short essay on coalition politics

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Coalition Government

A coalition government is a form of government in which political parties cooperate to form a government. The usual reason for such an arrangement is that no single party has achieved an absolute majority after an election.

In this article, candidates will learn about Coalition government within the context of the IAS Exam.

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Meaning of Coalition Government

The term ‘coalition’ is derived from the Latin world ‘coalitio’ which means ‘to grow together’. Thus, technically, coalition means the act of uniting parts into one body or whole. Politically, coalition means an alliance of distinct political parties

Coalition usually occurs in modern parliaments when no single political party can muster a majority of votes. Two or more parties, who have enough elected members between them to form a majority, may then be able to agree on a common programme that does not require too many drastic compromises with their individual policies and can proceed to form a government.

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Features of Coalition Government

The features of a Coalition Government are highlighted below:

• Coalition is formed for the sake of reward, material or psychic
• A coalition implies the existence of a least two partners
• The underlying principle of a coalition system stands on the simple fact of temporary conjunction of specific interest.
• Coalition politics is not a static but a dynamic affair as coalition players and groups can dissolve and form new ones
• The keynote of coalition politics is compromise and rigid dogma has no place in it.
• A coalition works on the basis of a minimum programme, which may not be ideal for each partner of the coalition.
• Pragmatism and not ideology is the hall-mark of coalition politics. In making political adjustments, principles may have to be set aside.
• The purpose of a coalition adjustment is to seize power.

In India, coalitions have come up before or after elections. The pre-poll coalition is considered advantageous as it provides a common platform for all parties to woo the electorate on the basis of a joint manifesto. A post-election union is intended to enable constituents to share political power and run the government.

Formation of Coalition Governments in India

The table below highlights the Coalition Government formed in India in the ensuing years:

Formation of Coalition Governments in India (1977-Present)

Merits and Demerits of Coalition Government

The merits and demerits of a coalition government is highlighted in the table below:

Demerits and Merits of Coalition Government

Frequently asked Questions about Coalition Governments

Under which conditions can a coalition government be formed, what are the positive and negative aspects of a coalition government.

Advocates of proportional representation suggest that a coalition government leads to more consensus-based politics, as a government comprising differing parties (often based on different ideologies) need to compromise about governmental policy. Another stated advantage is that a coalition government better reflects the popular opinion of the electorate within a country. Those who disapprove of coalition governments believe that such governments have a tendency to be fractious and prone to disharmony, as their component parties hold differing beliefs and thus may not always agree on policy.

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Coalition governments in India

Last updated on June 8, 2024 by ClearIAS Team

Coalition governments in India have played a significant role in the country’s political landscape, particularly since the 1980s. Read here to learn more about coalition governments in India, including their historical context, formation, challenges, and significance.

For the first time since 1962, a government has returned to power for the third consecutive term.

However, the Lok Sabha elections for 2024 results imply that there will be a coalition government as no single party crosses the majority mark 272.

The past two terms had seen single-party dominance in the lower house. The 18 th Lok Sabha heralds the return of coalition government in India.

Table of Contents

Coalition government in India

After independence in 1947, India was predominantly governed by the Indian National Congress (INC), which had a strong majority in the Parliament.

The dominance of the Congress Party began to wane in the late 1960s and 1970s, leading to the emergence of regional parties and the necessity for coalition politics.

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The Rise of Coalitions :

The first significant coalition government was formed in 1977 by the Janata Party, which united various opposition parties against the Congress Party after the Emergency period (1975-1977).

The coalition trend solidified in the 1980s and 1990s as no single party could secure an outright majority in the Lok Sabha (the lower house of Parliament).

Formation of Coalition Governments

• Political parties form pre-election or post-election alliances to secure a majority in the Lok Sabha.
• Pre-election alliances are made to contest elections together and share seats to maximize electoral gains.
• If no single party wins a majority, parties negotiate post-election to form a coalition government. This involves agreeing on a common minimum program and sharing ministerial positions.
• A CMP outlines the agreed policies and programs that coalition partners commit to implementing. It helps in managing ideological differences among coalition partners.

Punchhi and Sarkaria Commission on Coalition governments

Both commissions provided recommendations relevant to coalition politics, which has become increasingly prominent in India’s political landscape.

Sarkaria Commission (1983-1988)

The Sarkaria Commission was primarily tasked with reviewing the working of the existing arrangements between the Union and the states and recommending changes within the framework of the Constitution.

While it did not specifically focus on coalition politics, many of its recommendations are relevant to ensuring stable and effective governance, which is crucial in coalition settings.

Key Recommendations Relevant to Coalition Politics:

• The Governor should act impartially and not be influenced by political considerations, especially in coalition scenarios.
• Governors should be consulted by the Union government before their appointment, considering the views of the Chief Minister.
• Governors should be eminent persons from outside the state who are not involved in active politics.
• President’s Rule (Article 356) should be used sparingly and as a last resort. This is particularly important in coalition governments to avoid misuse for political gains.
• The imposition of the President’s Rule should be based on objective criteria, ensuring that a breakdown of constitutional machinery is evident.
• In cases of a hung assembly, the Governor should invite the leader of the largest pre-poll alliance or the single largest party claiming support to form the government.
• The Governor should ensure that the new government enjoys majority support in the assembly through a floor test.
• Strengthening the Inter-State Council for better coordination between the Centre and the states, which is critical when coalition partners are from different states and parties.

Punchhi Commission (2007-2010)

The Punchhi Commission was established to look into the new issues of Centre-State relations in the context of socio-economic developments since the Sarkaria Commission’s recommendations.

• The Governor should be a detached figure without political ties to ensure unbiased decisions, especially crucial during coalition formations.
• The process for appointing the Governor should involve consultations with the state Chief Minister to maintain a non-partisan stance.
• The application of the President’s Rule should be limited and subjected to judicial review to prevent its misuse, which can disrupt coalition governments.
• A floor test should be the rule to ascertain the majority of the ruling coalition.
• The Model Code of Conduct should be given statutory backing to prevent coalition partners from misusing their power during elections.
• The NIC should be revived and restructured to address the growing complexity of coalition politics and ensure national unity.
• Establish mechanisms to resolve disputes related to inter-state trade and commerce, which can become contentious in coalition arrangements with regional parties having divergent interests.
• Emphasized the need for stable coalitions and suggested mechanisms for improving coordination and policy consistency among coalition partners.
• Advocated for the implementation of a Code of Conduct for coalition partners to ensure smooth functioning and adherence to agreed policies.
• Recommended reforms to ensure better fiscal management and distribution of resources between the Centre and the states, which is crucial for the stability of coalition governments where partners may represent different states with varying fiscal needs.

Notable Coalition Governments

• Formed by an alliance of parties like Janata Party, Bharatiya Lok Dal, and others.
• Collapsed due to internal conflicts and defections.
• In 1991, when India was facing a foreign reserves crisis, Narasimha Rao’s government brought about three big-ticket economic reforms – globalisation, liberalisation and privatisation .
• Led by V.P. Singh with support from the Left Front and BJP.
• Fell apart due to differences over policy issues and support withdrawal by BJP.
• Consisted of regional parties and the Left Front, supported by the Congress Party from outside.
• Short-lived due to instability and withdrawal of support by the Congress Party.
• Formed by the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and several regional parties.
• First successful coalition under Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee (1998-2004).
• It has been led by Prime Minister Narendra Modi since 2014.
• Led by the Congress Party with support from various regional and leftist parties.
• Governed from 2004 to 2014 under Prime Minister Manmohan Singh.

Challenges of Coalition Governments

• Coalition governments can be unstable due to differing agendas and interests of coalition partners.
• Frequent threats of withdrawal of support can lead to governmental paralysis or collapse.
• Coalitions often result in policy compromises to keep partners satisfied, which can dilute the effectiveness of governance.
• Managing diverse ideologies and regional aspirations within a coalition can be challenging.
• Internal conflicts and lack of cohesion among partners can hinder decision-making.
• Coalition governments may focus more on short-term survival rather than long-term policy planning and implementation.

Significance of Coalition Governments

• Coalition governments allow for a broader representation of regional, linguistic, and ideological groups in governance.
• This inclusivity can lead to more balanced and equitable policy decisions.
• Coalitions can provide a system of checks and balances, preventing any single party from having unchecked power.
• This can lead to more consensual and democratic decision-making.
• While coalitions can be unstable, successful coalitions like the NDA and UPA have provided stable governments for extended periods.
• Stability is achieved through effective management of coalition partners and adhering to the CMP.
• Coalition governments have strengthened Indian federalism by giving regional parties a significant role in national politics.
• This has led to greater attention to regional issues and development.

Coalition governments have become a defining feature of Indian politics, reflecting the country’s diverse and pluralistic society.

While they pose challenges in terms of stability and policy coherence, they also promote inclusivity, representation, and democratic governance.

The success of coalition governments depends on the ability of political leaders to negotiate, compromise, and work collaboratively towards common goals.

-Article by Swathi Satish

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What Is a Coalition Government?

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A coalition government is a form of government in which two or more political parties cooperate to form a government.

Key takeaways: Coalition Government

• A coalition government is formed when no one party in a proportional representative electoral system holds enough seats to dominate the legislature.
• Coalition governments can occur under the electoral system but are more common under proportional systems.
• In some European countries, coalition governments are the norm.
• The main reasons for a coalition government are proportional voting systems, a need for power, and national crisis situations.
• Coalitions are beneficial because they provide a wider range of representation, increase negotiation and consensus, and encourage conflict resolution through compromise.
• However, they may be viewed negatively as they can be dissolved at any time, can result in a weakened mandate, and may fail to implement key electoral promises, causing the electorate to doubt the legitimacy of elections.

How Coalition Governments Work

Coalition governments are usually formed when no party holds an absolute majority in the nation’s parliament or legislative body after an election. Rarely necessary in countries with majoritarian electoral systems , under which a candidate must receive an absolute majority of the votes cast to be elected, coalition governments are more common in countries with proportional representation systems where citizens vote for political parties instead of individual candidates.

While the United States is typical of a country with a majoritarian electoral system, the United Kingdom’s parliamentary system is a democratic form of representative government in which the party—or a coalition of parties—with the greatest number of elected representatives in the legislature—the parliament—forms the government. The leader of the majority party automatically becomes the prime minister or chancellor. Executive functions of the government are exercised by members of the parliament appointed by the prime minister to a cabinet. The parties in the minority serve in “loyal opposition” to the majority party and have the constitutional duty to challenge its policies regularly. Prime ministers may be removed from power whenever they lose the confidence of a majority of the ruling party or of the parliament.

In proportional representation electoral systems like the United Kingdom, coalition governments tend to endure until a new general election result in one party gaining a majority in the legislative body.

Although the formation of a coalition government reduces the dominance of any single political party, power is one of the main motivations parties have for forming a coalition government. Despite having to compromise on policies, a political party would rather have some power than none at all. Furthermore, coalition-based systems encourage the diffusion of decision-making and influence in countries where power has been historically centralized by authoritarian regimes.

Regardless of their electoral system, coalition governments may also be formed in countries experiencing a time of national difficulty or crisis such as a war or economic depression. Typically more temporary in nature, coalition governments in such instances are formed in hopes of giving the government a high perceived degree of stability, unity, or political legitimacy. In a similar context, coalition governments can also play a role in reducing extreme internal political unrest. For example, the United Kingdom was led by multi-party coalition governments during both world wars. When no party held a majority, minority governments were normally formed with one or more opposition parties agreeing to vote in favor of legislation deemed necessary for the government to function normally.

In parliamentary democracies, the executive branch of government is elected by and accountable to the legislative branch, typically the parliament. The government needs to be supported by the majority of the legislators to be installed and remain in power. When no single party controls the majority, parties negotiate to form coalition governments that can gain the support of the legislature. Most literature suggests that to function efficiently, coalition governments should be made up of no more than the minimum number of parties needed to secure the majority vote in the legislature. 

To be successful in remaining in power, coalition governments must be beneficial to all of their constituent parties—there must be something in it for everyone. There must be mutual respect and understanding.  Each party must demonstrate an ability to understand the others’ point of view, even when there is disagreement. All parties must be open to compromise. Finally, there must be a sense of partnership, even if member parties are different in size.  A partnership does not mean that all responsibilities and positions are divided evenly within the coalition, but that each party is respected for the unique attributes it brings to the coalition and is given a fair and equitable say in how decisions are made and benefits and resources are shared.

Though all forms of goal-oriented political cooperation, coalition governments can be contrasted with alliances and networks. An alliance suggests a healthy partnership of at least medium-term duration, as compared with the more tenuous and temporary coalition government. Networks are a more informal but potentially broader grouping of actors organized for a specific purpose, problem, or task. In coalitions, alliances, and networks, the actors involved—whether nations in wartime, political parties in government, or nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) in political movements—each retain their distinctive identity and interests, but the purpose of all three is ultimately to aggregate the actors’ strengths to achieve some shared goal that none could achieve individually—the strength in numbers theory. However, the coalition is the most short-lived of the three.

Constituent members of government coalitions generally volunteer their services. However, because all members rarely have the same intensity of interest concerning the given goal or goals, some may provide rewards or threats to induce others to participate. As a result, differences in power among potential and actual coalition members matter, in who has the most influence in determining goals, agendas, and tactics. For example, in the 2003 war to oust dictator Ṣaddam Hussein in Iraq, the international coalition may have been a “coalition of the willing” or a “coalition of the coerced and the bribed,” but either way it was not a coalition of the equal, as the United States clearly commanded the effort.

While all government coalitions tend to be temporary, some may persist longer than others. The duration may be a function of power relationships. A particularly dominant coalition member or set of members, for instance, may be able to either dissolve the coalition or maintain ongoing adherence. Long-term participation in a coalition may cause individual members to perceive a broader set of shared interests and beliefs among them, leading them to transform the coalition into a more-integrated and enduring political community For instance, repeated coordination in the wars of the 20th century transformed what was initially a loose coalition among the Western democratic countries into a broader and more powerful Atlantic Alliance, now recognized as NATO .

Notable Examples 

Recent history teems with examples of both frail and enduring coalition governments. Coalition governments are common in European countries such as Finland, Switzerland, and Italy.

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Since Finland declared its independence from Russia in 1917, no single political party has held an absolute majority in the parliament. Instead, coalition governments have become the foundation of the Finnish Government. Apart from a few historical exceptions, a government is usually assembled by the representatives of two major parties and a number of smaller parties. In 2019, after the center-left Social Democratic Party made electoral gains in Parliament, they entered a coalition comprised of the Centre Party, Green League, Left Alliance, and Swedish People's Party of Finland. This alliance was formed to keep the right-wing populist Finns Party out of government after they made electoral gains.

Switzerland

Switzerland is currently governed by a coalition of four parties that have remained in power since 1959. The Swiss government is composed of the Free Democratic Party, Social Democratic Party, Christian Democratic Party, and the Swiss People's Party. Like Finland, members of the Swiss Parliament are elected according to a proportional system. In Switzerland, this is known as the "magic formula" as its system distributes seven ministerial positions between each of the major parties

Elections in Italy are more complicated. After the fall of Benito Mussolini's Fascist regime in 1943, an electoral system was developed to encourage coalition governments. This is known as a Mixed Electoral System, which adopts elements of plurality and proportional representation systems. During elections, the first vote takes place in small districts using plurality, with proportional representation used in large electoral districts. Italian nationals living overseas also have their votes included using proportional representation. Italy's electoral system encourages coalition governments, but not stable ones. The average lifespan for Italian coalition governments is less than a year.

Advantages and Disadvantages 

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A coalition government is generally seen as an unstable form of government. It needs to reach a balance between all predominate political parties while making a coalition government. The executives of coalition governments must listen to the demands of these parties. To take the majority decision on a topic becomes more difficult due to the different opinions of the political parties and the fear that the government might be dissolved at any time. However, history has shown some specific advantages and disadvantages of coalition governments.

Advocates of proportional representation suggest that a coalition government leads to more consensus-based politics, as a government comprising differing parties based on different ideologies needs to compromise about governmental policy. This leads to a greater breadth of representation. In two-party systems, those who support or are involved with smaller parties often feel their voices are not heard. However, coalition governments can act as a remedy to this. A coalition government represents a broader spectrum of people and a wider range of views, therefore making them more democratic and fairer.

Professor of History Richard Vinen from King's College London, for example, says it can be difficult for a single-party majority government to push through tough legislation without causing a backlash from the public and other political parties as often the case in the United States.

In a coalition, he says, a wider range of parties are responsible for those decisions so the electorate is more willing to accept hard-hitting policies like raising taxes vs. cutting public spending.

He also says coalitions bring new voices into government with opinions and ideas that might not otherwise be heard. The ability to include a variety of voices from different regions, when implemented properly, can help to build democracy in countries where doing so has been historically difficult. When voters believe smaller parties might form a part of the government and might have a chance for political power, they may be more likely to vote for a party they feel accurately represents them rather than just choosing between the two main parties.

"It's often gone with de-radicalization of politics," said Vinen. "It's often gone with quite unexpected groups being brought into the political consensus—so the German Greens collaborating in government, for example, and the French Communists in the early 1980s collaborating in government."

Coalition governments must focus much more on compromise, negotiation, and developing a cross-party consensus than majority governments. Coalitions are based on post-election deals between parties that formulate legislative programs that draw on the policy commitments of two or more parties. In this way, they provide greater opportunities for conflict resolution. Tending to represent a wider set of views, thus reducing the risk of adversarial politics developing, coalition governments can also have smoother continuity in administration.

Disadvantages

Since smaller parties can barter for more support than they have achieved proportionally at the ballot box, coalition governments can occasionally function less democratically. When a party with little popular support is offered positions of power they have not achieved through the electoral process, it could impose its views and policies on the majority. Minority parties may try to play "kingmaker" and, particularly in close elections, gain far more power in exchange for their support than the size of their vote would otherwise justify.

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Another issue with coalition governments is that party platforms and promises presented during the campaigns are often little more than the basis for earning people’s votes in the first place and are rendered mostly irrelevant and unrealistic after the government is assembled. During the post-election deals which are negotiated between potential coalition partners, parties often abandon certain manifesto promises they have made. Coalitions generally take a short-term point of view as they cannot count on being re-elected in the same form again. These disadvantages may lead to a weakened faith in elections and an increase in voter apathy.

Perhaps the biggest disadvantage of coalition governments is that they are unstable and can trudge along without achieving very much as political partners may fundamentally disagree with each other ideologically. Coalition governments may develop into a situation where the constituent parties aim to “please everyone,” both their coalition partners and the voters. In coalition governments “the lowest common denominator always wins,” meaning strong, but necessary decisions may not be made. In this context of chaos over compromise, coalition governments may be dissolved at any time. Italy, for example, has a history of fractious coalition governments with over 60 in power since 1945.

Critics of coalition governments say “the lowest common denominator always wins,” meaning strong, but necessary decisions may not be made.

Professor of government and international affairs Christian Schweiger, from Britain’s Durham University, says coalitions are an inefficient form of government. He says this is so even in Germany, which is Europe's largest economy and is widely held up as an example of the benefits of coalitions.

"I would argue that in terms of political efficiency and in terms of efficiency of implementing a coherent agenda, trying to make swift decisions particularly on the economy, it has been very problematic in recent years," noted Schweiger.

• Matas Dalmases, Jordi. “Guide to forming a coalition government.” Edicions de la Universitat de Barcelona; April 30, 2021; ISBN-10: ‎8491686010.
• Evans, Matt. “Coalition Government as a Reflection of a Nation’s Politics and Society.” Routledge; November 12, 2019; ISBN-10: ‎1138392111.
• Müller, Wolfgang C. (Ed), “Coalition Governments in Western Europe.” Oxford University Press; December 28, 2000; ISBN-10: ‎0198297602.
• Schwartz, Daniel. “Coalition government: Precedents from around the world.” CBC News , May 13, 2010, https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/coalition-government-precedents-from-around-the-world-1.876563.
• Conti, Nicolò (Ed.), “The Challenge of Coalition Government: The Italian Case.” Routledge; December 15, 2014; ISBN-10: ‎1138815101.
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coalition government

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coalition government , in a parliamentary government , body of advisors that is formed when different political parties choose to cooperate in the administration and regulation of a country or community . Coalition governments usually are a temporary alliance, being formed when no single political party gains a clear majority and competing parties instead negotiate to work together. Such a situation is likely to occur during a period of crisis, such as during a war , or in response to political breakdown. Members of all parties in a coalition government are appointed to a cabinet .

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Coalition Politics and Government Formation

Coalition politics and government formation.

Introduced by Veronica Anghel*.

Multi-party systems lead to coalition governments and with increasing polarization, coalitions are getting harder to form.  Just look at the current situation in Belgium, Italy or Spain.  The challenge is to understand what ‘harder’ means in terms of the interests, bargaining tactics, and payoffs that are in play. The vast and growing literature on coalition formation is the place to look in finding the answers. The editorial team at Government & Opposition is committed to secure ample space for contemporary debates on coalition governments. There is much to learn, understand, and predict about current affairs by looking at coalition formation and termination patterns.  Coalition politics provide important indicators of parties’ ability to compromise and form consensus. The resilience and adaptability of institutional design is critical as political elites increasingly decouple their self-interest from the public interest under the guise of populist rhetoric. This is a special collection of articles that deal with the complexities of coalition administration and the impact these have on government and society.

Coalition payoffs are the end goal of negotiations. Whether policy or office, parties aim for benefits in exchange for supporting a government. Matt Evans shows how formateur parties have an edge in obtaining policy-salient ministerial payoffs, while non-formateurs have an advantage in securing policy-salient deputy (junior) minister positions. The results are not always intuitive.  The highly coveted role of foreign minister is usually distributed to cabinet members from the larger party, and yet there are instances when this office is gained by junior coalition members.  Kai Oppermann and Klaus Brummer show the conditions under which the foreign ministry is likely to be allocated to a ‘junior coalition partner’ .

The success of negotiations assumes of course that the parties are willing to come to an agreement.  Not all political parties negotiate in good faith, however, and so make demands that the others cannot tolerate.  Keeping the wolf from the door, in this context, may be the priority for bargaining.  When different sized parties fail to reach common ground in negotiations or there is a consensus reached to leave out extremists, the two largest parties in a parliamentary system may consider the solution to engage in a ‘grand coalition’. By comparing the use of grand coalitions in Austria and Germany , Wade Jacoby investigates the conditions for success of this strategy to rally the party system against insurgent populist challengers. Jacoby also looks at the prospects for failure when this strategy is deployed too often or relied upon too heavily.

Very often, coalition negotiations also lead to the formation of minority governments. Veronica Anghel and Maria Thurk examine the rationality behind this choice.  This is where the question of interests comes into play.  Anghel and Thurk suggest that that ethno-regional parties are mostly policy-seeking and target benefits for their specific groups , while mainstream parties make stronger claims for office distribution. This diversity of interests affects other types of parties as well.  For example, Kate Crowley and Sharon Moore also expose green parties as mostly policy seeking when supporting minority governments and observe that repeat instances of such support can provide the basis for more stable and effective future interparty governing relationships.

The range of interests in play tends to increase with the number of parties and the range of political ideologies added into the mix.  Unsurprisingly, therefore, the European Parliament emerges as an extreme case.  This is not to suggest that the EP cannot function as a parliament, but rather that coalition building in the European Parliament may prove to be an ongoing and continuous process.  Daniel Finke and Annika Herbel show what this means in a legislative context by exploring the ways in which European Union policies may be affected by party groups co-sponsorship of position papers .

Coalition bargaining is a central concern in the study of Government & Opposition .  As research keeps pace with ongoing developments, we hope you will consider joining the conversation. The submission tab is located just under the search window on our home page .

Analysing Payoff Salience in Coalition Allocation: Ministers, Deputy Ministers and Committee Chairs

• Government and Opposition , Volume 55 , Issue 3

Who Gets What in Foreign Affairs? Explaining the Allocation of Foreign Ministries in Coalition Governments

• Kai Oppermann , Klaus Brummer
• Government and Opposition , Volume 55 , Issue 2

Grand Coalitions and Democratic Dysfunction: Two Warnings from Central Europe

• Wade Jacoby
• Government and Opposition , Volume 52 , Issue 2

Under the Influence: Pay-Offs to Legislative Support Parties under Minority Governments

• Veronica Anghel , Maria Thürk
• Government and Opposition , Volume 56 , Issue 1

Stepping Stone, Halfway House or Road to Nowhere? Green Support of Minority Government in Sweden, New Zealand and Australia

• Kate Crowley , Sharon Moore
• Government and Opposition , Volume 55 , Issue 4

Coalition Politics and Parliamentary Oversight in the European Union

• Daniel Finke , Annika Herbel
• Government and Opposition , Volume 53 , Issue 3

*Veronica Anghel is a Government & Opposition Fellow.  Find out more about the new fellowship program here .

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Make Your Note

General Election 2024 and Coalition Government

• 06 Jun 2024
• 12 min read
• GS Paper - 2
• Indian Constitution
• Issues Related to Women

For Prelims: Coalition government , Economic reforms , Federal system , Fiscal Responsibility & Budget Management (FRBM) , PM Gram Sadak Yojana , Information Technology Act, 2000 , Right to Education Act , Right to Information Act , Right to Food , Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) , Aadhaar, GST

For Mains : Merits and Demerits of coalition government , Challenges of coalition governments

Why in News?

Recently, for the first time since 1962 , a government has returned for a third term after completing two consecutive terms spanning a decade.

• However, the result signifies the end of single-party dominance and heralds the return of a true coalition government at the Centre.

What is a Coalition Government?

• Coalition government is defined as when several political parties j oin hands to form a government and exercise political power based on a common agreed programme.
• Coalitions usually occur in modern parliaments when no single political party gets clear majority.
• If several parties with a majority of elected members can agree on a shared plan without compromising too much with their policies, they can form a government.
• Pragmatism and not ideology mark of coalition politics.
• Coalition politics is not a static but a dynamic affair as coalition players and groups dissolve and form new ones.
• A coalition government works based on a minimum programme, which may not satisfy aspirations of all the members of the coalition government.
• The pre-poll coalition is considerably advantageous because it provides a common platform for the parties to woo the electorate based on a joint manifesto.
• The post-election union is intended to enable constituents to share political power and run the government.

Recommendations of Punchhi and Sarkaria Commission on Coalition

• The party or combination of parties which commands the wide support in the Legislative Assembly should be called upon to form the Government.
• If there is a pre-poll alliance or coalition, it should be treated as one political party and if such coalition obtains a majority, leader of such coalition shall be called by the Governor to form the Government.
• The group of parties which had pre-poll alliance commanding the largest number
• The largest single party staking a claim to form the government with the support of others
• A post-electoral coalition with all partners joining the government
• A post-electoral alliance with some parties joining the government and the remaining including independents supporting the government from outside
• It was found that the interstate council worked whenever regional political parties had a major role to play at the national level. This signifies the role of coalition government in which regional parties plays an important role.

Other Development in 2024 General Election

• India has elected 74 women MPs to Lok Sabha in the 2024 general election four less than in 2019 and 52 more than in India’s first elections in 1952.
• These 74 women make just 13.63% of the elected strength of the Lower House compared to 46% of MPs in South Africa, 35% in the UK, and 29% in the US.
• Indira Gandhi has been India’s first and only woman Prime Minister.
• This is the highest-ever NOTA number for any Lok Sabha constituency ever.
• The NOTA option was introduced for the first time in the general elections in 2014.
• In Haryana, NOTA has been treated as a fictional candidate.

What are the Merits and Demerits of the Coalition Government?

• A coalition government brings together different parties to make decisions that are balanced and satisfy interests of various stakeholders.
• India's diverse cultures, languages, and groups make coalition governments more representative and reflective of popular opinion than single-party governments.
• Coalition politics strengthens India's federal system by being more attentive to regional needs than a single-party government.
• They are unstable because disagreements on policy issues among coalition partners can cause the government to collapse.
• In a coalition government, the Prime Minister's authority is restricted as they must consult with coalition partners before making significant decisions.
• The Steering Committee, like a 'Super-Cabinet' for coalition partners, diminishes the authority of the cabinet in governing.
• Smaller parties in a coalition government might have significant influence by demanding more than their fair share of power in Parliament.
• Leaders of regional parties influence national decisions by advocating for issues specific to their regions, exerting pressure on the central government to align with their interests under the threat of coalition withdrawal.
• In a coalition government, the Council of Ministers tends to be larger due to the interests of all major parties in the coalition.
• In coalition governments, members often avoid taking responsibility for mistakes by blaming each other, thus avoiding both collective and individual accountability.

What has been the Role of Coalition Governments in Reforms?

• Since 1991, India experienced coalition governments where the leading party was far from the majority mark of 272.
• Coalition governments have implemented some of the boldest economic reforms in India’s history.
• Economic Liberalisation (LPG Reforms): Liberalised the economy by removing the licence-permit raj and embraced global competition.
• WTO Membership: India became a member of the World Trade Organisation , integrating more deeply into the global economy.
• Dream Budget: Finance Minister was known for reducing tax rates, and fostering a more favourable economic environment for taxpayers and businesses.
• Fiscal Responsibility & Budget Management (FRBM) Act: Introduced fiscal discipline by limiting government borrowing.
• Disinvestment and Infrastructure: Pushed for disinvestment of loss-making PSUs and improved rural infrastructure through schemes like the PM Gram Sadak Yojana.
• Information Technology Act, 2000: Laid the groundwork for the booming e-commerce sector in India.
• Rights-Based Reforms : Various reformative measures were brought in like the Right to Education Act, the Right to Information Act , the Right to Food , and the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MG-NREGA) .
• Economic Deregulation: Deregulated fuel prices, initiated direct benefit transfers, and worked on the Aadhaar and GST systems.
• Despite the inherent challenges , coalition governments offer a platform for diverse voices and can foster consensus-driven policies.
• A well-functioning coalition, built on a foundation of mutual respect, strong leadership, and a commitment to national progress, can navigate the complexities of a vibrant democracy.
• The report suggested it would be best if all governments in India, at all tiers, mandatorily accomplish a 50-plus vote share.
• With this recommendation, Justice Venkatachaliah meant that only a government with a 50-plus % vote share would have the necessary legitimacy to govern.

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Question (PYQ)

Q. With reference to Deputy Speaker of Lok Sabha, consider the following statements: (2022)

• As per the Rules of Procedure and Conduct of Business in Lok Sabha, the election of Deputy Speaker shall be held on such date as the Speaker may fix.
• There is a mandatory provision that the election of a candidate as Deputy Speaker of Lok Sabha shall be from either the principal opposition party or the ruling party.
• The Deputy Speaker has the same power as of the Speaker when presiding over the sitting of the House and no appeal lies against his rulings.
• The well-established parliamentary practice regarding the appointment of Deputy Speaker is that the motion is moved by the Speaker and duly seconded by the Prime Minister.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

(a) 1 and 3 only

(b) 1, 2 and 3

(c) 3 and 4 only

(d) 2 and 4 only

Q. To what extent, in your view, the Parliament is able to ensure accountability of the executive in India? (2021)

Q. How far do you think cooperation, competition and confrontation have shaped the nature of federation in India? Cite some recent examples to validate your answer. (2020)

Policy-making in coalition governments

• Book Review
• Published: 11 February 2022
• Volume 21 , pages 657–659, ( 2022 )

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16 march 2022.

A Correction to this paper has been published: https://doi.org/10.1057/s41304-022-00375-9

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Dolinsky, A.O. Policy-making in coalition governments. Eur Polit Sci 21 , 657–659 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41304-022-00370-0

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Coalition Government in India and Economic Governance

Recently, the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) has returned to power for a historic third straight term at the Centre, but the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) itself has fallen short of the majority mark of 272, which implies there will be a coalition government.

Meaning of Coalition Government

• Coalition: The term ‘coalition’ is derived from the Latin world ‘coalitio’ which means ‘to grow together’. Thus, technically, coalition means the act of uniting parts into one body or whole. Politically, coalition means an alliance of distinct political parties.
• Coalition Government : A coalition government is one in which multiple political parties come together and often reduce the dominance of the party that has won the highest number of seats.
• Coalition governments are formed as seldom does a political party win the necessary number of seats to form the government on its own.
• First in India: In India, the first coalition government to complete its full-term was the Atal Bihari Vajpayee-led National Democratic Alliance from 1999 to 2004.
• In the words of Montek Singh Ahluwalia (former Deputy Chairman of the erstwhile Planning Commission), a coalition government is a strong consensus for weak reforms.

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Notable Reforms brought by the Previous Coalition Governments

By looking back at India’s economic history since 1991, it becomes clear that coalition governments have undertaken some of the boldest and most visionary reform s that laid the foundation for India’s resurgence.

• Since 1991, when India was forced to open up its economy and give up on the planned economy model, all governments were coalitions of the sort where even the lead party was quite far from the majority mark.
• Under the short-lived Deve Gowda Government: It came out with what is still referred to as the “dream budget” . It placed faith in the Indian taxpayers and cut tax rates – both personal income tax, corporate taxes, and customs duties.  
• It further advanced the push towards disinvestment of loss-making Public Sector Undertakings (PSUs).
• It focused on boosting rural infrastructure and connectivity through the PM Gram Sadak Yojana.
• It also brought in the Information Technology Act, in 2000, that laid the foundation for the bustling e-commerce giant that India is today.
• The RTI ACT 2005 , which boosted transparency in India’s democracy.
• The Right to Food, which ensured that no Indian should go hungry.
• It brought in the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MG-NREGA) , which provided minimum employment to the rural poor.
• It also deregulated fuel prices before it left office and started work on direct benefit transfers as well as Aadhaar and GST.

The Statistics

• The government achieved an average 7.4% annual growth in its first term between 2014 and 2019 – the fastest since 1989, when the coalition era started – growth rates under coalitions.
• The compound annual growth rate (CAGR) during the 10-year rule of the UPA at 6.8% was the fastest in India’s history.
• Growth averaged 5.6% between 1991 , when the Congress led by PV Narasimha Rao formed a minority coalition with Janata Dal, and 1999 when Atal Bihari Vajpayee-led NDA returned to power for its full five-year term.

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Merits of Coalition Governments

• Accommodation of diverse interests: Example: The United Progressive Alliance (UPA) government (2004-2014) included parties like the DMK, NCP, and RJD , representing different regions and interests.
• Representation of popular opinion: Example: The National Front government (1989- 1990), led by V.P. Singh, was a coalition that represented the anti-Congress sentiment prevalent at that time.
• Consensus-based politics: Example: The National Democratic Alliance (NDA) government (1999-2004) under Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee built consensus among its coalition partners on key issues like foreign policy and economic reforms.
• Strengthening of federal fabric : Example: The UPA government’s decision to create the Telangana state in 2014 was a result of the pressure from its coalition partner, the Telangana Rashtra Samithi (TRS) .
• Reduced chances of despotic rule : Example: The Janata Party government (1977-1979) was a coalition that came to power after the Emergency , effectively ending the single- party dominance of the Congress.

Demerits of Coalition Governments

• Instability: Example: The Charan Singh government (1979) lasted only for a few months due to the withdrawal of support by the Congress party.
• Curtailed leadership of the Prime Minister: Example: Prime Minister Manmohan Singh (2004-2014) often had to consult and accommodate the views of coalition partners like the DMK and the Trinamool Congress on key policy matters.
• Undermining of cabinet’s role: Example: During the UPA government, the National Advisory Council (NAC) , headed by Sonia Gandhi, was seen as a parallel power center, undermining the role of the cabinet.
• Smaller parties playing ‘king-maker’: Example: In the 1996 general elections, the Haryana-based Haryana Vikas Party, with just one MP, played a crucial role in the formation of the government by extending support to the BJP-led coalition.
• Regional parties bringing in regional factors: Example: The Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK), a key coalition partner in the UPA government, often pressured the central government to take a favorable stand on issues related to Sri Lankan Tamils.
• Lack of responsibility for failures: Example: During the 2G spectrum scam in 2011 , coalition partners of the UPA government, like the DMK, tried to distance themselves from the scandal, blaming the Congress party for the lapses.

Coalition governments in India, despite their challenges, have historically driven significant reforms and balanced diverse interests, contributing to robust economic and social progress.

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UPSC General Studies Notes-Coalition Government

A coalition government is a form of government where multiple political parties cooperate to form a governing majority in a legislative body, such as a parliament or a legislature. Here are some key points about coalition governments:

• Formation : Coalition governments are formed when no single political party secures an absolute majority in an election. In such cases, parties come together to form a coalition by agreeing to share power and resources.
• Composition : A coalition government comprises multiple political parties, each with its own agenda and ideology. These parties negotiate terms of cooperation, including distribution of ministerial portfolios, policy priorities, and power-sharing arrangements.
• Stability : Coalition governments can vary in terms of stability. While some coalitions function effectively and complete their term, others may face challenges due to conflicting interests among coalition partners, leading to instability and frequent changes in government.
• Policy Making : In coalition governments, policy-making often involves compromise and consensus-building among coalition partners. Parties may need to reconcile their differing ideologies and priorities to reach agreements on key issues.
• Influence of Minor Parties : In a coalition government, smaller or minor parties may hold significant influence, even if they have fewer seats in the legislature. They may use their bargaining power to advance specific agendas or extract concessions from larger coalition partners.
• Coalition Management : Effective management and coordination are crucial for the smooth functioning of coalition governments. Leaders of coalition parties must maintain communication, manage conflicts, and uphold the coalition agreement to ensure stability and governability.
• Examples : Coalition governments are common in parliamentary democracies worldwide. Countries like India, Germany, the United Kingdom, and Israel have experienced coalition governments at various points in their history.
• Reflects diversity: Coalition governments represent a diverse range of interests and viewpoints within society.
• Stability through consensus: Coalition partners work together to achieve consensus on policies, promoting stability and inclusivity.
• Power-sharing: Coalition governments provide opportunities for smaller parties to participate in governance and influence decision-making.
• Policy gridlock: Coalition partners may struggle to reach agreements on contentious issues, leading to policy paralysis.
• Ideological differences: Conflicting ideologies among coalition partners can hinder effective governance and compromise policy effectiveness.
• Risk of instability: Coalition governments may be vulnerable to internal conflicts and disagreements, potentially leading to government collapse or early elections.

Understanding coalition governments is essential for UPSC aspirants as they play a significant role in shaping the political landscape of many countries, impacting governance, policy-making, and democratic processes.

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