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Creating Cohesive and Coherent Paragraphs

What this resource is about:  .

Readers rely on a text’s organization to help them understand it. Well-organized and connected sentences lead to a cohesive, coherent piece of writing. Sometimes we refer to this as “flow.”  This resource explores some ways to create more cohesive and coherent writing.  

Topic and Stress:

Topic: The beginning of the sentence is what the reader understands to be the topic. When the reader knows the topic right away, the sentence feels clearer.   

In the example below, the topics are bolded. The first sentence isn’t wrong, but in the second one, you can see that naming the topic right away makes the idea more concrete.  

      1.  It has been predicted that the global average temperature will increase at a rate of 0.2*C/decade.

      2.  Global average temperature has been predicted to increase at a rate of 0.2*C/decade.  

                                                                                                                                                                       (Schimel, 2012, p.117)

Stress: The end of the sentence is what is being emphasized, i.e. what the writer wants the reader to know about the topic. In the examples below, the topic is bolded and the stress is italicized. The information is the same in all three sentences, but where that information is placed emphasizes different things.  

• Viruses were not studied in the sea until 1989 yet are its most abundant biological entities.
• The most abundant biological entities in the sea are viruses, yet they were not studied until 1989.
• The most abundant biological entities in the sea were not studied until 1989: viruses.  

                                                                                                                                                                       (Schimel, 2012, p.114)

Cohesive Writing Connects Topic and Stress:  

Sentences are cohesive when the stress of one sentence is used as the topic of the next. Below, the first example reads like a list of facts. The ideas are related but the sentences don’t connect. The second example connects the topics and stress which creates a sense of flow.  

• Molecules are comprised of covalently bonded atoms. Molecules’ reactions are controlled by the strength of the bonds. Molecules, however, sometimes react slower than bond strength would predict.  
• Molecules are comprised of covalently bonded atoms. Bond strength controls a molecule’s reactions. Sometimes, however, those reactions are slower than bond strength would predict.  

                                                                                                                                                                       (Schimel, 2012, p.126)

Another way to connect topics and stress is to vary sentence constructions. In the first example both sentences are written in active voice . In the second example, the second sentence is written in passive voice  in order to better connect the topic and stress.  

       1. Some astonishing questions about the nature of the universe have been raised by scientists studying black               holes in space. The collapse of a dead star into a point perhaps no larger than a marble creates a black                     hole.  

       2. Some astonishing questions about the nature of the universe have been raised by scientists studying black               holes in space. A black hole is created by the collapse of a dead star into a point perhaps no larger than a                 marble.  

                                                                                                                                                        (Williams & Bizup, 2017, p. 66)

Orienting-Informing Pattern

Readers are less confused when sentences start with something they already know or have already been introduced to. Then the writer can add new information, and the reader is better prepared for it. In other words, the writer orients the reader, then informs them (Cayley, 2011). Building sentences and paragraphs this way contributes to the overall sense of cohesion.  

Below, in the first example about salvage logging, the idea cavities is a new idea that comes out of nowhere. The writer skipped orienting the reader to the new idea; they went straight to informing. To make the paragraph more coherent, the writer describes what a cavity is before stating why it matters.  

• Salvage logging is an increasingly common way of harvesting forests that have been attacked by insect pests. In salvage logging, trees that have been attacked are selectively harvested. Cavities in standing dead trees serve as nesting sites for birds. The population biology of cavity-nesting birds is therefore likely affected by salvage logging.  
• Salvage logging is an increasingly common way of harvesting forests that have been attacked by insect pests. In salvage logging, trees that have been attacked are selectively harvested. The dead trees that are harvested, however, can provide cavities that are nesting sites for birds. The population biology of cavity-nesting birds is therefore likely affected by salvage logging.  

                                                                                                                                                                      (Schimel, 2012, p. 127)

Sources:  

Caley, R. (2011, March 020. Sentences . Explorations of Style: A Blog about Academic Writing. https://explorationsofstyle.com/2011/03/02/sentences/

Schimel, J. (2012). Writing science: How to write papers that get cited and proposals that get funded. Oxford University Press.  

Williams, J.M., & Bizup, J. (2017).  Style: Lessons in clarity and grace  (12th ed.).Pearson Education Inc. 

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Coherence in Writing

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Have you ever read a piece of writing and wondered what point the writer was trying to make? If so, that piece of writing probably lacked coherence. Coherence is an important aspect of good writing—as important as good grammar or spelling. However, it is also rather harder to learn how to do it, because it is not a matter of simple rules.

Coherent writing moves smoothly between ideas. It guides the reader through an argument or series of points using signposts and connectors. It generally has a clear structure and consistent tone, with little or no repetition. Coherent writing feels planned —usually because it is. This page provides some tips to help you to develop your ability to write coherently.

Defining Coherence

Dictionary definition of coherence

cohere , v. to stick together, to be consistent, to fit together in a consistent, orderly whole.

coherence , a sticking together, consistency.

Source: Chambers English Dictionary, 1989 edition.

The dictionary definition of coherence is clear enough—but what does that mean in practical terms for writers?

Once you have achieved coherence in your writing, you will find that:

Your sentences and ideas are connected and flow together;

Readers can move easily through the text from one sentence, paragraph or idea to the next; and

Readers will be able to follow the ideas and main points of the text.

On the other hand, a text that is NOT coherent jumps between ideas without making clear connections between them. It is often hard to follow the argument. Readers may find themselves unclear about the point of particular paragraphs or even whole sections. There may be odd sentences that do not fit well with the previous or following sentence, or paragraphs that repeat earlier ideas.

All these issues provide pointers for how to develop coherence.

Elements of Coherence

There are several different elements that contribute to coherence, or are closely linked to the concept.

They include:

Cohesion , or whether ideas are linked within and between sentences.

Unity , or the extent to which a sentence, paragraph or section focuses on a single idea or group or ideas. In any given paragraph, every sentence should be relevant to a single focus.

A joint effort

Together, cohesion and unity mean that sentences and paragraphs are connected around a central theme.

• Flow , or how the reader is led through the text. Some of this is about the ordering of ideas, but it also takes into account issues like phrasing, rhythm and style. Some people define flow as the quality that makes writing engaging and easy to read.

Levels of Coherence

We can consider coherence at several different levels. These include:

Within sentences. A sentence is coherent when it flows naturally, and uses correct grammar , spelling and punctuation . Coherence also includes the use of the most appropriate words, and avoidance of redundancy.

Between sentences . Coherence between sentences means that each sentence flows logically and naturally from the previous one. Connections are made between them so that readers can see the flow of ideas, and how each sentence is linked to the previous one.

Within paragraphs . This is a logical extension of coherence between sentences. Coherence within a paragraph means that the sentences within the paragraph work together as a whole to present a complete thesis or idea.

Why single-sentence paragraphs don’t work

This definition of ‘within paragraph’ coherence explains why you should (almost) never use single-sentence paragraphs. A single sentence is (almost) never going to be able to provide a complete summary of your thesis or idea.

Between paragraphs . For most pieces of writing, you will also need to consider how the paragraphs fit together. Each paragraph covers an idea or thesis—and must then be connected logically to the next paragraph, so that your overall thesis is built step-by-step.

Between subsections or sections . This final level of coherence is only really important for longer documents. You must create a logical flow between different sections, to guide your reader from one to the next so that they can follow the development of your ideas.

Techniques to Improve Coherence

The first step to improving coherence is to plan your writing in advance.

Decide on the main point that you want to make, and the ideas that will lead your reader towards your point. It is also helpful to consider your planned audience, and what they want from your text.

There is  more about this in our page on Know Your Audience . You may also find it helpful to read our page on Know Your Medium , to check whether there is anything about your publishing medium that you need to consider ahead of starting to write.

There are some techniques that you can use to help improve coherence within your writing. These include:

Using transitional expressions and phrases to signal connections

Words and phrases like ‘however’, ‘because’, ‘therefore’, ‘additionally’, and ‘on the one hand... on the other’ can be used to signal connections between sentences and paragraphs.

WARNING! Real connections needed!

Transitional phrases and words should only be used where the ideas really are connected.

Just inserting transitional expressions will not connect your ideas. Instead, you need to create a reasonable progression of ideas through a paragraph or section.

You also need to use transitional expressions sparingly. Not all ideas need an obvious link—and sometimes putting one in can seem awkward and contrived.

Using repeating forms or parallel structures to emphasise links between ideas

Generally speaking, repetition of words and phrases is unadvisable.

However, used sparingly, you may be able to harness repetition as a way to signal connections between sentences or ideas.

For example, many research papers have a section setting out the limitations of the study. These limitations can often be quite diverse, which makes for a rather disjointed section. To overcome this issue, writers often use the form ‘First... Second... Finally...’ to demonstrate the links between the disparate ideas.

Using pronouns and synonyms to eliminate unnecessary repetition

Repetition is often the enemy of coherence because it interrupts your movement through the writing. You tend to get distracted by the repeated words, and lose the thread of the argument or idea.

Pronouns and synonyms are a good way to avoid repeating words and phrases. However, care is needed when using them, to avoid ambiguity. It is advisable NOT to use pronouns following a sentence with two elements that might take the same pronoun.

For example:

John was sure that Tom was wrong. He had made the same argument last week.

Who made the same argument last week? John or Tom?

It is better to use at least one name again than create ambiguity.

TOP TIP! Come back later

It is often hard to detect ambiguity in your own writing because you know what you wanted to say.

It is therefore a good idea to leave any piece of writing overnight, and read it again in the morning. This will often identify problems such as ambiguous pronouns, and give you a chance to revise them.

Revisit, Revise and Review

Alongside planning, the single most important thing that you can do to improve the coherence of a piece of writing is to review and revise it with the reader’s needs in mind.

When you have finished a piece of writing, put it aside for a while. Overnight is ideal, but longer is fine. Once you have had a chance to forget precisely what you meant, read it over again as if you were coming to it for the first time.

As you start to read, consider the focus of your text: the main point that you want to make.

With that in mind, consciously examine whether the ideas flow clearly through your sentences, paragraphs and sections. Can the reader grasp your argument and follow it through the text? Is there an obvious conclusion?

While you are reading, you should also consider whether there are any very long sentences. If so, shorten them, using transitional words or phrases to link them together effectively. This will make your writing easier to read, and it will naturally flow better.

A Final Thought

It is not always easy to know how to create more coherent writing.

The best way to do so is to plan your writing, and then review it carefully. You should particularly consider your focus, and your readers’ needs. In doing so, you may find it helpful to use some of the techniques described on this page—but they will not, in themselves, be sufficient without the planning and review.

Continue to: Writing Concisely Using Plain English

See also: The Importance of Structure in Writing Editing and Proofreading Copywriting

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by AEUK | Aug 12, 2018 | Grammar | 0 comments

What is cohesion?

Cohesion refers to the way texts use grammar and vocabulary to ‘stick’ or ‘glue’ ideas together. This is done through articles  (a/an/the), pronouns (it/this/these/that/those/etc..), word families  (analyse/ analysis) / summary nouns (approach/trend/issue) and synonyms (effect/consequence). In addition to these above key areas, relative clauses, ellipsis and connectors are also important.

Pronouns: It / this / these / that / those / they

Using other forms of the key verb/noun:

Summary Nouns 

Using a noun  [this/these + summary noun]  to explain the key idea of the previous sentence.

Example: Many psychologists have been investigating the key reasons for divorce for many years. Their research / evidence   seems to suggest that a lack of communication is one of the key issues.

Key examples of Summary Nouns:

Nominalisation (verbs / adjectives to nouns)

An introduction to nominalisation. This worksheet shows the basics of nominalising, practises changing verbs and adjectives to nouns, and includes four exercises from guided practice through to freer practice. Very good writing practice activity with a fair amount of challenge for all levels.  Level ** ** * [B1/B2/C1]   Example   TEACHER MEMBERSHIP  /  INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

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Noun Phrases Worksheet

This lesson highlights what noun phrases are and provides valuable practice. it focuses on the key concepts of quantifiers, adjectives and nouns, noun + noun, noun + preposition and noun phrase combinations  (see example ).   level *** ** [b2/c1]   teacher membership  / institutional membership.

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Noun Phrases Worksheet 2 (detailed)

This lesson is designed to help students write more concisely by using noun phrases. it takes students through a whole range of tasks including noticing the language in context, eight guided practice tasks and five freer practice activities. there’s a language review sheet included too. (see example ).   level *** ** [b2/c1]   teacher membership  / institutional membership, parallelism worksheet: 8 exercises.

This worksheet provides an explanation of the key concepts of ‘parallelism’ and provides an error correction exercise to practise the key concepts. An awareness of this writing element really helps establish unity and readability in sentence structure. See Example worksheet.   Level: ** * ** [B1/B2/C1] TEACHER MEMBERSHIP  / INSTITUTIONAL MEMBERSHIP

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Writing with artificial intelligence, coherence – how to achieve coherence in writing.

• © 2023 by Joseph M. Moxley - Professor of English - USF

Coherence refers to a style of writing where ideas, themes, and language connect logically, consistently, and clearly to guide the reader's understanding. By mastering coherence , alongside flow , inclusiveness , simplicity,  and unity , you'll be well-equipped to craft professional or academic pieces that engage and inform effectively. Acquire the skills to instill coherence in your work and discern it in the writings of others.

What is Coherence?

Coherence in writing refers to the logical connections and consistency that hold a text together, making it understandable and meaningful to the reader. Writers create coherence in three ways:

• logical consistency
• conceptual consistency
• linguistic consistency.

What is Logical Consistency?

• For instance, if they argue, “If it rains, the ground gets wet,” and later state, “It’s raining but the ground isn’t wet,” without additional explanation, this represents a logical inconsistency.

What is Conceptual Consistency?

• For example, if you are writing an essay arguing that regular exercise has multiple benefits for mental health, each paragraph should introduce and discuss a different benefit of exercise, all contributing to your main argument. Including a paragraph discussing the nutritional value of various foods, while interesting, would break the conceptual consistency, as it doesn’t directly relate to the benefits of exercise for mental health.

What is Linguistic Consistency?

• For example, if a writer jumps erratically between different tenses or switches point of view without clear demarcation, the reader might find it hard to follow the narrative, leading to a lack of linguistic coherence.

Related Concepts: Flow ; Given to New Contract ; Grammar ; Organization ; Organizational Structures ; Organizational Patterns ; Sentence Errors

Why Does Coherence Matter?

Coherence is crucial in writing as it ensures that the text is understandable and that the ideas flow logically from one to the next. When writing is coherent, readers can easily follow the progression of ideas, making the content more engaging and easier to comprehend. Coherence connects the dots for the reader, linking concepts, arguments, and details in a clear, logical manner.

Without coherence, even the most interesting or groundbreaking ideas can become muddled and lose their impact. A coherent piece of writing keeps the reader’s attention, demonstrates the writer’s control over their subject matter, and can effectively persuade, inform, or entertain. Thus, coherence contributes significantly to the effectiveness of writing in achieving its intended purpose.

How Do Writers Create Coherence in Writing?

• Your thesis statement serves as the guiding star of your paper. It sets the direction and focus, ensuring all subsequent points relate back to this central idea.
• Acknowledge and address potential counterarguments to strengthen your position and add depth to your writing.
• Use the genres and organizational patterns appropriate for your rhetorical situation . A deductive structure (general to specific) is often effective, guiding the reader logically through your argument. Yet different disciplines may privilege more inductive approaches , such as law and philosophy.
• When following a given-to-new order, writers move from what the reader already knows to new information. In formal or persuasive contexts, writers are careful to vet new information for the reader following information literacy laws and conventions .
• Strategic repetition of crucial terms and your thesis helps your readers follow your main ideas and evidence for claims 
• While repetition is useful, varying language with synonyms can prevent redundancy and keep the reader engaged.
• Parallelism in sentences can provide rhythm and clarity, making complex ideas easier to follow.
• Consistent use of pronouns avoids confusion and helps in maintaining a clear line of thought.
• Arrange your ideas in a sequence that naturally builds from one point to the next, ensuring each paragraph flows smoothly into the next .
• Signposting , or using phrases that indicate what’s coming next or what just happened, can help orient the reader within your argument.
• Don’t bother repeating your argument in your conclusion. Prioritize conciseness. Yet end with a call to action or appeal to kairos and ethos .

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Brevity - Say More with Less

Clarity (in Speech and Writing)

Coherence - How to Achieve Coherence in Writing

Flow - How to Create Flow in Writing

Inclusivity - Inclusive Language

The Elements of Style - The DNA of Powerful Writing

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Cohesion concerns the flow of sentences and paragraphs from one to another. It involves the tying together of old information and new. When we write academic essays, particularly in the humanities, we work hard to foster cohesion structurally, which enhances a reader's understanding of our ideas.

Essay organization

The first paragraph should include a thesis statement, which announces the main idea or argument of the paper.The rest of the sentences should lead up to or anticipate the thesis, either directly or indirectly.

The body paragraphs should support the thesis statement and should be arranged in a clear hierarchy.

Readers should be able to understand how each paragraph relates to what has come before it. This can be accomplished by the use of transition sentences.

Repetition helps to enhance a reader's understanding of what the author has written. Pointers are used as a tool in sentences to use repetition for better understanding.

Pointers are words, phrases, or ideas that appear in a sentence, and are repeated in the next.

Example : Epilepsy is a brain or neurological disorder where excess electrical energy causes seizures. Seizures result when the brain's nerve cells, or neurons, produce an excessive or abnormal amount of electrical activity. Depending on this activity …

Example : Depending on this activity, three results may occur. First, the seizure may start and stop in one location. Next, it may spread a bit and stop. Finally, it may go through the body's nervous system before stopping.

To prevent repetitions from becoming dull, an author may use:

• Variations of the word (golf, golfer, golfing)
• Pronouns (doctors…they)
• Synonyms (jump, hop, bounce)

Transitions

Transitional words and phrases, also known as “tags,” are used to hold a paper together.They can be simple conjunctions, like and and but, or they can be more complex. Here is a chart of transitional devices accompanied by a simplified definition of their function:

Unit 8: Academic Writing Resources

51 Cohesion and Coherence in Academic Writing

The word cohesion come from the Latin verb  cohaerēre which means to stick together. In English academic writing, it is the responsibility of the writer to make sure that the ideas expressed in an essay are clear and easy for the reader to understand.

  Look at the two paragraphs below. They are almost identical. Which is easier to follow and understand?  Why?

Example 1: Research showed that universities provided inconsistent messages about the use of mobile computing devices. Some universities provided students with devices and instructors with implementation support. All instructors were not willingly taking advantage of those opportunities. Other institutions worked to provide university-related applications for the mobile device but did not support their use in learning. Some instructors at the universities deemed the devices as inappropriate and asked students to store them away when entering the classroom. This inconsistent message remains a barrier to the effective implementation of mobile devices in higher education.

Example 2: Research showed that universities provided inconsistent messages about the use of mobile computing devices. On the one hand , some universities provided students with devices and instructors with implementation support. Yet , all instructors were not willingly taking advantage of those opportunities. On the other hand , other institutions worked to provide university-related applications for the mobile device but did not support their use in learning. Therefore , some instructors at the universities deemed the devices as inappropriate and asked students to store them away when entering the classroom. This inconsistent message remains a barrier. In short, this inconsistent message remains a barrier to the effective implementation of mobile devices in higher education.

Text adapted from: Gikas, J. & Grant, M. (2013). Mobile computing devices in higher education: Student perspectives on learning with cellphones, smartphones, & social media.)

You probably noticed the second example contains a number of expressions which clarify the connections between ideas.

Techniques for building coherence.

When sentences, ideas, and details fit together clearly, readers can follow along easily, and the writing is coherent . The ideas tie together smoothly and clearly. To establish the links that readers need, use the methods listed here.

Repetition of a Key Term or Phrase

This technique focuses your ideas and keeps your reader on track. These repeated words and their related terms are sometimes referred to as lexical chains. 

Example : The problem with contemporary art is that it is not easily understood by most people. Contemporary art is deliberately abstract, and that means it leaves the viewer wondering what she is looking at.

Synonyms are words that have essentially the same meaning, and they provide some variety in your word choices, helping the reader to stay focused on the idea being discussed.

Example : Myths narrate sacred histories and explain sacred origins. These traditional narratives are, in short, a set of beliefs that are a very real force in the lives of the people who tell them.

This, that, these, those, he, she, it, and they   are useful pronouns for referring back to something previously mentioned. Be sure, however, that what you are referring to is clear.

Example : When scientific experiments do not work out as expected, they are often considered failures until some other scientist tries them again. Those that work out better the second time around are the ones that promise the most rewards.

Transitional Words

There are many words in English that cue our readers to relationships between sentences, joining sentences together. See the next chapter for more transition words. There you will find lists of words, such as however, therefore, in addition, also, but, moreover, etc.

Example : I like autumn, and yet autumn is a sad time of the year, too. The leaves turn bright shades of red and the weather is mild, but I can’t help thinking ahead to the winter and the ice storms that will surely blow through here. In addition , that will be the season too many layers of clothes to put on and days when I’ll have to shovel heaps of snow from the sidewalk.

This/These Plus Summary Nouns

A simple, efficient way to establish the old-to-new flow of information is to use:

• Demonstrative pronoun (This / These) + noun (singular or plural)

Consider the following sentences.

Example : Writing instructors know that students need to understand the differences between formal and informal language. This understanding can help students make strategic choices in their writing.

What does this understanding refer to?

Example : In recent years, the number of students applying for undergraduate admission at Ivy League colleges has increased steadily, while the number of places available has remained fairly constant. This situation has resulted in intense competition for admission.

What does this situation refer to? What is the effect of using this instead of that ? Could the writer have used only this instead of this situation ?

The phrases in italics contain a summary noun or word that refers back to the idea in the previous sentence. They summarize what has already been said and pick up where the previous sentence has ended. You may have noticed in your academic reading that this is not always followed by a noun—that is, this is unsupported or unattended. Keep in mind, however, that if there is a possibility your reader will not understand what this is referring to, your best strategy is to follow this with a noun so that your meaning is clear.

Chart of This/These + Summary Nouns

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Coherence & cohesion.

Coherence and cohesion are essential for aiding readability and idea communication.  Coherence is about the unity of the ideas and cohesion the unity of structural elements.  One way to do this is through the use of cohesive devices: logical bridges (repetition), verbal bridges (synonyms), linking words, and clear back referencing.  If these types of devices are missing in the text, it not only becomes more difficult to read the text, but also to understand its contents since the reader must guess how the various parts of the paragraph or text are connected, which will involve re-reading sentences or larger sections more than once.

With logical bridges, the same idea of a topic is carried over (repeated) from sentence to sentence, and successive sentences can be constructed in parallel form. With verbal bridges, key words or synonymous words can be repeated, pronouns can replace nouns and transition words (as shown below) can be used.   In the paragraph below, words and phrases that serve to increase the coherence of the paragraph are highlight and underlined. As this sample paragraph indicates, coherence and cohesion in a paragraph is established by combining more than one device.

A more direct way of emphasizing the inherent logic of a paragraph is through the use of linking words and phrases which mark transitions within and between sentences. The table below gives a sample of such linking words and groups them based on the connection they illustrate/indicate.

Back referencing is another effective device for creating coherence, but this device must be used carefully because it can cause confusion rather than create clarity. Consider whether or not the use of back referencing is clear in the following example.

It is perfectly acceptable to use back referencing, just be sure to make it clear. One way to do this, as exemplified in the remarks above, is to add a summary word to the back reference (e.g. this situation, where situation is the summary word). Using a summary word specifies the back reference, often making it much clearer.

• December 25, 2020

Cohesion and Coherence in Writing

Cohesion and coherence are often mentioned together because they are the two pillars of a well-written piece of writing. Without them, your work won’t make any sense to your readers. But what are they exactly? What is the difference between them? How do we achieve good cohesion and coherence? If you are trying to find the answers to these questions, you are at the right place.

What is cohesion?

Imagine a high-rise building. How is it made? Bricks, wood, and many other materials are put together to build it. In other words, all those materials become one large unit to make it happen. That’s what cohesion in writing is about. If your words and sentences stick together, they will form an essay or an article (our high-rise building). That said, not every word and sentence can be used with another word or a sentence. That’s why there are two main types of cohesion: Grammatical Cohesion and Lexical Cohesion .

Grammatical cohesion

As the name suggests, this type of cohesion deals with the grammatical relations between text elements. More precisely, it is about referencing, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction.

Referencing

Referencing means to refer back to something or someone that you have mentioned earlier in your essay. This can be done in several ways:

By using pronouns like I , you , he , them , us , mine , this , those … :  

• Alice loves hiking. She is also interested in rock climbing.
• A severe storm is expected to hit the town. This is the reason why people have turned to panic buying at grocery stores and pharmacies.

By using comparative references to talk about identity, similarities, or differences:

• Some animals like snakes and scorpions are venomous. Being too close to such animals is therefore unwise.
• Yesterday, someone on the street came up to me and asked for my autograph. He thought that I was Mark Wahlberg. Surprisingly, the same thing happened today.

Substitution

Simply put, substitution means to replace a word or phrase with another one to avoid repetition. The three most common words for this purpose are one, ones, and different forms of the verb do.

• I asked him which car he liked, and he pointed at the blue one.
• We had a stupid competition to see who could drink a bottle of milk faster. Jack finished before I did.

Ellipsis refers to the omission of a word or part of a sentence because the meaning is clear even without them. Since those parts are replaced with no other word(s), we can also call it substitution by zero .

Sentence with poor cohesion: I’d like to visit New York, but I can’t afford to visit New York.

Sentence with good cohesion: I ‘ d like to visit New York, but I can’t afford to.

Sentence with poor cohesion: Teenagers play online games as often as they can play online games.

Sentence with good cohesion: Teenagers play online games as often as they can.

Conjunction

The last type of grammatical cohesion is conjunction. It shows the relationship between a sentence and the one following or preceding it. This is usually done by using conjunctives (e.g., firstly, moreover, in addition, for example, nevertheless, on the other hand, however, in conclusion …).

• This is a simple process. However, there are dangers.
• It’s very expensive to live in New York. For example , I pay $1250 for a one-bedroom apartment.

Lexical Cohesion

Lexical cohesion refers to the meaningful relationship between the words in your sentences. There are two main forms of lexical cohesion: Repetition and Collocation.

Repeating keywords, phrases, and ideas throughout your work helps your readers follow the main threads more easily. Take a look at the example below to understand how it works.

My roommate is an annoying person. I am annoyed each time I have to shut the ice-covered windows that John, my roommate, insists on opening every night even during the winter.

Question: My English teacher once said that if we repeat a word, our cohesion score will go down. Is he wrong?

Answer: Well, word or phrase repetition is like adding salt to food. You can do it with the right amount, but if you repeat a word a lot, yes, it will have a negative effect on the quality of your writing. Let me clarify this point using our example.

Poor cohesion because of the excessive use of the word “ annoy” : In the early morning I am easily annoyed by my roommate. I am annoyed each time I have to shut the ice-covered windows that John, my roommate, insists on opening every night even during the winter. Another annoying habit of his is that he smokes cigarettes at home, which makes life unbearable to me. And last but not least, I am annoyed by the fact that he doesn’t care about his dandruff problem, and I have to cope with the white tornado swirling around the apartment.

Question: So what is the solution to this problem?

Answer: appropriate synonyms or more specific words !

Synonyms or near-synonyms are words that convey almost the same meaning. That said, you should always be careful because, in most cases, you can’t just replace a word with another. For example, many people believe that the words annoying and irritating are synonyms and can be used interchangeably, but the truth is that these two words cannot be used in that way 100% of the time. As for our example above, we can replace some of the repeated words with others that are close to the original ones but also more precise.

Better cohesion because of the use of synonyms or more precise vocabulary: In the early morning I am easily annoyed by my roommate. I am annoyed each time I have to shut the ice-covered windows that John, my roommate, insists on opening every night even during the winter. Another infuriating habit of his is that he smokes cigarettes at home, which makes life unbearable to me. And last but not least, I am disgusted by the fact that he doesn’t care about his dandruff problem, and I have to cope with the white tornado swirling around the apartment.

We could also take one more step and add more variety to our writing by using different parts of speech if we had to use a word more than once:

My roommate is a really annoying person. I am annoyed every morning that I have to shut the ice-covered windows that John, my roommate, insists…

Note: As you can see, I started the paragraph with the main idea (the roommate being annoying) and then provided vivid examples to support that while repeating the idea that the roommate is an annoying person. I used the same word , its synonym, and a word that conveys a close but more precise meaning. This is how you use repetition to your advantage.

Collocation

Collocation is how some words are often used together or a particular combination of words used in this way. For example,  “take a shower” is a typical collocation in English. These word combinations make your work sound natural; therefore, it is best to learn new words with their collocations. For non-native learners, the best way to learn them is to use a good online dictionary.

• Yesterday, I received an avalanche of emails .
• Unfortunately, domestic violence increased during the pandemic.

Other factors contributing to a good cohesion

Thematic development.

By now, we know that cohesion is all about sticking together. Thematic development refers to how a sentence prepares the reader for the next. To understand how it works, take a look at the example below:

People should consider doing unpaid community service from time to time. Such voluntary work creates a feeling of happiness among them and boosts their self-esteem . Experiencing those feelings on a daily basis  helps people have a higher sense of life satisfaction.

Notice how the second part of each sentence forms the theme/main subject of the next sentence . In other words, if you pay attention, you will see that the sentences are connected to each other like a chain.

Note: Although this kind of paragraph development results in very good cohesion, it is not always possible to develop your ideas this way. On such occasions, conjunctives are what you need to use.

Consistency in point of view

Point of view refers to the angle from which you want to present ideas. Do you want to tell the reader that those ideas are your opinions? Do you want to speak directly to your readers and give them some tips and advice? Or do you just want to present facts? In order to have good cohesion in your work, you need to choose the appropriate one and stick to it; otherwise, you’ll just cause confusion, and that is the worst thing that can happen to a piece of writing.

There are three main points of view that you can use in your writing:

First person: In this point of view, you use pronouns like I, my, me, we, our, and us to present your opinion. It is suitable if you are writing a personal letter or an opinion essay.

While I agree that healthcare and education must be the government’s first priority, I also believe that space exploration should be considered as the second.

Second person: In this point of view, you structure your work around the pronouns you and your. Use this point of view if you want to speak directly to your readers or give them some pieces of advice. As you can see, this paragraph is written in the second-person point of view.

Third person: This is the most formal point of view. You should use this in formal or academic writing. It uses the pronouns he, she, it, and they. Writers usually choose this one to present facts and not opinions.

When it comes to news editing, a variety of factors influence the process. First of all, the political affiliations of the editors or the owners of the media company play a major role in selecting the news items to be broadcast. They would like to promote their favorite political parties…

Consistency in tense

Use the past tense if you are referring to past events (e.g. I took a trip to Vancouver last summer, and I really enjoyed it), but if you are presenting facts and opinions, it is better to use the present tense. What’s more important is that you stick to one tense throughout your essay and avoid switching your tense unless it’s necessary.

Change can sometimes be a difficult thing to accept. No matter how big or small, sadly, many of us fear it.

Note: Sometimes, it is necessary to refer to past events. Take a look at the example below:

Change can sometimes be a difficult thing to accept. No matter how big or small, sadly, many of us fear it. Having said that, we should always remember that a change may sometimes bring about better opportunities in life. For example, when I was ten years old , my family moved to a new house. I was upset at first because I didn’t want to lose my friends, but my old friends and I figured out a way to hang out from time to time. Plus, we had such great neighbors that I made some new friends. Now I’m 15 and no more scared of changes.

Notice how the writer helped the reader understand which part is in the past and which is in the present by using time indicators. 

What is coherence?

Coherence is achieved when it is easy for the reader to follow the ideas and sentences in your writing. In other words, if the reader can easily move from one sentence to the other or from one paragraph to the next, the work is then coherent. One quick way to assess the coherence of a piece of writing is to read it and see if you can understand everything in one try. If you had to read the paragraph twice or more, it’s probably because it is not coherent. The following are some methods that you can use to improve your work’s coherence:

Improve your cohesion

Earlier in this article, we discussed cohesion and the ways that can help you improve it. Without cohesion, you cannot achieve coherence. So read those tips carefully and implement them in your writing. You’ll soon see a significant improvement in the quality of your work. However, cohesion is not enough to achieve coherence. A piece of writing can have cohesion but lack coherence. This is why you also need to follow other rules to create an easy-to-read essay.

Use transitional words or phrases to link ideas, sentences, and paragraphs.

Readers must always know where they are in the paragraph. Use transitional or linking devices at critical locations, not in front of every sentence , to help the reader know how your points are connected and understand where you are moving from explanation to example or from pros to cons. Using conjunctives, which are already mentioned in this article, can help you with this.

Bad coherence: Australia is home to many unusual animals. The platypus is a mammal but lays eggs.

In this example, the reader may think that the second sentence is a new idea, but it is strange jumping so fast from one idea to the next. So he or she hesitates to think about what is going on. That hesitation is a sign of poor coherence.

Good coherence: Australia is home to many unusual animals. The platypus, for example , is a mammal but lays eggs.

Now the reader knows that the second sentence is an example for the first one. There’s no need to stop and think because the flow of ideas is smooth.

Use parallel structures

Simply put, if you are writing about a list of things, all the items should take the same grammatical form.

Not parallel : I like to watch TV, playing soccer, and to eat pizza.

Parallel: I like to watch TV, play soccer, and eat pizza.

Parallel: I like watching  TV, playing soccer, and eating pizza.

Not parallel : A new athletic program is both worthwhile and a necessity.

Not parallel because worthwhile is an adjective, but necessity is a noun.

Parallel: A new athletic program is both worthwhile and necessary.

Now both of them are adjectives (the same grammatical form).

Not parallel: You can see birds on the ground, in the trees, and flying.

Not parallel because on the ground and in the trees are prepositional phrases, but flying is an adjective.

Parallel: You can see birds on the ground , in the trees , and in the air.

Now all of them are prepositional phrases.

Final Note : If you want to improve your writing skills, you should practice writing regularly. Also, make a habit of reading high-quality materials like magazines, novels, or online articles from reputable sources. If you do these, you will be on the right track and see improvement in your writing skills.

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Linguistic Features Distinguishing Students’ Writing Ability Aligned with CEFR Levels

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Hong Ma, Jinglei Wang, Lianzhen He, Linguistic Features Distinguishing Students’ Writing Ability Aligned with CEFR Levels, Applied Linguistics , Volume 45, Issue 4, August 2024, Pages 637–657, https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amad054

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A substantive body of research has been revolving around the linguistic features that distinguish different levels of students’ writing samples (e.g. Crossley and McNamara 2012 ; McNamara et al . 2015 ; Lu 2017 ). Nevertheless, it is somewhat difficult to generalize the findings across various empirical studies, given that different criteria were adopted to measure language learners’ proficiency levels ( Chen and Baker 2016 ). Some researchers suggested using the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) ( Council of Europe 2001 ) as the common standard of evaluating and describing students’ proficiency levels. Therefore, the current research intends to identify the linguistic features that distinguish students’ writing samples across CEFR levels by adopting a machine-learning method, decision tree, which provides the direct visualization of decisions made in each step of the classification procedure. The linguistic features that emerged as predicative of CEFR levels could be employed to (i) inform L2 writing instruction, (ii) track long-term development of writing ability, and (iii) facilitate experts’ judgment in the practice of aligning writing tests/samples with CEFR.

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How to Write a Hook- Steps With Examples

A hook in an essay or any piece of writing is like a fishing hook—it’s designed to grab your readers’ attention and draw them into the rest of your content. A well-crafted hook not only captures interest but also encourages readers to continue exploring what you have to say. If you’re unsure how to  write a hook that’s engaging, this article will provide you with effective tips for writing compelling openings, ensuring your engagement remains high.

What is a Hook?

A hook in writing is essentially a compelling sentence or paragraph that grabs the reader's attention from the very beginning. It sets the tone for the piece and entices readers to continue exploring what you have to say. To craft an effective hook, it needs to be engaging, informative, and suitable for the intended audience. This means it should capture interest, convey relevant information, and be appropriate for the reader's level and context. By focusing on relevance, audience, and cohesion, you can create a strong hook that not only draws readers in but also aligns with the main thesis and purpose of your writing.

6 Types of Essay Hooks

There are various types of hooks, each serving a different purpose and engaging the reader in unique ways.

Question Hook:

This type involves asking the reader a question that sparks their curiosity or gets them thinking.

For example:

"Have you ever watched the high-flying, jump shooting, slam dunking, ankle breaking players that play in the NBA?"

This question engages the reader by prompting them to visualize and think about the excitement of watching NBA players, setting the stage for a discussion about the thrill of the game.

Quotation Hook:

A quotation hook uses a relevant quote from a credible source to draw in the reader.

For instance:

"Some people want it to happen, some wish it would happen, others make it happen,” said Michael Jordan.

This quote from a famous athlete underscores the theme of determination and hard work, immediately connecting the reader to the topic of achieving success through effort.

Statistic Hook:

This type employs surprising or impressive statistics to catch the reader's eye.

"Just 0.00545 percent of the 550,000 boys playing high school basketball each year in the United States become a first-round draft pick."

This statistic highlights the incredibly slim chances of making it to the NBA, intriguing the reader with the stark reality and setting up a deeper exploration of what it takes to succeed in professional sports.

Anecdotal Hook:

An anecdotal hook uses a short story to illustrate a point and connect with the reader on a personal level.

"When I was in high school, I remember playing in an AAU basketball league and seeing a boy who practiced relentlessly every morning. Years later, he was drafted by the Philadelphia 76ers."

This story captivates the reader by providing a relatable and tangible example of dedication leading to success, making the topic more engaging and memorable.

Common Misconception Hook:

This type addresses a common misconception to grab the reader’s attention by challenging their existing beliefs.

"Many people believe that all professional athletes were naturally talented from a young age, but the truth is, most of them had to work incredibly hard to get where they are."

This hook piques the reader's interest by presenting surprising information that contradicts what they might think.

Rhetorical Statement Hook:

A rhetorical statement hook uses a bold statement or assertion to provoke thought or agreement.

"There's no shortcut to success in any field, including sports."

This kind of hook immediately sets a strong tone and encourages the reader to think about and agree with the statement, drawing them further into the essay.

How to Write a Hook [3 Steps with Examples]

Imagine yourself reading an article or an essay. Have you ever noticed that the first 2-3 lines set your entire mood? Either it looks interesting, or you might want to skip it. The same is true when someone reads your essay. This is why learning how to write a hook statement for an essay is crucial, and in this guide, I'll be sharing my process to help you write effective hook statements on your own.

I use a few simple steps for writing hook statements that help me craft an effective hook to engage readers and compel them to read further. Along with these steps, I also rely on writing tools, specifically WPS Office , which helps me significantly in writing a good hook. So, let's have a look at the process of learning how to write a hook for your essay, with a few examples.

1.Create an outline

First and foremost, you need to create an outline for your essay. This means your hook needs to be based on the information you plan to communicate through your essay. It's essential to lay the groundwork. Creating an outline helps you organize your thoughts and ensures your hook aligns perfectly with the rest of your essay.

Brainstorming:

To begin with your outline, start by brainstorming, where you can write down all the points you believe you can include in your essay. I usually carry out this step in WPS Writer, where I can type down all the important points I want to include in my essay. Additionally, if I find a few points on the internet, I can simply paste them into my WPS Writer document.

For example, let's say you're writing an essay about the impact of social media on mental health. Your main points might include:

The rise of social media usage

Positive effects on connectivity and community building

Negative impacts on self-esteem and anxiety

Strategies for healthy social media consumption

To further assist me in this process, I use WPS AI to help brainstorm ideas. A fresh perspective is always welcome, and when you're short on ideas, these suggestions can really enhance your essay.

Identify the Angle:

Once we have the main points, it's time to decide on the specific perspective or argument you want to present. This is where you'll start to shape your essay's unique voice. For instance, if your topic is social media, you might choose to focus on its double-edged nature, arguing that while it offers unprecedented connectivity, it also poses significant risks to mental well-being if not used mindfully.

Sketch the Structure:

With your main points and angle in mind, outline the basic structure of your essay. This doesn't need to be elaborate – a simple roadmap will do.

Your structure might look something like this:

Introduction (including your hook)

Brief history of social media's rise

Positive impacts on connectivity

Negative effects on mental health

Strategies for balanced use

Having this structure in place will help you craft a hook that seamlessly leads into the rest of your essay.

WPS AI can also assist in creating an outline. With a simple prompt, you can mention the details of your essay, and it will help you organize your main points and structure effectively.

2.Develop a Thesis

With your outline ready, it's time to develop your thesis statement. This is the core argument of your essay, and your hook should pave the way for it.

Be Clear and Specific:

Your thesis statement should clearly articulate your stance on the topic. Avoid ambiguous or uncertain statements. Focus on writing a precise and debatable assertion that provides a solid foundation for your argument.

For our social media essay, a strong thesis might be:

"While social media platforms have revolutionized communication and community-building, their unchecked use can significantly impact mental health, necessitating a balanced approach to digital engagement."

Ensure Relevance:

Make sure your thesis connects directly with the hook you plan to write. Your hook should intrigue readers about the argument you're going to make.

Keep it Focused:

Resist the temptation to cover everything in your thesis. A focused thesis is easier to argue effectively and helps keep your essay on track.

3.Write your Hook

Now for the exciting part – crafting your hook! Remember, the goal is to captivate your reader from the very first sentence. Let's look at some examples of different hook types we discussed earlier and break down why they work.

Example 1: The Question Hook

"Have you ever caught yourself mindlessly scrolling through your social media feed, only to look up and realize hours have passed?"

This hook works because it:

Directly engages the reader by asking a question

Relates to a common experience many readers can identify with

Introduces the topic of social media usage subtly

By posing this question, you're inviting readers to reflect on their own experiences, creating an immediate connection to your topic.

Example 2: The Statistic Hook

"In 2023, the average person spent 2 hours and 31 minutes per day on social media platforms – that's over 38 days a year scrolling, liking, and sharing."

This hook is effective because it:

Presents a surprising or shocking statistic

Immediately quantifies the impact of social media on our lives

Sets the stage for a discussion on the significance of social media use

Statistics like this grab attention by putting abstract concepts into concrete, relatable terms that can surprise or even shock your readers.

Example 3: The Anecdote Hook

"As I watched my teenage daughter burst into tears over a single Instagram post, I realized social media was no longer just a fun pastime – it had become a powerful force shaping her self-image and mental health."

This hook works well because it:

Tells a brief, relatable story

Evokes emotion and empathy

Introduces the theme of social media's impact on mental health through a personal lens

Personal stories can be powerful hooks, drawing readers in with emotional resonance and real-world relevance.

Example 4: The Quote Hook

"'We are creating and encouraging a culture of distraction where we are increasingly disconnected from the people and events around us,' warns technology ethicist Tristan Harris."

This hook is powerful because it:

Uses an expert's words to lend authority to your topic

Introduces a critical perspective on social media

Sets up a discussion on the broader implications of our digital habits

Quotes from experts can lend credibility to your essay right from the start, setting the tone for a well-researched discussion.

When writing your hook, consider your audience and the tone of your essay. Choose a hook style that aligns with your topic and engages your readers effectively. Don't be afraid to write several versions and ask for feedback – sometimes the perfect hook takes a few tries to get right.

And if you're still having trouble writing a perfect hook for your essay, you can try using WPS AI features like Improve Writing to craft more effective hooks. WPS AI will help ensure your hook reads well and communicates your message clearly to readers.

Bonus Tips: How to Polish your Hook with WPS AI

WPS Office is an excellent tool for anyone looking to enhance their writing. It's particularly useful as a writing companion, helping you refine your sentences, choose the right words, and correct errors. If you're struggling with writer's block, especially when trying to craft an engaging hook for your article, WPS Office can assist you in several ways.

Invoke the AI Writing Assistant:

This feature offers tailored suggestions for opening sentences or paragraphs that are designed to grab attention. It can help generate various types of hooks, such as intriguing questions, startling facts, or impactful quotes. By analyzing your topic and audience, the AI Writing Assistant provides options that resonate well, making it easier to start with a strong, engaging hook.

Request Feedback from the AI Chatbot:

The AI Chatbot reviews your initial draft and provides targeted feedback on your hook. It evaluates the effectiveness of your opening lines, suggesting ways to enhance their impact or refine your approach. Whether your hook needs more clarity, engagement, or relevance, the chatbot’s feedback helps you make necessary adjustments to ensure it captures and retains your readers' interest.

FAQs about Writing a Hook

1. why is it important to have a good essay hook.

A well-crafted essay hook is essential as it captures the reader's attention and motivates them to continue reading. Without a captivating hook, readers may lose interest and discontinue reading. An engaging hook ensures that the audience remains invested, thereby enhancing the likelihood of effectively conveying the essay's message.

2. What's the difference between a hook and a thesis?

A hook is a statement that captures the reader's attention and is positioned at the beginning of the introduction. A thesis explains the main point of the essay, paper, or other writing. Typically, a hook appears as the attention-grabbing opener, followed by additional sentences that connect it to the thesis, which presents the primary argument or premise of the writing.

3. How long is a hook?

A hook is typically one to two sentences long and appears at the beginning of the introduction. It should be brief and engaging to quickly capture the reader's attention and encourage them to continue reading.

Grab Your Audience Attention With The Help of WPS Office

As a writer, I often face challenges in writing something clever enough to grab readers' attention. That’s why I rely on WPS Office to help me on how to write a hook and its suite of tools to assist with my writing and content sharing. WPS Office offers a wealth of amazing tools and services that benefit everyone who uses them. I highly recommend downloading WPS Office to experience its powerful features for yourself.

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