.  3 ). The findings showed a significant and negative relationship ( β  = − 0.50, t  = − 11.98, p  < 0.01). This finding supports Hypothesis 4. As it is shown in Table  5 the final results determined a significant relationship between transformational leadership and working burnout with mediation of intrinsic motivation (path c ′, Fig.  3 ) ( β  = − 0.03, t  = − 0.66, p  > 0.01). Therefore Hypothesis 5 is accepted.

Mediation model—working burnout

Results for mediation for social loafing

Our third and last finding for studied relationship between transformational leadership and social loafing through mediator intrinsic motivation, are presented in Table  6 . According to the total effect model, the relationship between transformational leadership and social loafing (path c , Fig.  4 ) is significant and negative ( β  = − 0.32, t  = − 9.57, p  < 0.01) as shown in Table  6 .

Mediation model—social loafing

The outcomes showed that intrinsic motivation and social loafing (path b , Fig.  4 ) are insignificantly and related relationship ( β  = − 0.01, t  = − 0.31, p  > 0.01) which opposes Hypothesis 6.

Our last finding determined that transformational leadership does not have a significant negative impact on social loafing (path c ′, Fig.  3 ), while controlling intrinsic motivation ( β  = − 0.32, t  = − 9.07, p  < 0.01). Thus Hypothesis 7 is not accepted. Thus, it can be resulted that there is no mediation.

Theoretical contributions

Although, previous researches have vastly recognized the direct impact of transformational leadership on positive employee work outcomes [ 17 , 48 ], yet not all employees do not respond to transformational leadership optimistically [ 66 ]. This study overall, made an important contribution to the available literature mainly by including variables that are very essential for all work environments that are aiming toward high employee motivation and performance. The current study is a unique attempt to look at the relationship between of transformational leadership, employees’ work performance, working burnout, and social loafing and intrinsic motivation in Asian context. This study contributes to the existing literature on transformational leadership since it is among the first to investigate the indirect impact of transformational leadership on employees’ work performance, working burnout, and social loafing through intrinsic motivation. Providing empirical evidence for association between transformational leadership (independent variable), work performance, working burnout and social loafing (dependent variables) through the mediating effect of intrinsic motivation. Our empirical results provide support for our hypothesized model except for the indirect effect of transformational leadership on social loafing through intrinsic motivation. Transformational leadership consists of four elements which are idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation and Individualized consideration [ 13 ]. All of these elements showed very good reliability and consistency with each other. These elements actively participate to affect the outcome of intrinsic motivation [ 85 ].

This study shows that transformational leadership has a significant and positive relationship with employees’ intrinsic motivation. Previous literature supports this finding that transformational leadership promotes motivation in employees and develops positive psychological states such as meaningfulness of work, experienced responsibility for the outcomes and knowledge of work results. It indicates that transformational leadership directly exerts its influence by helping employees or followers to think more positively about themselves and their tasks, by enhancing the quality of their relationships, and by creating environments that are fair, respectful, and supportive [ 86 ] and all of these factors contribute positively toward employee’s self motivation toward his/her work (i.e., intrinsic motivation).

The positive elements of transformational leadership bring out positive psychological states by escalating intrinsic motivation among employees. Employees with increased intrinsic motivation are more effective and efficient toward their work performances. They are supposed to be converted into responsive and perform efficiently in their work [ 64 ].

This study results showed significant positive relationship of transformational leadership on working burnout through intrinsic motivation. When a transformational leader indicates support for honest and fair matters associated with employees, the employee feels less exhausted and motivated. Intrinsically motivated employees who are driven by enjoyment and interest in their work are more likely to work hard at their jobs and feel less fatigue, less emotional exhaustion, and increased desire to participate in the organization [ 49 ].

Finally, it was examined that how transformational leadership impact social loafing through Intrinsic motivation. Findings depicts that although Social loafing has a significant and negative relationship with transformational leader, but their indirect relationship through intrinsic motivation is not significant The reason behind can be that the direct strong association between transformational leader and social loafing as “transactional leaders effectively inspire followers to identify with a mission while rallying them to work together to achieve organizational objectives.” Further, social loafing in employees is also effected significantly by other factors such as workload, organizational culture, tenure of job. etc.

Practical implications

Our study also provides several practical implications for organizations. Transformational leaders who realize the significance of intrinsic motivation for employees will adopt such behaviors that are conducive for development employees’ intrinsic motivation at the workplace. The results of current study confirmed that transformational leadership through fostering intrinsic motivation create such environment which is stress free and fruitful for employee effective performance. One way to exhibit these behaviors by managers is to aim at encouraging motivation among employees based on their inherent happiness and enjoyment. Another way to enhance employees’ intrinsic motivation and involvement toward organizational success is to value their contributions and sharing organizational goals and objectives with their workers. Further, it is very essential for organizational leaders to be transformed by being informed of their employees well because transformational leader can inspire people to achieve unexpected or remarkable results. It gives workers autonomy over specific jobs, as well as the authority to make decisions once they have been trained. In that the leader can inspire workers to find better ways of achieving a goal as leadership can mobilize people into groups that can get work done, and morale, in that transformational leaders raise the well-being and motivation level of a group through excellent connection. The findings of this study also stressed the need of designing leadership coaching and training programs in order to develop transformational leadership which may include “programs for communication, motivation, and brainstorming, to train employees with the necessary resources to be more articulate and inspirational as well as to think out of the box”.

Limitations and future directions

The first limitation of this research is that cross-sectional survey has been conducted. There may be ambiguity in establishing causal direction. Results may vary while collecting data at various times. It is suggested to conduct longitudinal study design in future research to see how impact of transformational leadership on employee outcomes varies over time. Next, it represented data from only the telecom sector of Lahore, Pakistan which may limit the study generalizability it would have been advantageous to conduct this research across the diverse sectors and n different context. Another limitation of this research is that there can be a probability of response bias as all the data was collected through same source i.e., employees. For example, a person can have deliberate falsification by quoting false responses of statements, just to attain social desirability. An employee in the organization may have high degrees of social loafing but he may not state it appropriately as well. Future researchers may collect data from different sources like work performance data can be collected from supervisors.

Existing literature and this research too is having high tendency toward constructive and significant outcomes to discover impact of transformational leadership so it is suggested that in future studies impact of transformational leadership should be examined in relation to more negative employee outcomes such as turnover intention and cyber loafing.

It is also recommended to see the impact of other mediators like emotional stability between transformational leadership and employees’ various outcomes.

Furthermore, future studies can also observe the effect of different moderators such as performance appraisal politics and contingent awards on the existing research model. It might prove valuable.

Future studies can also respond to the limitations of current research by collecting data across different business sectors (education, banking, etc.) of diverse locations.

This research contributes to the field of organizational behavior by enhancing our knowledge on how a transformational leader upgrades employees’ positive work outcomes by improving their intrinsic motivation. Furthermore, their increased intrinsic motivation will develop their positive work outcomes by increasing employees’ work performance and the same time reducing their burnout and work stress. We hope that our study will stimulate future endeavors to advance our understanding in this domain.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Khan, H., Rehmat, M., Butt, T.H. et al. Impact of transformational leadership on work performance, burnout and social loafing: a mediation model. Futur Bus J 6 , 40 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s43093-020-00043-8

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Exploring purpose-driven leadership: theoretical foundations, mechanisms, and impacts in organizational context.

1. Introduction

2. theoretical perspectives on leadership: an evolutionary analysis, 3. purpose-driven leadership: a new perspective on leadership, 4. methodology.

• Conceptualization of Purpose-Driven Leadership.
• Importance of Purpose-Driven Leadership in contemporary research and practice.
• Theoretical foundations of Purpose-Driven Leadership.
• Mechanisms and impacts of Purpose-Driven Leadership.
• The role of purpose in navigating times of VUCA.
• Measurement approaches for purpose in leadership.

5. Findings

5.1. purpose-driven leadership research landscape, 5.2. purpose, organizational purpose, and purpose-driven leadership.

• Consistency: Purpose does not manifest as a fleeting intention but is grounded in its enduring nature ( Gavarkovs et al. 2023 ; Jasinenko and Steuber 2023 ; Knippenberg 2020 ). Demonstrating resilience against ephemeral shifts in external conditions or situational variances, purpose consistently maintains its vigor and steadfastness ( Rindova and Martins 2023 ; Trachik et al. 2020 ). It acts as a constant lodestar amid the dynamic terrains of both personal and professional spheres ( Bhattacharya et al. 2023 ; Qin et al. 2022 ; Rindova and Martins 2023 ).
• Generality: In contradistinction to a limited, task-centric objective, purpose is distinguished by its comprehensive scope ( By 2021 ; Gavarkovs et al. 2023 ; Jasinenko and Steuber 2023 ). Instead of being confined to proximate tasks or circumscribed aims, purpose spans a more expansive purview ( By 2021 ; Gavarkovs et al. 2023 ; Jasinenko and Steuber 2023 ). This ubiquity of purpose guarantees its applicability across multifarious contexts ( By 2021 ; Gavarkovs et al. 2023 ; Jasinenko and Steuber 2023 ).
• Two dimensions: - Internal Dimension: The internal dimension of purpose refers to the individuals’ intrinsic motivations and impulses, which are connected to their sense of purpose ( Crane 2022 ; Knippenberg 2020 ). It serves as a source of meaning, supporting the rationale of every decision, direction, or objective delineated ( Handa 2023 ; Jasinenko and Steuber 2023 ). This introspective aspect emphasizes the congruence and alignment between an individual and their purpose ( Gavarkovs et al. 2023 ; Jasinenko and Steuber 2023 ). - External Dimension: Beyond its internal impact, the influence of purpose extends to the external environment, through the efforts generated by the individual within their context ( By 2021 ; Gavarkovs et al. 2023 ; Handa 2023 ; Jasinenko and Steuber 2023 ). This is underpinned by the individual’s commitment to promoting positive change in a broader environment ( Ocasio et al. 2023 ; Qin et al. 2022 ).
• Daily embodiment and expression: Purpose manifests as a palpable instantiation in quotidian activities since it is part of every decision and action made ( By 2021 ; Jasinenko and Steuber 2023 ). Such perennial articulation provides consistency and influences daily activities ( Bronk et al. 2023 ; Hurth and Stewart 2022 ; Ocasio et al. 2023 ).

5.2.1. Attributes of Purpose-Driven Leadership

5.2.2. purpose-driven leadership construct conceptualization, 5.3. theoretical foundations of purpose-driven leadership, 5.4. mechanisms and impacts of purpose-driven leadership, 5.4.1. potential antecedents, 5.4.2. potential outcomes, 5.4.3. potential mediators, 5.4.4. potential moderatos, 5.5. purpose-driven leadership as a guiding light, 5.6. measurement approaches for purpose-driven leadership, 6. discussion, 7. conclusions, supplementary materials, author contributions, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

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Ribeiro, M.F.; Costa, C.G.d.; Ramos, F.R. Exploring Purpose-Driven Leadership: Theoretical Foundations, Mechanisms, and Impacts in Organizational Context. Adm. Sci. 2024 , 14 , 148. https://doi.org/10.3390/admsci14070148

Ribeiro MF, Costa CGd, Ramos FR. Exploring Purpose-Driven Leadership: Theoretical Foundations, Mechanisms, and Impacts in Organizational Context. Administrative Sciences . 2024; 14(7):148. https://doi.org/10.3390/admsci14070148

Ribeiro, Marco Ferreira, Carla Gomes da Costa, and Filipe R. Ramos. 2024. "Exploring Purpose-Driven Leadership: Theoretical Foundations, Mechanisms, and Impacts in Organizational Context" Administrative Sciences 14, no. 7: 148. https://doi.org/10.3390/admsci14070148

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• Published: 11 July 2024

Ethical leadership, internal job satisfaction and OCB: the moderating role of leader empathy in emerging industries

• Qin Li   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9856-9454 1  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  11 , Article number:  901 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Leadership with ethical values can generally elicit high levels of employee input behavior. This is particularly important in strategic emerging industries, where job satisfaction among research and development (R&D) personnel plays a crucial role as a primary driver of innovation. While scholars have emphasized the significance of internal work value orientation in recent years, the previous literature has mainly focused on leadership and employee behavior, and few studies have explored spontaneous organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). Therefore, this study seeks to investigate the correlation between ethical leadership (EL) and OCB and to consider the moderating role of leader empathy (LE) as well as the mediating role of internal job satisfaction (IJS). The data for this research were collected from 248 R&D personnel employed in companies within China’s emerging industry sector. The analysis was conducted using partial least squares path modeling, and the moderating effect was examined using Hayes’ PROCESS macro. The results validate the idea that IJS serves as a positive mediator of the relationship between EL and OCB. Furthermore, LE plays a significant moderating role in the relationship between IJS and OCB.

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Emerging industries have the potential to drive social development, which is a primary concern in China’s current context (Li, 2024 ). Additionally, the significant contributions of biopharmaceutical companies in addressing the threats to human life posed by the COVID-19 pandemic over the past three years underscore their importance. However, the sustainable development of emerging industries requires ongoing innovation upgrades, especially because technological personnel face pressures, such as industry upgrades, technological changes, industry competition, and company culture (e.g., aggressive culture) from various sources, thus leading to high turnover rates among technical personnel. Tuin et al. ( 2021 ) criticized emerging enterprises for prioritizing the goal of shaping a positive public image and pursuing organizational prosperity while neglecting the enhancement of effective leadership behaviors, which has led to high turnover rates in the industry. As representatives of organizations, leaders must focus on value preferences and individual internal needs to meet the organizational expectations of nurturing employees’ psychological well-being and work engagement (Kohnen et al., 2024 ). Therefore, ethical leadership (EL) plays an essential role in workplace management.

EL focuses on improving organizational performance by integrating moral beliefs and values into organizational practices. Furthermore, it entails thoughtful and appropriate leadership both inside and outside the workplace (Si et al., 2023 ; Greenbaum et al., 2020 ). Managers should maintain moral values consistent with the organization while effectively communicating the organization’s strategies, policies, and talent cultivation methods with honesty, fairness, and trustworthiness (Guo, 2022 ). In previous studies, scholars have argued that ethical leaders can enhance the economic benefits of employee performance. It has also been reported that EL involves shaping follower behavior by intentionally promoting moral models and rewarding or punishing opposing behaviors. Previous studies have followed the principle of reciprocity in social exchange theory to enhance job satisfaction and other positive behaviors among employees after they observe leaders engage in ethical practices. Common positive behaviors include work engagement (Radic et al., 2020 ), work productivity (Freire and Bettencourt, 2020 ), organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) (Walden and Kingsley Westerman, 2018 ), and work motivation (Losada-Otálora and Alkire (née Nasr), 2019 ).

“Job satisfaction” refers to the fulfillment and enjoyment derived from one’s job, and it encompasses an individual’s personal and social needs. Job satisfaction influences life satisfaction, economic independence, and non-electoral participation (Visser et al., 2019 ; Cemalcilar et al., 2018 ); furthermore, it is closely related to employees’ achievements (Qing et al., 2019 ). Previous studies have found that challenging work nature, flexible work systems, competitive income, and the promise of career advancement are factors that contribute to personal job satisfaction (Liu and Lin, 2017 ; Hegney et al., 2006 ). Unfortunately, enterprises tend to focus more on stimulating employee performance by fulfilling material commitments, and they often neglect employees’ spiritual needs (Gesthuizen et al., 2019 ). The internal value aspirations of employees can be realized through interpersonal support, the desire to create a better world, and personal career development, thereby promoting psychological well-being, work engagement, and work motivation (Tuin et al., 2021 ).

Existing studies have confirmed the relationship between EL, job satisfaction, and positive work outcomes, such as work engagement and motivation, but few studies have examined remedies (Ahmad et al., 2019 ; Qing et al., 2019 ; Bouckenooghe et al., 2014 ). Furthermore, previous studies have often examined job satisfaction as a whole rather than distinguishing between external job satisfaction and internal job satisfaction (IJS). IJS is the process of meeting employees’ specific psychological needs (Visser et al., 2019 ). However, no studies have explored the relationship between EL, IJS, and OCB, even though some studies have proposed categorizing personal value perception into extrinsic and intrinsic factors (Tuin et al., 2021 ; Hegney et al., 2006 ). Therefore, this study aims to investigate whether IJS—as a mediator in the psychological mechanism—can stimulate employees’ commitment and organizational support.

Furthermore, the current study seeks to further examine the psychological impact of IJS on individuals. Engagement in OCB indicates that individuals have found a sense of belonging and identity within the organization (Aboramadan and Karatepe, 2021 ). When individuals’ organizational behavior aligns with organizational goals, it suggests a high level of satisfaction. As transmitters of organizational values, supervisors should actively participate in the design of pathways to broaden the research on the psychological intervention of organizations on employees. Leader empathy (LE) focuses on providing impressive encouragement and understanding when subordinates face difficult and overwhelming tasks (Mahsud et al., 2010 ). Building upon self-examination theory (Tuin et al., 2021 ) and emotional contagion theory (Kim et al., 2023 ), the present study examines the moderating role of LE in the relationships between EL, IJS, and OCB in the context of employees in the emerging industry.

Literature review

Theoretical framework.

This study employed self-determination theory (SDT; Tuin et al., 2021 ) and emotional contagion theory (ECT) (Kim et al., 2023 ). EL is characterized by honest, considerate, and fair behaviors and decisions among leaders. The practice of EL also involves motivating moral behaviors among employees based on a leader’s moral concepts—a process that requires leaders to fulfill their commitment to reward employees’ behaviors (Ahmad and Gao, 2018 ). Several recent studies have highlighted the concept of “reciprocation” (e.g., social exchange theory and demand-resource theory) to establish the framework of organizational investment and employee returns (Tripathi et al., 2020 ; Walden and Kingsley Westerman, 2018 ; Mahsud et al., 2010 ). The present study focuses on the psychological perception process of personal self-examination and psychological perception, which means that when moral management practices align with predetermined standards or criteria for achieving workers’ goals (Brown and Treviño, 2006 ), employees will exhibit moral behaviors (i.e., OCB) that benefit the organization.

This study also integrates ECT with LE as resources in promoting OCB. Unlike other approaches focused on the authority and mechanisms of senior leadership to motivate and shape employee performance or approaches focused on leadership styles that emphasize employee pursuits, ECT describes the process whereby an individual’s emotions are transferred to other people, who unconsciously and unintentionally experience such emotions (Petitta et al., 2023 ). This implicit process primarily occurs within social groups, in which one person’s emotion influences another person’s subsequent affective, attitudinal, or behavioral outcomes automatically within the group (Fujimura et al., 2010 ). Furthermore, it is a process where individuals tend to synchronize and converge on emotions with others within the same social group (Hatfield et al., 1993 ).

Hypotheses development

EL, IJS, and OCB have been widely examined by scholars in recent years (Guo, 2022 ; Jha and Singh, 2021 ; Metwally et al., 2019 ; Qing et al., 2019 ). Similar to other types of leadership, EL relies on managers’ effectiveness in transmitting their values (Jha and Singh, 2021 ). Leaders’ emotions are considered infectious and can be passed on to employees (Jha and Singh, 2021 ). When leaders convey positive emotions to their employees, it enhances the employees’

expression of values, which in turn affects their self-esteem and the significance they attribute to their work (Moon and Jung, 2018 ; Shamir et al., 1993 ). Additionally, employees’ attitudes are also influenced by ethical leaders who uphold high standards of morality and fairness. Studies have found that leaders can increase followers’ job satisfaction by exhibiting integrity, fairness, and empowerment (Guo, 2022 ; Freire and Bettencourt, 2020 ).

However, emerging industries heavily rely on R&D personnel, experimentation, and acceptance departments, which constitute the core force behind providing innovative advancements at the forefront of science and technology (Chen and Wang, 2020 ; Thakur-Wernz and Wernz, 2020 ). Compared with individuals in other industries, practitioners in emerging industries are more persistent in their initial value orientation for innovation (Tran Pham and Nguyen Le, 2023 ). Job values encompass extrinsic and intrinsic elements, with the intrinsic elements revolving around personal development and self-fulfillment in work therefore, organizations must be able to support and commit to employees’ needs to promote further development, encourage horizontal and upward employability, and stimulate retention and commitment (Gesthuizen et al., 2019 ).

OCB is considered spontaneous behavior that seeks to achieve an organization’s sustainable development goals or contributes to the organization’s image, beyond the responsibilities outlined in one’s job description (Zhao and Zhou, 2021 ). OCB goes beyond the explicit requirements of individual roles and is not explicitly mentioned in organizational rewards (Walden and Kingsley Westerman, 2018 ). Aboramadan and Karatepe ( 2021 ) suggested that job satisfaction is more of an emotional response to work—an evaluative measure and an indicator of maintaining follow-up behavior. Consistent with SDT, employees naturally act in ways that benefit the organization when their intrinsic values are satisfied (Gyekye and Haybatollahi, 2015 ). Mendiratta and Srivastava ( 2023 ) verified that employees with higher job satisfaction engage more actively in civic behavior than their colleagues with lower satisfaction. Extensive research has also demonstrated a favorable association between job satisfaction and OCB (Mendiratta and Srivastava, 2023 ; Kunda et al., 2019 ; Gyekye and Haybatollahi, 2015 ). Building upon previous research, the current study proposes the following hypotheses:

H1. EL is positively associated with IJS .

H2. IJS is positively associated with OCB .

Surveys conducted among R&D personnel in emerging industries in China reveal employees’ urgent need for social interaction, respect, and self-realization. Therefore, drawing upon SDT (Tuin et al., 2021 ), EL aims to enhance employees’ IJS through a deep psychological pathway (Ahmad and Gao, 2018 ). IJS is regarded as an inspiring mindset when it results from ethical leaders who demonstrate fairness, trustworthiness, and concern for their employees’ well-being. In turn, employees who are satisfied with their jobs are more likely to exhibit OCB, such as helping colleagues, volunteering for extra tasks, and contributing positively to the organization beyond their formal job requirements. Studies by Puni et al. ( 2018 ) and Jordan et al. ( 2017 ) have confirmed the significant impact of job satisfaction on the relationship between organizational management and work behavior. Thus, to validate the significance of IJS in the psychological transmission between organizations and individuals, this study proposes the following hypothesis:

H3. IJS mediates the relationship between EL and OCB .

LE is characterized by concern, warmth, and compassion toward subordinates through words and actions (Colman, 2009 ; Salovey and Mayer, 1990 ). In recent years, scholars have focused on the role of empathy in leadership and the development of the leader-follower relationship. Stietz et al. ( 2019 ) examined the application of empathy in management and suggested that purely adopting others’ perspectives and experiencing others’ emotions should be controversial. There is another aspect of empathy—i.e., cognitive empathy, which is a more rational presence and can prevent excessive emotional involvement. Notably, both emotional empathy and cognitive empathy coexist to prevent individuals from being engulfed by emotional involvement (Kade et al., 2024 ). LE is also characterized by the ability to empathize with subordinates to some extent, thus enhancing a leader’s understanding of employees but not deviating from professional decisions beneficial to the organization. SDT posits that different values influence the process of shaping employee motivation in specific organizational contexts. Moreover, ECT also suggests the critical role of leadership and the impact of leadership behaviors on follower outcomes, including their emotional well-being, attitudes, motivation, and job performance (Kim et al., 2023 ). Notably, the leadership literature often concentrates on leaders’ intentional, work-related strategies (e.g., leadership style or behaviors), which are guided by the aim of enhancing organizational productivity. Consequently, the implementation of LE does not focus on power and status but serves as a management tool to eliminate employees’ anxiety, enhance their confidence, and mitigate the harmful effects of workplace stressors. LE is a process of mutual perception between leaders and members (Richard et al., 2016 ). When leaders demonstrate empathy, it inspires team members to empathize with one another and participate in empathy-enhancing activities implemented by the organization (Kock et al., 2019 ).

However, although early research has clarified the concept of LE, and a small number of studies have mentioned its pioneering role in employee behavior, the potential mechanisms underlying its relationship with OCB remain unclear. Therefore, the current study proposes that LE moderates the relationship between IJS and OCB (see Fig. 1 ). This study also posits that leadership empathy can act as an emotional environment marker, thus facilitating the emotional transmission of empathy to foster personal OCB. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed:

A description of the relationship between variables in the current study.

H4. LE moderates the effect of IJS on OCB .

Methodology

Sample and procedure.

This study employed a purposive sampling method followed by a snowball sampling technique to recruit participants. The data were collected via the personnel communication established by the primary researcher with familiar employees who worked in the R&D, experiment, and acceptance departments of companies in the biopharmaceutical, new energy vehicles, and high-end equipment manufacturing industries, all subsumed under the label “emerging industries.” Then, the contact information of more potential respondents was provided by the personnel who agreed to participate in the current survey. The researchers sent the questionnaire to the participants through the officially recognized social software, email, after obtaining the approval of the current personnel who were willing to participate in this survey. This work protected the participants’ privacy and personal information by ensuring anonymity.

The data collection was accomplished in two stages. The first phase was carried out in August and September 2022 and included responses from 421 participants who were asked to provide biographical information, including gender, age group, highest educational level, organizational tenure, and current post. Furthermore, EL and IJS were also included. In the second phase, to determine their perspectives on LE and OCB, online questionnaires were filled out by the participants via email. The process was conducted from November 1st to December 2nd. A total of 332 participants sent feedback, of whom 71% had also participated in the first phase. Ultimately, following the elimination of unsuitable data, which included repeated and partially completed questionnaires, this study obtained a total of 248 valid responses. As indicated in Table 1 , the survey population consisted of 64.5% female participants. The majority of respondents fell into the post-80s age group (54.8%), followed by the post-90s age group (43.5%). Furthermore, a significant proportion of participants held bachelor’s degrees (50%), while 48.4% possessed advanced degrees. In terms of employment, most of the participants had been employed in their current organization for more than 3 years but <10 years (46.8%). This study also included individuals holding non-supervisory posts (64.5%) as well as supervisory posts (35.5%). Supplementary Table S1 shows the profiles of the respondents.

Measurement

The measurement scales used in this study were derived from previous research and mainly employed seven-point Likert scales (1 = “strongly disagree,” 7 = “strongly agree”). Specifically, the EL scale was adapted from Steinmann et al. ( 2016 ) and included items such as “My leader demonstrates genuine concern for my well-being and performance” and “My leader refrains from assigning blame for issues beyond my control.” Cronbach’s alpha coefficient for this scale was 0.969, indicating excellent internal consistency and meeting the established criteria. This study also used the five-item Intrinsic Job Value Scale developed by Furnham et al. ( 2021 ) to measure IJS, with some minor modifications to suit the context of the study (Sample item: “I am willing to participate in functions that are not required but are helpful to the organization image”). Furthermore, a four-item scale adapted from Mahsud et al. ( 2010 ) was used to measure LE (Sample item: “My manager is very aware of how the subordinates are feeling”). OCB was assessed using six items from Lee and Allen ( 2002 ) with the following sample items: “I have the opportunity to do something with my ability” and “I got the opportunity to try to use my working method to solve the task” (see Supplementary Table S2 ).

Common method bias. There is a risk of common method bias (CMB) when a single data source is used in a study (Podsakoff et al., 2012 ). In particular, the CMB index is higher than the specified upper limit, and the existing correlation between the measured variables of the study becomes over-reported. In this study, anonymity was used to ensure that the respondents could answer the questionnaire without restriction. The two-stage data collection method reduces the respondents’ preference for relevant variables (Podsakoff et al., 2012 ). Furthermore, this current study applied Harman’s single-factor test for CMB. The highest percentage of variance was 39.554%, which was <50% threshold, indicating that CMB was not detected in the data. The current study also used the ULMC approach to detect and control for the influence of CMB in the analysis based on partial least-squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). The results in supplementary Table S3 demonstrate that the average substantive variance of indicators was 0.691, while the average method-based variance was 0.022. In addition, the ratio of substance to method variance was approximately 31:1. These results prove that the data were not affected by CMB.

Descriptive statistics

Table 1 presents the mean, standard deviation, square root of the average variance extracted (AVE) for all variables, and Pearson correlation coefficients ( r ). As shown in the table, EL was positively correlated with IJS ( r  = 0.706, p  < 0.001) and OCB ( r  = 0.644, p  < 0.001). In addition, IJS was positively correlated with OCB ( r  = 0.625, p  < 0.001). These results align with and offer preliminary support for our hypotheses. The study also utilized Smart PLS to estimate variance inflation factors (VIFs) to examine potential multicollinearity (see Supplementary Table S4 ). The VIF values for each variable, ranging from 1 to 4.433, are below the threshold of 5.0 (James et al., 2013 ), thus indicating an acceptably low level of multicollinearity.

Measurement model

The model demonstrated sufficient convergent validity, as all variables surpassed the required thresholds for internal consistency (Cronbach’s α  > 0.7), composite reliability (CR > 0.6), and AVE (>0.5), as presented in Table 2 . These values exceeded the recommended cutoffs established by Hair et al. ( 2014 ). Furthermore, discriminant validity was established by ensuring that all constructs within the model were empirically distinct from one another. This was accomplished through standard methods, such as the Fornell–Larcker criterion and the heterotrait–monotrait (HTMT) ratio. Regarding the Fornell–Larcker criterion, the square root of the AVE for each variable exceeded the correlation between variables, as shown in Table 3 . Additionally, the test results meet the threshold for the HTMT (no higher than 0.85); this ratio detects potential indiscriminateness among latent variables (see Supplementary Table S5 ).

Structural model

This model exhibited strong fitness characteristics. Specifically, IJS and OCB each achieved coefficients of determination (R2) of 0.668 and 0.818, respectively, both of which exceeded the threshold of 0.5. Similarly, the positive and nonzero cross-validated redundancy (Q2) values for IJS and OCB were 0.491 and 0.636, respectively, thus indicating the reliability of the model. Additionally, the structural mean square residual (SRMR) value of 0.072 is below the 0.08 threshold, further confirming the model’s adherence to the criteria for a good fit (Chin, 2010 ; Chin et al., 2008 ; Hu and Bentler, 1999 ).

The path coefficient ensures the significance of the relationships hypothesized by using 5000 bootstrapping samples (Sarstedt et al., 2014 ; Hair et al., 2017 ). The results in Table 4 display the hypothesis testing results. EL was significantly associated with IJS ( β  = 0.818, t  = 23.98, p  < 0.01); IJS was positively associated with OCB ( β  = 0.320, t  = 3.226, p  < 0.01); and IJS significantly mediated the effect of EL on OCB ( β  = 0.431, SE = 0.192), as indicated by a confidence interval [CI] that excluded 0. Therefore, the above results support H1–H3 (Table 4 ).

As shown in Table 5 , the moderation analysis to examine H4 was performed using Model 1 in the PROCESS macro (Hayes and Rockwood, 2017 ). The interaction effect (IJS × LE) was a significant predictor of OCB ( β  = −0.128, t  = −2.503, p  < 0.05). Furthermore, in the relationship between IJS and OCB, LE plays a negative role in increasing the positive impact of IJS on OCB. Figure 2 illustrates these effects. The results also indicate that higher LE amplifies the effect of EL on OCB.

The moderating effect of leader empathy based on the Johnson-Neyman slope.

Discussion and conclusion

Summary of findings.

This study primarily explored the causal relationship between EL and OCB among R&D employees in emerging industries. Drawing upon SDT and ECT, we constructed a model in which IJS and LE served as the mediator and moderator, respectively, and empirically tested the proposed hypotheses. The results from PLS-SEM indicated that EL and IJS significantly influence the performance of R&D personnel. However, LE exhibited a negative moderating effect.

In addition, several intriguing findings emerged. First, the results confirmed that EL is a prerequisite for IJS and employee OCB. These findings validated previous research, which indicates a positive correlation between leadership that promotes fairness, justice, and ethical principles, and individuals’ perceptions and expectations of the organization. These results also corroborated the expectations of scholars and practitioners regarding the current challenges, such as industry upgrades, technological changes, internal competition, and ethical organizational management, faced by R&D personnel. Second, our findings demonstrated that LE is a negative moderator. This finding aligned with previous literature, which suggested that empathy exhibited by leaders in the workplace is more rooted in cognitive attributes rather than purely emotional traits and that its existence serves to safeguard organizational interests. This negative moderating effect also confirmed the uniqueness of R&D personnel, indicating that organizational practices characterized by fairness and justice garner employee endorsement and motivation. Conversely, R&D personnel do not seem to require their leaders to only understand the pressures and challenges they face, as such understanding does not lead to additional work achievements.

Finally, our study further corroborated findings consistent with the literature. In particular, LE in the workplace is predominantly manifested as cognitive attributes rather than purely emotional traits and is centered around organizational interests. This finding suggested that while leaders’ empathy contributes to fostering a positive work environment, its impact on employee behavior may be complex and varied. Therefore, greater emphasis should be placed on other leadership behaviors, such as fairness, equity, and work incentives when aiming to enhance organizational performance and employee satisfaction.

Theoretical implications

This study focused on the relationships between EL, IJS, and OCB as well as the moderating role of LE in these relationships. The results confirmed the positive effect of EL on IJS, as indicated by previous studies that highlighted psychological fulfillment as an outcome (Guo, 2022 ; Freire and Bettencourt, 2020 ; Ahmad and Zafar, 2018 ). However, while previous studies listed work engagement and OCB as positive outcomes of EL (Mendiratta and Srivastava, 2023 ; Ahmad and Gao, 2018 ; Kock et al., 2019 ), the current study’s results revealed that EL does not have a direct positive relationship with OCB. Instead, IJS mediated the relationship between EL and OCB. The findings of the study contribute to the existing literature in several ways.

First, this study identified IJS as a mediating variable, thus clarifying its psychological role in the relationship between EL and OCB (Graves and Sarkis, 2018 ). Unlike other behaviors influenced by personal interests, work safety, and monetary rewards, OCB is defined as spontaneous behavior that goes beyond job responsibilities and benefits organizational development (Elche et al., 2020 ). It stems from individuals’ internal value orientation being recognized and satisfied. Thus, OCB represents the purity of personal behavioral motivation. By using SDT, this study distinguished between autonomous and controlled motivation, thereby providing a framework for individuals’ self-examination and self-evaluation (Kim et al., 2020 ; Ryan and Deci, 2000 ). This approach differs from social exchange theory, leader-member exchange theory, and demand-resource theory found in previous literature, as it focuses on the psychological pathway. Although these theories allow reciprocal behavior between organizations and individuals both at work and outside of work (George, Graen, and Uhl-bien, 1995 ), they do not fully capture individuals’ original intentions in their work. In contrast, SDT restores individuals’ rights to self-examination and choice, thus aligning with this study’s premise that OCB is an independent behavior that exceeds one’s job responsibilities and is driven by the satisfaction of obtaining intrinsic values through EL (Kim et al., 2020 ; Graves et al., 2013 ).

Second, the present study demonstrates that LE plays a negative moderating role in the relationship between IJS and OCB. This finding adds to the understanding of leadership empathy in previous literature. While few studies have examined leadership empathy, it is evident that empathetic communication, such as superiors supporting and encouraging employees facing work-related challenges, fosters affective trust (Yue et al., 2022 ). To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to examine the moderating effect of LE on the relationship between employees’ IJS and subsequent work behaviors. Surprisingly, we found that LE amplifies the positive effect of IJS on OCB.

Finally, the application of ECT in this study’s investigation of the moderating role of LE fills a gap in previous literature that overly emphasized the “organization–individual” and “superior–subordinate” relationships in achieving employee productivity through psychological exchanges. Given that leadership empathy in the workplace is more often derived from cognitive attributes rather than emotional attributes, ECT further clarifies this leadership practice aligned with work objectives. This involves achieving group synchronization through a leader’s work emotions, attitudes, and even behaviors. Again, to the best of our knowledge, this study is the first to establish and explore the moderating role of LE in the relationship between employee IJS and OCB. However, the results indicate that LE attenuates the indirect effect of IJS on OCB. This finding suggests that LE, which aims to stimulate work outcomes, is ineffective and may even have a negative impact on additional and spontaneous organizational performance by technical employees in emerging industries.

Practical implications

OCB involves voluntary actions beyond an employee’s job duties, and these behaviors are rooted in their recognition of organizational values. Therefore, managers must understand that EL plays a crucial role in both job satisfaction and employee job performance. In particular, IJS implies employees’ inner pursuit of the value and emotional aspects of work provided by the organization. For R&D personnel in emerging industries facing rapid technological turnover and industry changes, providing accurate industry information, executing organizational policies with integrity, and demonstrating sincere, fair, and trustworthy management will greatly enhance their intrinsic satisfaction. This, in turn, will lay the groundwork for employees to exhibit more pro-organizational behaviors, such as creativity and innovation.

Additionally, leaders in emerging industries should adopt proactive measures to cultivate a supportive and conducive work environment that encourages creativity and innovation among R&D personnel. This could involve fostering a culture of open communication, encouraging experimentation and risk-taking, and providing resources and support for research and development initiatives. By championing a culture of innovation and providing the necessary support and resources, leaders can inspire R&D personnel to actively contribute their ideas and expertise to drive organizational growth and success in the rapidly evolving landscape of emerging industries. Moreover, leaders should prioritize ethical leadership practices, such as fairness, transparency, and integrity, to build trust and credibility among employees, which are essential for fostering a positive organizational climate conducive to creativity and innovation. By aligning leadership practices with the unique challenges and opportunities present in emerging industries, leaders can effectively harness the creative potential of R&D personnel and drive innovation, thereby promoting organizational success.

Limitations and future directions

One limitation of this study is that the participants were recruited from seven representative emerging industries in China, specifically the R&D, testing, and acceptance departments of biopharma, new energy vehicles, and high-end equipment manufacturing industries. Therefore, the results may not be generalizable to all emerging industries in China. Future research should include a broader range of enterprises within the industry. Furthermore, this study only investigated the moderating role of LE on OCB; thus, further research should explore other variables that may moderate the relationship between IJS and OCB. Furthermore, future research should consider other outcomes that may arise from EL and examine different cultural contexts.

In conclusion, this study offered valuable insights into the relationships between EL, IJS, and OCB in the context of China’s emerging industries. In particular, this study emphasized the significance of intrinsic values and LE in driving positive work behaviors. Overall, the findings contribute to the theoretical understanding of leadership studies and provide practical recommendations for organizations that aim to cultivate supportive and ethical work environments for their employees.

Data availability

All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article, and its supplementary information files: Tables S1 – S5 .

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Li, Q. Ethical leadership, internal job satisfaction and OCB: the moderating role of leader empathy in emerging industries. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 11 , 901 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03367-w

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Leadership Research Paper Topics

The exploration of leadership research paper topics is a vital task for students studying management. These topics delve into the theory and practice of leadership, offering valuable insights into the dynamics of organizational success. The following guide provides a comprehensive list of leadership research paper topics categorized into ten areas, from leadership theories and styles to the role of women in leadership. This guide will also discuss the breadth and depth of leadership as a research area, advise on how to choose the right topic, and share tips on writing an excellent leadership research paper. We will then introduce the custom paper writing services offered by iResearchNet, which can provide expert, tailored assistance for any leadership research topic. The text concludes with a compelling call-to-action, encouraging students to leverage iResearchNet’s services for their research paper needs. The central aim is to facilitate students’ journey in leadership studies, fostering academic growth and development.

100 Leadership Research Paper Topics

Studying leadership calls for a comprehensive variety of topics, reflecting the broad and deep nature of this area of study. This section presents a vast array of potential topics, categorized into ten key areas, each featuring ten unique subjects for investigation. This presents a multitude of directions for students to dive deep into their leadership research papers.

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Get 10% off with 24start discount code, 1. leadership theories:.

• Analysis of the evolution of leadership theories from trait to situational theories.
• A comparative study of transformational and transactional leadership models.
• A deep dive into the contingency theories of leadership.
• A practical exploration of the path-goal theory in modern organizations.
• An examination of servant leadership theory’s applicability in non-profit organizations.
• Exploring the role of emotional intelligence in the framework of authentic leadership.
• Evaluating the impact of charismatic leadership on employee motivation and productivity.
• Adaptive leadership theory in crisis management: an exploration.
• A detailed study of the correlation between leadership theories and personality traits.
• Leadership theories’ applications and implications in team management and dynamics.

2. Leadership Styles:

• The implications of autocratic leadership on employee satisfaction and morale.
• How democratic leadership fosters innovation and creativity in the workplace.
• The role and effects of laissez-faire leadership in creative industries.
• An investigation of transformational leadership’s influence on organizational culture.
• Evaluating the impact of transactional leadership on performance metrics.
• Applicability and effectiveness of servant leadership in corporate settings.
• Pros and cons of paternalistic leadership in different organizational structures.
• An examination of strategic leadership in the rapidly evolving tech industry.
• Analyzing the effects of adaptive leadership in the complex field of healthcare.
• A correlation study of leadership styles and employee retention rates.

3. Leadership and Ethics:

• Ethical leadership’s role in shaping and promoting corporate social responsibility.
• Analysis of the ethical dilemmas encountered by leaders in healthcare organizations.
• How ethical leadership moulds and influences organizational culture.
• A study on the corporate scandals resulted from unethical leadership.
• The ethical considerations in leadership decision-making processes.
• The relationship between ethical leadership and employees’ moral judgments.
• A sector-focused analysis of leadership ethics in the banking industry.
• Measuring the impact of ethical leadership on brand reputation.
• Exploring the influence of ethical leadership on corporate sustainability strategies.
• Leadership ethics in political organizations: an in-depth study.

4. Leadership and Diversity:

• The impact of diverse leadership on an organization’s inclusivity.
• Cultural diversity’s influence on leadership styles in multinational organizations.
• A study on the challenges faced by women in leadership roles.
• Evaluating the role of leadership in promoting gender equity in corporate organizations.
• The effect of diverse leadership on fostering innovation in multinational corporations.
• An examination of racial diversity in leadership and its effect on corporate image.
• Understanding the benefits and challenges of age diversity in leadership roles.
• Unraveling the opportunities and difficulties faced by LGBT+ individuals in leadership positions.
• Leadership strategies to effectively manage and promote diversity in the workplace.
• Leadership diversity’s impact on corporate social responsibility initiatives.

5. Leadership in Different Industries:

• The pivotal role of leadership in tech startups’ growth trajectory.
• Leadership in the healthcare industry: navigating through challenges and seizing opportunities.
• An exploration of military leadership principles and their potential application in a corporate setting.
• Characteristics of effective leadership in the hospitality industry: a detailed study.
• The significance of impactful leadership in the functioning of non-profit organizations.
• Leadership strategies that drive success in the retail industry.
• The role of leadership in driving innovation in the automotive industry.
• The best practices of effective leadership in the education sector.
• The influence of leadership on team performance in professional sports.
• Defining the traits of successful leadership in the fast-paced entertainment industry.

6. Leadership and Change Management:

• Exploring the impact of transformational leadership on change management processes.
• The role of leadership in shaping and implementing successful change initiatives.
• Understanding the leadership styles most effective for managing organizational change.
• A detailed study on leadership’s role in overcoming resistance to change.
• Leadership in driving and managing technological change in digital companies.
• An examination of adaptive leadership during organizational restructuring.
• The correlation between strategic leadership and successful change management.
• Influence of leadership on change acceptance and adaptation among employees.
• The role of leadership communication in managing change effectively.
• Examining the impact of leadership in change management across different industries.

7. Leadership and Employee Motivation:

• Impact of transformational leadership on employee motivation and job satisfaction.
• How leadership can influence employee motivation through effective communication.
• An exploration of the relationship between leadership styles and employee motivation levels.
• How servant leadership enhances employee motivation and engagement.
• Evaluating the role of leadership in developing effective reward systems for employee motivation.
• Examining the effects of charismatic leadership on employee motivation.
• The influence of leadership behavior on intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.
• Leadership strategies for fostering a motivating work environment.
• How leadership can use job design to enhance employee motivation.
• The impact of leadership recognition on employee motivation and performance.

8. Leadership Development:

• Understanding the role of mentoring in leadership development.
• Examining the importance of continuous learning in leadership development.
• The impact of coaching on leadership skill development.
• Analyzing the effectiveness of various leadership development programs.
• The role of experiential learning in the development of leadership skills.
• Influence of leadership development on succession planning in organizations.
• Investigating the role of self-awareness in leadership development.
• Evaluating the role of feedback in the leadership development process.
• The impact of leadership development initiatives on organizational performance.
• Understanding the importance of emotional intelligence in leadership development.

9. Leadership and Organizational Culture:

• The role of leadership in shaping and sustaining organizational culture.
• Analyzing the influence of leadership style on organizational culture.
• A study on how effective leadership can instill a culture of innovation.
• Investigating the relationship between leadership and organizational culture in multinational corporations.
• Exploring the effects of leadership communication on organizational culture.
• How transformational leadership influences a culture of teamwork.
• The role of leadership in promoting an ethical organizational culture.
• The influence of servant leadership on organizational culture.
• Leadership’s role in the creation and management of a customer-oriented culture.
• The impact of leadership transition on organizational culture.

10. Leadership and Decision Making:

• The role of leadership in strategic decision making.
• The influence of different leadership styles on decision-making processes.
• Evaluating the impact of leadership on ethical decision making in organizations.
• An exploration of how leadership affects group decision-making processes.
• The role of leadership intuition in decision making.
• Leadership strategies for effective crisis decision making.
• The influence of leadership in data-driven decision making.
• The impact of transformational leadership on innovative decision making.
• Leadership and decision-making under uncertainty: a comprehensive study.
• How leadership influences employee involvement in decision making.

These varied topics allow students to explore different aspects of leadership, spanning theory, styles, ethics, diversity, industry specifics, change management, employee motivation, development, organizational culture, and decision making. The broad range enables students to select a topic that aligns with their personal interests and professional aspirations. This extensive list also gives students the freedom to narrow their focus and delve deep into a specialized area of leadership. Thus, creating a foundation for an insightful and meaningful research paper.

The Range of Leadership Research Paper Topics

Leadership is an inherently complex and multifaceted concept, embodying various dimensions of organizational functioning. It is a dynamic process involving influence, direction, and facilitation towards achieving a common objective. Therefore, leadership has a profound influence on the behaviors, attitudes, and overall performance of an organization, making it a fertile ground for extensive and diverse research.

The range of leadership research paper topics is vast, reflecting the wide-ranging implications of leadership in different contexts. This breadth allows students to delve into various aspects of leadership, from exploring various leadership styles such as transformational, transactional, autocratic, democratic, and servant leadership, to understanding their effects on team dynamics, employee performance, motivation, and job satisfaction.

For instance, research into the various leadership styles provides critical insights into how different approaches to leadership can influence an organization’s effectiveness. Transformational leadership, for example, emphasizes the leader’s role in inspiring and motivating followers, fostering innovation, and driving change. In contrast, transactional leadership focuses on clear role and task definitions, rewards, and punishments as motivational tools.

Moreover, the intersection of leadership and ethics is another prolific area of research. Ethical leadership explores how leaders can integrate ethical principles into their decision-making processes, cultivate ethical behaviors within their teams, and ultimately foster an ethical organizational culture. Research in this field can range from examining the influence of ethical leadership on employee behavior to investigating the strategies leaders can employ to navigate ethical dilemmas.

Diversity in leadership, a critical aspect in the current globalized business environment, offers another area of intriguing research potential. Diverse leadership promotes a plethora of viewpoints, encourages creativity and innovation, and enhances organizational adaptability. Research topics in this category can involve investigating the effect of diverse leadership on team performance, the challenges and strategies in managing a diverse leadership team, or understanding how leadership can promote diversity and inclusion within an organization.

Research on leadership in different industrial and organizational contexts also offers a wealth of research paper topics. This can include leadership in healthcare, exploring how leaders can effectively manage healthcare professionals, improve patient outcomes, and drive change in the healthcare system. Leadership in educational settings, examining how school leaders can impact educational outcomes, foster a conducive learning environment, and navigate the unique challenges in the education sector.

Leadership’s role in change management is another critical area of research. Change is a constant factor in any organization, and effective leadership is critical in navigating this change successfully. Research topics here can focus on the various leadership strategies in implementing change, the challenges leaders face in this process, and the critical role leadership plays in overcoming resistance to change.

The impact of leadership on employee motivation also provides a rich area for investigation. The influence a leader has on an employee’s motivation levels can significantly affect job satisfaction, productivity, and retention. Topics here can explore the different leadership strategies that can enhance employee motivation, the role of leadership in developing effective reward systems, or how leadership behavior affects intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

Leadership development is another theme rich in research opportunities. The creation of effective leaders is crucial to an organization’s success. Therefore, investigating leadership development programs, the role of coaching and mentoring in leadership development, or the impact of leadership development initiatives on organizational performance are all meaningful research directions.

In conclusion, the diversity in leadership research paper topics allows students to explore and investigate various areas of leadership theory and practice. From understanding different leadership styles and their effects, to delving into leadership ethics, diversity, industry-specific leadership, change management, motivation, and leadership development, the possibilities are extensive. This breadth and depth enable students to gain a comprehensive understanding of leadership and its vital role in shaping organizational success. The explorative journey into these leadership research paper topics lays a robust foundation for future leaders, providing them with essential insights into effective leadership practices.

How to Choose Leadership Research Paper Topics

Choosing the right topic for a leadership research paper is a critical first step in the process of writing a top-notch research paper. The right topic is not just a subject you find interesting, but one that is unique, manageable, and relevant to your course of study. In this section, we provide ten comprehensive tips to guide you in choosing the best leadership research paper topic.

• Identify Your Interest : Start by identifying what aspects of leadership interest you the most. Are you more drawn to the psychological aspects of leadership, such as how leaders motivate their teams, or are you more interested in the organizational aspects, such as how leadership styles impact company culture? Personal interest in a topic can make the research process more engaging and the writing process more enjoyable.
• Brainstorm : Spend time brainstorming potential topics. Write down everything that comes to mind, no matter how broad or specific. This process can help you to identify potential areas of interest and narrow down your options.
• Research Existing Literature : Before settling on a topic, take some time to read up on existing literature in the field of leadership. This can help you to identify gaps in knowledge that your research could fill, or controversial issues that could be the focus of your paper.
• Consider the Scope : Consider the scope of your research paper. If it’s a shorter paper, you’ll need a narrower topic. Conversely, for a longer paper, you can choose a broader topic that you can explore in detail.
• Consult Your Supervisor or Peers : Discuss potential topics with your supervisor or classmates. They may offer a fresh perspective or suggest areas of interest that you hadn’t considered.
• Check for Resources : Ensure that there are enough resources available for your chosen topic. This can include books, peer-reviewed articles, and credible online sources. Having enough sources will make your research process smoother and more productive.
• Relevance to Your Course : The topic you choose should be relevant to your course and future career. For example, if you plan to work in the non-profit sector, you might choose a topic related to leadership in non-profit organizations.
• Flexibility : Be flexible with your topic. As you start your research, you may find that your initial topic is too broad, too narrow, or not as interesting as you thought. Don’t be afraid to refine and modify your topic as needed.
• Uniqueness : While it’s good to align with current research trends, strive for uniqueness in your topic. Don’t just rehash old studies; instead, seek to contribute something new and meaningful to the field of leadership research.
• Practical Implications : Lastly, consider the practical implications of your research. Good research not only contributes to academic knowledge but also has practical applications. Choose a topic that could potentially inform leadership practices in real-world settings.

In conclusion, choosing a topic for a leadership research paper involves careful consideration of your interests, the scope of the paper, available resources, and the potential impact of your research. While the process can be challenging, the result is a topic that you’re passionate about and invested in, which ultimately makes for a higher quality research paper. Remember, the topic you choose sets the foundation for your entire paper, so take the time to choose wisely!

How to Write a Leadership Research Paper

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Toxic Leadership and Empowering Leadership: Relations with Work Motivation

Carla santarém semedo.

1 Research Centre in Education and Psychology (CIEP-UÉ), Department of Psychology, School of Social Sciences, Universidade de Évora, Évora, Portugal

Ana Salvador

2 Department of Psychology, School of Social Sciences, Universidade de Évora, Évora, Portugal

Nuno Rebelo Dos Santos

Leonor pais.

3 Center for Research in Neuropsychology and Cognitive and Behavioral Intervention (CINEICC), Faculty of Psychology and Education Sciences, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal

Lisete Mónico

The present study aims to verify the association between two opposing models of leadership, toxic and empowering, and the different dimensions of work motivation.

Participants and Methods

Three questionnaires (Toxic Leadership Scale, Empowering Leadership Questionnaire, and Multidimensional Work Motivation Scale) were applied to 408 workers. Cluster analysis was performed.

Cluster analysis produced eight clusters based on the different configurations of leadership dimensions, namely coercive, centralizer, false paternalistic, toxic role model, coach, narcissistic-empowering, toxic , and empowering . Those clusters relate differently to work motivation dimensions.

The profiles with higher scores in empowering leadership dimensions are more generally related to autonomous regulation (identified and intrinsic work motivation). The profiles with higher toxic leadership dimensions are more related to amotivation and controlled regulation (extrinsic work motivation). One profile stood out: the narcissistic-empowering profile that combines high scores in narcissistic leadership and empowering leadership dimensions. This profile unexpectedly relates significantly to autonomous regulation. This study contributed to the knowledge of the work motivation dimensions concerning empowerment and toxic leadership. Therefore, it contributes to deepening the nomological network of the concepts and providing inputs to human resource processes suitable to improving the organizational results and the workers’ quality of life.

Introduction

The volatility and high complexity of organizational environments present demanding challenges to management. The way people are conducted in their work may lead to different outputs, which is probably one reason why leadership has been so broadly studied.

Different types of leadership in different contexts, its consequences, and its associations with other variables have mainly been studied over the last 70 years and continue to be at the core of researchers’ interest. 1–4

While some types of leadership are defined positively, others underline the negative consequences. Two of those opposite types of leadership are empowering and toxic leaderships. 5 , 6 The first one is defined by its positive effects on subordinates, empowering them, the second one is defined by its adverse effects undermining subordinates’ development and personal expression. Therefore, both the understanding of what behaviors make leadership empowering and what behaviors make a leader toxic are equally essential to dissemination good practices or preventing the bad ones. 7 This study goes further concerning previous research in considering 1) the real leaders can combine in the way they perform their role both empowering and toxic leadership dimensions, displaying specific profiles regarding those dimensions; 2) those specific leadership profiles are expected to have different relationships with work-related outcomes as work motivation; 3) work motivation is approached in a complex way focusing on the several dimensions proposed by the self-determination theory; 4) leadership types are approached as social influence processes that make easier or harder to employees to obtain basic psychological needs satisfaction at work when performing their jobs. 8 , 9

Empowering Leadership

Considering the need to value human resources, virtuous and positive leadership models take prominence, and due to their focus on employees’ development, empowering leadership emerges in leadership literature. Empowering leadership is described as the leaders’ behaviors of sharing power towards individuals or teams by promoting their participation, autonomy, and decision-making, sharing information, delegating authority and responsibility. 10 , 11

Such leaders’ behaviors boost meaningful work and create working conditions that increase cognitive demands and cognitive resources, leading to positive work-related feelings like employee engagement. 12–15 Moreover, empowering leadership is different from other related constructs, such as psychological empowerment, often inaccurately mixed. 10 This last construct can be one of the consequences of empowering leadership.

As a consequence of empowering leadership, positive psychological states are fostered in employees, influencing their motivation, their work attitudes, like proactive behaviors, and their performance. 16–19 Performance behaviors like citizenship behavior and creativity are stimulated. 20 The latest one is particularly evident when employees present high organizational-based self-esteem and have access to resources. 21 It was also demonstrated that empowering leadership leads to employee’s well-being when considering some moderation variables, like perceived organizational support, perceived co-workers support, and employees’ psychological capital. 14 , 22 The potential benefits of empowering leadership seem to be settled by those mentioned above, both for individuals and organizations. However, some contradictory results were also obtained regarding the effectiveness of empowering leadership, as shown by Cheong et al, 10 being then relevant to clarify the relationships between that leadership type and work-related variables.

Toxic Leadership

On the antipodes of empowering leadership, the taxonomy of negative leadership includes different concepts, such as abusive leadership, destructive leadership, and toxic leadership. 23–25 In what concerns toxic leadership, research mainly focused on toxic leadership patterns, leaders’ traits, and their destructive behavior. 6 , 26–29 Toxic leadership is a kind of maladjusted, malcontent and malevolent leadership by which an individual, by virtue of his destructive behavior and his dysfunctional characteristics, inflicts serious and enduring harm on the individuals, groups, organizations, and communities. 28 , 29 There is a cumulative effect of demotivational behavior on peoples’ morale and climate over time, and the inflicted damages often continue even after the perpetrator has left the organization. 30 , 31

Lippman-Blumen conceives a toxic leader is someone who consistently exhibits dysfunctional behavior and toxic traits as lack of integrity and honesty, egotism, and arrogance focuses on its ambition and holding power with no concern about others’ well-being. 32 She also states their actions as intimidating, demoralizing, demeaning, and marginalizing. As a result of peoples’ needs for authority, security, belonging, feeling special, fear of ostracism, and powerlessness, they often submit to its dysfunctional way of being led.

Schmidt defines toxic leaders as narcissistic, self-promoters who engage in unpredictable abusive and authoritarian supervision patterns. 6 Green found four patterns concerning toxic leadership: egotism (self-centered), ethical failure (lying, blaming others, abusing of power), incompetence (poor human relations skills such as listening), and neuroticism (eg, wild mood changes). 26 Walton attempted to extend the explanation of toxic leadership to situational aspects. He pointed out the importance of paying attention to the psychological predisposition of the leader, to the internal context which allows or encourages their action, and the broader external circumstances (eg, instability) that affect the organization and may cover and excuse the dysfunctional behavior. 33

The impact on employees and organizations of toxic leadership has been a concern. Although evidence points to adverse outcomes, Pelletier refers that, based on social construction theory, Hunt advocates that employees’ perceptions of the effectiveness or toxicity of the leader may be different according to psychological aspects of the evaluator or the established relation between leader and follower. 7 Milosevic, Maric and Loncar highlight that in some cases, subordinates not only refuse to follow toxic leaders but they also work to minimize or neutralize their harmful impacts. 34 Thinking differently, some workers feel that being close to the leader brings them a sense of meaning and belonging, power, and participation in decision-taking. 28 , 32

Socio-demographic variables, like gender, also seem to play a role in perceiving leaders’ toxicity. Females perceive these leaders more negatively, probably because they tend to detailed information processing, while men present more behaviors consistent with colluders, possibly due to their heuristic processing, emphasis on positive information, or search for personal self-advantage. 35

A leader’s toxic behavior is related to employees’ psychological distress, with adverse effects that may range from loss of self-worth, withdrawal, agitation, avoidance, worry, and holding feedback and contributions. 36 , 37 To cope with it, problem-solving, emotional-focused strategies, or a mix of both, are used by followers. 38 Withdrawal is associated with assertive and avoidance coping strategies to deal with the leader, while agitation is more related to avoidance and adaptive strategies. People who tend to see those behaviors as something transitional use mostly adaptive coping strategies, trying to maintain a positive relationship with the leader. 36

Studies correlating toxic leadership to other work-related variables show various adverse effects, such as lower organizational commitment and lower job satisfaction and turnover intention among followers. 25 , 39 Emotional disturbance, anti-social behaviors, reduced performance in employees and teams can be consequences of leader toxicity. 40 , 41 The complexity of toxic leadership contingency relations to other variables and its consequences on employees, teams, and organizations made this topic a broad field to deepener research. Furthermore, the same leader can express a mixture of toxic and empowering leadership dimensions in their behavior, creating unique profiles. Studying the specific relationships between those unique profiles and work-related variables contributes to deepening the understanding of leadership phenomena at the workplace.

Work Motivation

Work motivation has been one of the central topics in organizational studies. 42–44 Deci defined motivation as a term related to three fundamental questions concerning behavior regulation: what energizes the action, how it is directed, and to what extent it is voluntarily controlled. 45

Self-determination theory (STD) has made a turnout point in motivation study, because previous research conceived motivation in a dual quantitative perspective (people were motivated or not), as a predictor of performance and well-being. 46 , 47 This theory identifies distinct types of motivation. It proposes a multidimensional conceptualization in a self-determination continuum (from amotivation to intrinsic motivation). SDT allows determining the motivation level (autonomous or controlled), differentiating results and the process to achieve them. 46 , 48 Thus, besides distinguishing motivation quantitatively, it also distinguishes it qualitatively. 49 To determine the type of motivation people are engaged in, three psychological needs must be considered: competence, autonomy, and relatedness. 46 Those needs combine differently along the regulation continuum: amotivation (not motivated at all), extrinsic regulation (external reinforces and punishments regulate motivated behavior), introjected regulation (external motivators are introjected), identified regulation (values and the intrinsic value of the behavior’s consequence are the motivators), integrated regulation (the values and the intrinsic value of the behavior are part of the self and the value system of the subject), and intrinsic regulation (the specific behavior is a source of enjoyment and fulfilling).

From the moment STD was conceptualized, there has been a substantial proliferation of studies in different contexts framed in this approach. 48 , 50–54

In the field of organizations, research within this framework is very relevant. 55 , 56 Some authors pointed out that self-determined employees are more committed to the organization, report higher work satisfaction and lower emotional exhaustion, leading to fewer turnover intentions. 57 , 58 Moreover, those employees present low daily hassles, which are negatively related to physical and stress-related symptoms. 59 Self-determination theory advocates that the distinct types of motivation, from more externally controlled to more autonomous, impact differently and have specifiable consequences on learning, performance, personal experience, and well-being. 46 Moreover, being those different work motivation types psychologically different, we can expect their determinants are also different.

Empowering Leadership, Toxic Leadership and Work Motivation

Literature relating leadership to work motivation is scarce and looks at motivation as a dichotomous variable: intrinsic or extrinsic, not considering its degree of internalization. 16 , 60–62 Studies are even more scarce when seeking associations between specifically empowering leadership, toxic leadership, and self-determination theory. Chen, Sharma, Edinger, Shapiro, and Farh demonstrated the motivator effect of empowering leadership and the demotivating effect of conflicting relationships in teams by verifying the role of team members’ motivational states in innovation, teamwork, and turnover intention. 63 However, the three dimensions of motivation conceived by Ryan and Deci within SDT were not considered, and the assumption of its different effects was not studied. 46 Syahrul also found a significant effect of empowering leadership on intrinsic motivation, but no other types of work motivation were considered. 62

Regarding leader autonomy support, the meta-analysis undertaken by Slemp et al confirms an overall pattern that this characteristic of leadership is strongly related to autonomous regulation at work. 9 That concept (leader autonomy support) is close to empowering leadership. However, those authors do not include other possible complex combinations of empowering leadership dimensions with other aspects of how leadership role is performed.

In what concerns toxic leadership, as far as we know, no empirical study has been carried out linking this type of leadership to work motivation. Reed refers to its cumulative demotivational effect on teams, but that argument is conceptual. 30 Moreover, the five dimensions of each of these two antagonistic types of leadership are not jointly analyzed in the studies we have mentioned above. Real leaders can perform their roles by mixing behaviors in unique profiles of toxic and empowering leadership dimensions.

Given the revised literature and the identified gaps, along with the complexity of the discussed variables, it seems reasonable to conceive that different leadership profiles combining toxic and empowering leadership components can produce distinct patterns in what concerns its association with work motivation. Therefore, the objective of our study is to characterize different leadership profiles and analyze their differential association with the various dimensions of work motivation. Since this is not a hypotheses test study, our research questions are as follows: 1) To what extent do different leadership profiles emerge (based on empowering and toxic leadership dimensions)? and 2) What are the significant associations between those leadership profiles and work motivation dimensions (according to the self-determination theory)?

Materials and Methods

Participants and procedure.

Students from a public university enrolled in a psychology degree were trained to collect data within the scope of a course on research methodology. They learned rigorous methodological procedures and ethical standards concerning data collection. Eventually, each student was appointed to collect responses from 5 to 10 participants and made a written report of the process. They collected data from acquaints or relatives complying with the eligibility criteria: 1) Participants must be employees belonging to public or private organizations larger than nine workers; 2) Working there for at least 3 months with the same leader. That last condition aimed to assure they had a clear opinion about the leadership characteristics and their own work motivation. After data collection, each student wrote a report describing the process and included the information regarding questions or comments from respondents and the corresponding responses provided. The students also signed a responsibility statement concerning compliance with the data collection procedure.

A sample of 408 participants was collected (233 women), ranging from 18 to 76 years old. Regarding academic qualifications, 27.5% had qualifications until primary education, 38% finished secondary education, and 34.1% had higher education (0.4% missing values). In addition, 76.2% of the participants reported not having a leadership role within the organization. Regarding the organizational size, 16.9% had up to 9 employees, 31.6% from 10 to 50, 22.1% from 51 to 250 employees, and the remaining above 250 employees.

The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. Furthermore, all the formal and ethical requirements of the psychological research were met, including approval from the ethical committee of the public university. Before responding to the questionnaire, participants received information regarding the general objectives of the study and assurance of anonymity and confidentiality of the data. After participation acceptance, they were asked to sign the written informed consent. This document was presented in a separate sheet, later kept by the principal investigator.

Participants responded to three instruments:

1) Toxic Leadership Scale (TLS), adapted to a Portuguese sample by Mónico et al, composed of 30 Likert-type items, organized in five dimensions: Abusive Leadership (eg, “Speaks poorly about subordinates to other people in the workplace”), Authoritarian Leadership (eg, “Controls how subordinates complete their tasks”), Narcissism (eg, “Has a sense of personal entitlement”), Self-promotion (eg, “Accepts credit for successes that do not belong to him/her”), and Unpredictability (eg, “Has explosive outbursts”) 5 , 6 ;

2) Empowering Leadership Questionnaire (ELQ) also validated by Mónico et al in a sample of Portuguese workers, is composed of 38 Likert-type items, in five dimensions: Leading by example (eg, “Sets high standards for performance by his/her own behavior”), Participative Decision making (eg, “Encourages work group members to express ideas/suggestions”), Coaching (eg, “Helps my work group see areas in which we need more training”), Informing (eg, “Explains company decisions”), and Showing concern (eg, “Cares about work group members’ personal problems”) 5 , 64 ;

3) Multidimensional Work Motivation Scale (MWMS), validated in Portuguese and Brazilian samples of workers by Dos Santos et al, composed of 18 items in six dimensions: Amotivation (eg, “I don’t know why I’m doing this job, it’s pointless work”), Extrinsic Regulation (material and social, (eg, “Because I risk losing my job if I don’t put enough effort in it” (material)); “To avoid being criticized by others (eg, supervisor, colleagues, family, clients … ” (social)), Introjected Regulation (eg, “Because I have to prove to myself that I can”), Identified Regulation (eg, “Because I personally consider it important to put efforts in this job”) and Intrinsic Motivation (eg, “Because I have fun doing my job”). 48 , 65 Additionally, sociodemographic questions were included.

The scales’ dimensions showed excellent reliability (see Table 1 , Cronbach’s alphas from 0.812 to 0.962). Composite reliability was also good since higher than 0.70. 66

Descriptives (M;SD), Composite Reliability (CR), Average Extracted Variance (AVE), Cronbach’s Alphas (Between Brackets), and Correlation Matrix Between Multidimensional Work Motivation Scale (MWMS), Empowering Leadership Questionnaire (ELQ) and Toxic Leadership Scale (TLS) [Squared Correlations R 2 Between Square Brackets]

Notes : *** p ≤ 0.001, ** p <0.01, * p <0.05.

Abbreviations : M, mean; SD, standard-deviations; MWMS F1, MWMS Amotivation; MWMS F2.1, MWMS Material External Regulation; MWMS F2.2, MWMS Social External Regulation; MWMS F3, MWMS Introjected Regulation; MWMS F4, MWMS Identified Regulation; MWMS F5, MWMS Intrinsic Motivation; ELQ F1, ELQ Leading by example; ELQ F2, ELQ Participative Decision-making; ELQ F3, ELQ Coaching; ELQ F4, ELQ Informing; ELQ F5, ELQ Show concern; TLS F1, TLS Abusive Leadership; TLS F2, TLS Authoritarian Leadership; TLS F3, TLS Narcissism; TLS F4, TLS Self-promotion; TLS F5, TLS Unpredictability.

We found an acceptable convergent validity between the items of each factor for the three measures, concerning the average variance extracted (AVE) scores: Factors F3 and F4 of the MWMS exceed the cut-off value of 0.4078 and the remaining factors of all the scales exceed 0.50, ensuring that the explained variance is greater than the residual variance. 67 Regarding discriminant validity, the average variance extracted from each factor is greater than the values of the squared correlations between each pair of factors (R 2 ) for each scale 68 (see Table 1 , squared correlations R 2 between square brackets).

Data Analysis

Data was processed with IBM SPSS Software (IBM Corp. Released 2013). Missing-values, all MCAR (completely random), and less than 2% were replaced by the Series mean method.

The normality of the variables was assessed by the skewness ( sk ) and kurtosis ( ku ) coefficients. We obtained scores of | sk | < 2 and | ku | < 6. Outliers were analyzed according to the Mahalanobis squared distance, 69 with no relevant values being found, having all data been considered.

Reliability was calculated by Cronbach’s alpha. 70 The score of 0.80 was taken as a good reliability indicator. 71 The composite reliability and the average variance extracted for each factor were evaluated for convergent and discriminant validity as described by Schumacker and Lomax. 72 Associations between factors were performed through Pearson correlations, being effect sizes of correlations classified according to Cohen. 73

After descriptive statistics and intercorrelation matrix, a cluster analysis was performed to identify leadership profiles. The TwoStep method for continuous variables is a scalable cluster analysis algorithm, which defines the ideal number of clusters. 74 The distance measure was calculated with the Log-Likelihood distance measurement. Schwarz’s Bayesian Criterion was used for the classification of clusters, which indicated for each dimension of ELQ and TLS the number of clusters with good quality of discrimination (silhouette measure of cohesion and separation >0.50).

After creating the leadership profiles, differences regarding MWMS scores were analyzed through the Mann–Whitney non-parametric test, considering the distribution of the sample was not normal in most profiles (Shapiro–Wilk normality tests were performed) and the variances were heterogeneous.

A significance level of 0.05 for Type I error was considered for all the analyses.

Descriptive Analysis and Correlations

MWMS, ELQ and TLS showed a good internal consistency (see Table 1 , Cronbach’s alphas). The factor with the highest mean value was Identified Regulation and the lowest was Amotivation (see Table 1 for means and standard-deviations). In the empowerment leadership, the factor that showed the highest average value was Showing Concern and the lowest was Informing . In toxic leadership, the factor that showed the highest average value was Narcissism and the lowest was Abusive Supervision . MWMS correlated positively with ELQ in the vast majority of factors, except for the Amotivation dimension, with which it correlated negatively. Regarding the TLS, it reveals a negative correlation with the dimensions Identified Regulation and Intrinsic motivation , correlating positively with the Amotivation .

Regarding the dimensions of the ELQ, we can see that as we move towards the dimensions of more autonomous motivation, the higher the correlations are. We found weak negative correlations between all factors of the ELQ and Amotivation . With regard to the correlation between ELQ factors and Material External Regulation, Social External Regulation , and Introjected Regulation , we can verify the existence of weak positive correlations. 68 It is with the Identified Regulation and Intrinsic Motivation that all ELQ factors correlated moderately. 68 Among the ELQ factors, those that correlate most highly with the MWMS dimensions were Coaching, Informing , and Showing concern . We found that all dimensions of ELQ are related with work motivation, and this relationship is more evident with Intrinsic Motivation .

Regarding the TLS, we verified the greatest number of correlations not statistically significant, namely with the dimensions Social and Material External Regulation and Introjected motivation . In addition, TLS correlated weakly with Amotivation (positive correlation) and with Identified Regulation and Intrinsic Motivation (negative correlations). Among the TLS factors with the highest negative correlations with the MWMS dimensions were Abusive Leadership, Self-promotion , and Unpredictability .

Cluster Analysis

Each dimension of the ELQ and TLS was individually submitted to cluster analysis (log-likelihood distance measurement, Schwarz Bayesian criterion), aggregated in two (low and high) and three (low, intermediate, and high) clusters. All clusters showed good quality of discrimination (see Table 2 ).

Number of Clusters, Quality of Discrimination, Number of Participants in Each Cluster (%, n) and Means (M) for the Dimensions of the ELQ and TLS

After obtaining the clusters in each dimension of the ELQ and the TLS, we found that the participants belonged to different leadership clusters (eg, high versus low/medium) in different dimensions of the same questionnaire. Thus, joining the participants belonging to each cluster in the five dimensions of ELQ and TLS led to the emergence of eight different leadership profiles, described in Table 3 . Based on Goleman’s classification we considered and named the following worker leadership profiles: 1) Coercive, requiring immediate obedience; 2) Centralizer, the leader usually takes decisions, subsequently informing all the steps to be followed; 3) False paternalistic, building emotional bonds, although exercising abusive and unpredictable supervision; 4) Toxic role model, emphasizing high-performance standards, however in a toxic way; () Coach, who develops people, however, only following his own rules; 6) Narcissistic-empowering, who recognizes his or her collaborators but only in favoritism of the self-interests; 7) Toxic, exercising a nefarious leadership; and finally, 8) Empowering, revealing a beneficial leadership style. 75 , 76 For example, the coercive profile concerns individuals with high scores in ELQF2 (Participative Decision-making), TLSF3 (Narcissism) and TLSF4 (Self-promotion), and medium/low scores in the remaining dimensions, which corresponds to individuals who demand immediate obedience from their subordinates, meaning that their own opinions are superior, despite sharing challenges. 75 , 76

Profiles Creation in Function of the Belonging to the High vs Low/Medium Cluster in Each Dimension of ELQ and TLS

Abbreviations : ELQ F1, Leading by example; ELQ F2, Participative Decision-making; ELQ F3, Coaching; ELQ F4, Informing; ELQ F5 Show concern; TLS F1, Abusive Leadership; TLS F2, Authoritarian Leadership; TLS F3, Narcissism; TLS F4, Self-promotion; TLS F5, Unpredictability.

The worker leadership profile with the highest number of participants was the narcissistic-empowering (n = 118), followed by the toxic profile (n = 45). Conversely, the profiles with the lowest number of participants were the coercive (n = 14) and the toxic role model (n = 15). We proceed with the analysis of differences between worker leadership profiles in terms of MWMS dimensions. First, we performed the Mann–Whitney non-parametric test, using as independent variables (IV) the pertaining or not to each profile (1 = yes; 0 = no) and as dependent variables (DV) the six dimensions of the MWMS (see Table 4 ).

Means (M), Standard Deviations (SD), Mean-Rank (MR) and Mann–Whitney U -Tests for the Eight Leadership Worker Profiles of Workers in Each Dimension of Work Motivation

Notes : * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001.

We found that workers from our sample have different leadership profiles— some of those profiles distinguished in several dimensions of work motivation. The coercive, centralizer and narcissistic-empowering profiles presented significant differences in three dimensions of work motivation, while coach, toxic, and empowering profiles showed significant differences only in one dimension. The remaining profiles (false paternalistic and toxic role model) did not show significant differences in any work motivation dimension.

As shown in Table 4 , participants who belong to the coercive leadership profile had significantly higher means in External Regulation (material and social) and Introjected Regulation compared with participants not included in that profile. The Material External Regulation dimension of work motivation was significantly higher in participants within the coach profile and significantly lower in participants within the toxic profile. Intrinsic motivation and Identified Regulation were higher in participants within the narcissistic-empowering profile than participants from other leadership profiles. Inversely, Intrinsic motivation and Identified Regulation presented lower scores in participants within the centralizer profile than participants from other profiles. Considering Amotivation , the participants of the narcissistic-empowering profile score lower, and those of the coercive profile score higher.

This research aimed to characterize different leadership profiles and analyze their differential association with the dimensions of work motivation. To do that, we performed cluster analysis. Clustering was based on the toxic and empowering leadership dimensions and then related to differences in work motivation among clusters. We performed a cluster analysis to test specific leadership profiles and how those relate to the subordinates’ work motivation. This approach was used by Schilling and Schyns in their study about causes and consequences of bad leadership. 77

Through this method, we were able to identify eight different profiles in our sample. Following Goleman’s classification, we named them coercive, centralizing, false paternalistic, toxic role model, coach, narcissistic-empowering, toxic , and empowering . 75 , 76 The false paternalistic and the toxic role model are indistinct in their relation to the subordinates’ work motivation.

The coercive profile is distinguishable in extrinsic (both material and social ) and introjected dimensions of motivation. This profile is the one in which the leader demands immediate obedience, not allowing interventions from workers. The leader frightens people and is moved by results only. For this reason, he or she presents many characteristics from the toxic leader, using punishing strategies and negative feedback to reach his or her goals. Additionally, that leader mobilizes workers by a motivation to succeed, initiative, and self-control. 76 Therefore, it seems plausible that subordinates feel demotivated since they are pressed to task accomplishment having no autonomy or creativity, making them feel tense in the face of the possibility of a mistake and retaliation. Accordingly, employees may be more exposed to psychological illness in this type of leadership, like stress and depression. 36 , 78 However, that does not mean they become necessarily ill. Instead, they can use the consequences of working to obtain basic psychological needs satisfaction outside the workplace and reinforce their extrinsic work motivation. Where subordinates have a coercive leader, they do not feel they get psychological needs satisfaction from working, and controlled regulation dominates their drive to work. 8

The centralizer profile is distinguished by more demotivated followers (amotivation) having less identified and intrinsic motivation than others. This is a profile where the leader guides subordinate to what they should do and how they should act. He or she plans and coordinates work, sets standards, centralizes power on him or herself, and does not ask for opinions. This profile encompasses characteristics of a toxic and abusive leader on the one hand and an enabler/supporter, on the other hand, mobilizing individuals through a vision, transmitting self-confidence and empathy differing, thus, from the previous profile. 76 An explanatory hypothesis for this profile association is a lower work identification (since the worker plays only the operational component). The leader appropriates him or herself of the work and creativity, leaving the subordinate unmotivated for the tasks. Even though the leader provides a vision, this profile may create meaningless work for those who undertake the tasks due to the lack of agency and competence need satisfaction. 8

The coach profile, associated in our sample to a more extrinsic material motivation, is characterized by the ability to identify highly quickly strengths and weaknesses in his or her team, being patient, humble, respectful, and success-oriented. This leader does not give up on subordinates when they have difficulties at work, encouraging and mobilizing them through the leader’s initiative, motivation for success, and also for his or her discipline. This profile encompasses characteristics of an empowering leader, showing commitment to the team and giving them autonomy and independence, although exceeding her or himself sometimes in terms of discipline. 76 It is not easy to understand why this profile differentiates participants who belong to it from those who do not only by the amount of material extrinsic motivation. Other differences would be expected. One possible explanation is that the leader stimulates goal-oriented work regarding financial outcomes. However, future studies may help to understand this result, mainly because only 21 participants belong to this profile in our sample.

The narcissistic-empowering profile is by far the one that includes more participants (N = 118). This pattern is lower in amotivation and is higher in introjected, identified, and intrinsic motivation. Narcissistic-empowering leaders are negatively described in the literature as governed by vanity, exhibitionism, and empathetic incapability, showing at the same time a sense of superiority. 79 However, in our investigation, these narcissistic-related attributes aggregate to the empowering leader characteristics in those belonging to this profile. In fact, in our sample, leadership within this cluster scores high in all empowering dimensions, while the toxic leadership profile no. Thus, this leader will be expected to inspire his or her team when subordinates have common interests, mobilizing them through his or her motivation to succeed, initiative, and self-control. 76 Additionally, self-evaluation, the difficulty in accepting others’ errors, his or her need to stand out and the lack of empathy may lead to a destructive effect on subordinates primarily and also in the organization itself. 80 This does not seem to happen in our sample. On the contrary, the narcissistic dimension seems not affect negatively the intrinsic, identified and introjected motivation. The leaders’ narcissism appears to be well tolerated by subordinates if high scores in all empowering dimensions are associated. Since the leader empowers subordinates, they satisfy their basic psychological needs 8 by working and may feel the narcissistic character of the leader as something that sparks them at the workplace. The high number of participants within this profile leads us to hypothesize the presence of cultural specificity. Future research may help to clarify this question.

The toxic profile within this sample is associated with the most material extrinsic motivation compared to other profiles. It seems plausible that these workers get their work compensations in that type of extrinsic motivation since the remaining potential benefits are contaminated by leadership toxicity. Maybe they remain working at that work due to a lack of other opportunities to get the material earnings they need to live. Interestingly, both coach and toxic profiles seem to promote extrinsic material motivation. While the first one probably makes it by encouraging employees to set financial goals for their development, the second one by eliminating intrinsic drivers at the workplace.

Finally, the empowerment profile is associated in our sample with the highest intrinsic motivation . This profile is characterized by serving as an example to developing individuals through empathy and self-awareness. This result strengthens the conviction that empowering leadership tends to make work more pleasurable, as it corresponds to job enrichment. Moreover, empowering leadership makes the tasks meaningful, and the basic psychological needs satisfaction 8 to occur at the workplace. Specifically concerning the competence need, workers experience agency and skills development; regarding the relatedness need, workers feel respected and deserving attention and consideration; and concerning autonomy need, workers participate in decision-making and have a voice.

The above analysis allowed us to verify complex leadership profiles in our sample that distinctly associate with subordinates’ work motivation dimensions. The narcissistic dimension of toxic leadership seems to be tolerated since empowering dimensions are also present in the exercise of leadership.

The relevance of this investigation is based mainly on the consideration that it brings an essential contribution to the design of strategies and practices of people’s management in organizations. Our results confirm that the way people are driven to work depends largely on the leadership type they have to face. Moreover, empowering leadership seems to stimulate higher work motivation forms by satisfying basic psychological needs of relatedness, competence, and autonomy. This confirms previous results showing leader autonomy support strengthens higher forms of work motivation such as identified and intrinsic work motivation. 9 However, in our results, the effect of empowering leadership is preserved even if the leader has some narcissistic dimension in the way he or she performs the role. Furthermore, toxic, centralizer and coercive profiles should be prevented and replaced since they damage the workers’ work motivation.

In sum, our results state that the way people perceive the leader is related to their work motivation. This relationship reaffirms the importance of changes in people management policies and practices, namely in the sub-processes of recruiting, selecting, integrating, and developing leaders, as well as in the metrics used to measure performance, with a view to good management, that Maslow would consider more eupsychian . 81 Organizations can thus use this study to evaluate themselves, internally analyzing the leadership profiles practiced, considering the improvement of their employees’ quality of life and the organization’s results.

We thus hope that the study of the dimensions and conceptual models covered will benefit organizational entities and individual workers. Healthy workplaces are those where individuals contribute to their work by being involved in a strong way (giving meaning to work) and improving the results of that work.

This investigation aimed to understand to what extent different leadership profiles emerge (based on empowering and toxic leadership dimensions) and the significant associations between these leadership profiles and the dimensions of work motivation according to the self-determination theory.

We identified eight leadership profiles in the present study that complexly combined toxic leadership and empowerment leadership components. One profile stood out: the narcissistic-empowering profile that characterizes the leader as being governed by vanity, exhibitionism, empathic incapacity, and where the feeling of superiority gravitates. Additionally, he or she presents characteristics of an enabling and empowering leader, inspiring the team when subordinates have common interests, mobilizing them through their motivation for success, initiative, and self-control. One possible explanation for the positive effect of this profile on higher forms of employees’ work motivation is that the developmental strength of empowering dimensions reconfigures the meaning of narcissistic dimensions. Therefore, each dimension has no meaning per se, but its meaning depends on the end-up configuration of all leadership dimensions. So, the power of needs satisfaction of how leadership is performed is a complex process that is better understood if considered in its whole design. The way leadership is performed can make it easier or harder for employees to satisfy the basic psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness by working. Accordingly, those employees will experience different degrees of internalization of work motivation.

This study is relevant in demonstrating the importance of considering work motivation as a regulation continuum (and not a dichotomous phenomenon). The satisfaction of the competence, autonomy and relatedness needs can be facilitated or hindered by different leadership profiles. This finding is relevant to human resources practices that aim to promote the well-being of employees in organizations.

In a more conceptual perspective, it affords the knowledge of the work motivation dimensions concerning the factors of empowerment leadership and toxic leadership, contributing thus, to the deepening of the nomological network of the involved concepts.

Limitations and Future Research

The cross-sectional design of this study does not allow to capture the evolution in the associations between the variables. It would be interesting to undertake a longitudinal study about empowerment and toxic leadership’s effect on the work motivation of subordinates.

The sampling technique applied for collecting data does not allow high generalizability. In further studies, more robust sampling techniques can verify to what extent the results obtained here are culture-specific or express more transcultural phenomena.

The effects of sociodemographic variables also can be considered in future studies. Likewise, the role of different subordinates’ characteristics as moderators of leadership style can be a relevant topic of research. 82

Enlightening the effect of the leaders’ characteristics (eg, personality, positive and negative work experiences) in adopting an empowerment style, or a toxic style would be a matter of high interest.

Finally, it would be helpful to consider the organization characteristics (eg, strategy, supervision, company values) as mediators of the effect of leadership style on employees’ work motivation.

Funding Statement

This work is financed by national funds from FCT—Foundation for Science and Technology, I.P., within the scope of the project UIDB/04312/2020.

The authors report no conflicts of interest in this work.

• DOI: 10.3390/systems12070265
• Corpus ID: 271351786

On Shared Leadership Modeling: Contrasting Network and Dyadic Approaches

• Giuliani Coluccio , Sebastián Muñoz-Herrera
• Published in Systems 22 July 2024
• Psychology, Business

52 References

Exploring the role of shared leadership on job performance in it industries: testing the moderated mediation model, common method bias: it's bad, it's complex, it's widespread, and it's not easy to fix, how do heterogeneous networks affect a firm’s innovation performance a research analysis based on clustering and classification, reconceptualizing multilevel leader-follower shared outcomes, shared leadership development and team performance: a new look at the dynamics of shared leadership, state-of-the-science review of leader-follower dyads research, a meta-analysis of shared leadership: antecedents, consequences, and moderators, social network analysis: an example of fusion between quantitative and qualitative methods, importance-weighted density: a shared leadership illustration of the case for moving beyond density and decentralization in particularistic resource networks, assessing fit in structural equation models: a monte-carlo evaluation of rmsea versus srmr confidence intervals and tests of close fit, related papers.

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• Leadership in Health Care: What Are Some Novel Insights? Megan E. Gregory, Elizabeth H. Lazzara, and Elizabeth Blickensderfer
• Adaptive Leadership in Health Care Organizations: Five Insights to Promote Effective Teamwork Crystal M. Fausett, Jenna M. Korentsides, Zander N. Miller, and Joseph R. Keebler
• Co-CEO Leadership—Does It Work in Health Care? A Story of Success Beulah Trey, Irene McHenry, and Stephanie Lavorgna
• The Relationship Between Inclusive Leadership and Work Engagement in Hospital Employees Saadet Cin and Betül Sönmez
• What Executive Leadership Competencies Matter Most to Patient Experience: A National Qualitative Inquiry Laurie A. Latvis, John W. Fick, and Lihua Dishman
• Excellence and Equity: A Model and Mindset for Evidence-Based Practice in High-Demand Outpatient Clinics Shannon E. Woller, Jenelle N. Meyer, Sarah T. Taylor, and Nichole L. Rose-Freeman
• Doing the Work: The Role of Inclusive Leadership in Promoting Psychological Safety and Openness to Diversity Through Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion Practices Amanda Woods, Stephanie A. Zajac, Eric D. Middleton, Katelyn J. Cavanaugh, Wykesha C. Hayes, Stefanie K. Johnson, and Courtney L. Holladay
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Greg Lindsey, Urban Planner and Leader in Community-Engaged Scholarship, Retires from Humphrey School

By Ann Nordby

Professor Greg Lindsey has always taken a practitioner's perspective to research and teaching. That approach has been a win-win for students at the Humphrey School of Public Affairs, but also for numerous local communities and for his field.

Lindsey is retiring this summer after 16 years at the School—as a leader who has helped shape the School’s graduate degree programs, as a faculty member in the urban and regional planning area whose expertise in bicycle and pedestrian traffic is highly regarded, and as a researcher who is committed to community-engaged scholarship. 

Leadership role

Lindsey came to the Humphrey School in 2008 as associate dean, after serving more than 15 years as an administrator and faculty member at Indiana University Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI). 

Over the next four years he helped lead the School as associate, interim, and executive associate dean. He had a hand in designing the School’s  PhD in Public Affairs program, the Master of Development Practice (MDP) program, and the cohort structure of the mid-career Master of Public Affairs (MPA) program.  

Lindsey was director of the PhD program and has taught core courses in several of the School’s master’s degree programs. But his most significant impact is in the urban and regional planning area, where his research has shaped the ways state and local governments plan for nonmotorized travel by bicyclists and pedestrians. 

Numerous public agencies, including the Minnesota Department of Transportation (MnDOT), the Department of Natural Resources, and Hennepin County, have implemented new monitoring programs to measure bicycling and pedestrian traffic volumes, based on research by Lindsey and his students.

He has designed myriad research projects throughout his career, always with an eye to applying the knowledge revealed. One recent example is a study he conducted in 2022, to assess h ow the COVID-19 pandemic impacted biking and walking in Minnesota . 

Community-engaged research  

Lindsey was an environmental advocate, consultant, and public administrator for nine years before obtaining his PhD and beginning his 30-year career in academia.

Perhaps due to these early experiences, he always incorporated two things into his research designs and teaching: hands-on learning for students and service to local communities.

"All of my classes, and particularly the capstone classes, are designed around that," Lindsey said recently. 

Most Humphrey School students complete a  capstone project that culminates their learning experience. In the capstone, students work in small groups to research and analyze a topic for external clients from the public or nonprofit sector. Lindsey has advised many students on their capstone projects, connecting them to meaningful work experiences that benefit real people. 

When he was starting out as a professor in Indiana, Lindsey developed a way for students to do research design, field work, data analysis, report writing, and presentation of their results to  local governments. 

In doing so, the students shared new knowledge to local officials, such as how many people were using their public facilities. "It became my motif," he said. 

Many of the Humphrey School’s capstone projects have been in support of underserved local communities. For example, some of Lindsey’s students recently developed designs to address  pedestrian safety in the communities of Redby and Red Lake on the Red Lake Nation reservation in northern Minnesota. 

Their work complemented two research projects Lindsey led for MnDOT over the past eight years that studied pedestrian risk on the seven federally recognized Anishinaabe reservations in the state.  

Along with tribal transportation leaders and MnDOT collaborators, Lindsey and his students assessed pedestrian risk at more than 20 highway crossings on tribal lands. They then recommended countermeasures such as crosswalks, beacons, and signage to make the highway crossings safer. The  final report for these two projects has just been published, and many of the safety improvements have already been implemented.  

Humphrey School impact 

Lindsey is proud of the work his students have done, both inside and outside of the classroom. 

"Their capstone projects have made an impact, and given these students the skills to build successful careers," he said, noting that many graduates have gone on to work in state departments of transportation around the country. 

Over the years, Lindsey’s leadership helped to build the programs that the Humphrey School offers today. The PhD program now has about 30 students and 27 graduates around the world, working as professors and research scientists. 

Lindsey’s years in the Humphrey School dean’s office from 2008 to 2012 included stints as associate dean and nearly a year as interim dean. During that time he oversaw student recruitment, a job made easier than in many other places by the bright job prospects here. Minnesota employers have a track record of hiring Humphrey School graduates. 

"There is a demand for curious, energetic people who want to change the world," he said of local governments and public agencies. "People here are very willing to give them opportunities."

As an example of the types of work Humphrey School students do that makes them competitive in the job market, Lindsey noted one team of MPA students who studied the Brooklyn Park, Minnesota, police department to develop strategies to diversify its police force. At the time, 100 of the city's 105 police officers were white, while the majority of its residents were people of color.  

"My students analyzed their recruitment practices, and wrote their capstone report on it," Lindsey said. This was in 2019, before the pandemic shone a harsh light on the inequities built into many police departments. 

"Students come to Humphrey because they want to change the world. We design capstone opportunities with agency partners so that they get a chance to do that. And they can do that; they have the capacity to change investment decisions that are being made,” Lindsey said. “That's the strength of the school and our programs. It's a hallmark of what the Humphrey School does." 

Lindsey's approach perfectly reflects the University of Minnesota's tripartite mission of research, service and teaching. At the Humphrey School, that mission shows up throughout the student experience. Even better, the University enjoys strong support throughout the state. 

"My students have undertaken projects with public agencies and then gone on to work with them. People here in Minnesota are very willing to give them opportunities,” Lindsey said. “The commitment to experimentation and innovation is greater than in most places. People here will go out on a limb.”

As an example, Lindsey said, Minnesota is among the top five or six states in the country for nonmotorized transportation and "a national leader in transportation equity. State leaders are willing to ask the questions and admit the wrongs of the past in order to fix the problems of today,” he said. “That does not happen in some states."

Recognition

Lindsey's contributions have earned him numerous accolades for his teaching, research and administration. He received the  University of Minnesota President’s Community-Engaged Scholar Award in 2019, was a Scholar in Residence with MnDOT, and four times received best paper awards from the Transportation Research Board. 

Lindsey was elected a fellow of the National Academy of Administration in 2015. He has published dozens of research papers and served as a peer reviewer for many more, and has served on numerous commissions. 

Even though he’s officially retiring, Lindsey says he will continue to work on traffic safety issues in Indian Country, and on bicycling and walking. Doing so will keep him involved in the impactful work he has found so rewarding.

It will also keep him close to his beloved Lutsen, Minnesota, on the North Shore of Lake Superior, and to his extended family in Minnesota, his adopted home. 

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Leadership theories and styles—A systematic literature review and the narrative synthesis

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