what is geothermal energy essay

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Geothermal energy.

Geothermal energy is heat that is generated within Earth. It is a renewable resource that can be harvested for human use.

Earth Science, Geology, Engineering

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Geothermal energy  is heat that is generated within Earth. ( Geo  means “earth,” and  thermal  means “heat” in Greek.) It is a  renewable resource  that can be harvested for human use. About 2,900 kilometers (1,800 miles) below Earth’s crust, or surface, is the hottest part of our planet: the  core . A small portion of the core’s heat comes from the  friction  and  gravitational pull  formed when Earth was created more than four billion years ago. However, the vast majority of Earth’s heat is constantly generated by the decay of  radioactive   isotopes , such as potassium-40 and thorium-232. Isotopes are forms of an element that have a different number of  neutrons than the most common versions of the element’s atom.

Potassium, for instance, has 20 neutrons in its nucleus. Potassium-40, however, has 21 neutrons . As potassium-40 decays, its nucleus changes, emitting enormous amounts of energy (radiation). Potassium-40 most often decays to isotopes of calcium (calcium-40) and argon (argon-40). Radioactive decay is a continual process in the core . Temperatures there rise to more than 5,000° Celsius (about 9,000° Fahrenheit). Heat from the core is constantly radiating outward and warming rocks, water, gas, and other geological material. Earth’s temperature rises with depth from the surface to the core . This gradual change in temperature is known as the  geothermal gradient . In most parts of the world, the geothermal gradient is about 25° C per 1 kilometer of depth (1° F per 77 feet of depth). If underground rock formations are heated to about 700-1,300° C (1,300-2,400° F), they can become magma .  Magma  is molten (partly melted) rock permeated by gas and gas bubbles. Magma exists in the  mantle  and lower crust, and sometimes bubbles to the surface as  lava .

Magma heats nearby rocks and underground  aquifers . Hot water can be released through  geysers ,  hot springs , steam   vents , underwater  hydrothermal   vents , and  mud pots .

These are all sources of geothermal energy. Their heat can be captured and used directly for heat, or their steam can be used to generate  electricity . Geothermal energy can be used to heat structures such as buildings, parking lots, and sidewalks. Most of the Earth’s geothermal energy does not bubble out as magma, water, or steam. It remains in the mantle, emanating outward at a slow pace and collecting as pockets of high heat. This dry geothermal heat can be accessed by drilling, and enhanced with injected water to create steam. Many countries have developed methods of tapping into geothermal energy. Different types of geothermal energy are available in different parts of the world. In Iceland, abundant sources of hot, easily accessible underground water make it possible for most people to rely on geothermal sources as a safe, dependable, and inexpensive source of energy. Other countries, such as the U.S., must drill for geothermal energy at greater cost. Harvesting Geothermal Energy: Heating and Cooling Low-Temperature Geothermal Energy Almost anywhere in the world, geothermal heat can be accessed and used immediately as a source of heat. This heat energy is called low-temperature geothermal energy. Low-temperature geothermal energy is obtained from pockets of heat about 150° C (302° F). Most pockets of low-temperature geothermal energy are found just a few meters below ground. Low-temperature geothermal energy can be used for heating greenhouses, homes, fisheries, and industrial processes. Low-temperature energy is most efficient when used for heating, although it can sometimes be used to generate electricity. People have long used this type of geothermal energy for  engineering , comfort, healing, and cooking. Archaeological evidence shows that 10,000 years ago, groups of  Native Americans gathered around naturally occurring hot springs to  recuperate  or take  refuge  from conflict. In the third century BCE, scholars and leaders warmed themselves in a hot spring fed by a stone pool near Lishan, a mountain in central China. One of the most famous hot spring spas is in the appropriately named town of Bath, England. Starting construction in about 60 CE, Roman conquerors built an elaborate system of steam rooms and pools using heat from the region’s shallow pockets of low-temperature geothermal energy.

The hot springs of Chaudes Aigues, France, have provided a source of income and energy for the town since the 1300s. Tourists flock to the town for its elite  spas . The low-temperature geothermal energy also supplies heat to homes and businesses. The United States opened its first geothermal district heating system in 1892 in Boise, Idaho. This system still provides heat to about 450 homes. Co-Produced Geothermal Energy Co-produced geothermal energy   technology relies on other energy sources. This form of geothermal energy uses water that has been heated as a byproduct in oil and gas wells. In the United States, about 25 billion barrels of hot water are produced every year as a  byproduct . In the past, this hot water was simply discarded. Recently, it has been recognized as a potential source of even more energy: Its steam can be used to generate electricity to be used immediately or sold to the grid. One of the first co-produced geothermal energy projects was initiated at the Rocky Mountain Oilfield Testing Center in the U.S. state of Wyoming.

Newer technology has allowed co-produced geothermal energy facilities to be  portable . Although still in experimental stages, mobile power plants hold tremendous potential for isolated or impoverished communities. Geothermal Heat Pumps Geothermal heat pumps (GHPs) take advantage of Earth’s heat, and can be used almost anywhere in the world. GHPs are drilled about three to 90 meters (10 to 300 feet) deep, much shallower than most oil and natural gas wells. GHPs do not require fracturing  bedrock  to reach their energy source.

A pipe connected to a GHP is arranged in a continuous loop—called a "slinky loop"—that circles underground and above ground, usually throughout a building. The loop can also be contained entirely underground, to heat a parking lot or landscaped area. In this system, water or other liquids (such as glycerol, similar to a car’s  antifreeze ) move through the pipe. During the cold season, the liquid absorbs underground geothermal heat. It carries the heat upward through the building and gives off warmth through a duct system. These heated pipes can also run through hot water tanks and offset water-heating costs. During the summer, the GHP system works the opposite way: The liquid in the pipes is warmed from the heat in the building or parking lot, and carries the heat to be cooled underground. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has called geothermal heating the most energy-efficient and environmentally safe heating and cooling system. The largest GHP system was completed in 2012 at Ball State University in Indiana. The system replaced a coal -fired boiler system, and experts estimate the university will save about two million dollars a year in heating costs. Harvesting Geothermal Energy: Electricity In order to obtain enough energy to generate electricity, geothermal power plants rely on heat that exists a few kilometers below the surface of Earth. In some areas, the heat can naturally exist underground as pockets steam or hot water. However, most areas need to be “enhanced” with injected water to create steam. Dry-Steam Power Plants Dry-steam power plants take advantage of natural underground sources of steam. The steam is piped directly to a power plant, where it is used to fuel  turbines and generate electricity. Dry steam is the oldest type of power plant to generate electricity using geothermal energy. The first dry-steam power plant was constructed in Larderello, Italy, in 1911. Today, the dry-steam power plants at Larderello continue to supply electricity to more than a million residents of the area. There are only two known sources of underground steam in the United States: Yellowstone National Park in Wyoming and The Geysers in California. Since Yellowstone is a protected area, The Geysers is the only place where a dry-steam power plant is in use. It is one of the largest geothermal energy complexes in the world, and provides about a fifth of all renewable energy in the U.S. state of California.

Flash-Steam Power Plant

Flash- steam power plants use naturally occurring sources of underground hot water and steam . Water that is hotter than 182° C (360° F) is pumped into a low-pressure area. Some of the water “flashes,” or evaporates rapidly into steam , and is funneled out to power a turbine and generate electricity . Any remaining water can be flashed in a separate tank to extract more energy.

Flash-steam power plants are the most common type of geothermal power plants. The volcanically active island nation of Iceland supplies nearly all its electrical needs through a series of flash-steam geothermal power plants. The steam and excess warm water produced by the flash-steam process heat icy sidewalks and parking lots in the  frigid  Arctic winter. The islands of the Philippines also sit over a tectonically active area, the " Ring of Fire " that rims the Pacific Ocean. Government and industry in the Philippines have invested in flash-steam power plants, and today the nation is second only to the United States in its use of geothermal energy. In fact, the largest single geothermal power plant is a flash-steam facility in Malitbog, Philippines. Binary Cycle Power Plants Binary cycle power plants use a unique process to conserve water and generate heat. Water is heated underground to about 107°-182° C (225°-360° F). The hot water is contained in a pipe, which cycles above ground. The hot water heats a liquid organic compound that has a lower boiling point than water. The organic liquid creates steam, which flows through a turbine and powers a generator to create electricity. The only emission in this process is steam. The water in the pipe is recycled back to the ground, to be reheated by Earth and provide heat for the organic compound again. The Beowawe Geothermal Facility in the U.S. state of Nevada uses the binary cycle to generate electricity. The organic compound used at the facility is an industrial refrigerant (tetrafluoroethane, a  greenhouse gas ). This refrigerant has a much lower boiling point than water, meaning it is converted into gas at low temperatures. The gas fuels the turbines, which are connected to electrical generators. Enhanced Geothermal Systems Earth has virtually endless amounts of energy and heat beneath its surface. However, it is not possible to use it as energy unless the underground areas are "hydrothermal." This means the underground areas are not only hot, but also contain liquid and are  permeable . Many areas do not have all three of these components. An  enhanced geothermal system (EGS)  uses drilling, fracturing, and injection to provide fluid and permeability in areas that have hot—but dry—underground rock. To develop an EGS, an “injection well” is drilled vertically into the ground. Depending on the type of rock, this can be as shallow as one kilometer (0.6 mile) to as deep as 4.5 kilometers (2.8 miles). High-pressure cold water is injected into the drilled space, which forces the rock to create new fractures, expand existing fractures, or dissolve. This creates a reservoir of underground fluid.

Water is pumped through the injection well and absorbs the rocks’ heat as it flows through the reservoir. This hot water, called  brine , is then piped back up to Earth’s surface through a “production well.” The heated brine is contained in a pipe. It warms a secondary fluid that has a low boiling point, which evaporates to steam and powers a turbine. The brine cools off, and cycles back down through the injection well to absorb underground heat again. There are no gaseous emissions besides the water vapor from the evaporated liquid. Pumping water into the ground for EGSs can cause seismic activity, or small  earthquakes . In Basel, Switzerland, the injection process caused hundreds of tiny earthquakes that grew to more significant seismic activity even after the water injection was halted. This led to the geothermal project being canceled in 2009. Geothermal Energy and the Environment Geothermal energy is a renewable resource. Earth has been emitting heat for about 4.5 billion years, and will continue to emit heat for billions of years into the future because of the ongoing radioactive decay in Earth’s core. However, most wells that extract the heat will eventually cool, especially if heat is extracted more quickly than it is given time to replenish. Larderello, Italy, site of the world’s first electrical plant supplied by geothermal energy, has seen its steam pressure fall by more than 25 percent since the 1950s. Reinjecting water can sometimes help a cooling geothermal site last longer. However, this process can cause “micro-earthquakes.” Although most of these are too small to be felt by people or register on a scale of magnitude, sometimes the ground can quake at more threatening levels and cause the geothermal project to shut down, as it did in Basel, Switzerland.

Geothermal systems do not require enormous amounts of freshwater. In binary systems, water is only used as a heating agent, and is not exposed or evaporated. It can be recycled, used for other purposes, or released into the atmosphere as non toxic steam. However, if the geothermal fluid is not contained and recycled in a pipe, it can absorb harmful substances such as arsenic, boron, and fluoride. These toxic substances can be carried to the surface and released when the water evaporates. In addition, if the fluid leaks to other underground water systems, it can contaminate clean sources of drinking water and aquatic  habitats .

Advantages There are many advantages to using geothermal energy either directly or indirectly:

• Geothermal energy is renewable; it is not a fossil fuel that will be eventually used up. Earth is continuously radiating heat out from its core, and will continue to do so for billions of years.
• Some form of geothermal energy can be accessed and harvested anywhere in the world.
• Using geothermal energy is relatively clean. Most systems only emit water vapor, although some emit very small amounts of sulfur dioxide, nitrous oxides, and particulates.
• Geothermal power plants can last for decades and possibly centuries. If a reservoir is managed properly, the amount of extracted energy can be balanced with the rock’s rate of renewing its heat.
• Unlike other renewable energy sources, geothermal systems are “ baseload .” This means they can work in the summer or winter, and are not dependent on changing factors such as the presence of wind or sun. Geothermal power plants produce electricity or heat 24 hours a day, seven days a week.
• The space it takes to build a geothermal facility is much more  compact  than other power plants. To produce a GWh (a gigawatt hour, or one million kilowatts of energy for one hour, an enormous amount of energy), a geothermal plant uses the equivalent of about 1,046 square kilometers (404 square miles) of land. To produce the same GWh,  wind energy  requires 3,458 square kilometers (1,335 square miles), a solar  photovoltaic  center requires 8,384 square kilometers (3,237 square miles), and  coal  plants use about 9,433 square kilometers (3,642 square miles).
• Geothermal energy systems are adaptable to many different conditions.

They can be used to heat, cool, or power individual homes, whole districts, or industrial processes.

Disadvantages Harvesting geothermal energy still poses many challenges:

• The process of injecting high-pressure streams of water into the planet can result in minor seismic activity, or small earthquakes.
• Geothermal plants have been linked to  subsidence , or the slow sinking of land. This happens as the underground fractures collapse upon themselves. This can lead to damaged pipelines, roadways, buildings, and natural drainage systems.
• Geothermal plants can release small amounts of greenhouse gases such as hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide.
• Water that flows through underground reservoirs can pick up trace amounts of toxic elements such as arsenic, mercury, and selenium. These harmful substances can be leaked to water sources if the geothermal system is not properly insulated.
• Although the process requires almost no fuel to run, the initial cost of installing geothermal technology is expensive. Developing countries may not have the sophisticated infrastructure or start-up costs to invest in a geothermal power plant. Several facilities in the Philippines, for example, were made possible by investments from U.S. industry and government agencies. Today, the plants are Philippine-owned and operated.

Geothermal Energy and People Geothermal energy exists in different forms all over Earth (by steam vents, lava, geysers, or simply dry heat), and there are different possibilities for extracting and using this heat. In New Zealand, natural geysers and steam vents heat swimming pools, homes, greenhouses, and prawn farms. New Zealanders also use dry geothermal heat to dry timber and feedstock. Other countries, such as Iceland, have taken advantage of molten rock and magma resources from volcanic activity to provide heat for homes and buildings. In Iceland, almost 90 percent of the country’s people use geothermal heating resources. Iceland also relies on its natural geysers to melt snow, warm fisheries, and heat greenhouses. The United States generates the most amount of geothermal energy of any other country. Every year, the U.S. generates at least 15 billion kilowatt-hours, or the equivalent of burning about 25 million barrels of oil. Industrial geothermal technologies have been concentrated in the western U.S. In 2012, Nevada had 59 geothermal projects either operational or in development, followed by California with 31 projects, and Oregon with 16 projects. The cost of geothermal energy technology has gone down in the last decade, and is becoming more economically possible for individuals and companies.

Balneotherapy Balneotherapy is the treatment of disease by spa waters, usually by bathing and drinking. Some famous spas in the United States that offer balneotherapy include Hot Springs, Arkansas, and Warm Springs, Georgia. The most famous balneotheraputic spa in the world, Iceland's Blue Lagoon, is not a natural hot spring. It is an artificial feature where water from a local geothermal power plant is pumped over a lava bed rich in silica and sulfur. These elements react with the warm water to create a bright blue lake with alleged healing properties.

Geothermal Powers

Since 2015 the three countries with the greatest capacity for geothermal energy use have included the United States, Indonesia, and the Philippines. Turkey and Kenya have been steadily building geothermal energy capacity as well.

Ring of Geothermal Geothermal energy sources are often located on plate boundaries, where Earth's crust is constantly interacting with the hot mantle below. The Pacific's so-called Ring of Fire and East Africa's Rift Valley are volcanically active areas that hold enormous potential for geothermal power generation.

The Fumaroles There are no geysers at The Geysers, one of the most productive geothermal plants in the world. The California facility sits on fumarolesvents in Earth's crust where steam and other gases (not liquids) escape from Earth's interior.

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Essay on Geothermal Energy

Introduction to Geothermal Energy

Geothermal energy, derived from the Earth’s heat, is a renewable and sustainable source of power with immense potential to meet our energy needs while reducing our carbon footprint. Unlike fossil fuels, which contribute to greenhouse gas emissions and climate change, geothermal energy offers a cleaner alternative. For example, Iceland has effectively harnessed its geothermal resources, generating nearly 75% of its electricity and providing heating for over 90% of its homes using geothermal energy. This success story showcases the viability and benefits of geothermal power, setting an inspiring example for other nations to follow suit. This essay will explore the principles of geothermal energy, its development, environmental impact, and future prospects.

History and Development of Geothermal Energy

Geothermal energy has a rich history dating back thousands of years, with early civilizations recognizing and utilizing the Earth’s heat for various purposes.

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• Ancient Utilization : Ancient cultures, such as the Romans, Greeks, and Chinese, recognized the therapeutic properties of hot springs and used them for bathing and healing purposes. These early civilizations also employed geothermal heat for cooking, heating, and space heating, demonstrating an early understanding of the benefits of geothermal energy.
• Modern Advancements : The modern development of geothermal energy began in the late 19th century with the construction of the first geothermal power plant in Italy in 1904. However, significant advancements in geothermal technology occurred in the mid-20th century. In the 1960s and 1970s, countries like the United States, New Zealand, and Iceland pioneered the development of geothermal power plants for electricity generation.
• Global Expansion : As technology improved and awareness of renewable energy grew, the global expansion of geothermal energy accelerated. Countries situated along tectonic plate boundaries, known as “geothermal hotspots,” such as Iceland, the Philippines, Indonesia, and Kenya, became leaders in geothermal power production. These regions benefit from the natural abundance of geothermal resources, making them ideal locations for geothermal development.
• Technological Innovations : Over the years, significant technological innovations have enhanced the efficiency and viability of geothermal energy. Enhanced geothermal systems (EGS) and binary cycle power plants are among the advancements that have expanded the reach of geothermal energy to regions previously considered unsuitable for traditional geothermal power generation.
• Research and Collaboration : Ongoing research and collaboration among governments, academia, and industry stakeholders continue to drive advancements in geothermal technology. Initiatives such as the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) and the Geothermal Resources Council (GRC) facilitate knowledge sharing, promote best practices, and support the growth of geothermal energy worldwide.

Significance and Potential of Geothermal Energy

Geothermal energy holds significant promise as a renewable energy source due to its abundance, reliability, and minimal environmental impact. Its potential extends across various sectors, including electricity generation, heating, and industrial applications. Here are key aspects of its significance and potential:

• Renewable and Sustainable : Geothermal energy is renewable because it relies on the Earth’s internal heat, continuously generated by radioactive decay in the Earth’s core. Unlike fossil fuels, which are finite and contribute to greenhouse gas emissions, geothermal energy offers a sustainable alternative with minimal environmental impact.
• Reliable and Baseload Power : Geothermal power plants can provide reliable and consistent baseload power, unlike some other renewable sources like wind and solar, which are intermittent. This reliability makes geothermal energy valuable for meeting energy demand and enhancing grid stability.
• Low Emissions : Geothermal power generation produces fewer greenhouse gas emissions than fossil fuels. It can be crucial in reducing carbon dioxide emissions and mitigating climate change , making it an attractive option for countries seeking to transition to cleaner energy sources.
• Versatile Applications : Geothermal energy is helpful for a number of things, such as heating, cooling, and producing power. Direct use of geothermal energy for heating buildings, greenhouse cultivation, and industrial processes further enhances its versatility and economic viability.
• Job Creation and Economic Benefits : The development and operation of geothermal projects create job opportunities and stimulate economic growth in regions with geothermal resources. It can also reduce dependence on imported fuels, contributing to energy security and local economic development.
• Global Potential : Geothermal energy is abundant globally, with significant resources located in regions with high energy demand. Countries situated along tectonic plate boundaries, known as the “Ring of Fire,” and areas with volcanic activity have the most significant geothermal potential.
• Technology Advancements : Ongoing advancements in geothermal technology, such as enhanced geothermal systems (EGS) and binary cycle power plants, are expanding the reach of geothermal energy to regions previously considered unsuitable for traditional geothermal power generation.

How Geothermal Energy Works?

Geothermal energy harnesses heat from within the Earth to generate electricity and provide heating and cooling for various applications. The process involves accessing the Earth’s heat through natural geothermal reservoirs or by creating artificial reservoirs using advanced drilling techniques. Here’s how geothermal energy works:

• Heat Source : The Earth’s heat originates from its core, where temperatures reach several thousand degrees Celsius due to radioactive decay. This heat gradually transfers towards the Earth’s surface, creating geothermal gradients.
• Geothermal Reservoirs : Geothermal reservoirs are underground pockets of hot water or steam trapped in porous rock formations. Tectonic plate boundaries, volcanic activity, and geothermal hotspots are the usual locations for these reservoirs.
• Exploration and Drilling : Geologists use various techniques, including seismic surveys and exploration drilling, to locate and assess potential geothermal reservoirs. Once identifying a suitable site, operators drill production wells to access the hot water or steam within the reservoir.
• Fluid Extraction : Operators extract hot water or steam from the geothermal reservoir through production wells. The temperature and pressure of the fluid vary depending on the depth and characteristics of the reservoir.
• Power Generation : Production wells direct the extracted hot water or steam to the surface. In conventional geothermal power plants, the steam drives turbines connected to generators, producing electricity. In binary cycle power plants, the hot fluid vaporizes a working fluid with a lower boiling point, such as isobutane or pentane, which drives turbines to generate electricity.
• Heat Distribution : Direct heating and cooling applications can also utilize geothermal energy. District heating systems circulate hot water from geothermal wells through pipes to heat buildings, homes, and greenhouses. Similarly, geothermal heat pumps can extract heat from the ground during winter for heating and reject heat into the ground during summer for cooling.
• Reinjection and Sustainability : After extracting heat from the geothermal fluid, it is reinjected back into the reservoir through injection wells to maintain reservoir pressure and sustainability. This reinjection process replenishes the reservoir and ensures the long-term viability of geothermal energy production.

Environmental Impacts and Sustainability

Praise for geothermal energy’s low environmental impact compared to fossil fuels aside, it’s essential to consider its potential environmental effects and long-term sustainability. Here’s a look at both aspects:

• Low Greenhouse Gas Emissions : Geothermal energy produces minimal greenhouse gas emissions, primarily consisting of carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide, making it a cleaner alternative to fossil fuels.
• Reduced Air Pollution : Geothermal power plants emit low levels of air pollutants, such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, compared to fossil fuel power plants, improving air quality and public health.
• Water Usage and Management : Geothermal power plants require water for steam production and cooling purposes. While water consumption per unit of electricity generated is relatively low compared to other power plants, sustainable water management practices are essential to mitigate potential impacts on local water resources.
• Land Use and Ecosystem Impact : Geothermal power plants require land for infrastructure, including well pads, pipelines, and power plant facilities. While the footprint of geothermal plants is relatively small compared to other energy developments, careful siting and environmental impact assessments are necessary to minimize impacts on local ecosystems and biodiversity .
• Induced Seismicity : In some cases, geothermal energy extraction, particularly from enhanced geothermal systems (EGS), can induce seismic activity. While most induced earthquakes are small and not felt at the surface, operators implement monitoring and mitigation measures to ensure safety and minimize risks.
• Subsurface Fluid Disposal : The reinjection of geothermal fluids into the reservoir after energy extraction is critical for sustaining reservoir pressure and preventing environmental impacts. Proper fluid disposal and management practices are essential to avoid contamination of groundwater and surface water sources.
• Noise Pollution : Geothermal power plants can generate noise from drilling activities, steam turbines, and cooling systems. Noise mitigation measures, such as sound barriers and equipment insulation, are implemented to minimize impacts on nearby communities and wildlife.
• Thermal Pollution : Discharging geothermal fluids, often hotter than the surrounding environment, can lead to thermal pollution in water bodies if not properly managed. Operators use cooling systems and environmental monitoring to mitigate thermal impacts on aquatic ecosystems.
• Lifecycle Assessment : Assessing the environmental impacts of geothermal energy involves considering the entire lifecycle of a geothermal project, including exploration, drilling, operation, and decommissioning. Lifecycle assessments help identify potential environmental risks and inform sustainable practices.
• Sustainability and Longevity : Considered a sustainable energy source, geothermal energy relies on maintaining a heat extraction rate that aligns with the natural rate of heat replenishment in the reservoir. Proper management and monitoring are essential to ensure the long-term sustainability of geothermal projects and minimize environmental impacts.

Applications of Geothermal Energy

Geothermal energy has a wide range of applications, spanning from electricity generation to heating and cooling. Its versatility and sustainability make it a valuable resource for various sectors. Here are some key applications of geothermal energy:

• Electricity Generation : Geothermal power plants use steam or hot water from geothermal reservoirs to drive turbines and generate electricity. Binary cycle, flash steam, and dry steam are the three main types of geothermal power plants. These plants can provide baseload power, meaning they can operate continuously, unlike some other intermittent renewable energy sources.
• Direct Heating : Geothermal energy can be used directly for heating applications. In areas with accessible geothermal resources, operators can pump hot water from underground reservoirs directly into buildings for space heating, district heating systems, and greenhouse heating. This direct use of geothermal energy is efficient and cost-effective, reducing the need for traditional heating fuels.
• Cooling : Geothermal heat pumps use the Earth’s stable temperature below the surface to provide cooling in buildings during hot weather. The heat pump extracts heat from the building and transfers it to the ground, where the temperature is lower, providing efficient cooling without the need for traditional air conditioning systems.
• Industrial Processes : Various industrial processes requiring heat, such as food drying, lumber drying, and mineral processing, can utilize geothermal energy. The high temperatures available from geothermal sources make them suitable for these applications, reducing the reliance on fossil fuels for industrial heat.
• Agricultural Applications : Geothermal energy can benefit agriculture by heating greenhouses, extending the growing season, and improving crop yields. Geothermal heat can also be used for aquaculture, providing optimal water temperatures for fish farming.
• Desalination : Geothermal energy can be used in desalination plants to produce fresh water from seawater or brackish water. The heat from geothermal sources can drive the desalination process, reducing the energy required compared to traditional desalination methods.
• Spa and Wellness Tourism : Hot springs and geothermal spas are popular tourist attractions in many regions with geothermal activity. These natural hot springs offer relaxation and therapeutic benefits, attracting visitors and contributing to local economies.

Challenges and Limitations

Despite its many benefits, geothermal energy also faces several challenges and limitations that can hinder its widespread adoption and development. These challenges include:

• Resource Availability and Location : Geothermal resources exhibit uneven global distribution. Concentrated in regions with tectonic activity, geothermal resources are often found in volcanic areas or along tectonic plate boundaries. This limited geographical distribution can restrict the widespread deployment of geothermal energy.
• High Upfront Costs : The initial capital costs of geothermal projects, including drilling and infrastructure development, can be high. This can be a barrier to entry for developers, especially in regions with limited financial resources.
• Exploration Risks : Exploration for geothermal energy entails inherent risks, as the presence and quality of resources remain uncertain until drilling occurs. Failed exploration efforts can result in wasted resources and financial losses for developers.
• Technical Challenges : Geothermal energy production can be technically challenging, particularly in areas with low permeability or temperature gradients. Developing technologies like Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS) and other advanced methods aim to address these challenges, requiring additional research and development.
• Environmental Concerns : While geothermal energy is considered a clean and renewable energy source, its development can still have environmental impacts. These include land disturbance, water usage, induced seismicity, and the release of trace gases and minerals from geothermal fluids.
• Regulatory and Permitting Issues : Geothermal projects must navigate complex regulatory frameworks and obtain permits from multiple authorities. Delays in permitting can increase project costs and deter investment.
• Competition with Other Energy Sources : Geothermal energy must compete with other energy sources, such as fossil fuels, solar, wind, and hydropower. The availability and cost-effectiveness of these alternative sources can influence the development and competitiveness of geothermal projects.
• Limited Public Awareness and Support : Public awareness and support for geothermal energy are relatively low compared to other renewable energy sources. Education and outreach efforts are needed to increase awareness and promote the benefits of geothermal energy.

Case Studies

Here are a few case studies highlighting successful geothermal energy projects around the world:

• The Geysers, California, USA : The Geysers is the largest geothermal field in the world, located in California. The site has been producing electricity since the 1960s and currently has a capacity of over 700 megawatts (MW). The Geysers use steam from underground reservoirs to drive turbines and generate electricity, providing clean and renewable energy to thousands of homes in California.
• Hellisheiði Power Station, Iceland : The Hellisheiði Power Station is the second-largest geothermal power plant in the world, located near Reykjavik, Iceland. The plant has a capacity of 303 MW and utilizes a combination of steam and hot water to generate electricity. In addition to electricity generation, the plant provides hot water for district heating in Reykjavik, making it a highly efficient and sustainable energy source for the region.
• Wairakei Power Station, New Zealand : The Wairakei Power Station was the first geothermal power plant in New Zealand, commissioned in 1958. The plant has a capacity of 181 MW and has been instrumental in New Zealand’s transition to renewable energy . The Wairakei field also provides steam for the nearby Taupō District heating system, further demonstrating the versatility of geothermal energy.
• Kenya Rift Valley Geothermal Projects, Kenya : Kenya has rapidly expanded its geothermal energy capacity in the Rift Valley region. Projects like the Olkaria geothermal complex have significantly increased the country’s geothermal capacity, reducing reliance on fossil fuels and providing affordable and reliable electricity to millions of Kenyans.
• Soultz-sous-Forêts Geothermal Project, France : The Soultz-sous-Forêts project in France is an example of an enhanced geothermal system (EGS). This project involves injecting water into hot, dry rocks to create fractures and extract heat. While still in the experimental phase, EGS technology has the potential to unlock vast geothermal resources around the world.

Future Prospects

Geothermal energy holds significant promise for the future as a reliable, sustainable, and low-carbon energy source. Advancements in technology, increasing global energy demand, and the need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions are driving the growth of the geothermal energy sector. Here are some key future prospects for geothermal energy:

• Expansion of Geothermal Power Generation : The expansion of geothermal power generation is expected to continue as countries aim to meet their renewable energy targets and reduce dependence on fossil fuels. Technological advancements, such as enhanced geothermal systems (EGS) and binary cycle power plants, will enable the development of geothermal resources in regions previously considered unsuitable for traditional geothermal power generation.
• Integration with Other Renewable Energy Sources : Geothermal energy can complement other renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind, by providing reliable baseload power. Integrated energy systems that combine geothermal energy with other renewables and energy storage technologies can help ensure a stable and sustainable energy supply.
• Geothermal Heating and Cooling Solutions : The direct use of geothermal energy for heating and cooling applications is expected to grow, especially in urban areas and industries. District heating systems and geothermal heat pumps offer efficient and cost-effective heating and cooling solutions, reducing the reliance on fossil fuels and lowering carbon emissions.
• Increased Geothermal Exploration and Development : As technology improves and understanding of geothermal resources expands, exploration and development of geothermal projects will occur worldwide. Countries with high geothermal potential, such as those along the “Ring of Fire” and in geologically active regions, will likely see significant growth in geothermal energy development.
• Geothermal Energy in Developing Countries : Geothermal energy has the potential to provide reliable and sustainable energy access in developing countries with abundant geothermal resources. International cooperation and investment in geothermal projects can help these countries harness their geothermal potential and achieve energy security and economic development.
• Research and Innovation : Ongoing research and innovation in geothermal technology will drive further advancements in resource exploration, reservoir management, and energy conversion efficiency. This will help make geothermal energy more competitive with other energy sources and enhance its sustainability and environmental benefits.

Geothermal energy stands out as a reliable, sustainable, and low-carbon energy source with immense potential to meet global energy needs. Its versatility, from electricity generation to heating and cooling, makes it valuable in transitioning to a cleaner energy future. Despite facing challenges such as resource availability and upfront costs, ongoing advancements in technology and increasing global awareness are driving the growth of the geothermal energy sector. With continued support through policies, investments, and research, geothermal energy can be pivotal in reducing greenhouse gas emissions, enhancing energy security, and promoting sustainable development worldwide.

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Geothermal Energy: What Is It and How Does It Work? Report

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Throughout the history of its existence, humankind has been increasingly using energy for the purposes of industrial development of civilizations. Natural resources, such as gas, coal, and oil have so far been the key sources of energy. However, as the aforementioned resources are non-renewable, the issue of using alternative sources of energy has emerged.

Among the many options investigated nowadays by the scientists, geothermal energy occupies not the last place, possessing a number of both advantages and disadvantages that make it a point of debate in the energy-seeking society.

As such, geothermal energy can be defined as the energy of the Earth (in Greek, “geo” means “earth”, and “therme” means “heat”) (California Energy Commission, 2010). Deep underneath the Earth surface, there is a thick layer of magma, liquid rock so hot that at the depth of ten thousand feet its heat would be enough to boil water.

Underground water reservoirs are sometimes situated close enough to the magma layer and warm up to over 300 degrees Fahrenheit. Nowadays people use those natural hot water reservoirs either directly, when hot water springs are located close to the surface, or indirectly, by pumping hot water and steams to the electricity generation power plants or geothermal heat pumps controlling temperature of buildings above ground (California Energy Commission, 2010).

Employing geothermal energy as an alternative to traditional energy sources is attractive due to a number of advantages. For one thing, geothermal energy is characterized by renewability and sustainability (Geothermal Education Office, 2009).

Heat radiation is emitted continuously from within the Earth, and annual precipitation regularly refills the underground reservoirs with huge amounts of water. Therefore, it is possible to sustain the production of geothermal bases for at least centuries on end. For another thing, using the renewable and sustainable geothermal energy allows for considerable saving of exhaustible and polluting resources, such as fossil fuels and nuclear materials.

Environmental impacts are thus lowered by eliminating the necessity for mining, processing and transporting fossil fuels (Geothermal Energy Association, 2010). In addition, using geothermal energy considerably reduces the risks of global warming compared to other energy sources. Geothermal energy plants have been found to emit a sufficiently low amount of the key greenhouse gas, carbon dioxide, which makes this type of energy plants an attractive environmentally friendly alternative (Geothermal Energy Association, 2010).

Along with the aforementioned attractive characteristics, the rosy prospects of geothermal energy are marred by a number of disadvantages. Firstly, due to geographical locations, geothermal sources are not universally available and are concentrated mainly along the sites with high volcanic activity.

Secondly, drilling necessary for geothermal development may be seriously hampered by peculiarities of landscape. Thus, for example, there is no question of developing geothermal energy sites in national parks which are, however, full of geysers. Thirdly, due to high concentration of silica in hot-water reservoirs, the pipes used in geothermal industry suffer high rates of corrosion and therefore require costly scaling.

In the modern world struggling to preserve the remaining exhaustible resources and satisfy the ever-growing need for energy by employing alternative sources of energy, geothermal energy appears to be one of the best solutions. Despite certain disadvantageous features like unevenness in location and costliness, geothermal energy possesses valuable characteristics of renewability and sustainability that make it an attractive alternative to fossil fuels and nuclear energy.

California Energy Commission. (2010). Geothermal Energy . Web.

Geothermal Education Office. (2009). Geothermal Energy . Retrieved from http://geothermaleducation.org/

Geothermal Energy Association. (2010). Geothermal Basics . Retrieved from http://www.geo-energy.org/geo_basics.aspx

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Geography Notes

Essay on geothermal energy: top 11 essays | energy management.

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Essay on Geothermal Energy

Essay Contents:

• Essay on the Effect of Geothermal Energy on Environment

Essay # 1. Introduction to Geothermal Energy:

Geothermal energy is the earth’s natural heat available inside the earth. This thermal energy contained in the rock and fluid that filled up fractures and pores in the earth’s crust can profitably be used for various purposes. Heat from the Earth, or geothermal — Geo (Earth) + thermal (heat) — energy can be and is accessed by drilling water or steam wells in a process similar to drilling for oil.

Geothermal resources range from shallow ground to hot water and rock several miles below the Earth’s surface, and even farther down to the extremely hot molten rock called magma. Mile-or-more-deep wells can be drilled into underground reservoirs to tap steam and very hot water that can be brought to the surface for use in a variety of applications.

This geothermal energy originates from the original formation of the planet, from radioactive decay of minerals, from volcanic activity and from solar energy absorbed at the surface. It has been used for bathing since Paleolithic times and for space heating since ancient Roman times, but is now better known for generating electricity.

Worldwide, about 10,715 megawatts (MW) of geothermal power is online in 24 countries. An additional 28 gigawatts of direct geothermal heating capacity is installed for district heating, space heating, spas, industrial processes, desalination and agricultural applications.

India has reasonably good potential for geothermal; the potential geothermal provinces can produce approximately 10,600 MW of power.

Geothermal power is cost effective, reliable, sustainable, and environmentally friendly, but has historically been limited to areas near tectonic plate boundaries. Recent technological advances have dramatically expanded the range and size of viable resources, especially for applications such as home heating, opening a potential for widespread exploitation.

Geothermal wells release greenhouse gases trapped deep within the earth, but these emissions are much lower per energy unit than those of fossil fuels. As a result, geothermal power has the potential to help mitigate global warming if widely deployed in place of fossil fuels.

The earth’s geothermal resources are theoretically more than adequate to supply humanity’s energy needs, but only a very small fraction may be profitably exploited. Drilling and exploration for deep resources is very expensive. Forecasts for the future of geothermal power depend on assumptions about technology, energy prices, subsidies, and interest rates.

Essay # 2. History of Geothermal Energy Worldwide:

The oldest known pool fed by a hot spring, built in the Qin dynasty in the 3rd century BC.

Hot springs have been used for bathing at least since Paleolithic times. The oldest known spa is a stone pool on China’s Lisan mountain built in the Qin dynasty in the 3rd century BC, at the same site where the Huaqing Chi palace was later built. In the first century AD, Romans conquered Aquae Sulis, now Bath, Somerset, England, and used the hot springs there to feed public baths and underfloor heating.

The admission fees for these baths probably represent the first commercial use of geothermal power. The world’s oldest geothermal district heating system in Chaudes-Aigues, France, has been operating since the 14th century. The earliest industrial exploitation began in 1827 with the use of geyser steam to extract boric acid from volcanic mud in Larderello, Italy.

In 1892, America’s first district heating system in Boise, Idaho was powered directly by geothermal energy, and was copied in Klamath Falls, Oregon in 1900. A deep geothermal well was used to heat greenhouses in Boise in 1926, and geysers were used to heat greenhouses in Iceland and Tuscany at about the same time. Charlie Lieb developed the first down-hole heat exchanger in 1930 to heat his house. Steam and hot water from geysers began heating homes in Iceland starting in 1943.

Global geothermal electric capacity. Upper red line is installed capacity; lower green line is realized production.

In the 20th century, demand for electricity led to the consideration of geothermal power as a generating source. Prince Piero Ginori Conti tested the first geothermal power generator on 4 July 1904, at the same Larderello dry steam field where geothermal acid extraction began.

It successfully lit four light bulbs. Later, in 1911, the world’s first commercial geothermal power plant was built there. It was the world’s only industrial producer of geothermal electricity until New Zealand built a plant in 1958.

By this time, Lord Kelvin had already invented the heat pump in 1852, and Heinrich Zoelly had patented the idea of using it to draw heat from the ground in 1912. But it was not until the late 1940s that the geothermal heat pump was successfully implemented. The earliest one was probably Robert C. Webber’s home-made 2.2 kW direct-exchange system, but sources disagree as to the exact timeline of his invention.

J. Donald Kroeker designed the first commercial geothermal heat pump to heat the Commonwealth Building (Portland, Oregon) and demonstrated it in 1946. Professor Carl Nielsen of Ohio State University built the first residential open loop version in his home in 1948. The technology became popular in Sweden as a result of the 1973 oil crisis, and has been growing slowly in worldwide acceptance since then.

In 1960, Pacific Gas and Electric began operation of the first successful geothermal electric power plant in the United States at The Geysers in California. The original turbine lasted for more than 30 years and produced 11 MW net power.

The binary cycle power plant was first demonstrated in 1967 in the U.S.S.R. and later introduced to the U.S. in 1981. This technology allows the generation of electricity from much lower temperature resources than previously. In 2006, a binary cycle plant in Chena Hot Springs, Alaska, came on-line, producing electricity from a record low fluid temperature of 57°C (135°F).

Installed geothermal electric capacity as of 2007 is around 10000 MW. The main countries having major electric generation installed capacities (as of 2007) are USA (3000MW), Philippines(2000MW), Indonesia (1000MW), Mexico (1000MW), Italy (900 MW), Japan(600MW), New Zealand (500MW), Iceland (450MW). The other region includes the Latin American countries, African countries and Russia.

Essay # 3. Formation of Geothermal Resources:

Geothermal energy is made up of heat from the earth. Underneath the earth’s relatively, thin crust, temperature range from 1000-4000°C and in some areas, pressures exceed 20,000 psi. Geothermal energy is most likely generated from radioactive, thorium, potassium and uranium dispersed evenly through the earth’s interior which produce heat as part of the decaying process. This process generates enough heat to keep the lose of the earth at temperature approaching 4000°C.

Composed primarily of molten Ni and Fe the core is surrounded by a layer of molten rock, the mantle at approx. 1000°C. Nine major crystal plates float on the mantle, and currents in the mantle cause the plates to drift, colliding in some areas and diverging in others.

When two continental plates coverage, a complex series of chemical reactions involving water and other substances combine to generate large bodies of molten rock called magna chamber that rise through the crust often resulting in volcanic activity. Molten rock also rises in the earth’s crust where the plates are moving away from each other and in other areas where the crust is thin.

Volcanoes, hot springs, geysers and fumaroles are natural clues as to the presence of geothermal resources near the surface and where economic drilling operations can tap their heat and pressure. Additional heat can be generated by friction as two plates converge and one moves on top of other.

Essay # 4. Types of Geothermal Resources:

There are following types of geothermal resources:

(i) Hydrothermal.

(ii) Geopressured.

(iii) Hot Dry Rock.

(iv) Active Volcanic Vents and Magna.

(i) Hydrothermal:

Hydrothermal resources contain superheated rock trapped by a layer of impermeable rock. The highest quality reserves with temperature over 240°C contain steam with little or no condensate (vapour dominated resources).

Some hydrothermal reserves are very hot ranging from 150-200°C, but roughly 2/3rd are of moderate temperature (100-180°C). Only two sizeable high quality dry steam reserves have been located to date on in the US and one in Italy. The geysers in northern California is perhaps the world’s largest dry steam field and could provide 2000 MWe capacity for upto 30 years.

(ii) Geopressured:

It contains moderate-temperature brines containing dissolved methane. They are trapped under high pressure in deep sedimentary formations sealed between impermeable layers of clay and shale. Pressures vary from 5000 to over 20,000 psi at depths of 1500 to 15000 metres. Temperature range from 90 to over 200°C, although they seldom exceed 150°C, each barrel of fluid at 10,000 psi and 150°C could contain between 20 and 50 standard cubic feed (SCF) of methane.

(iii) Hot Dry Rock:

It contains high temperature rocks, ranging from 90-650°C that may be fractured and contain little or no water. The rocks must be artificially fractured and heat transfer fluid circulated to extract their energy. Hot dry rock resources are much more extensive than hydrothermal or geo-pressured, but extracting their energy is more difficult.

(iv) Active Volcanic Vents and Magma:

It occurs in many parts of the world. Magma is molten rock at temperature ranging from 700°C to 1600°C, lying under the earth crust, the molten rock is part of the mantle and in approx. 24 to 28 km thick. Magma chambers represent a huge energy source, the largest of all geothermal resources but they rarely occur near the surface of the earth and extracting their energy is difficult.

Essay # 5. Geothermal Electricity:

As per the International Geothermal Association (IGA) sources, about 10,715 MW of geothermal power in 24 countries is online. In 2010, the United States led the world in geothermal electricity production with 3,086 MW of installed capacity from 77 power plants.

The largest group of geothermal power plants in the world is located at the Geysers, a geothermal field in California. The Philippines is the second highest producer, with 1,904 MW of capacity online. Geothermal power makes up approximately 18% of the country’s electricity generation.

Geothermal electric plants were traditionally built exclusively on the edges of tectonic plates where high temperature geothermal resources are available near the surface. The development of binary cycle power plants and improvements in drilling and extraction technology enable enhanced geothermal systems over a much greater geographical range.

Demonstration projects are operational in Landau-Pfalz, Germany, and Soultz-sous-Forest, France, while an earlier effort in Basel, Switzerland was shut down after it triggered earthquakes. Other demonstration projects are under construction in Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United States of America.

The thermal efficiency of geothermal electric plants is low, around 10-23%, because geothermal fluids do not reach the high temperatures of steam from boilers. The laws of thermodynamics limits the efficiency of heat engines in extracting useful energy. Exhaust heat is wasted, unless it can be used directly and locally, for example in greenhouses, timber mills, and district heating.

System efficiency does not materially affect operational costs as it would for plants that use fuel, but it does affect return on the capital used to build the plant. In order to produce more energy than the pumps consume, electricity generation requires relatively hot fields and specialized heat cycles. Because geothermal power does not rely on variable sources of energy, unlike, for example, wind or solar, its capacity factor can be quite large – up to 96% has been demonstrated. The global average was 73% in 2005.

Essay # 6. Geothermal Power Plants Technology:

To convert geothermal energy into electrical energy, heat must be extracted first to convert it into useable form. Mile-or-more-deep wells can be drilled into underground reservoirs to tap steam and very hot water that drive turbines that drive electricity generators.

There are basically four types of geothermal power plants which are operating today. The description of these power plants is as follows:

(i) Flashed Steam Plant:

The extremely hot water from drill holes when released from the deep reservoirs high pressure steam (termed as flashed steam) is released. This force of steam is used to rotate turbines. The steam gets condensed and is converted into water again, which is returned to the reservoir. Flashed steam plants are widely distributed throughout the world.

(ii) Dry Steam Plant:

Usually geysers are the main source of dry steam. Those geothermal reservoirs which mostly produce steam and little water are used in electricity production systems. As steam from the reservoir shoots out, it is used to rotate a turbine, after sending the steam through a rock-catcher. The rock-catcher protects the turbine from rocks which come along with the steam.

(iii) Binary Power Plant:

In this type of power plant, the geothermal water is passed through a heat exchanger where its heat is transferred to a secondary liquid, namely isobutene, isopentane or ammonia-water mixture present in an adjacent, separate pipe. Due to this double-liquid heat exchanger system, it is called a binary power plant.

The secondary liquid which is also called as working fluid should have lower boiling point than water. It turns into vapour on getting required heat from the hot water. The vapour from the working fluid is used to rotate turbines.

The binary system is therefore useful in geothermal reservoirs which are relatively low in temperature gradient. Since the system is a completely closed one, there is minimum chance of heat loss. Hot water is immediately recycled back into the reservoir. The working fluid is also condensed back to the liquid and used over and over again.

(iv) Hybrid Power Plant:

Some geothermal fields produce boiling water as well as steam, which are also used in power generation. In this system of power generation, the flashed and binary systems are combined to make use of both steam and hot water. Efficiency of hybrid power plants is however less than that of the dry steam plants.

Enhanced Geothermal System:

The term enhanced geothermal systems (EGS), also known as engineered geothermal systems (formerly hot dry rock geothermal), refers to a variety of engineering techniques used to artificially create hydrothermal resources (underground steam and hot water) that can be used to generate electricity.

Traditional geothermal plants exploit naturally occurring hydrothermal reservoirs and are limited by the size and location of such natural reservoirs. EGS reduces these constraints by allowing for the creation of hydrothermal reservoirs in deep, hot but naturally dry geological formations. EGS techniques can also extend the lifespan of naturally occurring hydrothermal resources.

Given the costs and limited full-scale system research to date, EGS remains in its infancy, with only a few research and pilot projects existing around the world and no commercial-scale EGS plants to date. The technology is so promising, however, that a number of studies have found that EGS could quickly become widespread.

Essay # 7. Other Applications of Geothermal Energy:

In the geothermal industry, low temperature means temperatures of 300°F (149°C) or less. Low-temperature geothermal resources are typically used in direct-use applications, such as district heating, greenhouses, fisheries, mineral recovery, and industrial process heating. However, some low-temperature resources can generate electricity using binary cycle electricity generating technology.

Direct heating is far more efficient than electricity generation and places less demanding temperature requirements on the heat resource. Heat may come from co-generation via., a geothermal electrical plant or from smaller wells or heat exchangers buried in shallow ground.

As a result, geothermal heating is economic at many more sites than geothermal electricity generation. Where natural hot springs are available, the heated water can be piped directly into radiators. If the ground is hot but dry, earth tubes or down-hole heat exchangers can collect the heat.

But even in areas where the ground is colder than room temperature, heat can still be extracted with a geothermal heat pump more cost-effectively and cleanly than by conventional furnaces.

These devices draw on much shallower and colder resources than traditional geothermal techniques, and they frequently combine a variety of functions, including air conditioning, seasonal energy storage, solar energy collection, and electric heating. Geothermal heat pumps can be used for space heating essentially anywhere.

Geothermal heat supports many applications. District heating applications use networks of piped hot water to heat many buildings across entire communities. In Reykjavik, Iceland, spent water from the district heating system is piped below pavement and sidewalks to melt snow.

Essay # 8. Economics Related to Geothermal Energy Harnessing :

Geothermal power requires no fuel (except for pumps), and is therefore immune to fuel cost fluctuations, but capital costs are significant. Drilling accounts for over half the costs, and exploration of deep resources entails significant risks.

Unlike traditional power plants that run on fuel that must be purchased over the life of the plant, geothermal power plants use a renewable resource that is not susceptible to price fluctuations. The price of geothermal is within range of other electricity choices available today when the costs of the lifetime of the plant are considered.

Most of the costs related to geothermal power plants are related to resource exploration and plant construction. Like oil and gas exploration, it is expensive and because only one in five wells yield a reservoir suitable for development. Geothermal developers must prove that they have reliable resource before they can secure millions of dollar required to develop geothermal resources.

Although the cost of generating geothermal has decreased during the last two decades, exploration and drilling remain expensive and risky. Drilling Costs alone account for as much as one-third to one-half to the total cost of a geothermal project. Locating the best resources can be difficult; and developers may drill many dry wells before they discover a viable resource.

Because rocks in geothermal areas are usually extremely hard and hot, developers must frequently replace drilling equipment. Individual productive geothermal wells generally yield between 2 MW and 5 MW of electricity; each may cost from $1 million to $5 million to drill. A few highly productive wells are capable of producing 25 MW or more of electricity.

Transmission:

Geothermal power plants must be located near specific areas near a reservoir because it is not practical to transport steam or hot water over distances greater than two miles. Since many of the best geothermal resources are located in rural areas, developers may be limited by their ability to supply electricity to the grid. New power lines are expensive to construct and difficult to site.

Many existing transmission lines are operating near capacity and may not be able to transmit electricity without significant upgrades. Consequently, any significant increase in the number of geothermal power plants will be limited by those plants ability to connect, upgrade or build new lines to access to the power grid and whether the grid is able to deliver additional power to the market.

Direct heating applications can use much shallower wells with lower temperatures, so smaller systems with lower costs and risks are feasible. Residential geothermal heat pumps with a capacity of 10 kilowatt (kW) are routinely installed.

District heating (Cities etc.) systems may benefit from economies of scale if demand is geographically dense, as in cities, but otherwise piping installation dominates capital costs. Direct systems of any size are much simpler than electric generators and have lower maintenance costs per kW.h, but they must consume electricity to run pumps and compressors.

Essay # 9. Barriers in the Way of Geothermal Energy:

i. Finding a suitable build location.

ii. Energy source such as wind, solar and hydro are more popular and better established; these factors could make developers decided against geothermal.

iii. Main disadvantages of building a geothermal energy plant mainly lie in the exploration stage, which can be extremely capital intensive and high-risk; many companies who commission surveys are often disappointed, as quite often, the land they were interested in, cannot support a geothermal energy plant.

iv. Some areas of land may have the sufficient hot rocks to supply hot water to a power station, but many of these areas are located in harsh areas of the world (near the poles), or high up in mountains.

v. Harmful gases can escape from deep within the earth, through the holes drilled by the constructors. The plant must be able to contain any leaked gases, but disposing of the gas can be very tricky to do safely.

Essay # 10. Sustainability of Geothermal Energy:

Geothermal power is considered to be sustainable because any projected heat extraction is small compared to the Earth’s heat content. The Earth has an internal heat content of 10 31 joules (3. 10 15 TW.hr). About 20% of this is residual heat from planetary accretion, and the remainder is attributed to higher radioactive decay rates that existed in the past.

Natural heat flows are not in equilibrium, and the planet is slowly cooling down on geologic timescales. Human extraction taps a minute fraction of the natural outflow, often without accelerating it.

Even though geothermal power is globally sustainable, extraction must still be monitored to avoid local depletion. Over the course of decades, individual wells draw down local temperatures and water levels until a new equilibrium is reached with natural flows. The three oldest sites, at Larderello, Wairakei, and the Geysers have experienced reduced output because of local depletion.

Heat and water, in uncertain proportions, were extracted faster than they were replenished. If production is reduced and water is re injected, these wells could theoretically recover their full potential. Such mitigation strategies have already been implemented at some sites. The extinction of several geyser fields has also been attributed to geothermal power development.

Essay # 11. Effect of Geothermal Energy on Environment :

Fluids drawn from the deep earth carry a mixture of gases, notably carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), hydrogen sulphide (H 2 S), methane (CH 4 ) and ammonia (NH 3 ). These pollutants contribute to global warming, acid rain, and noxious smells if released.

Existing geothermal electric plants emit an average of 122 kilograms (269 lb) of CO 2 per megawatt-hour (MW-h) of electricity, a small fraction of the emission intensity of conventional fossil fuel plants. Plants that experience high levels of acids and volatile chemicals are usually equipped with emission-control systems to reduce the exhaust.

In addition to dissolved gases, hot water from geothermal sources may hold in solution trace amounts of toxic chemicals such as mercury, arsenic, boron, and antimony. These chemicals precipitate as the water cools, and can cause environmental damage if released. The modern practice of injecting cooled geothermal fluids back into the Earth to stimulate production has the side benefit of reducing this environmental risk.

Direct geothermal heating systems contain pumps and compressors, which may consume energy from a polluting source. This parasitic load is normally a fraction of the heat output, so it is always less polluting than electric heating. However, if the electricity is produced by burning fossil fuels, then the net emissions of geothermal heating may be comparable to directly burning the fuel for heat.

For example, a geothermal heat pump powered by electricity from a combined cycle natural gas plant would produce about as much pollution as a natural gas condensing furnace of the same size. Therefore the environmental value of direct geothermal heating applications is highly dependent on the emissions intensity of the neighbouring electric grid.

Plant construction can adversely affect land stability Enhanced geothermal systems can trigger earthquakes as part of hydraulic fracturing.

Geothermal has minimal land and freshwater requirements. Geothermal plants use 3.5 square kilometres (1.4 sq mi) per gigawatt of electrical production (not capacity) versus 32 and 12 square kilometres (4.6 sq mi) for coal facilities and wind farms respectively. They use 20 litres (5.3 US gal) of freshwater per MW-h versus over 1,000 litres (260 US gal) per MW-h for nuclear, coal, or oil.

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What Is Geothermal Energy? Definition, Examples, and How It Works

Learn all about the process of creating electricity from geothermal sources.

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How Does Geothermal Energy Work

Cost of geothermal energy.

• Types of Power Plants

Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS)

• Pros and Cons

Geothermal Energy in Iceland

Geothermal energy is power produced through the conversion of geothermal steam or water to electricity that can be used by consumers. Because this source of electricity doesn’t rely on nonrenewable resources like coal or petroleum, it can continue to provide a more sustainable source of energy into the future.

While there are some negative impacts, the process of harnessing geothermal energy is renewable and results in less environmental degradation than other traditional power sources.

Geothermal Energy Definition

Coming from the heat of the Earth’s core, geothermal energy can be used to generate electricity in geothermal power plants or to heat homes and provide hot water via geothermal heating. This heat can come from hot water that is converted into steam via a flash tank—or in rare cases, directly from geothermal steam.

Regardless of its source, it’s estimated that heat located within the first 33,000 feet, or 6.25 miles, of the Earth’s surface contains 50,000 times more energy than the world’s oil and natural gas supplies, according to the Union of Concerned Scientists.

To produce electricity from geothermal energy, an area must have three major characteristics: enough fluid, sufficient heat from the Earth’s core, and permeability that enables the fluid to interface with heated rock. Temperatures should be at least 300 degrees Fahrenheit to produce electricity, but need only exceed 68 degrees for use in geothermal heating.

Fluid can be naturally occurring or pumped into a reservoir, and permeability can be created through stimulation—both through a technology known as enhanced geothermal systems (EGS).

Naturally occurring geothermal reservoirs are areas of the Earth’s crust from which energy can be harnessed and used to produce electricity. These reservoirs occur at various depths throughout the Earth’s crust, can be either vapor- or liquid-dominated, and are formed where magma travels close enough to the surface to heat groundwater located in fractures or porous rocks. Reservoirs that are within one or two miles of the Earth’s surface can then be accessed via drilling. To exploit them, engineers and geologists must first locate them, often by drilling test wells.

First Geothermal Power Plant in the US

The first geothermal wells were drilled in the U.S. in 1921, eventually leading to the construction of the first large-scale geothermal electricity-generating power plant in the same location, The Geysers , in California. The plant, operated by Pacific Gas and Electric, opened its doors in 1960.

The process of capturing geothermal energy involves using geothermal power plants or geothermal heat pumps to extract high-pressure water from the underground. After reaching the surface, the pressure is lowered and the water converts to steam. The steam rotates turbines that are connected to a power generator, thereby creating electricity. Ultimately, cooled steam condenses into water that is pumped underground via injection wells. 

Treehugger / Hilary Allison

Here’s how geothermal energy capture works in greater detail:

1. Heat From the Earth’s Crust Creates Steam

Geothermal energy comes from the steam and high-pressure hot water that exist in the Earth’s crust. To capture the hot water necessary to power geothermal power plants, wells extend as deep as 2 miles under Earth’s surface. Hot water is transported to the surface under high pressure until the pressure is dropped above ground—converting the water into steam.

Under more limited circumstances, steam comes directly out of the ground, rather than first being converted from water, as is the case at The Geysers in California.

2. Steam Rotates Turbine

Once the geothermal water is converted to steam above the Earth’s surface, the steam rotates a turbine. The turning of the turbine creates mechanical energy that can ultimately be converted to useful electricity. The turbine of a geothermal power plant is connected to a geothermal generator so that when it rotates, energy is produced.

Because geothermal steam typically includes high concentrations of corrosive chemicals like chloride, sulfate, hydrogen sulfide, and carbon dioxide, turbines must be made of materials that resist corrosion.

3. Generator Produces Electricity

The rotors of a turbine are connected to the rotor shaft of a generator. When the steam turns the turbines, the rotor shaft rotates and the geothermal generator converts the kinetic—or mechanical—energy of the turbine into electrical energy that can be used by consumers.

4. Water Is Injected Back Into the Ground

When the steam used in hydrothermal energy production cools, it condenses back into water. Likewise, there may be leftover water that isn’t converted into steam during energy generation. To improve the efficiency and sustainability of geothermal energy production, excess water is treated and then pumped back into the underground reservoir via deep well injection. 

Depending on the geology of the region, this may take high pressure or none at all, as in the case of The Geysers, where water simply falls down the injection well.   Once there, the water is reheated and may be used again.

Geothermal energy plants require high initial costs, often about $2,500 per installed kilowatt (kW) in the United States. That said, once a geothermal energy plant is complete, operation and maintenance costs are between $0.01 and $0.03 per kilowatt-hour (kWh)—relatively low compared to coal plants, which tend to cost between $0.02 and $0.04 per kWh.

What’s more, geothermal plants can produce energy more than 90% of the time, so the cost of operation can be covered easily, especially if consumer power costs are high.

Types of Geothermal Power Plants

Geothermal power plants are the aboveground and underground components by which geothermal energy is converted to useful energy—or electricity. There are three major types of geothermal plants: 

In a traditional dry steam geothermal power plant, steam travels directly from the underground production well to the aboveground turbine, which turns and generates power with the help of a generator. Water is then returned underground via an injection well.

Notably, The Geysers in northern California and Yellowstone National Park in Wyoming are the only two known sources of underground steam in the United States.  

The Geysers, located along the border of Sonoma and Lake County in California, was the first geothermal power plant in the U.S. and covers an area of about 45 square miles. The plant is one of just two dry steam plants in the world, and actually consists of 13 individual plants with a combined generating capacity of 725 megawatts of electricity.

Flash Steam

Flash steam geothermal plants are the most common in operation, and involve extracting high-pressure hot water from underground and converting it to steam in a flash tank. The steam is then used to power generator turbines; cooled steam condenses and is injected via injection wells. Water must be over 360 degrees Fahrenheit for this type of plant to operate.  

Binary Cycle

The third type of geothermal power plant, binary cycle power plants, rely on heat exchangers that transfer the heat from underground water to another fluid, known as the working fluid, thereby turning the working fluid into steam. Working fluid is typically an organic compound like a hydrocarbon or a refrigerant that has a low boiling point. The steam from the heat exchanger fluid is then used to power the generator turbine, as in other geothermal plants.

These plants can operate at a much lower temperature than required by flash steam plants—just 225 degrees to 360 degrees Fahrenheit.

Also referred to as engineered geothermal systems, enhanced geothermal systems make it possible to access energy resources beyond what’s available through traditional geothermal power generation.

EGS extracts heat from the Earth by drilling into bedrock and creating a subsurface system of fractures that can be pumped full of water via injection wells.

With this technology in place, the geographic availability of geothermal energy can be extended beyond the Western United States. In fact, EGS may help the U.S. increase geothermal energy generation to 40 times current levels. This means that EGS technology can provide around 10% of the current electric capacity in the U.S.

• Geothermal Energy Pros and Cons

Geothermal energy has huge potential for creating cleaner, more renewable energy than is available with more traditional sources of power like coal and petroleum. However, as with most forms of alternative energy, there are both pros and cons of geothermal energy that must be acknowledged. 

Some advantages of geothermal energy include:

• Cleaner and more sustainable. Geothermal energy is not only cleaner, but more renewable than traditional sources of energy like coal. This means that electricity can be generated from geothermal reservoirs for longer and with a more limited impact on the environment. 
• Small footprint. Harnessing geothermal energy requires only a small footprint of land, making it easier to find suitable locations for geothermal plants.
• Output is increasing. Continuing innovation in the industry will result in higher output over the next 25 years. In fact, production is likely to increase from 17 billion kWh in 2020 to 49.8 billion kWh in 2050.  

Disadvantages include:

• Initial investment is high. Geothermal power plants require a high initial investment of around $2,500 per installed kW, compared to about $1,600 per kW for wind turbines. That said, the initial cost of a new coal power plant may be as high as $3,500 per kW.
• Can lead to increased seismic activity. Geothermal drilling has been linked to increased earthquake activity, especially when EGS is used to increase energy production.
• Results in air pollution. Due to the corrosive chemicals often found in geothermal water and steam, like hydrogen sulfide, the process of producing geothermal energy can cause air pollution.

A pioneer in the generation of geothermal and hydrothermal energy, Iceland’s first geothermal plants went online in 1970. Iceland’s success with geothermal energy is due in large part to the country’s high number of heat sources, including numerous hot springs and more than 200 volcanoes.  

Geothermal energy currently constitutes about 25% of Iceland’s total production of energy. In fact, alternative energy sources account for almost 100% of the nation’s electricity. Beyond dedicated geothermal plants, Iceland also relies on geothermal heating to help heat homes and domestic water, with geothermal heating servicing about 87% of buildings in the country.  

Some of Iceland’s largest geothermal power plants are:

• Hellisheiði Power Station. The Hellisheiði power plant generates both electricity and hot water for heating in Reykjavik, enabling the plant to use water resources more economically. Located in southwest Iceland, the flash steam plant is the largest combined heat and power plant in the country and one of the largest geothermal power plants in the world, with a capacity of 303 MWe (megawatt electrical) and 133 MWth (megawatt thermal) of hot water. The plant also features a reinjection system for non-condensable gases to help reduce hydrogen sulfide pollution.  
• Nesjavellir Geothermal Power Station. Located on the Mid-Atlantic Rift, the Nesjavellir Geothermal Power Station produces about 120 MW of electrical power and about 293 gallons of hot water (176 degrees to 185 degrees Fahrenheit) per second. Commissioned in 1998, the plant is the second-largest in the country.
• Svartsengi Power Station. With an installed capacity of 75 MW for electricity production and 190 MW for heat, the Svartsengi plant was the first plant in Iceland to combine electricity and heat production. Coming online in 1976, the plant has continued to grow, with expansions in 1999, 2007, and 2015.

To ensure the economic sustainability of geothermal power, Iceland employs an approach called stepwise development. This involves evaluating the conditions of individual geothermal systems in order to minimize the long-term cost of producing energy. Once the first productive wells are drilled, the production of the reservoir is evaluated and future development steps are based on that revenue.

From an environmental standpoint, Iceland has taken steps to reduce the impacts of geothermal energy development through use of environmental impact assessments that evaluate criteria like air quality, drinking water protection, and aquatic life protection when choosing plant locations.

Air pollution concerns related to hydrogen-sulfide emissions have also risen considerably as a result of geothermal energy production. Plants have addressed this by installing gas capture systems and injecting acid gases underground.  

Iceland’s commitment to geothermal energy extends beyond its borders to Eastern Africa, where the country has partnered with the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) to expand access to geothermal energy.

Sitting on top of the Great East African Rift System—and all of the associated tectonic activity—the area is particularly well-suited to geothermal energy. More specifically, the UN agency estimates that the region, which is often subject to serious energy shortages, could produce 20 gigawatts of electricity from geothermal reservoirs.

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“ A History of Geothermal Energy in America .” U.S. Department of Energy.

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“ U.S. Coal Plant Retirements Linked to Plants with Higher Operating Costs .” U.S. Energy Information Administration .

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“ The World's Largest Geothermal Heating System Saves up to 4M Tons CO2 Annually .” C40 Cities .

Hallgrímsdóttir, Elin, et al. “ The Geothermal Power Plant at Hellisheiði, Iceland .” GRC Transactions , vol. 36, 2012, pp. 1067-1072.

Ballzus, Claus, et al. “ The Geothermal Power Plant at Nesjavellir, Iceland .” Proceedings World Geothermal Congress 2000, pp. 3109-3114.

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Berstad, David, and Lars O. Nord. “ Acid Gas Removal in Geothermal Power Plant in Iceland .” Energy Procedia , vol. 86, 2016, pp. 32-40., doi:10.1016/j.egypro.2016.01.004

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Geothermal Energy Factsheet

Geothermal resource and potential.

• Geothermal energy is derived from the natural heat of the earth. 1 It exists in both high enthalpy (volcanoes, geysers) and low enthalpy forms (heat stored in rocks in the Earth’s crust). Nearly all heating and cooling applications utilize low enthalpy heat. 2
• Geothermal energy has two primary applications: heating/cooling and electricity generation. 1
• Ground source heat pumps for heating and cooling use 75% less energy than traditional heating and cooling systems. 4
• The U.S. has tapped less than 0.7% of geothermal electricity resources; the majority can become available with Enhanced Geothermal System technology. 5,6
• In 2021, there were 3,692 MW of geothermal electricity plants in operation in the U.S.—the most of any country—and development has been growing at a rate of 3% per year. 6
• Electricity generated from geothermal plants is projected to increase from 17 billion kWh in 2022 to 37.2 billion kWh in 2050. 7,8 In 2021, California and Nevada were the states with the most installed geothermal energy capacity, with 95% of U.S capacity. 6
• The U.S., Indonesia, Philippines, Turkey, New Zealand, and Mexico had 74% of global installed geothermal power capacity in 2022. 9

U.S. Geothermal Resources 3 at 10 km depth

Geothermal Technology and Impacts

Direct use and heating/cooling.

• Geothermal (or ground source) heat pumps (GSHPs) are the primary method for direct use of geothermal energy. GSHPs use the shallow ground as an energy reservoir because it maintains a nearly constant temperature between 50-60°F (10–16°C). 11
• GSHPs transfer heat from a building to the ground during the cooling season, and from the ground into a building during the heating season. 11
• Direct-use applications include space and district heating, greenhouses, aquaculture, and commercial and industrial processes. 12

Ground Source Heat Pump in a Residential Heating Application 10

Electricity Generation

• Geothermal energy currently accounts for 0.4% of electricity generation in the United States. 7
• In 2020, the U.S. generated the most geothermal electricity in the world: 18,831 GWh. 9
• Hydrothermal energy, typically supplied by underground water reservoirs, is a main source of thermal energy used in electricity generation. The water is often pumped as steam to the earth’s surface to spin turbines that generate electricity. 13
• Dry steam power plants use steam from a geothermal reservoir and route it directly through turbines, which drive generators to produce electricity. 13
• Flash steam power plants pump hot water under high pressure into a surface tank at much lower pressure. This pressure change causes the water to rapidly “flash” into steam, which is then used to spin a turbine/generator to produce electricity. Flash steam plants are the most common type of geothermal power plants. 13
• Binary cycle power plants feature geothermal water and a working fluid that are confined to separate circulating systems, or “closed loops.” A heat exchanger transfers heat from the water to the working fluid, causing it to “flash” to steam, which then powers the turbine/generator to produce electricity. 13
• Enhanced Geothermal System (EGS) is a technology under development that could expand the use of geothermal resources to new geographic areas. EGS creates a subsurface fracture system to increase the permeability of rock and allow for the injection of a heat transfer fluid (typically water). Injected fluid is heated by the rock and returned to the surface to generate electricity. 14
• According to the U.S. Department of Energy, there may be over 100 GW of geothermal electric capacity in the continental U.S., which would account for nearly 10% of current U.S. electricity capacity and be 40 times the current installed geothermal capacity. 14

Flash Steam Geothermal Power Plant 10

Installation, Manufacturing, and Cost

• The main stages of geothermal power development are resource exploration, drilling, reservoir/plant development, and power generation. 16  
• Capital costs for conventional geothermal power plants in the U.S. are approximately $2,500 per installed kilowatt of capacity. 17
• Although the development of geothermal power requires a large capital investment, geothermal has low operating costs and a capacity factor of >90% (ratio of actual power production to production potential). 16,18
• In 2016, geothermal electricity cost between 7.8-22.5¢ per kWh. As of May 2020, geothermal plants qualified for the federal Production Tax Credit (PTC). 18
• In 2022, the Inflation Reduction Act renewed and expanded the PTC, which provides up to 2.6¢ per kWh for electricity generated from geothermal resources. 19

Energy Performance and Environmental Impacts

• An average U.S. coal power plant emits roughly 35 times more carbon dioxide (CO₂) per kWh of electricity generated than a geothermal power plant. 20
• Binary cycle power plants and flash power plants consume around 0.24-4.21 gallons and 1.59-2.84 gallons of water per kWh, respectively (compared to 15 gallons of water per kWh used by thermoelectric plants in 2015). 21,22
• Each year, U.S. geothermal electricity offsets the emission of 22 million metric tons (Mt) of CO 2 , 200 thousand metric tons (t) of nitrogen oxides, and 110 thousand t of particulate matter from coal-powered plants. 18
• The U.S. DOE is actively funding research into combining carbon capture and storage with geothermal energy production, although the risks of long-term and high-volume geologic carbon sequestration are uncertain. 23, 24
• Some geothermal facilities produce solid waste that must be disposed of in approved sites, though some by-products can be recovered and recycled. 25

GHG Emissions from Power Generation 32  by Life Cycle Stage

Solutions and Sustainable Actions

Funding opportunities.

• In 2019, there were 16 national laboratories and research institutions in the U.S. conducting research into geothermal energy technologies. 26
• With a capacity factor of over 90%, geothermal electricity generation could offset coal, natural gas, or nuclear power as baseload supply in the electricity market. 17
• Renewable Portfolio Standards (RPS) require electricity providers to obtain a minimum fraction of energy from renewable resources. 27
• Renewable Energy Certificates (RECs) are sold by renewable energy producers in addition to the electricity they produce; for a few cents per kilowatt hour, consumers can purchase RECs to “offset” their usage and help renewable energy become more competitive. 28
• A federal tax credit for homeowners can cover up to 30% of qualifying ground source heat pump system costs depending on construction date from 2006 through 2034. 29
• Around 850 utilities in the U.S. offer consumers the option to purchase renewable energy, or “green power.” 30
• Many companies purchase renewable energy as part of their environmental programs. Google, Microsoft, T-Mobile, Walmart, and The Proctor & Gamble Company were the top five users of renewable energy as of April 2023. 31

Steamboat Hills Geothermal Power Plant 33  Steamboat Springs, Nevada

Center for Sustainable Systems, University of Michigan. 2023. "Geothermal Energy Factsheet." Pub. No. CSS10-10.

• U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) (2021) “Geothermal Energy Basics.”
• Banks, D. (2008) An Introduction to Thermogeology: Ground Source Heating and Cooling.
• Massachusetts Institute of Technology (2006) The Future of Geothermal Energy: Impact of Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS) on the United States in the 21st Century.
• Geothermal Exchange Organization. (2019) Geothermal Benefits.
• U.S. Geological Survey (2008) Assessment of Moderate- and High-Temperature Geothermal Resources of the United States.
• U.S. Department of Energy, IEA Geothermal (2022) 2021 United States Country Report.
• U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) (2023) Monthly Energy Review June 2023.
• U.S. EIA (2023) Annual Energy Outlook 2023.
• International Renewable Energy Agency (2023) Dashboard - Capacity and Generation.
• Adapted from Geothermal Exchange Organization, Inc. (2010) Home Heating with GeoExchange.
• U.S. DOE, NREL (2019) “Geothermal Heat Pump Basics.”
• U.S. EPA (2019) Geothermal Heating and Cooling Technologies.
• U.S. DOE, EERE, Geothermal Technologies Office (GTO) (2023) “Electricity Generation.”
• U.S. DOE, EERE, GTO (2016) “How an Enhanced Geothermal System Works.”
• U.S. DOE, Idaho National Laboratory (2010) “What is Geothermal Energy?”
• U.S. DOE, NREL (2009) 2008 Geothermal Technologies Market Report.
• U.S. DOE, EERE, GTO (2021) “Geothermal FAQs.”
• U.S. DOE, Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE) (2019) GeoVision: Harnessing the Heat Beneath Our Feet.
• U.S. EPA (2023) “Renewable Electricity Production Tax Credit Information.”
• U.S. DOE, EERE (2018) Geothermal Power Plants - Meeting Clean Air Standards.
• U.S. DOE, EERE (2015) Water Efficient Energy Production for Geothermal Resources.
• Dieter, C., et al. (2018) “Estimated use of water in the United States in 2015.” U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1441.
• U.S. DOE (2016) “DOE Investing $11.5 Million to Advance Geologic Carbon Storage and Geothermal Exploration.”
• Hitzman, M., et al. (2012) Induced Seismicity Potential in Energy Technologies. National Academies Press.
• U.S. DOE, EERE (2020) Geothermal Power Plants — Minimizing Solid Waste and Recovering Minerals.
• U.S. DOE, EERE, “Geothermal Research and Development Programs.”
• U.S. EPA (2021) “State Renewable Energy Resources.”
• U.S. DOE, NREL (2015) “Renewable Electricity: How do you know you are using it?”
• DSIRE (2022) “Federal Tax Credits for Residential Renewable Energy.”
• U.S. EPA (2018) “Utility Green Power Products.”
• U.S. EPA (2023) “Green Power Partnership: National Top 100.”
• U.S. DOE, Argonne National Laboratory (2010) Life Cycle Analysis Results of Geothermal Systems in Comparison to Other Power Systems.
• Photo courtesy of National Renewable Energy Laboratory.

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• Geothermal Energy

Fossil fuels are available widely and don’t have any unwanted consequences on our environment. They include Hydroelectric Energy, Solar Energy, Wind Energy, Biomass Energy, Geothermal Energy and Tidal Power. So, you see that Geothermal energy is one of them. This article will focus on geothermal energy to offer you a better understanding.

Introduction to Geothermal Energy

Geothermal energy is the thermal energy which generates and stores inside the crust of the earth. The earth’s centre is at the same temperature as the sun which is almost steady because of the constant process of nuclear fusion. Thus, some rocks melt because of this high temperature and pressure and cause upward movement of the mantle. These molten rocks which produce in the crust of the earth push upward and get trapped in particular regions which we refer to as hot spots. Moreover, when underground water comes in contact with the hot spot, steam generates.

Alternative Energy Sources

As we have discussed before, the alternative energy sources are hydroelectric energy, solar energy, wind energy and biomass energy. The potential energy that is stored in the water is made to drive a water turbine that creates electricity, this kind of energy production is called hydroelectric power. Next, solar energy is one which we get from the sun and is quite a promising source. We control wind energy for pushing the wind turbine’s blade which connects to the electric generator to generate wind energy. Further, biomass energy is one we get from the waste of animals and humans.

Definition of Geothermal Energy

Geothermal energy is one which generates from the heat within the earth. The hot rocks in the Earth’s core emit the earth’s surface with steam and pressure. We use this steam for running and producing electricity .

Geothermal Gradient

The difference in the temperature between the planet’s core and the crust is a geothermal gradient. It is the driving force for the constant conduction of thermal energy in the form of heat from the core to the surface. Sometimes, the temperature gradient may reach over 4000 °C.

For harnessing geothermal energy, we use a hydrothermal convection system. This procedure requires drilling a hole deep under the earth and then we insert a pipe. The steam which is trapped in the rocks routes through this pipe to the earth’s surface. Then, we use this steam for turning the blades of a turbine of an electric generator. Further, another method requires using steam to heat water from an external source which we use for rotating the turbine.

Applications of Geothermal Energy

There are many applications of geothermal energy ranging from electricity generation to heating. Firstly, we generally install geothermal plants within a two-mile radius of the geothermal reserve. We use the steam from these reserves to rotate the electrical generator’s turbines or heat water to produce the steam.

In many cold countries, they use geothermal energy for heating greenhouses or heating water for irrigation. After that, it also has many uses in industries for food dehydration, milk pasteurizing, gold mining, and more.

Moreover, we also use it for heating buildings through district heating systems in which they directly transport hot water through springs to buildings via pipelines.

Advantages of Geothermal Energy

First of all, it is a renewable resource. It is free and abundant and because there is a constant flow of heat from the Earth, it is inexhaustible and limitless. In other words, it may be around for 4 billion years easily.

Further, it is non-polluting and environment-friendly. As there is no involvement of harmful gases, it is not lethal like fossil fuels. Most importantly, it does not leave any residue or create a by-product.

As geothermal power plants are extremely sophisticated, they require large scale research before we install them. Thus, it helps in creating employment for all types of labourers at almost every stage of production and management.

Finally, we can use it directly. As cold countries need it more, they use it for melting ice on the roads, heating houses, greenhouses, public baths and more. While the price initially may seem high, the maintenance and repair cost is minor.

Disadvantages of Geothermal Energy

A major disadvantage is of transportation and transmission. We cannot transport them easily like fossil fuels. Once we harness the tapped energy, we can use it efficiently in the nearby areas only. Similarly, there is the possibility of toxic gases emission in the atmosphere with the transmission.

Further, the cost of installation is really high. When you install a geothermal plant for getting steam from deep under the Earth, you will have to make a huge investment for material and human resources.

Moreover, it also requires intensive research. You must have thorough knowledge before setting up a plant to avoid the sit run out of steam over time because of temperature drop due to excessive or irregular supply of inlet water .

Another drawback is that the source of geothermal energy is limited to certain regions. Some of them are highly inaccessible too like high rise mountains and rocky terrains thereby making it economically infeasible.

Finally, as geothermal sites are present deep under the earth, the process requires a lot of drilling. Thus, too much drilling may cause release of highly toxic gases in the environment which can be fatal to the workforce and neighboring areas.

FAQ on Geothermal Energy

Question 1: Define geothermal energy.

Answer 1: Geothermal energy is one which generates from the heat within the earth. The hot rocks in the Earth’s core emit the earth’s surface with steam and pressure. We use this steam for running and producing electricity.

Question 2: State two disadvantages of geothermal energy.

Answer 2: There are quite a few disadvantages to this energy. Firstly, the procedure of injecting high-pressure streams of water into the Earth can cause minor seismic activity or small earthquakes. Secondly, geothermal plants can release small amounts of greenhouse gases like hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide. Thus, it will impact the environment badly.

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• Geothermal Energy

Geothermal Energy - Non Conventional Source of Energy

We all must have seen or heard about hot springs. These are a result of the Geothermal energy present inside the earth. In this article, we shall take a deeper look into it.

What Is Geothermal Energy?

Geothermal energy is the thermal energy generated and stored inside the Earth’s crust . The Earth’s centre remains at the same temperature as the Sun, which is nearly constant due to the continuous process of nuclear fusion. Due to such high temperature and pressure, some rocks melt, resulting in the mantle’s upward motion (as they become lighter with the heat). These molten rocks formed in the Earth’s crust are pushed upward where they get trapped in certain regions called ‘hot spots.’ When underground water comes in contact with the hot spot, steam is generated. Sometimes this hot water-formed region finds outlets at the surface. When this hot water gushes out of one of these outlets, it is called hot springs.

Alternative Energy Sources

Alternative energy sources include those that do not consume fossil fuels. These are widely available and do not cause any undesirable consequences to the environment. Here is the list of major alternative energy sources.

• Hydroelectric Energy
• Solar Energy
• Wind Energy
• Biomass Energy
• Tidal Power

The potential energy that is stored in the water is made to drive a water turbine that produces electricity. This kind of energy production is known as hydroelectric power. It is the most commonly adopted alternative energy source at the present time.

This is the energy that is received from the Sun. It is the most promising alternative energy source and is bound to be available for centuries to mankind.

The wind power is controlled by pushing the blades of the wind turbine that are connected to the electric generator to produce wind energy. It is an effective alternative source in fields where the wind velocity is high.

This energy is developed from the wastes of animals and humans that include by-products along with agricultural yields, municipal solid wastes, and the timber industry.  

It is the energy that is generated from the heat within the Earth. Hot rocks in the earth’s core emit heat which generates steam and pressure and thus comes out of the earth’s surface. This steam is used to run turbines and produce electricity.

71% of Earth’s surface is covered by water bodies which are mainly oceans. The tides in the water body fall and rise because of the moon and sun’s gravity.

Geothermal gradient A geothermal gradient is defined as the difference in the temperature between the core and the crust of the planet. The geothermal gradient is the driving force for the continuous conduction of thermal energy in the form of heat from the core to the surface. The temperature gradient may sometimes reach over 4000 °C.

Harnessing the Geothermal Energy

To harness geothermal energy, a hydrothermal convection system is used. In this process, a hole is drilled deep under the earth, through which a pipe is inserted. The steam trapped in the rocks is routed through this pipe to the earth’s surface. This steam is then used to turn the blades of a turbine of an electric generator. In another method, the steam is used to heat water from an external source which is then used to rotate the turbine.

Applications of Geothermal Energy

Generation of electricity: Geothermal power plants are usually installed within a two-mile radius of the geothermal reserve. The steam from these reserves is either directly used to rotate the turbines of an electrical generator or is used to heat water which then produces steam for the process.

• Farming: In cold countries, geothermal energy is used to heat greenhouses or to heat water that is used for irrigation.
• Industry: Geothermal energy is used in industries for the purpose of food dehydration, milk pasteurizing, gold mining, etc.
• Heating: Geothermal energy is used to heat buildings through district heating systems in which hot water through springs is directly transported to the buildings through pipelines.

Advantages of Geothermal Energy

• Renewable resource: Geothermal energy is free and abundant. The constant flow of heat from the Earth makes this resource inexhaustible and limitless to an estimated time span of 4 billion years.
• Green energy: Geothermal energy is non-polluting and environment-friendly as no harmful gases are evolved with the use of geothermal energy, unlike the use of fossil fuels. Also, no residue or by-product is generated.
• Generation of employment: Geothermal power plants are highly sophisticated and involve large-scale research before installation. This generates employment for skilled and unskilled labourers at a very large scale at each stage of production and management.
• Can be used directly: In cold countries, geothermal energy is used directly for the melting of ice on the roads, heating houses in winters, greenhouses, public baths, etc. Although the initial cost of installation is very high, the cost for maintenance and repair is negligible.

Disadvantages of Geothermal Energy

• Transportation and transmission: Unlike fossil fuels, geothermal energy cannot be transported easily. Once the tapped energy is harnessed, it can only be used efficiently in nearby areas. Also, with the transmission, there are chances of the emission of toxic gases getting released into the atmosphere.
• High installation cost: The installation of geothermal power plants to get steam from deep under the Earth requires a huge investment in terms of material and human resources.
• Intensive research required: Before setting up a plant, extensive research is required, as the sites can run out of steam over time due to a drop in the temperature due to excessive or irregular supply of inlet water.
• Limited to particular regions: The source of geothermal energy is available in limited regions, some of which are highly inaccessible, such as high-rise mountains and rocky terrains, which renders the process economically infeasible in many of the cases.
• Impact on the environment: Geothermal sites are present deep under the earth, so the process of drilling may result in the release of highly toxic gases into the environment near these sites, which sometimes prove fatal to the workforce involved in the process.

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Home — Essay Samples — Science — Energy — Geothermal Energy: Causes, Types

Geothermal Energy: Causes, Types

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Published: Jan 29, 2019

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The cause of geothermal energy

Types of geothermal power plants. binary plants.

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Fact Sheet | Geothermal Energy

May 1, 2006

Geothermal Energy: Tapping the energy in the Earth’s core

• Geothermal energy comes from the heat in the Earth’s core. This heat creates underground reservoirs of steam and hot water, which can be tapped to generate electricity or to heat and cool buildings directly.
• Geothermal energy is the third largest source of renewable energy, behind hydropower and biomass. In 2003, it accounted for 7 percent of US electricity generated from renewable sources.
• The United States is the world’s largest producer of geothermal energy. About 2,800 megawatts (MW) of geothermal electrical capacity is connected to the electrical grid in the United States; 8,000 MW of geothermal electrical capacity is installed worldwide.
• The US Geological Survey (USGS) has identified approximately 22,000 MW of geothermal resources sufficient for electrical power generation in the United States. In addition, low-temperature resources sufficient for direct-use and heat pumps are available across the country.
• The largest geothermal development in the world is at The Geysers in California. This plant, in operation since 1960, has a capacity of over 850 MW and satisfies nearly 70 percent of the average electrical demand for the Californian North Coast region.
• Electricity from The Geysers sells for $0.03 to $0.035 per kilowatt-hour (kWh), while electricity from newer geothermal plants costs between $0.05 and $0.08 per kWh. New geothermal power plants are now eligible for a Production Tax Credit for power produced in the first 5 years of operation.

Click here to read the full fact sheet in .pdf format

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Recent News

renewable energy , usable energy derived from replenishable sources such as the Sun ( solar energy ), wind ( wind power ), rivers ( hydroelectric power ), hot springs ( geothermal energy ), tides ( tidal power ), and biomass ( biofuels ).

At the beginning of the 21st century, about 80 percent of the world’s energy supply was derived from fossil fuels such as coal , petroleum , and natural gas . Fossil fuels are finite resources; most estimates suggest that the proven reserves of oil are large enough to meet global demand at least until the middle of the 21st century. Fossil fuel combustion has a number of negative environmental consequences. Fossil-fueled power plants emit air pollutants such as sulfur dioxide , particulate matter , nitrogen oxides, and toxic chemicals (heavy metals: mercury , chromium , and arsenic ), and mobile sources, such as fossil-fueled vehicles, emit nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide , and particulate matter. Exposure to these pollutants can cause heart disease , asthma , and other human health problems. In addition, emissions from fossil fuel combustion are responsible for acid rain , which has led to the acidification of many lakes and consequent damage to aquatic life, leaf damage in many forests, and the production of smog in or near many urban areas. Furthermore, the burning of fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), one of the main greenhouse gases that cause global warming .

In contrast, renewable energy sources accounted for nearly 20 percent of global energy consumption at the beginning of the 21st century, largely from traditional uses of biomass such as wood for heating and cooking . By 2015 about 16 percent of the world’s total electricity came from large hydroelectric power plants, whereas other types of renewable energy (such as solar, wind, and geothermal) accounted for 6 percent of total electricity generation. Some energy analysts consider nuclear power to be a form of renewable energy because of its low carbon emissions; nuclear power generated 10.6 percent of the world’s electricity in 2015.

Growth in wind power exceeded 20 percent and photovoltaics grew at 30 percent annually in the 1990s, and renewable energy technologies continued to expand throughout the early 21st century. Between 2001 and 2017 world total installed wind power capacity increased by a factor of 22, growing from 23,900 to 539,581 megawatts. Photovoltaic capacity also expanded, increasing by 50 percent in 2016 alone. The European Union (EU), which produced an estimated 6.38 percent of its energy from renewable sources in 2005, adopted a goal in 2007 to raise that figure to 20 percent by 2020. By 2016 some 17 percent of the EU’s energy came from renewable sources. The goal also included plans to cut emissions of carbon dioxide by 20 percent and to ensure that 10 percent of all fuel consumption comes from biofuels . The EU was well on its way to achieving those targets by 2017. Between 1990 and 2016 the countries of the EU reduced carbon emissions by 23 percent and increased biofuel production to 5.5 percent of all fuels consumed in the region. In the United States numerous states have responded to concerns over climate change and reliance on imported fossil fuels by setting goals to increase renewable energy over time. For example, California required its major utility companies to produce 20 percent of their electricity from renewable sources by 2010, and by the end of that year California utilities were within 1 percent of the goal. In 2008 California increased this requirement to 33 percent by 2020, and in 2017 the state further increased its renewable-use target to 50 percent by 2030.

Geothermal Energy

Science – Society – Technology

Featured article: Experimental study on the effect of CO2 storage on the reservoir permeability in a CO2-based enhanced geothermal system

A CO 2 -based Enhanced Geothermal System (CO 2 -EGS) has dual benefits of heat extraction and CO 2 storage, but mineralization within the fractures reduce permeability and thus the productivity of the reservoir. Read here about how Li et al. find a solution to this challenge using proppants in their recent study.

• Most accessed

A revised weight of evidence model for potential assessments of geothermal resources: a case study at western Sichuan Plateau, China

Authors: Ronghua Huang, Chao Zhang, Guangzheng Jiang and Haozhu Zhang

Definition of a thermal conductivity map for geothermal purposes

Authors: Carlota García-Noval, Rodrigo Álvarez, Silverio García-Cortés, Carmen García, Fernando Alberquilla and Almudena Ordóñez

Qualitative assessment of optimizing the well spacings based on the economic analysis

Authors: Wenjie Sun, Weizun Zhang, Zhongxin Zhao, Yonghui Huang, Yaqian Ren, Lu Ren, Yican Yan, Shuqin Ji, Shejiao Wang and Yanlong Kong

Image of the five elements and prediction of the geothermal field based on gravity, magnetic and magnetotelluric data in the PanZ area

Authors: Guolei Zheng, Jinshui Huang, Peng Zhai and Gang Wang

Evolution of worldwide geothermal power 2020–2023

Authors: Luis C. A. Gutiérrez-Negrín

Most recent articles RSS

View all articles

Performance of geothermal power plants (single, dual, and binary) to compensate for LHC-CERN power consumption: comparative study

Authors: M. El Haj Assad, E. Bani-Hani and M. Khalil

Design of earth–air heat exchanger system

Authors: Trilok Singh Bisoniya

Analysis of geothermal energy as an alternative source for electricity in Colombia

Authors: Samuel S. Salazar, Yecid Muñoz and Adalberto Ospino

Numerical analysis for ground temperature variation

Authors: Raviranjan Kumar Singh and Ram Vinoy Sharma

A systematic review of enhanced (or engineered) geothermal systems: past, present and future

Authors: Katrin Breede, Khatia Dzebisashvili, Xiaolei Liu and Gioia Falcone

Most accessed articles RSS

Article collections

Emerging technologies in ground-source heat pumps for low-carbon heating and cooling in buildings Geothermal Energy Edited by: Ning MAO, Zhenjun MA, Liang PU, Yiji LU, Hyunjun OH and Jiaming GONG Published: 6 March 2024

Geothermal Fluid Properties at Extreme Conditions Geothermal Energy Edited by: Alper Baba, Harald Milsch and Simona Regenspurg Published: 21 December 2023

On the future development of superhot and supercritical geothermal systems Geothermal Energy Edited by: Egbert Jolie, Hiroshi Asanuma and Guðmundur Ómar Friðleifsson Published: 15 February 2021

From Exploration to Operation - Research Developments in Deep Geothermal Energy Geothermal Energy Edited by: Alexandra Kushnir and Markus Loewer Published: 3 July 2019

Integrative Approaches in Deep Geothermal Science Geothermal Energy Edited by: Carola Meller and Emmanuel Gaucher Published: 2 June 2018 View all article collections

Aims and scope

Geothermal energy & geothermal energy science merger.

Geothermal Energy merged with the open-access journal Geothermal Energy Science on 1 July 2017. For previous articles published in  Geothermal Energy Science please visit the homepage .

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What is renewable energy?

Renewable energy is energy derived from natural sources that are replenished at a higher rate than they are consumed. Sunlight and wind, for example, are such sources that are constantly being replenished. Renewable energy sources are plentiful and all around us.

Fossil fuels - coal, oil and gas - on the other hand, are non-renewable resources that take hundreds of millions of years to form. Fossil fuels, when burned to produce energy, cause harmful greenhouse gas emissions, such as carbon dioxide.

Generating renewable energy creates far lower emissions than burning fossil fuels. Transitioning from fossil fuels, which currently account for the lion’s share of emissions, to renewable energy is key to addressing the climate crisis.

Renewables are now cheaper in most countries, and generate three times more jobs than fossil fuels.

Here are a few common sources of renewable energy:

SOLAR ENERGY

Solar energy is the most abundant of all energy resources and can even be harnessed in cloudy weather. The rate at which solar energy is intercepted by the Earth is about 10,000 times greater than the rate at which humankind consumes energy.

Solar technologies can deliver heat, cooling, natural lighting, electricity, and fuels for a host of applications. Solar technologies convert sunlight into electrical energy either through photovoltaic panels or through mirrors that concentrate solar radiation.

Although not all countries are equally endowed with solar energy, a significant contribution to the energy mix from direct solar energy is possible for every country.

The cost of manufacturing solar panels has plummeted dramatically in the last decade, making them not only affordable but often the cheapest form of electricity. Solar panels have a lifespan of roughly 30 years , and come in variety of shades depending on the type of material used in manufacturing.

WIND ENERGY

Wind energy harnesses the kinetic energy of moving air by using large wind turbines located on land (onshore) or in sea- or freshwater (offshore). Wind energy has been used for millennia, but onshore and offshore wind energy technologies have evolved over the last few years to maximize the electricity produced - with taller turbines and larger rotor diameters.

Though average wind speeds vary considerably by location, the world’s technical potential for wind energy exceeds global electricity production, and ample potential exists in most regions of the world to enable significant wind energy deployment.

Many parts of the world have strong wind speeds, but the best locations for generating wind power are sometimes remote ones. Offshore wind power offers t remendous potential .

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

Geothermal energy utilizes the accessible thermal energy from the Earth’s interior. Heat is extracted from geothermal reservoirs using wells or other means.

Reservoirs that are naturally sufficiently hot and permeable are called hydrothermal reservoirs, whereas reservoirs that are sufficiently hot but that are improved with hydraulic stimulation are called enhanced geothermal systems.

Once at the surface, fluids of various temperatures can be used to generate electricity. The technology for electricity generation from hydrothermal reservoirs is mature and reliable, and has been operating for more than 100 years .

Hydropower harnesses the energy of water moving from higher to lower elevations. It can be generated from reservoirs and rivers. Reservoir hydropower plants rely on stored water in a reservoir, while run-of-river hydropower plants harness energy from the available flow of the river.

Hydropower reservoirs often have multiple uses - providing drinking water, water for irrigation, flood and drought control, navigation services, as well as energy supply.

Hydropower currently is the largest source of renewable energy in the electricity sector. It relies on generally stable rainfall patterns, and can be negatively impacted by climate-induced droughts or changes to ecosystems which impact rainfall patterns.

The infrastructure needed to create hydropower can also impact on ecosystems in adverse ways. For this reason, many consider small-scale hydro a more environmentally-friendly option , and especially suitable for communities in remote locations.

OCEAN ENERGY

Ocean energy derives from technologies that use the kinetic and thermal energy of seawater - waves or currents for instance -  to produce electricity or heat.

Ocean energy systems are still at an early stage of development, with a number of prototype wave and tidal current devices being explored. The theoretical potential for ocean energy easily exceeds present human energy requirements.

Bioenergy is produced from a variety of organic materials, called biomass, such as wood, charcoal, dung and other manures for heat and power production, and agricultural crops for liquid biofuels. Most biomass is used in rural areas for cooking, lighting and space heating, generally by poorer populations in developing countries.

Modern biomass systems include dedicated crops or trees, residues from agriculture and forestry, and various organic waste streams.

Energy created by burning biomass creates greenhouse gas emissions, but at lower levels than burning fossil fuels like coal, oil or gas. However, bioenergy should only be used in limited applications, given potential negative environmental impacts related to large-scale increases in forest and bioenergy plantations, and resulting deforestation and land-use change.

For more information on renewable sources of energy, please check out the following websites:

International Renewable Energy Agency | Renewables

International Energy Agency | Renewables

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change | Renewable Sources of Energy

UN Environment Programme | Roadmap to a Carbon-Free Future

Sustainable Energy for All | Renewable Energy

Renewable energy – powering a safer future

What is renewable energy and why does it matter? Learn more about why the shift to renewables is our only hope for a brighter and safer world.

Five ways to jump-start the renewable energy transition now

UN Secretary-General outlines five critical actions the world needs to prioritize now to speed up the global shift to renewable energy.

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Low enthalpy geothermal source for sustainable energy production in small islands: a real case study

• Fraia, Simona Di
• Massarotti, Nicola
• Vanoli, Laura

The global demand for clean and sustainable energy sources has significantly increased in recent years, mainly because of concerns about climate change and the finite nature of traditional fossil fuel reserves. In this context, geothermal energy has gained significant attention as a reliable and eco-friendly alternative. In particular, low enthalpy geothermal resources have emerged as an attractive option due to their accessibility, widespread distribution, and potential for decentralization. Moreover, reliability and flexibility of this source allow for year-round utilization to meet diverse energy demands, resulting in reduced dependency on traditional energy sources and associated greenhouse gas emissions. For this reason, geothermal energy appears to be a promising solution in small islands, where energy production is often a challenge due to the absence of infrastructures that make them energy-dependent on the mainland. Therefore, in this work, low enthalpy geothermal source is considered as effective and sustainable solution for electrical energy production in small islands. As case study a low temperature source available in Ischia island, Southern Italy, is considered. The proposed solution is analysed from energy, economic and environmental point of view.

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JSmol Viewer

Groundwater potential for the utilisation of shallow geothermal energy from a closed coal mine, 1. introduction.

• flows from underground deposits to the earth’s surface via natural faults “natural thermal springs”;
• flows from underground deposits to the earth’s surface through the artificially created connection openings of the geothermal well;
• flows to the earth’s surface through an artificially created circuit of hot, dry rock.
• Underground (water/water system)
• Geosonde (rock/water system)
• Ground collector (soil/water system)

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. geological, hydrogeological and geomechanical properties of the rocks in the rth area, 2.2. hydrogeological characteristics of the rth mining area, 2.2.1. trbovlje mine, 2.2.2. ojstro mine, 2.2.3. hrastnik mine, 2.3. possibilities of using shallow geothermal energy in the rth area, 2.3.1. heat transfer in aquifer and water drainage, diffusion of substances, the law of conservation of the masses, thermal potential of the water/water system, 2.3.2. heat transfer—ground heat exchanger, thermal potential of the rock/water system, the influence of utilising geothermal energy in the rock/water system on lowering the temperature of the rock, 4. discussion, 5. conclusions, author contributions, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

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Vukelić, Ž.; Šporin, J. Groundwater Potential for the Utilisation of Shallow Geothermal Energy from a Closed Coal Mine. Water 2024 , 16 , 1572. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16111572

Vukelić Ž, Šporin J. Groundwater Potential for the Utilisation of Shallow Geothermal Energy from a Closed Coal Mine. Water . 2024; 16(11):1572. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16111572

Vukelić, Željko, and Jurij Šporin. 2024. "Groundwater Potential for the Utilisation of Shallow Geothermal Energy from a Closed Coal Mine" Water 16, no. 11: 1572. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16111572

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Mexico’s Next President Is a Climate Scientist—and a Fossil Fuel Supporter

The question remains, where will claudia sheinbaum land on policies, martha pskowski.

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Claudia Sheinbaum announcing her win for president at a press conference. Jose Luis Torales/Zuma

This story was originally published by  Inside Climate News   and is reproduced here as part of the  Climate Desk   collaboration.

Mexico’s President-elect, Claudia Sheinbaum, an energy engineer and physicist by training, has published widely on the energy transition and greenhouse gas emissions as an environmental scientist. She has co-authored a UN climate report, and as Mexico City mayor, she installed solar power on a city market and electrified public transportation routes.

Now, the country waits to see whether her environmental pedigree will translate into action as president. Sheinbaum’s predecessor, outgoing President Andrés Manuel López Obrador, cut funding for environmental agencies and let Mexico’s international climate commitments languish. He backed more domestic oil production and the construction of a new refinery. 

Sheinbaum remained his loyal ally; López Obrador paved the way for her to ascend to Mexico’s highest office. But on energy and climate issues, while his protegé strikes a different tone, she remains committed to continued use of fossil fuels.

Will Sheinbaum follow “the agenda she inherited from Andrés Manuel López Obrador” or “the agenda of a well-informed scientist”?

Sheinbaum’s campaign platform commits to the nation’s energy transition, electrifying transport and reducing Mexico’s greenhouse gas emissions. Yet she also supports a recently constructed oil refinery, natural gas pipelines and petrochemical plants.

She champions domestic oil production but is largely silent on natural gas, for which Mexico is highly dependent on the United States. Sheinbaum will have to thread the needle between continuing López Obrador’s legacy—leading the party he founded—and crafting her own political identity. 

“Which side of her is going to win?” said Claudia Campero, a long-time environmental activist in Mexico City who works with the organization Conexiones Climáticas. “The agenda she inherited from Andrés Manuel López Obrador? Or the agenda of the well-informed scientist who understands the climate crisis perfectly? 

“It’s still up in the air.”

Sheinbaum was born in Mexico City in 1962. Her Jewish grandparents fled Lithuania and Bulgaria. But she was raised in a secular household, more concerned with left-wing politics than religion.

She earned undergraduate, masters and doctorate degrees from the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM) in energy engineering and physics. Sheinbaum also completed coursework at Stanford and the University of California, Berkeley, and worked as a researcher at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory in the early 1990s. 

Before ascending to the presidency six years ago, López Obrador was elected Mexico City mayor in 2000, representing the PRD party. He named Sheinbaum his secretary of the environment, a post she held until 2006. 

Sheinbaum later continued her research at UNAM, including papers on electrical sector reform and carbon dioxide emissions and energy consumption in the Mexican industrial sector. She also authored contributions to the UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s Fourth and Fifth Assessment Reports.

“Very little has been done to make progress” on Mexico’s climate change law’s goals.

In 2018, López Obrador ran for president representing the MORENA party he had founded after leaving the PRD. Sheinbaum ran for Mexico City mayor that same year with MORENA. They both won and worked together closely over the coming years. 

As mayor, Sheinbaum led the electrification of much of the bus system and new cable-car routes were built. But she faced pushback for building a bridge through wetlands in the historic Xochimilco borough. 

Campero, the advocate, pointed to a rainwater capture program in low-income neighborhoods as emblematic of Sheinbaum’s approach to environmental issues. The project had environmental benefits but prioritized improving quality of life in marginalized neighborhoods.

“She prioritizes social policy,” Campero said. “The environmental side is there, but the motive of economic growth has more weight in her decision making.”

López Obrador was elected president in his third run for the top office. He took office intent on undoing reforms, passed in 2013, that he thought undermined Mexico’s sovereignty by allowing increased foreign investment in the energy sector. 

Some of López Obrador’s most contentious projects had vast environmental impacts: the Mayan Train across the biodiverse Yucatan Peninsula; a costly refinery at Dos Bocas; the Trans-Isthmus Corridor logistics route. 

Despite López Obrador’s rhetoric of energy sovereignty, Mexico’s dependence on natural gas from the United States deepened during his administration. Northern Mexico’s proximity to the prolific oilfields of Texas, paired with the 2013 energy reforms, allowed a vast network of pipelines to expand across the border into Mexico. 

By 2022, imports from the US provided 69 percent of Mexico’s natural gas, according to Mexico’s  Secretary of Energy . In 2023, natural gas accounted for about  58 percent  of Mexico’s electricity use. Even more pipelines have been proposed recently to transport natural gas from the US to Mexico’s coasts for liquefaction and re-export. In 2022, the US exported  a record high  $55.8 billion worth of petroleum products and natural gas to Mexico.

Mexico’s General Climate Change Law set a goal of 35 percent of electricity from clean energy sources by 2024. Progress toward this goal stalled during López Obrador’s administration. Renewables provided 23 percent of electricity in 2023, according to clean energy  think tank Ember . The administration’s biggest investment in renewables was the 1,000-megawatt Puerto Peñasco solar farm in Sonora.

Mexico’s climate policy went backwards under López Obrador, according to Carlos Asúnsolo, director of public policy and research at the Mexican Center for Environmental Law (CEMDA). Mexico updated its Nationally Determined Contribution under the Paris Agreement in 2022 to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 35 percent by 2030. 

“Today, we know that very little has been done to make progress on these commitments,” Asúnsolo said. 

The federal government has largely rejected CEMDA’s requests for documentation of progress toward these commitments. The organization  Climate Action Tracker  ranks Mexico’s progress on its targets as “critically insufficient.” 

While López Obrador promoted the state oil company PEMEX, the firm’s emissions and pollution seemed to be an afterthought.

“The discussion of hydrocarbons [in Mexico] is who reaps the benefits,” Conexiones Climáticas’ Campero said. “There hasn’t been much discussion of environmental protection.”

PEMEX is one of the top 10 firms globally that have contributed to global carbon emissions, according to  the Guardian . Mexico has also promised to reduce methane emissions by at least 30 percent by 2030 under the Global Methane Pledge. But satellites have repeatedly detected  massive methane releases  from PEMEX’s offshore platforms. 

In a debate, Sheinbaum said Mexico will use renewable energy while “at same time having a foundation with [natural] gas.”

“[Mexico] has an above average, by far, methane emissions intensity,” said Diego Rivera Rivota, a senior research associate at Columbia University’s Center on Global Energy Policy. “It’s a massive challenge, one of the many challenges that PEMEX has in their list of challenges to be resolved.”

Meanwhile the impacts of climate change became ever more apparent in Mexico. Hurricane Otis barreled into Acapulco last year, killing 52 people. Warm ocean surface water likely caused the storm to intensify rapidly, catching forecasters off guard. Extreme heat this May pushed electricity demand to record high levels. Drought has diminished the water supplies for major cities, including Mexico City and Monterrey. 

Some Mexican scientists bemoan what they call a “ lost administration ” to address the worst impacts of climate change. Nonetheless, López Obrador’s social and labor policies were wildly popular and lifted many Mexicans out of poverty. His promise to put the poor first resonated in a country with entrenched poverty. Coasting on high approval ratings, MORENA was poised to hold on to the presidency in 2024.

Sheinbaum’s main opponent in the presidential race was Xóchitl Gálvez, who represented a coalition of the PRI, PAN and PRD parties. Both Sheinbaum and Gálvez promoted renewable energy in their platforms, while Gálvez put a stronger emphasis on private investment.

By the time polling places began reporting on Sunday night, it was clear Sheinbaum had a commanding lead. She won almost 60 percent of the vote and several million more votes than López Obrador captured in 2018. MORENA also won a majority in both houses of congress. Sheinbaum will enter office on Oct. 1 for a six-year term.

Sheinbaum’s campaign platform states that energy policy will “redirect the sector toward an authentically sustainable future.” But Sheinbaum has also promised to “consolidate” the Dos Bocas refinery and increase domestic oil production. Throughout, Sheinbaum has emphasized central roles for PEMEX and the state electric utility CFE. Her platform also commits to engaging in the UN climate change Conference of the Parties.

Her energy sector plans include wind, solar, hydropower, green hydrogen and geothermal. In an event with business leaders, Sheinbaum proposed dedicating  $13.6 billion  to these new energy generation projects. 

In a presidential debate, Sheinbaum said Mexico will use renewable energy while “at same time having a foundation with [natural] gas.” She also voiced support for a new gas pipeline to the Yucatan Peninsula. 

“We have six years to do something significant to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and fulfill international climate commitments.”

While international media headlines celebrated Mexico’s first elected woman president and her environmental credentials, Mexico is expected to continue to rely on imports of US petroleum products and gas. Energy industry publications reassured their readers that Sheinbaum will “ stay the course ” and demand for Texas gas will “ stay robust .”

Adrian Duhalt of Columbia University’s Center on Global Energy Policy expects Mexico to increase imports of US natural gas in the near term. Some of MORENA’s projects, like industrial parks planned in Southern Mexico, will require increased gas imports. In Northern Mexico, companies are relocating from Asia to be closer to the US market, a trend called near-shoring, which is also driving gas demand. 

But Duhalt sees a path for Mexico to invest in renewables, storage capacity, batteries and energy efficiency to gradually reduce dependence on natural gas from the United States. Duhalt said Mexico’s state-owned energy companies could be important tools to help speed the energy transition. 

Columbia’s Rivera Rivota said recent heat waves have emphasized the importance of shoring up Mexico’s electrical grid and diversifying power sources. Mexico had to implement  rolling blackouts  during a heat wave last month.

“The main driver of this is an increase in temperatures. Those are the effects of climate change on the demand side,” he said. “This trend is here to stay.”

Sheinbaum rode the wave of López Obrador’s popularity to secure a second presidential administration for the MORENA party, which is just a decade old. While climate change was a marginal issue for López Obrador, Sheinbaum could turn a new page. 

Environmental advocates will be watching who Sheinbaum appoints to key cabinet positions like the Secretariat of Energy and the Secretariat of the Environment. They also say that budget allocations will prove whether her renewable energy ideas can be effectively implemented. 

CEMDA’s Asúnsolo said Sheinbaum’s administration can make up for “errors and mistakes” of the outgoing president. 

“We have six years to do something significant to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and fulfill international climate commitments,” he said. “I think this government still has time to do so. This is a very important moment.”

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Office:  Solar Energy Technologies Office   FOA Number: DE-FOA-0003289  Link to Apply:  Apply on EERE Exchange FOA Amount: $38 million

On June 6, 2024, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Solar Energy Technologies Office (SETO) announced the FY24 Solar Energy Supply Chain Incubator funding opportunity, which will provide up to $38 million for research, development, and demonstration (RD&D) projects that de-risk solar hardware, manufacturing processes, and software products across a wide range of solar technology areas. The FOA also seeks projects that provide outreach, education, or technology development for software that delivers an automated permit review and approval process for rooftop solar photovoltaics (PV) with or without energy storage.

This funding opportunity announcement (FOA) aims to increase U.S. domestic manufacturing across the solar energy supply chain and expand private investment in the country’s solar manufacturing sector. These investments will help accelerate the growth of the solar industry, identify emerging opportunities, and drive down costs for our domestic energy market, positioning the United States on the leading edge of solar industry advances.

Technologies of interest include PV, systems integration, and concentrating solar-thermal power (CSP) technologies, as well as those that connect solar with storage or electric vehicles and dual-use PV applications like agrivoltaics and vehicle-integrated PV. Read the FOA for the full list of relevant areas.

Topic Areas

Topic area 1: solar research and technology development – 5-10 projects, $1-2 million each.

This topic area focuses on R&D projects at for-profit companies to de-risk new solar components and/or manufacturing processes, while developing and validating a realistic pathway to commercial success.

Topic Area 2: Solar Technology Demonstration – 5-10 projects, $1-5 million each

This topic area focuses on RD&D projects at established companies or startups for pilot-scale and/or prototype demonstration of solar products. Successful applicants for this topic area will have an existing prototype that requires further testing, engineering work, or demonstration in a controlled environment. 

Topic Area 3: Solar Permitting Software Outreach, Education, and Development – 1-3 projects, $1-5 million each

This topic area focuses on outreach, education, and/or software technology development activities for automated code-compliant solar permitting software. The solar permitting software must be designed for use by solar installers to submit rooftop solar permit applications, and by local governments to automate their review and approval. Projects can be led by for-profit or non-profit entities.

Applicant Education

Do you have questions about putting together your concept paper or full application? Is this your first time considering a FOA application? SETO, through the American-Made Network , is providing Applicant Education Services available to you free of charge. 

You can engage with the following points of contact at ADL Ventures, Entrepreneur Futures Network (EFN), and the University of Arizona Center for Innovation (UACI) for more details: 

• ADL Ventures: Frank Yang
• Campus Research Corporation (UACI): Amanda Buchanan
• EFN: Tom Jensen and Cassie Coravos
• Ensemble: Adam Karides

Note: Participation in the Application Education Services is not mandatory and will have no impact on the evaluation of your application by DOE.

SETO will host an informational webinar on June 13 at 4 p.m. ET to discuss the funding opportunity and the areas of focus.  Register to attend the webinar . 

Teaming Partner List

DOE is compiling a Teaming Partner List to facilitate the formation of project teams for this FOA. The Teaming Partner List allows organizations that may wish to participate on a project to express their interest to other applicants and explore potential partnerships. 

The Teaming Partner List will be available on EERE eXCHANGE and will be regularly updated to reflect new teaming partners who provide their organization’s information.

SUBMISSION INSTRUCTIONS: View the Teaming Partner List by visiting the EERE eXCHANGE homepage and clicking on “Teaming Partners” within the left-hand navigation pane. This page allows users to view published Teaming Partner Lists. To join the Teaming Partner List, submit a request within eXCHANGE. Select the appropriate Teaming Partner List from the drop-down menu and fill in the following information: Investigator Name, Organization Name, Organization Type, Topic Area, Background and Capabilities, Website, Contact Address, Contact Email, and Contact Phone.

DISCLAIMER: By submitting a request to be included on the Teaming Partner List, the requesting organization consents to the publication of the above-referenced information. By facilitating the Teaming Partner List, DOE is not endorsing, sponsoring, or otherwise evaluating the qualifications of the individuals and organizations that are identifying themselves for placement on this Teaming Partner List. DOE will not pay for the provision of any information, nor will it compensate any applicants or requesting organizations for the development of such information.

Additional Information

• Download the full funding opportunity on the EERE Exchange website.
• For FOA-specific support, contact [email protected]
• Learn more about SETO’s  Manufacturing and Competitiveness research .
• Sign up for the  Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE) email list  to get notified of new  EERE funding opportunities . 
• Sign up for the SETO newsletter to stay current with the latest solar office news.