Critical analysis examples of theories
The following sentences are examples of the phrases used to explain strengths and weaknesses.
Smith’s (2005) theory appears up to date, practical and applicable across many divergent settings.
Brown’s (2010) theory, although parsimonious and logical, lacks a sufficient body of evidence to support its propositions and predictions
Little scientific evidence has been presented to support the premises of this theory.
One of the limitations with this theory is that it does not explain why…
A significant strength of this model is that it takes into account …
The propositions of this model appear unambiguous and logical.
A key problem with this framework is the conceptual inconsistency between ….
The table below summarizes the criteria for judging the strengths and weaknesses of a concept:
Evaluating Concepts
Key variables or constructs identified | key variables or constructs omitted or missed |
Clear, well-defined, specific, precise | ambiguous, vague, ill-defined, overly general, imprecise, not sufficiently distinctive overinclusive, too broad, or narrowly defined |
Meaningful, useful | conceptually flawed |
Logical | contradictory |
Relevant | questionable relevance |
Up-to-date | out of date |
Critical analysis examples of concepts
Many researchers have used the concept of control in different ways.
There is little consensus about what constitutes automaticity.
Putting forth a very general definition of motivation means that it is possible that any behaviour could be included.
The concept of global education lacks clarity, is imprecisely defined and is overly complex.
Some have questioned the usefulness of resilience as a concept because it has been used so often and in so many contexts.
Research suggests that the concept of preoperative fasting is an outdated clinical approach.
The table below summarizes the criteria for judging the strengths and weaknesses of an argument, viewpoint or idea:
Evaluating Arguments, Views or Ideas
Reasons and evidence provided support the argument | the reasons or evidence do not support the argument - overgeneralization |
Substantiated (supported) by factual evidence | insufficient substantiation (support) |
Evidence is relevant and believable | Based on peripheral or irrelevant evidence |
Unbiased: sufficient or important evidence or ideas included and considered. | biased: overlooks, omits, disregards, or is selective with important or relevant evidence or ideas. |
Evidence from reputable or authoritative sources | evidence relies on non reputable or unrecognized sources |
Balanced: considers opposing views | unbalanced: does not consider opposing views |
Clear, not confused, unambiguous | confused, ambiguous |
Logical, consistent | the reasons do not follow logically from and support the arguments; arguments or ideas are inconsistent |
Convincing | unconvincing |
Critical analysis examples of arguments, viewpoints or ideas
The validity of this argument is questionable as there is insufficient evidence to support it.
Many writers have challenged Jones’ claim on the grounds that …….
This argument fails to draw on the evidence of others in the field.
This explanation is incomplete because it does not explain why…
The key problem with this explanation is that ……
The existing accounts fail to resolve the contradiction between …
However, there is an inconsistency with this argument. The inconsistency lies in…
Although this argument has been proposed by some, it lacks justification.
However, the body of evidence showing that… contradicts this argument.
The table below provides the criteria for judging the strengths and weaknesses of methodology.
An evaluation of a methodology usually involves a critical analysis of its main sections:
design; sampling (participants); measurement tools and materials; procedure
Evaluating a Methodology
Research design tests the hypotheses or research questions | research design is inappropriate for the hypotheses or research questions |
Valid and reliable method | dubious, questionable validity |
The method addresses potential sources of bias or measurement error. confounding variables were identified | insufficiently rigorous measurement error produces questionable or unreliable confounding variables not identified or addressed |
The method (sample, measurement tools, procedure) allows results to be generalized or transferred. Sampling was representative to enable generalization | generalizability of the results is limited due to an unrepresentative sample: small sample size or limited sample range |
Sampling of cohort was representative to enable generalization sampling of phenomena under investigation sufficiently wide and representative sampling response rate was sufficiently high | limited generalizability of results due to unrepresentative sample: small sample size or limited sample range of cohort or phenomena under investigation sampling response rate was too low |
Measurement tool(s) / instrument(s), appropriate, reliable and valid measurements were accurate | inappropriate measurement tools; incomplete or ambiguous scale items inaccurate measurement reliability statistics from previous research for measurement tool not reported measurement instrument items are ambiguous, unclear, contradictory |
Procedure reliable and valid | Measurement error from administration of the measurement tool(s) |
Method was clearly explained and sufficiently detailed to allow replication | Explanation of the methodology (or parts of it, for example the Procedure) is unclear, confused, imprecise, ambiguous, inconsistent or contradictory |
Critical analysis examples of a methodology
The unrepresentativeness of the sample makes these results misleading.
The presence of unmeasured variables in this study limits the interpretation of the results.
Other, unmeasured confounding variables may be influencing this association.
The interpretation of the data requires caution because the effect of confounding variables was not taken into account.
The insufficient control of several response biases in this study means the results are likely to be unreliable.
Although this correlational study shows association between the variables, it does not establish a causal relationship.
Taken together, the methodological shortcomings of this study suggest the need for serious caution in the meaningful interpretation of the study’s results.
The table below provides the criteria for judging the strengths and weaknesses of research results and conclusions:
Evaluating the Results and Conclusions
Chose and used appropriate statistics | inappropriate choice or use of statistics |
Results interpreted correctly or accurately | incorrect interpretation of results the results have been over-interpreted For example: correlation measures have been incorrectly interpreted to suggest causation rather than association |
All results were explained, including inconsistent or misleading results | inconsistent or misleading results not explained |
Alternative explanations for results were considered | unbalanced explanations: alternative explanations for results not explored |
Significance of all results were considered | incomplete consideration of results |
Results considered according to consistency with other research or viewpoints Results are conclusive because they have been replicated by other studies | consistency of results with other research not considered results are suggestive rather than conclusive because they have not been replicated by other studies |
Results add significantly to existing understanding or knowledge | results do not significantly add to existing understanding knowledge |
Limitations of the research design or method are acknowledged | limitations of the research design or method not considered |
Results were clearly explained, sufficiently detailed, consistent | results were unclear, insufficiently detailed, inconsistent, confusing, ambiguous, contradictory |
Conclusions were consistent with and supported by the results | conclusions were not consistent with or not supported by the results |
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1. identify how and why the research was carried out, 2. establish the research context, 3. evaluate the research, 4. establish the significance of the research.
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Read the article(s) carefully and use the questions below to help you identify how and why the research was carried out. Look at the following sections:
These questions were adapted from the following sources: Kuyper, B.J. (1991). Bringing up scientists in the art of critiquing research. Bioscience 41(4), 248-250. Wood, J.M. (2003). Research Lab Guide. MICR*3260 Microbial Adaptation and Development Web Site . Retrieved July 31, 2006.
Once you are familiar with the article, you can establish the research context by asking the following questions:
These questions were adapted from the following sources: Kuyper, B.J. (1991). Bringing up scientists in the art of critiquing research. Bioscience 41(4), 248-250. Wood, J.M. (2003). Research Lab Guide. MICR*3260 Microbial Adaptation and Development Web Site . Retrieved July 31, 2006.
Remember that simply disagreeing with the material is not considered to be a critical assessment of the material. For example, stating that the sample size is insufficient is not a critical assessment. Describing why the sample size is insufficient for the claims being made in the study would be a critical assessment.
Use the questions below to help you evaluate the quality of the authors’ research:
These questions were adapted from the following sources: Kuyper, B.J. (1991). Bringing up scientists in the art of critiquing research. Bioscience 41(4), 248-250. Wood, J.M. (2003). Research Lab Guide. MICR*3260 Microbial Adaptation and Development Web Site. Retrieved July 31, 2006.
After you have evaluated the research, consider whether the research has been successful. Has it led to new questions being asked, or new ways of using existing knowledge? Are other researchers citing this paper?
You should consider the following questions:
To answer these questions, look at review articles to find out how reviewers view this piece of research. Look at research articles and databases like Web of Science to see how other people have used this work. What range of journals have cited this article?
These questions were adapted from the following sources:
Kuyper, B.J. (1991). Bringing up scientists in the art of critiquing research. Bioscience 41(4), 248-250. Wood, J.M. (2003). Research Lab Guide. MICR*3260 Microbial Adaptation and Development Web Site . Retrieved July 31, 2006.
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What one needs to know.
Manjali, Jifmi Jose; Gupta, Tejpal
Department of Radiation Oncology, Tata Memorial Centre, Homi Bhabha National Institute, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
Address for correspondence: Dr. Tejpal Gupta, ACTREC, Tata Memorial Centre, Homi Bhabha National Institute, Kharghar, Navi Mumbai - 410 210, Maharashtra, India. E-mail: [email protected]
Received May 25, 2020
Received in revised form June 11, 2020
Accepted June 19, 2020
This is an open access journal, and articles are distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 License, which allows others to remix, tweak, and build upon the work non-commercially, as long as appropriate credit is given and the new creations are licensed under the identical terms.
In the present era of evidence-based medicine (EBM), integrating best research evidence into the clinical practice necessitates developing skills to critically evaluate and analyze the scientific literature. Critical appraisal is the process of systematically examining research evidence to assess its validity, results, and relevance to inform clinical decision-making. All components of a clinical research article need to be appraised as per the study design and conduct. As research bias can be introduced at every step in the flow of a study leading to erroneous conclusions, it is essential that suitable measures are adopted to mitigate bias. Several tools have been developed for the critical appraisal of scientific literature, including grading of evidence to help clinicians in the pursuit of EBM in a systematic manner. In this review, we discuss the broad framework for the critical appraisal of a clinical research paper, along with some of the relevant guidelines and recommendations.
Medical research information is ever growing and branching day by day. Despite the vastness of medical literature, it is necessary that as clinicians we offer the best treatment to our patients as per the current knowledge. Integrating best research evidence with clinical expertise and patient values has led to the concept of evidence-based medicine (EBM).[ 1 ] Although this philosophy originated in the middle of the 19 th century,[ 2 ] it first appeared in its current form in the modern medical literature in 1991.[ 3 ] EBM is defined as the conscientious, explicit, and judicious use of the current best evidence in making decisions about the care of an individual patient.[ 1 ] The essentials of EBM include generating a clinical question, tracking the best available evidence, critically evaluating the evidence for validity and clinical usefulness, further applying the results to clinical practice, and evaluating its performance. Appropriate application of EBM can result in cost-effectiveness and improve health-care efficiency.[ 4 ] Without continual accumulation of new knowledge, existing dogmas and paradigms quickly become outdated and may prove detrimental to the patients. The current growth of medical literature with 1.8 million scientific articles published in the year 2012,[ 5 ] often makes it difficult for the clinicians to keep pace with the vast amount of scientific data, thus making foraging (alerts to new information) and hunting (finding answers to clinical questions) essential skills to help navigate the so-called “jungle” of information.[ 6 ] Therefore, it is essential that health-care professionals read medical literature selectively to effectively utilize their limited time and assiduously imbibe new knowledge to improve decision-making for their patients. To practice EBM in its true sense, a clinician not only needs to devote time to develop the skill of effectively searching the literature, but also needs to learn to evaluate the significance, methodology, outcomes, and transparency of the study.[ 4 ] Along with the evaluation and interpretation of a study, a thorough understanding of its methodology is necessary. It is common knowledge that studies with positive results are relatively easy to publish.[ 7 8 ] However, it is the critical appraisal of any research study (even those with negative results) that helps us to understand the science better and ask relevant questions in future using an appropriate study design and endpoints. Therefore, this review is focused on the framework for the critical appraisal of a clinical research paper. In addition, we have also discussed some of the relevant guidelines and recommendations for the critical appraisal of clinical research papers.
Critical appraisal is the process of systematically examining the research evidence to assess its validity, results, and relevance before using it to inform a decision.[ 9 ] It entails the following:
Critical appraisal is performed to assess the following
aspects of a study:
Contrary to the common belief, a critical appraisal is not the negative dismissal of any piece of research or an assessment of the results alone; it is neither solely based on a statistical analysis nor a process undertaken by the experts only. When performing a critical appraisal of a scientific article, it is essential that we know its basic composition and assess every section meticulously.
This involves taking a generalized look at the details of the article. The journal it was published in holds special value – a peer reviewed, indexed journal with a good impact factor adds robustness to the paper. The setting, timeline, and year of publication of the study also need to be noted, as they provide a better understanding of the evolution of thoughts in that particular subject. Declaration of the conflicts of interest by the authors, the role of the funding source if any, and any potential commercial bias should also be noted.[ 10 ]
The components of any scientific article or clinical research paper remain largely the same. An article begins with a title, abstract, and keywords, which are followed by the main text, which includes the IMRAD – introduction, methods, results and discussion, and ends with the conclusion and references.
It is a brief summary of the research article which helps the readers understand the purpose, methods, and results of the study. Although an abstract may provide a brief overview of the study, the full text of the article needs to be read and evaluated for a thorough understanding. There are two types of abstracts, namely structured and unstructured. A structured abstract comprises different sections typically labelled as background/purpose, methods, results, and conclusion, whereas an unstructured abstract is not divided into these sections.
The introduction of a research paper familiarizes the reader with the topic. It refers to the current evidence in the particular subject and the possible lacunae which necessitate the present study. In other words, the introduction puts the study in perspective. The findings of other related studies have to be quoted and referenced, especially their central statements. The introduction also needs to justify the appropriateness of the chosen study.[ 11 ]
This section highlights the procedure followed while conducting the study. It provides all the data necessary for the study's appraisal and lays out the study design which is paramount. For clinical research articles, this section should describe the participant or patient/population/problem (P), intervention (I), comparison (C), outcome (O), and study design (S) PICO(S), generally referred to as the PICO(S) framework [ Table 1 ].
Study designs are broadly divided into descriptive and interventional studies,[ 12 ] which can be further subdivided as shown in Figure 1 . Each study design has its own characteristics and should be used in the appropriate setting. The various study designs form the building blocks of evidence. This in turn justifies the need for a hierarchical classification of evidence, referred to as “Levels of Evidence,” as it forms the cornerstone of EBM [ Table 2 ]. Most medical journals now mandate that the submitted manuscript conform to and comply with the clinical research reporting statements and guidelines as applicable to the study design [ Table 3 ] to maintain clarity, transparency, and reproducibility and ensure comparability across different studies asking the same research question. As per the study design, the appropriate descriptive and inferential statistical analyses should be specified in the statistical plan. For prospective studies, a clear mention of sample size calculation (depending on the type of study, power, alpha error, meaningful difference, and variance) is mandatory, so as to identify whether the study was adequately powered.[ 13 ] The endpoints (primary, secondary, and exploratory, if any) should be mentioned clearly along with the exact methods used for the measurement of the variables.
The statistical framework of any research study is commonly based on testing the null hypothesis, wherein the results are deemed significant by comparing P values obtained from an experimental dataset to a predefined significance level (0.05 being the most popular choice). By definition, P value is the probability under the specified statistical model to obtain a statistical summary equal to or more extreme than the one computed from the data and can range from 0 to 1. P < 0.05 indicates that results are unlikely to be due to chance alone. Unfortunately, P value does not indicate the magnitude of the observed difference, which may also be desirable. An alternative and complementary approach is the use of confidence intervals (CI), which is a range of values calculated from the observed data, that is likely to contain the true value at a specified probability. The probability is chosen by the investigator, and it is set customarily at 95% (1– alpha error of 0.05). CI provides information that may be used to test hypotheses; additionally, they provide information related to the precision, power, sample size, and effect size.
This section contains the findings of the study, presented clearly and objectively. The results obtained using the descriptive and inferential statistical analyses (as mentioned in the methods section) should be described. The use of tables and figures, including graphical representation [ Table 4 ], is encouraged to improve the clarity;[ 14 ] however, the duplication of these data in the text should be avoided.
The discussion section presents the authors' interpretations of the obtained results. This section includes:
It is imperative that the key relevant references are cited in any research paper in the appropriate format which allows the readers to access the original source of the specified statement or evidence. A brief look at the reference list gives an overview of how well the indexed medical literature was searched for the purpose of writing the manuscript.
After a careful assessment of the various sections of a research article, it is necessary to assess the relevance of the study findings to the present scenario and weigh the potential benefits and drawbacks of its application to the population. In this context, it is necessary that the integrity of the intervention be noted. This can be verified by assessing the factors such as adherence to the specified program, the exposure needed, quality of delivery, participant responsiveness, and potential contamination. This relates to the feasibility of applying the intervention to the community.
Research articles are the media through which science is communicated, and it is necessary that we adhere to the basic principles of transparency and accuracy when communicating our findings. Any such trend or deviation from the truth in data collection, analysis, interpretation, or publication is called bias.[ 15 ] This may lead to erroneous conclusions, and hence, all scientists and clinicians must be aware of the bias and employ all possible measures to mitigate it.
The extent to which a study is free from bias defines its internal validity. Internal validity is different from the external validity and precision. The external validity of a study is about its generalizability or applicability (depends on the purpose of the study), while precision is the extent to which a study is free from random errors (depends on the number of participants). A study is irrelevant without internal validity even if it is applicable and precise.[ 16 ] A bias can be introduced at every step in the flow of a study [ Figure 2 ].
The various types of biases in clinical research include:
In the recent times, it has become an ethical as well as a regulatory requirement in most countries to register the clinical trials prospectively before the enrollment of the first subject. Registration of a clinical trial is defined as the publication of an internationally agreed upon set of information about the design, conduct, and administration of any clinical trial on a publicly accessible website managed by a registry conforming to international standards. Apart from improving the awareness and visibility of the study, registration ensures transparency in the conduct and reduces publication bias and selective reporting. Some of the common sites are the ClinicalTrials. gov run by the National Library of Medicine of the National Institutes of Health (), Clinical Trials Registry-India () run by the Indian Council of Medical Research, and the International Clinical Trials Registry Platform () run by the World Health Organization.
Several tools have been developed to assess the transparency of the scientific research papers and the degree of congruence of the research question with the study in the context of the various sections listed above [ Table 5 ].
Bad ethics cannot produce good science. Therefore, all scientific research must follow the ethical principles laid out in the declaration of Helsinki. For clinical research, it is mandatory that team members be trained in good clinical practice, familiarize themselves with clinical research methodology, and follow standard operating procedures as prescribed. Although the regulatory framework and landscape may vary to a certain extent depending upon the country where the research work is conducted, it is the responsibility of the Institutional Review Boards/Institutional Ethics Committees to provide study oversight such that the safety, well-being, and rights of the participants are adequately protected.
Critical appraisal is the systematic examination of the research evidence reported in the scientific articles to assess their validity, reliability, and applicability before using their findings to inform decision-making. It should be considered as the first step to grade the quality of evidence.
Conflicts of interest.
There are no conflicts of interest.
Appraisal; bias; clinical study; evidence-based medicine; guidelines; tools
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Critical analysis may or may not be a component of this particular course's evaluation, but it is an important component of any research process.
Inquiry-based learning
Critical thinking is at the heart of scientific inquiry. A good scientist is one who never stops asking why things happen, or how things happen. Science makes progress when we find data that contradicts our current scientific ideas.
Scientific inquiry includes three key areas:
1. Identifying a problem and asking questions about that problem 2. Selecting information to respond to the problem and evaluating it 3. Drawing conclusions from the evidence
Hart, T. (2018, 18 October) Teaching critical thinking in science - the key to students' future success. Brighter Thinking Blog . https://www.cambridge.org/us/education/blog/2018/10/18/teaching-critical-thinking-science-key-students-future-success/
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Critical thinking refers to deliberately scrutinizing and evaluating theories, concepts, or ideas using reasoned reflection and analysis. The act of thinking critically involves moving beyond simply understanding information, but going further by questioning its source, its production, and its presentation in order to expose potential bias or researcher subjectivity [i.e., evidence of being influenced by personal opinions and feelings rather than by external determinants ] . Applying critical thinking to investigating a research problem involves actively challenging basic assumptions and questioning the choices and potential motives underpinning how a study was designed and executed and how the author arrived at particular conclusions or recommended courses of action. Applying critical thinking to writing involves effectively synthesizing information and generating compelling arguments.
Hanscomb, Stuart. Critical Thinking: The Basics . 2nd edition. London: Routledge, 2023; Mintz, Steven. "How the Word "Critical" Came to Signify the Leading Edge of Cultural Analysis." Higher Ed Gamma Blog , Inside Higher Ed, February 13, 2024; Van Merriënboer, Jeroen JG and Paul A. Kirschner. Ten Steps to Complex Learning: A Systematic Approach to Four-component Instructional Design . New York: Routledge, 2017.
Applying Critical Thinking to Research and Writing
Professors like to use the term critical thinking; in fact, the idea of being a critical thinker permeates much of higher education writ large. In the classroom, the idea of thinking critically is often mentioned by professors when students ask how they should approach writing a research paper [other approaches your professor might mention include interdisciplinarity, compare and contrast, gendered perspective, global, etc.]. However, critical thinking is more than just an approach to research and writing. It is an acquired skill associated with becoming a complex learner capable of discerning important relationships among the elements of, as well as integrating multiple ways of understanding applied to, the research problem. Critical thinking is a lens through which you holistically interrogate a topic.
Given this, critical thinking encompasses a variety of inter-related connotations applied to writing a college-level research paper:
Critical thinking permeates the entire research and writing process. However, it applies in particular to the literature review and discussion sections of your paper. These two sections of a research paper most clearly reflect the external/internal duality of thinking critically.
In reviewing the literature, it is important to reflect upon specific aspects of a study, such as, 1) determining if the research design effectively establishes cause and effect relationships or provides insight into explaining why certain phenomena do or do not occur; 2) assessing whether the method of gathering data or information supports the objectives of your study; and, 3) evaluating if the assumptions used t o arrive at a specific conclusion are evidence-based and relevant to addressing the topic. Critically thinking applies to these elements of reviewing prior research by assessing how each source might perpetuate inequalities or hide the voices of others, thereby, limiting its applicability for understanding the scope of the problem and its impact throughout society.
Critical thinking applies to the discussion section of your paper because this is where you contemplate the results of your study and explain its significance in relation to addressing the research problem. Discussion involves more than just summarizing findings and describing outcomes. It includes deliberately considering the importance of the findings and providing reasoned explanations why your paper helps to fill a gap in the literature or expand knowledge and understanding in ways that inform practice. Critical thinking uses reflection to examine your own beliefs concerning the significance of the results in ways that avoid using biased judgment and decision making.
Using Questions to Enable Critical Thinking
At its most fundamental level, critical thinking is thinking about thinking in ways that improve the effectiveness of your ability to reason, analyze, synthesize, evaluate, and report information and, as a result, it advances deeper explorations of the topic*. From a practical standpoint, critical thinking is an act of introspective self-examination that involves formulating open-ended questions that inspire higher levels of reasoning about a research problem. The purpose of asking questions during the research process is to apply a framework of inquiry that challenges conventional assumptions, scrutinizes the evidence presented, determines how effectively arguments have been supported by that evidence, discerns patterns or trends in the findings, and helps imagine alternative outcomes if new or different factors were introduced.
Below are examples of questions that can stimulate critical thinking:
NOTE: Being a critical thinker doesn't just happen. Casting a critical eye on how effectively others have studied a research problem requires developing self-confidence in your own abilities to actively engage with information, to consistently ask how and why questions about the research, and to deliberately analyze arguments and recommendations set forth by the author. Examining critically your own beliefs and feeling about your writing involves a willingness to be comfortable questioning yourself in a way that promotes a strong sense of self-awareness and introspection. Together, these outward and inward looking habits can help improve your critical thinking skills and inform how to effectively research and write a college-level research paper.
* Kharbach, Med. “Examples of Critical Thinking Questions for Students.” Educational Technology and Mobile Learning blog , Last Update: November 10, 2023.
Behar-Horenstein, Linda S., and Lian Niu. “Teaching Critical Thinking Skills in Higher Education: A Review of the Literature.” Journal of College Teaching and Learning 8 (February 2011): 25-41; Bayou, Yemeserach and Tamene Kitila. "Exploring Instructors’ Beliefs about and Practices in Promoting Students’ Critical Thinking Skills in Writing Classes." GIST–Education and Learning Research Journal 26 (2023): 123-154; “Bloom's Taxonomy.” Centre for Teaching Excellence. University of Waterloo; “Higher Order Thinking: Bloom’s Taxonomy.” The Learning Center. University of North Carolina; Butcher, Charity. "Using In-class Writing to Promote Critical Thinking and Application of Course Concepts." Journal of Political Science Education 18 (2022): 3-21; Krathwohl, David R. “A Revision of Bloom's Taxonomy: An Overview.” Theory into Practice 41 (Autumn 2002): 212-218; Loseke, Donileen R. Methodological Thinking: Basic Principles of Social Research Design. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2012; Mintz, Steven. "How the Word "Critical" Came to Signify the Leading Edge of Cultural Analysis." Higher Ed Gamma Blog , Inside Higher Ed, February 13, 2024; Hart, Claire et al. “Exploring Higher Education Students’ Critical Thinking Skills through Content Analysis.” Thinking Skills and Creativity 41 (September 2021): 100877; Lewis, Arthur and David Smith. "Defining Higher Order Thinking." Theory into Practice 32 (Summer 1993): 131-137; Sabrina, R., Emilda Sulasmi, and Mandra Saragih. "Student Critical Thinking Skills and Student Writing Ability: The Role of Teachers' Intellectual Skills and Student Learning." Cypriot Journal of Educational Sciences 17 (2022): 2493-2510. Suter, W. Newton. Introduction to Educational Research: A Critical Thinking Approach. 2nd edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2012; Van Merriënboer, Jeroen JG and Paul A. Kirschner. Ten Steps to Complex Learning: A Systematic Approach to Four-component Instructional Design. New York: Routledge, 2017; Vance, Charles M., et al. "Understanding and Measuring Linear–Nonlinear Thinking Style for Enhanced Management Education and Professional Practice." Academy of Management Learning and Education 6 (2007): 167-185; Yeh, Hui-Chin, Shih-hsien Yang, Jo Shan Fu, and Yen-Chen Shih. "Developing College Students’ Critical Thinking through Reflective Writing." Higher Education Research & Development 42 (2023): 244-259.
What does critical research mean, what is an example of critical qualitative research, approaches to critical theory.
Critical research was created out of a need to examine power , inequities, and the resulting societal implications on the status quo in society. It is a necessary departure from traditional scientific research in that it looks beyond what is directly observable to analyze the social world and develop social theory from novel perspectives to address previous injustices. In this article, we'll look at what critical theory entails for qualitative research , as well as the different strands that make up critical research.
In specific terms, critical research examines the nature of power dynamics influencing the social world. More broadly, this has implications for understanding inequality and disparity across cleavages of race, gender, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and economic class, among other differences in identity.
While there are many different strands to critical research, there are a number of common characteristics that are shared by scholars of critical theory:
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One of the more famous studies to produce a critical analysis is the doll test first devised by Mamie Clark, then conducted with husband Kenneth Clark starting in the 1940s and replicated in later years. In the doll test, children were asked how they felt about dolls that were put in front of them. The children preferred to play with the dolls that looked white rather than the dolls that looked black, and had more positive views about the white-looking dolls. Children who were black also tended to share the same perception of black-looking dolls, which suggested that their surrounding environment - particularly the school system but more broadly the culture around them - profoundly impacted them by reinforcing negative stereotypes about racial minorities.
Critical theorists argue that such stereotypes, especially when perpetuated by institutions like education and mass media, further contribute to economic and social disparities when children of color experience exposure to negative attitudes about race and ethnicity. This novel research provided fundamental insights that led to the following real-world changes:
Here are some of the various forms of critical research. Keep in mind that these approaches are not exclusive to each other, though they have their own distinct focus to shed light on specific issues relevant to the social sciences, nor are they exhaustive of the entire array of critical theory.
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Journal articles are the academic's stock in trade, t he basic means of communicating research findings to an audience of one’s peers. That holds true across the disciplinary spectrum, so no matter where you land as a concentrator, you can expect to rely on them heavily.
Regardless of the discipline, moreover, journal articles perform an important knowledge-updating function .
Textbooks and handbooks and manuals will have a secondary function for chemists and physicists and biologists, of course. But in the sciences, articles are the standard and preferred publication form.
In the social sciences and humanities , where knowledge develops a little less rapidly or is driven less by issues of time-sensitivity , journal articles and books are more often used together.
Not all important and influential ideas warrant book-length studies, and some inquiry is just better suited to the size and scope and concentrated discussion that the article format offers.
Journal articles sometimes just present the most appropriate solution for communicating findings or making a convincing argument. A 20-page article may perfectly fit a researcher's needs. Sustaining that argument for 200 pages might be unnecessary -- or impossible.
The quality of a research article and the legitimacy of its findings are verified by other scholars, prior to publication, through a rigorous evaluation method called peer-review . This seal of approval by other scholars doesn't mean that an article is the best, or truest, or last word on a topic. If that were the case, research on lots of things would cease. Peer review simply means other experts believe the methods, the evidence, the conclusions of an article have met important standards of legitimacy, reliability, and intellectual honesty.
Searching the journal literature is part of being a responsible researcher at any level: professor, grad student, concentrator, first-year. Knowing why academic articles matter will help you make good decisions about what you find -- and what you choose to rely on in your work.
Think of journal articles as the way you tap into the ongoing scholarly conversation , as a way of testing the currency of a finding, analysis, or argumentative position, and a way of bolstering the authority (or plausibility) of explanations you'll offer in the papers and projects you'll complete at Harvard.
Except where otherwise noted, this work is subject to a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , which allows anyone to share and adapt our material as long as proper attribution is given. For details and exceptions, see the Harvard Library Copyright Policy ©2021 Presidents and Fellows of Harvard College.
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The Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention recently published the largest case series to date of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) in mainland China (72 314 cases, updated through February 11, 2020). 1 This Viewpoint summarizes key findings from this report and discusses emerging understanding of and lessons from the COVID-19 epidemic.
Epidemiologic Characteristics of the COVID-19 Outbreak
Among a total of 72 314 case records ( Box ), 44 672 were classified as confirmed cases of COVID-19 (62%; diagnosis based on positive viral nucleic acid test result on throat swab samples), 16 186 as suspected cases (22%; diagnosis based on symptoms and exposures only, no test was performed because testing capacity is insufficient to meet current needs), 10 567 as clinically diagnosed cases (15%; this designation is being used in Hubei Province only; in these cases, no test was performed but diagnosis was made based on symptoms, exposures, and presence of lung imaging features consistent with coronavirus pneumonia), and 889 as asymptomatic cases (1%; diagnosis by positive viral nucleic acid test result but lacking typical symptoms including fever, dry cough, and fatigue). 1
72 314 Cases (as of February 11, 2020)
Confirmed cases: 44 672 (62%)
Suspected cases: 16 186 (22%)
Diagnosed cases: 10 567 (15%)
Asymptomatic cases: 889 (1%)
Age distribution (N = 44 672)
≥80 years: 3% (1408 cases)
30-79 years: 87% (38 680 cases)
20-29 years: 8% (3619 cases)
10-19 years: 1% (549 cases)
<10 years: 1% (416 cases)
Spectrum of disease (N = 44 415)
Mild: 81% (36 160 cases)
Severe: 14% (6168 cases)
Critical: 5% (2087 cases)
Case-fatality rate
2.3% (1023 of 44 672 confirmed cases)
14.8% in patients aged ≥80 years (208 of 1408)
8.0% in patients aged 70-79 years (312 of 3918)
49.0% in critical cases (1023 of 2087)
Health care personnel infected
3.8% (1716 of 44 672)
63% in Wuhan (1080 of 1716)
14.8% cases classified as severe or critical (247 of 1668)
Most case patients were 30 to 79 years of age (87%), 1% were aged 9 years or younger, 1% were aged 10 to 19 years, and 3% were age 80 years or older. Most cases were diagnosed in Hubei Province (75%) and most reported Wuhan-related exposures (86%; ie, Wuhan resident or visitor or close contact with Wuhan resident or visitor). Most cases were classified as mild (81%; ie, nonpneumonia and mild pneumonia). However, 14% were severe (ie, dyspnea, respiratory frequency ≥30/min, blood oxygen saturation ≤93%, partial pressure of arterial oxygen to fraction of inspired oxygen ratio <300, and/or lung infiltrates >50% within 24 to 48 hours), and 5% were critical (ie, respiratory failure, septic shock, and/or multiple organ dysfunction or failure) ( Box ). 1
The overall case-fatality rate (CFR) was 2.3% (1023 deaths among 44 672 confirmed cases). No deaths occurred in the group aged 9 years and younger, but cases in those aged 70 to 79 years had an 8.0% CFR and cases in those aged 80 years and older had a 14.8% CFR. No deaths were reported among mild and severe cases. The CFR was 49.0% among critical cases. CFR was elevated among those with preexisting comorbid conditions—10.5% for cardiovascular disease, 7.3% for diabetes, 6.3% for chronic respiratory disease, 6.0% for hypertension, and 5.6% for cancer. Among the 44 672 cases, a total of 1716 were health workers (3.8%), 1080 of whom were in Wuhan (63%). Overall, 14.8% of confirmed cases among health workers were classified as severe or critical and 5 deaths were observed. 1
COVID-19 rapidly spread from a single city to the entire country in just 30 days. The sheer speed of both the geographical expansion and the sudden increase in numbers of cases surprised and quickly overwhelmed health and public health services in China, particularly in Wuhan City and Hubei Province. Epidemic curves reflect what may be a mixed outbreak pattern, with early cases suggestive of a continuous common source, potentially zoonotic spillover at Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market, and later cases suggestive of a propagated source as the virus began to be transmitted from person to person ( Figure 1 ). 1
Daily numbers of confirmed cases are plotted by date of onset of symptoms (blue) and by date of diagnosis (orange). Because, on retrospective investigation, so few cases experienced illness in December, these cases are shown in the inset. The difference between the cases by date of symptom onset curve (blue) and the cases by date of diagnosis curve (orange) illustrates lag time between the start of illness and diagnosis of COVID-19 by viral nucleic acid testing. The graph's x-axis (dates from December 8, 2019, to February 11, 2020) is also used as a timeline of major milestones in the epidemic response. The first few cases of pneumonia of unknown etiology are shown in blue boxes on December 26 (n = 4) and 28-29 (n = 3). Most other cases that experienced onset of symptoms in December were only discovered when retrospectively investigated. Major epidemic response actions taken by the Chinese government are shown in brown boxes. The normally scheduled Lunar New Year national holiday is shown in light yellow, whereas the extended holiday during which attendance at school and work was prohibited (except for critical personnel such as health workers and police) is shown in dark yellow. This figure was adapted with permission. 1 CDC indicates Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention; HICWM, Hubei Integrated Chinese and Western Medicine; 2019-nCoV, 2019 novel coronavirus; WHO, World Health Organization.
Comparison of COVID-19 With SARS and MERS
The current COVID-19 outbreak is both similar and different to the prior severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS; 2002-2003) and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS; 2012-ongoing) outbreaks. SARS was initiated by zoonotic transmission of a novel coronavirus (likely from bats via palm civets) in markets in Guangdong Province, China. MERS was also traced to zoonotic transmission of a novel coronavirus (likely from bats via dromedary camels) in Saudi Arabia. All 3 viral infections commonly present with fever and cough, which frequently lead to lower respiratory tract disease with poor clinical outcomes associated with older age and underlying health conditions. Confirmation of infection requires nucleic acid testing of respiratory tract samples (eg, throat swabs), but clinical diagnosis may be made based on symptoms, exposures, and chest imaging. Supportive care for patients is typically the standard protocol because no specific effective antiviral therapies have been identified.
The World Health Organization (WHO) declared the SARS outbreak contained on July 5, 2003. A total of 8096 SARS cases and 774 deaths across 29 countries were reported for an overall CFR of 9.6%. MERS is still not contained and is thus far responsible for 2494 confirmed cases and 858 deaths across 27 countries for a CFR of 34.4%. Despite much higher CFRs for SARS and MERS, COVID-19 has led to more total deaths due to the large number of cases. As of the end of February 18, 2020, China has reported 72 528 confirmed cases (98.9% of the global total) and 1870 deaths (99.8% of the global total). This translates to a current crude CFR of 2.6%. However, the total number of COVID-19 cases is likely higher due to inherent difficulties in identifying and counting mild and asymptomatic cases. Furthermore, the still-insufficient testing capacity for COVID-19 in China means that many suspected and clinically diagnosed cases are not yet counted in the denominator. 2 This uncertainty in the CFR may be reflected by the important difference between the CFR in Hubei (2.9%) compared with outside Hubei (0.4%). 1 , 2 Nevertheless, all CFRs still need to be interpreted with caution and more research is required.
Most secondary transmission of SARS and MERS occurred in the hospital setting. Transmission of COVID-19 is occurring in this context as well—3019 cases have been observed among health workers as of February 11, 2020 (of whom there have been 1716 confirmed cases and 5 deaths). 1 However, this is not a major means of COVID-19 spread. Rather, it appears that considerable transmission is occurring among close contacts. To date, 20 provinces outside of Hubei have reported 1183 case clusters, 88% of which contained 2 to 4 confirmed cases. Of note, 64% of clusters documented thus far have been within familial households (Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention presentation made to the WHO Assessment Team on February 16, 2020). Thus, although COVID-19 seems to be more transmissible than SARS and MERS, and many estimates of the COVID-19 reproductive number (R 0 ) have already been published, it is still too soon to develop an accurate R 0 estimate or to assess the dynamics of transmission. More research is needed in this area as well.
Response to the COVID-19 Epidemic
Since 2003, the Chinese government has improved its epidemic response capacity. Some of these efforts are evident in the response to COVID-19 ( Figure 2 ). For example, in the 2002-2003 SARS outbreak, 300 cases and 5 deaths already had occurred by the time China reported the outbreak to the WHO, whereas in the COVID-19 outbreak, only 27 cases and zero deaths had occurred when the WHO was notified (January 3, 2020) ( Figure 2 ). From the time of WHO notification, 2 months elapsed before SARS-CoV was identified compared with only 1 week from the time of WHO notification until 2019-nCoV was identified.
The timeline of events for the SARS outbreak (left) from first case to final worldwide containment. The timeline of events for the COVID-19 outbreak (right) from the onset of symptoms for the first case on December 8, 2019, to status on February 20, 2020. Over the course of the first 2 months, more than 70 000 cases have been confirmed and many more are suspected. WHO indicates World Health Organization.
a Identified later retrospectively.
The timing of the COVID-19 outbreak, prior to China’s annual Lunar New Year holiday, was an important factor as China considered how to respond to the outbreak. Culturally, this is the largest and most important holiday of the year. It is the expectation that people return to their family homes, which is the cause for the several billion person-trips made by residents and visitors during this time, mostly on crowded planes, trains, and buses. Knowing this meant each infected person could have numerous close contacts over a protracted time and across long distances, the government needed to quickly act. However, it was not only the speed of the government’s response, but also the magnitude of that response that were influenced by the impending holiday travel time. Knowing that specific treatment and prevention options, such as targeted antiviral drugs and vaccines, were not yet available for COVID-19, China focused on traditional public health outbreak response tactics—isolation, quarantine, social distancing, and community containment. 3 - 5
Identified case patients with COVID-19 were immediately isolated in designated wards in existing hospitals, and 2 new hospitals were rapidly built to isolate and care for the increasing numbers of cases in Wuhan and Hubei. People who had been in contact with COVID-19 cases were asked to quarantine themselves at home or were taken to special quarantine facilities, where they could be monitored for onset of symptoms. Enormous numbers of large gatherings were canceled, including all Lunar New Year celebrations, and traffic in Wuhan and in cities across Hubei was restricted and closely monitored. Virtually all transportation was subsequently restricted at a national level. All of these measures were instituted to achieve social distancing. In addition, an estimated 40 million to 60 million residents of Wuhan and 15 other surrounding cities within Hubei Province were subjected to community containment measures. Although these types of traditional outbreak response actions have been successfully used in the past, they have never been executed on such a large scale.
There have been some questions about whether these actions are reasonable and proportional responses to the outbreak. Some have argued that a number of these approaches may infringe on the civil liberties of citizens, and some of these measures have been referred to as “draconian.” However, it is not only individual rights that must be considered. The rights of those who are not infected, but at risk of infection, must be considered as well. Whether these approaches have been effective (eg, in terms of reduced infections and deaths averted), and whether these potential benefits have outweighed the costs (eg, economic losses), will be debated for years. 4 , 5
Importantly, another major goal of China’s current outbreak response activities is to help “buy time” for science to catch up before COVID-19 becomes too widespread. China must now focus on adjusting tactics and strategies as new evidence becomes available. 3 , 6 Much remains to be done and many questions remain unanswered. China is very grateful for the help it is receiving from the international scientific, health, and public health communities. The global society is more interconnected than ever, and emerging pathogens do not respect geopolitical boundaries. Proactive investment in public health infrastructure and capacity is crucial to effectively respond to epidemics like COVID-19, and it is critical to continue to improve international surveillance, cooperation, coordination, and communication about this major outbreak and to be even better prepared to respond to future new public health threats.
Corresponding Author: Zunyou Wu, MD, PhD, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 155 Changbai Rd, Beijing 102206, China ( [email protected] ).
Published Online: February 24, 2020. doi:10.1001/jama.2020.2648
Conflict of Interest Disclosures: None reported.
Funding/Support: This work was supported by the National Health Commission of the People’s Republic of China (2018ZX10721102).
Role of the Funder/Sponsor: The funder had no role in the preparation, review, or approval of the manuscript, or the decision to submit the manuscript for publication.
Disclaimer: The opinions expressed herein reflect the collective views of the coauthors and do not necessarily represent the official position of the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention.
Additional Contributions: We thank China CDC Weekly for its permission to re-create the epidemic curve with modifications.
Wu Z , McGoogan JM. Characteristics of and Important Lessons From the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Outbreak in China : Summary of a Report of 72 314 Cases From the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention . JAMA. 2020;323(13):1239–1242. doi:10.1001/jama.2020.2648
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Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) are now used in multiple sectors for a vast array of purposes. These vehicles working in swarms can be used for reconnaissance, search and rescue, photography, and crop monitoring. In addition, the versatility of UAVs is highly utilized by several governments to play an integral role in the defense of a country. This survey paper provides a comprehensive study of the various advancements in the field of UAV swarms, such as Maximal Area Coverage, Path Planning, Intra-swarm collision avoidance, Obstacle avoidance, Formation of Swarms, Target tracking and Optimal resource allocation. An extensive study has been performed on each of these objectives, and an overview of the same has been consolidated from the year 2005–2024 in this survey. This study thoroughly examines the unique approaches used to accomplish the endeavors assigned to the UAV swarms. Moreover, the challenges and potential for future advancements in all the studies above have been highlighted. The research areas in the cutting-edge field of generative artificial intelligence have been clearly defined. This survey highlights significant advancements in UAV swarm technology over nearly two decades, focusing on key areas like coverage, path planning, and collision avoidance. It also outlines the challenges and future potential in integrating generative AI for further development.
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Department of Computer Science, PES University, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India
Preethika Ajay Kumar, Nandana Manoj, Neeraj Sudheer, Pranamya P. Bhat, Arti Arya & Richa Sharma
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Preethika Ajay Kumar: Conceptualization, Writing-Original Draft. Nandana Manoj: Conceptualization, Writing-Original Draft. Neeraj Sudheer: Conceptualization, Writing-Original Draft. Pranamya P Bhat: Conceptualization, Writing-Original Draft. Arti Arya: Writing-Reviewing and Editing, Supervision. Richa Sharma: Writing-Reviewing and Editing, Supervision.
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Kumar, P.A., Manoj, N., Sudheer, N. et al. UAV Swarm Objectives: A Critical Analysis and Comprehensive Review. SN COMPUT. SCI. 5 , 764 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42979-024-03156-x
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Understanding epistemic justice through inclusive research about intellectual disability and sexuality anonymized for peer review.
2. epistemic agency and (in)justice.
Parliament really needs to pay attention to how people deal with disabilities, and remove the taboo from sexuality. They need to accept that not everyone just wants to share everything with their caregivers/healthcare professionals. Caregivers should live like us for a week. We need more agency. The ministry of health wants to know a lot about us, but we never see anything in return. Caregivers need to be trained better. The idea that sexuality doesn’t exist among us is ridiculous.
Tools [that are used for sex education] are often developed like ‘we did it together with people with an intellectual disability and now we’re done’, and then it turns out it doesn’t work (interviewee #2 in [anonymized source for peer review]).
4. epistemic justice and future inclusive research, 5. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.
1 | ). This means that categorization depends on socio-cultural expectations of normalcy as well as socio-cultural influences on development and support needs. |
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Verbeek, L.; Koning, M.; Schippers, A. Understanding Epistemic Justice through Inclusive Research about Intellectual Disability and Sexuality Anonymized for Peer Review. Soc. Sci. 2024 , 13 , 408. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci13080408
Verbeek L, Koning M, Schippers A. Understanding Epistemic Justice through Inclusive Research about Intellectual Disability and Sexuality Anonymized for Peer Review. Social Sciences . 2024; 13(8):408. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci13080408
Verbeek, Lesley, Mark Koning, and Alice Schippers. 2024. "Understanding Epistemic Justice through Inclusive Research about Intellectual Disability and Sexuality Anonymized for Peer Review" Social Sciences 13, no. 8: 408. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci13080408
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In eukaryotes, the nucleocytoplasmic export of bulk poly(A) + -mRNAs through the nuclear pore complex is mediated by the ubiquitously expressed NXT1-NXF1 heterodimer. In humans, NXT1 has an X-chromosomal paralog, NXT2, which exhibits testis-enriched expression, suggesting a role in spermatogenesis. Here, we report the in vivo interaction of NXT2 with crucial components of the nuclear export machinery, including NXF1, the testis-specific NXF1 paralogs NXF2 and NXF3, and the nuclear pore complex proteins NUP93 and NUP214. Further, NXT2’s NTF2-like domain mediates binding to NXF2 and NXF3. By identifying infertile men with loss-of-function variants in NXT2 and NXF3 , we link the impaired NXT2-NXF activity to disturbed germ cell development. The predominant absence of germ cells in men with NXT2 deficiency indicates its critical function already during fetal or first steps of germ cell development. In contrast, loss of NXF3 affects later stages of spermatogenesis resulting in quantitatively and qualitatively impaired sperm production.
The authors have declared no competing interest.
This work was carried out within the frame of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, German Research Foundation) funded Clinical Research Unit Male Germ Cells (CRU326, project no. 329621271, grants to F.T. and N.N.).
I confirm all relevant ethical guidelines have been followed, and any necessary IRB and/or ethics committee approvals have been obtained.
The details of the IRB/oversight body that provided approval or exemption for the research described are given below:
The Ethics Committees/Institutional Review Board of the University of Muenster (Ref. No. Muenster: 2012-555-f-S and 2010-578-f-S) gave ethical approval for this work. The Ethics Committee/Institutional Review Board of Nijmegen University gave ethical approval for this work (NL50495.091.14 version 5.0). The Ethics committee of Newcastle upon Tyne Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust (Newcastle, UK) gave ethical approval for this work (REC ref. 18/NE/0089).
I confirm that all necessary patient/participant consent has been obtained and the appropriate institutional forms have been archived, and that any patient/participant/sample identifiers included were not known to anyone (e.g., hospital staff, patients or participants themselves) outside the research group so cannot be used to identify individuals.
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Sequencing data of the MERGE study is available upon request to the corresponding author. Access to this data is limited for each case and specific consent of the respective samples. Sequencing data from the Nijmegen cohort have been deposited in the European Genome-phenome Archive(EGA) under the accession code EGAS00001005417 [ https://ega-archive.org/studies/EGAS00001005417 ] and will be made available upon reasonable request for academic use and within the limitations of the provided informed consent by the corresponding author upon acceptance. Every request will be reviewed by the Newcastle University Male Infertility Genomics Data Access Committee; the researcher will need to sign a data access agreement after approval. All other data supporting the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. AlphaFold2 structure accession code for NXT2 is AF-Q9NPJ8-F1 [ https://alphafold.ebi.ac.uk/entry/Q9NPJ8 ]. The mass spectrometry proteomics data have been deposited the ProteomeXchange Consortium via the PRIDE56 partner repository with the dataset identifier PXD052904 [ https://www.ebi.ac.uk/pride/ ] and will be released upon acceptance of the manuscript. Genetic variants identified in NXT2 and NXF3 were submitted to ClinVar (SCV005043065-SCV005043067; [ https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/clinvar/ ]). Source data are provided with this paper
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