qualitative research english education

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Qualitative Research in English Language Teaching and Learning

• Jixian Wang
• Published 31 December 2018
• Education, Linguistics
• Indonesian EFL Journal: Journal of ELT, Linguistics, and Literature

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The implementation of character building in english language teaching activities, identifying and addressing challenges in teaching english at sdn mangunsari, a study on indian esp teachers' classroom practices in fostering social inclusivity, a joint autoethnography on collecting qualitative data remotely: insights from doctoral students’ experiences.

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The Rhetorical Structure of Review Article Abstracts in Applied Linguistics Published in High-Impact International Journals

Exploring first-year efl students’ problems in essay writing, research on english teaching of professional skilled talents training based on artificial intelligence, 'oh,' 'well,' and hedges as negative politeness strategy: the different use of discourse markers in female and male students' utterances, the role of adjacency pairs to create politeness strategies in students’ phatic utterances, security vulnerabilities and encryption technologies of computer information technology data under the background of big data, 38 references, qualitative research in language teaching and learning journals, 1997-2006., the contribution made by qualitative research to tesol (teaching english to speakers of other languages), qualitative research in applied linguistics : a practical introduction, current trends in research methodology and statistics in applied linguistics.

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Research Methods in Education

Qualitative research in practice : examples for discussion and analysis, studying the teacher's life and work, some guidelines for conducting quantitative and qualitative research in tesol, interpersonal aspects of thinking skills in an intercultural language learning context, esl writers and feedback: giving more autonomy to students, related papers.

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Qualitative Research Methods in English Medium Instruction for Emerging Researchers

DOI link for Qualitative Research Methods in English Medium Instruction for Emerging Researchers

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This timely book will guide researchers on how to apply qualitative research methods to explore English-medium instruction (EMI) issues, such as classroom interactions, teachers’ and students’ perceptions on language and pedagogical challenges, and stakeholders’ views on the implementation of EMI.

Each chapter focuses on a specific type of qualitative research methodology, beginning with an overview of the research and the method used, before presenting a unique case study. Chapters will also identify the process that EMI researchers went through to conduct their research, the key dilemmas they faced, and focus particularly on the methodological issues they encountered. By exploring these issues and providing up-to-date insights in contexts across the globe, this book informs theory or the lack thereof, underlying research into the phenomenon of EMI.

This text will be indispensable for researchers who want to learn and acquire skills in conducting qualitative research in EMI, as well as undergraduate and postgraduate students reading in the fields of applied linguistics and language education.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter | 5  pages, introduction, chapter 1 | 12  pages, using q methodology to better understand subjectivity in emi, chapter 2 | 15  pages, how to conduct a multimodal classroom discourse analysis, chapter 3 | 12  pages, the use of epistemic network analysis in analysing classroom discourse in emi-science classrooms, chapter 4 | 17  pages, using corpus linguistics and grounded theory to explore emi stakeholders' discourse, chapter 5 | 14  pages, affordances of conversation analysis for investigating emi classroom talk, chapter 6 | 18  pages, moving beyond language in emi research, chapter 7 | 21  pages, a narrative enquiry into emi instructors' linguistic and pedagogical needs, chapter 8 | 13  pages, engaged methodological approach in the study of language ideologies in emi policies.

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Qualitative approaches to classroom research with English language learners - 2007

This chapter provides an overview of recent qualitative research in classrooms examining English language learners (ELLs). I first present common features of qualitative research and review debates regarding research paradigms in the social sciences and humanities. I also discuss the role of triangulation and capturing participants’ insider or emic perspectives in qualitative research and highlight various data collection methods and ways of combining macrolevel and microlevel analyses, particularly in ethnographic research. Ethical issues, difficulties obtaining informed consent in classroom research, and criteria for evaluating qualitative research are then considered. Three qualitative studies that have been deemed exemplary and meritorious by scholars in English language education are then presented, and some common themes in current qualitative classroom research with ELLs are identified. The chapter concludes with some directions for future qualitative research.

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Patricia (Patsy) Duff

In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning (pp. 45-63). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Kim, J. & Duff, P. (2012). TESL Canada Journal, 29(6), 81-102. ABSTRACT This article, based on a larger longitudinal multiple-case study of Generation 1.5 Korean-Canadians, explores two female students’ experiences in high school and then university. Foregrounding aspects of language socialization (Duff & Hornberger, 2008) and identity (Norton, 2000) in language-learning and use, the study examines the contextual factors involved in the students' language socialization in and through Korean and English. The findings reveal that through the complex interplay of their past, present, and future “imagined” experiences, the students were socialized into various beliefs and ideologies about language-learning and use, often necessitating the negotiation of investments in their identities in relation to Korean and English. Given the personal backgrounds of these students, coupled with the phenomena of globalization and transnationalism, we suggest that Canadian universities and Generation 1.5 students and their families pay more attention to the students’ linguistic, educational, and social backgrounds, affiliations, and trajectories by underscoring the advantages of bilingualism and biculturalism along with the importance of English for integration into Canadian society and international networks.

TESOL quarterly

Linda Harklau

Martha Bigelow

■ UNESCO finds that,“worldwide, one in five adults, or some 860 million people are still illiterate, two-thirds of them women”(UNESCO Institute for Statistics, 2004). This population of second language (L2) learners who do not read or write any language is worthy of investigation, particularly if, as Hill (1970) pointed out, it is still common for undereducated individuals in remote places of the world to learn to speak and understand L2s.

Rachele Lawton , Christa de Kleine

… on language learning and teaching

sara eugene

Aseel Kanakri-Ghashmari

This paper discusses the emerging themes on second language teacher education (SLTE) between 1960s-2010s. It seeks to answer the following question: What does the literature on second language teacher language education tell us about teacher preparation to teach English as a second language students and address their needs and challenges? The review focuses particularly on the influence of practice changes because of the shifts in the SLTE landscape and theoretical bases from the 1960s to 2010. It also aims at getting an in-depth understanding of how language teaching is learned in formal preparation programs. Moreover, it shows the gaps and the methodological changes in the research over this period, and suggests some implications for future research.

John Haggerty

Most universities in English-dominant countries have been competing to attract multilingual learners for some time, inspired by the dual need for brain power and income generation (Lee, Maldonado-Maldonado, & Rhodes, 2006). In the Canadian context, this has resulted in rising international student populations (Anderson, 2015) and the expansion of increasingly sophisticated academic language programs (Fox, Cheng, & Zumbo, 2014). Despite this, external research into the effectiveness and appropriateness of these programs from the perspectives of the students enrolled remains scarce (Keefe & Shi, 2017). This multiple case study involves six multilingual learners enrolled in a newly-designed academic language program in a Canadian university. This first-year program provided content and academic language courses in two disciplinary areas (Arts and Sciences), which upon successful completion, qualified students for their second year in the university mainstream. In this study, I investigate how students responded to program design features and academic writing instruction. I incorporate multiple interviews with students, collection of their written assignments and feedback, observations of classrooms and other educational events, interviews with other program stakeholders, and collection of program documents. Of the six student participants in this study, four were successful and two were less successful. For the four successful students, participation in the sheltered program was perceived as an overall beneficial experience that helped them make a positive transition to mainstream studies. However, responses to academic writing instruction and practice were highly variable and influenced by students’ backgrounds and their educational or disciplinary beliefs. For two less successful students, notions of agency, identity, and appropriation became influential in their transitions as they increasingly reported confusion, frustration, and conflict in meeting academic expectations. Results suggest there are several opportunities and challenges involved in the integration of sophisticated theoretical and pedagogical approaches, some of which may not be realized for some time after instruction has ceased. The study highlights an ongoing need to: 1) (re)consider the time needed and the degree of complexity involved in academic writing instruction and, 2) maximize alignment of pedagogical objectives with multilingual learners’ backgrounds as well as their perceived academic and disciplinary writing needs.

Camilla Vasquez

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Methodology

• What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

What Is Qualitative Research? | Methods & Examples

Published on June 19, 2020 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on June 22, 2023.

Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth insights into a problem or generate new ideas for research.

Qualitative research is the opposite of quantitative research , which involves collecting and analyzing numerical data for statistical analysis.

Qualitative research is commonly used in the humanities and social sciences, in subjects such as anthropology, sociology, education, health sciences, history, etc.

• How does social media shape body image in teenagers?
• How do children and adults interpret healthy eating in the UK?
• What factors influence employee retention in a large organization?
• How is anxiety experienced around the world?
• How can teachers integrate social issues into science curriculums?

Table of contents

Approaches to qualitative research, qualitative research methods, qualitative data analysis, advantages of qualitative research, disadvantages of qualitative research, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about qualitative research.

Qualitative research is used to understand how people experience the world. While there are many approaches to qualitative research, they tend to be flexible and focus on retaining rich meaning when interpreting data.

Common approaches include grounded theory, ethnography , action research , phenomenological research, and narrative research. They share some similarities, but emphasize different aims and perspectives.

Note that qualitative research is at risk for certain research biases including the Hawthorne effect , observer bias , recall bias , and social desirability bias . While not always totally avoidable, awareness of potential biases as you collect and analyze your data can prevent them from impacting your work too much.

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Each of the research approaches involve using one or more data collection methods . These are some of the most common qualitative methods:

• Observations: recording what you have seen, heard, or encountered in detailed field notes.
• Interviews:  personally asking people questions in one-on-one conversations.
• Focus groups: asking questions and generating discussion among a group of people.
• Surveys : distributing questionnaires with open-ended questions.
• Secondary research: collecting existing data in the form of texts, images, audio or video recordings, etc.
• You take field notes with observations and reflect on your own experiences of the company culture.
• You distribute open-ended surveys to employees across all the company’s offices by email to find out if the culture varies across locations.
• You conduct in-depth interviews with employees in your office to learn about their experiences and perspectives in greater detail.

Qualitative researchers often consider themselves “instruments” in research because all observations, interpretations and analyses are filtered through their own personal lens.

For this reason, when writing up your methodology for qualitative research, it’s important to reflect on your approach and to thoroughly explain the choices you made in collecting and analyzing the data.

Qualitative data can take the form of texts, photos, videos and audio. For example, you might be working with interview transcripts, survey responses, fieldnotes, or recordings from natural settings.

Most types of qualitative data analysis share the same five steps:

• Prepare and organize your data. This may mean transcribing interviews or typing up fieldnotes.
• Review and explore your data. Examine the data for patterns or repeated ideas that emerge.
• Develop a data coding system. Based on your initial ideas, establish a set of codes that you can apply to categorize your data.
• Assign codes to the data. For example, in qualitative survey analysis, this may mean going through each participant’s responses and tagging them with codes in a spreadsheet. As you go through your data, you can create new codes to add to your system if necessary.
• Identify recurring themes. Link codes together into cohesive, overarching themes.

There are several specific approaches to analyzing qualitative data. Although these methods share similar processes, they emphasize different concepts.

Qualitative research often tries to preserve the voice and perspective of participants and can be adjusted as new research questions arise. Qualitative research is good for:

• Flexibility

The data collection and analysis process can be adapted as new ideas or patterns emerge. They are not rigidly decided beforehand.

• Natural settings

Data collection occurs in real-world contexts or in naturalistic ways.

• Meaningful insights

Detailed descriptions of people’s experiences, feelings and perceptions can be used in designing, testing or improving systems or products.

• Generation of new ideas

Open-ended responses mean that researchers can uncover novel problems or opportunities that they wouldn’t have thought of otherwise.

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Researchers must consider practical and theoretical limitations in analyzing and interpreting their data. Qualitative research suffers from:

• Unreliability

The real-world setting often makes qualitative research unreliable because of uncontrolled factors that affect the data.

• Subjectivity

Due to the researcher’s primary role in analyzing and interpreting data, qualitative research cannot be replicated . The researcher decides what is important and what is irrelevant in data analysis, so interpretations of the same data can vary greatly.

• Limited generalizability

Small samples are often used to gather detailed data about specific contexts. Despite rigorous analysis procedures, it is difficult to draw generalizable conclusions because the data may be biased and unrepresentative of the wider population .

• Labor-intensive

Although software can be used to manage and record large amounts of text, data analysis often has to be checked or performed manually.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Chi square goodness of fit test
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.

There are five common approaches to qualitative research :

• Grounded theory involves collecting data in order to develop new theories.
• Ethnography involves immersing yourself in a group or organization to understand its culture.
• Narrative research involves interpreting stories to understand how people make sense of their experiences and perceptions.
• Phenomenological research involves investigating phenomena through people’s lived experiences.
• Action research links theory and practice in several cycles to drive innovative changes.

Data collection is the systematic process by which observations or measurements are gathered in research. It is used in many different contexts by academics, governments, businesses, and other organizations.

There are various approaches to qualitative data analysis , but they all share five steps in common:

• Prepare and organize your data.
• Review and explore your data.
• Develop a data coding system.
• Assign codes to the data.
• Identify recurring themes.

The specifics of each step depend on the focus of the analysis. Some common approaches include textual analysis , thematic analysis , and discourse analysis .

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35 Qualitative Research

Dr. Neeru Tandon

The students will grasp the basic essentials about qualitative research in English language teaching. They will identify key issues regarding research in current English language studies and develop skills to search online and offline sources to carry out literature review. They will come to know various aspects of quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-methods research in English studies. Multiple-choice exercises will help them in assessing their knowledge and understanding of the work. Bibliography, list of websites and YouTube videos will help them in their in-depth study and further reading.

The chapter aims to enable students to:

• Understand various research paradigms and become aware of theoretical and practical issues related to humanities research especially in contemporary English language studies
• Review previously published work in the field; select an appropriate research topic with an awareness of principles in research design
• Demonstrate knowledge required to plan and conduct research with an understanding of appropriate research methods for a particular domain
• Familiarize themselves with skills to analyze different types of research data and explore various tools and software for the analyses
• Consolidate their research and academic skills to present research findings in both spoken and written forms.

INTRODUCTION

There are many approaches to dealing with research. Two of the most common are known as quantitative and qualitative, although this distinction is somewhat simplistic as the relationship is best thought of as a continuum of research types. The term qualitative research is an imprecise term that creates at least two problems. One problem arises because qualitative refers to a type of data, not a type of research design. This makes the idea of qualitative research illogical–even impossible since it ignores the possibility of triangulation using multiple types of data, some of which might be qualitative and some of which might be quantitative. Furthermore, the term assumes the type of data determines the type of research. Nevertheless, despite these problems, many researchers and editors continue to use the term qualitative to refer to a type of research instead of restricting its use to a type of data. A second and related problem is that the general term qualitative research can refer to any number of research designs, for example case study, ethnography, or grounded theory. In these research designs, none of the assumptions of experimental design, such as variables and hypothesis testing are operative.

DEFINING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

One of the most common ways to classify research is by categorizing them according to the data (gathered and analyzed). According to the data gathered, research can be classified into two kinds: quantitative and qualitative research. To put it simply, quantitative research deals with numbers whereas qualitative research deals with words.

The term qualitative research is associated with a range of different methods, perspectives, and approaches. As Mason (1996) pointed out, “qualitative research—whatever it might be—

certainly does not represent a unified set of techniques or philosophies, and indeed has grown out of a wide range of intellectual and disciplinary traditions”.

To give a general definition of qualitative research in the second language field the term qualitative research can be taken to refer to research that is based on descriptive data that does not make (regular) use of statistical procedures.

Scollon (2001) argued that critical discourse analysis, a form of qualitative research, is “a program of social analysis that critically analyzes discourse—that is to say language in use—as a means of addressing social change”.

Describing quantitative research has been a relatively straightforward task because there is a general agreement amongst QUAN practitioners about the main features and principles of the approach. This is not at all the case with QUAL research. In a recent overview of the field, two of the most influential qualitative researchers, Denzin and Lincoln (2oo5a), concluded that ‘qualitative research is difficult to define clearly. It has no theory or paradigm that is distinctly shown. Nor does qualitative research have a: distinct set of methods or practices that are entirely its own, (p. 6-7). And later they added, ‘Qualitative research is many things to many people’ (p~ IO). Denzin and Lincoln’s view is not at all exaggerated and is shared throughout the profession. For example, another well-known proponent of qualitative research, Silverman (I997), expressed a similar conclusion when he stated that ‘there is no agreed doctrine underlying all qualitative social research’ (p. I4). Furthermore, Holliday (2004: 73I) has added that ‘boundaries in current qualitative research are crumbling, and researchers are increasingly doing whatever they can to find out what they want to know’. As seen earlier, the lack of uniformity goes back to the genesis of the qualitative approach when scholars of diverse beliefs united under the qualitative label in their fight against the quantitative paradigm. Luckily, the overall picture is not as gloomy and fragmented as the above quotes would suggest. Qualitative research is in fact a thriving discipline, and while it is true that some issues have been subject to a lot of, and sometimes heated, discussion, there exists a core set of features that would universally characterize a properly conducted qualitative study.

Brief Historical Overview

Research that can be considered ‘qualitative’ in retrospect has been around for about- a century in the social sciences. Qualitative-like methods were Research Methods in Applied Linguistics introduced into sociology at the end of the first decade of the twentieth century through the work of the Chicago School for the study of human group life, and during the first third of the century anthropology also produced some seminal qualitative studies by renowned scholars such as Boas and Malinowski, defining the outlines of the fieldwork method . Thus, the basic QUAL ideas and principles are not new at-all, yet the first text that tried to define ‘qualitative methodology’ -Glaser and Strauss’s (1967) The Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies for Qualitative Research – did not appear until the late sixties. In this highly influential book the authors described the use of qualitative procedures by the QUAL pointers as ‘nonsystematic and nonrigorous’, and opposed that early monographs based on qualitative data consisted of ‘lengthy, detailed descriptions, which resulted in very small amounts of theory, if any’. After the I930s and particularly after World War 1, quantitative research methodology produced substantial advances and qualitative research was relegated to preliminary, exploratory work whose role was seen to provide the ‘more serious’ quantitative studies with an adequate starting point. The middle of the twentieth century was undoubtedly subjugated by quantitative research, and the invaluable merit of Glaset’ and Strauss’f (1967) book was to offer a worthwhile challenge to this domination.

In applied linguistics there has been an increasing visibility and acceptance of qualitative research since the mid-I990s. This is related to the growing recognition that almost every aspect of language acquisition and use is determined or significantly shaped by social, cultural, and situational factors, and qualitative research is ideal for providing insights into such contextual conditions and influences. Accordingly, applied linguistics has been offering an increasingly level playing field for both QUAN and QUAL approaches.

Although the frequency of published QUAL studies is still relatively low, the impact of qualitative research in applied linguistics over the past three decades has been profound. Early case studies of the I970S and I980s generated many of the prevailing principles and models. With regard to contemporary research, we find qualitative studies focusing on topics across the whole research spectrum, even including core quantitative areas such as language testing, and several key areas of applied linguistics (for example, the study of gender, race, ethnicity, and identity) are being driven by qualitative research.

Ideally, qualitative researchers enter the research process with a completely open mind and without setting out to test preconceived hypotheses. In their seminal work, Glaser and Strauss (I967) actively encouraged qualitative researchers to ignore the literature before the investigation in order to assure that ‘the emergence of categories will not be contaminated by concepts more suited to different areas’.

The Nature of Qualitative Data

Qualitative research works with a wide range of data including recorded interviews, various types of texts (for example, field notes, journal and diary entries, and documents) and images. During data processing most data are transformed into a textual form (for example, interview recordings are transcribed) because most qualitative data analysis is done with words. Although qualitative data is not gathered with the purpose of being directly counted or measured in art objective way, subsequent analysis can define categories through which certain aspects of qualitative data can be quantified. Because the common objective of all the different types of qualitative methods is to make sense of a set of (cultural or personal) meanings in the observed phenomena, it is indispensable that the data should capture rich and complex details. Therefore, in order to achieve such a ‘thick’ description, almost any relevant information can be admitted as QUAL data.

Because of the QUAL objective to describe social phenomena as they occur naturally, qualitative research takes place in the natural setting, without any attempts to manipulate the situation under study.

Qualitative research is concerned with subjective opinions, experiences and feelings of individuals and thus the overt target of research is to discover the participants’ views of the situation being studied. This approach follows from the way qualitative researchers perceive meaning: it is a fundamental QUAL principle that human behaviour is based upon meanings which people attribute to and bring to situations (Punch 2005) and it is only the actual participants themselves who can reveal the meanings and interpretations of their experiences and actions. Therefore, qualitative researchers struggle to view social phenomena from the perspectives of the ‘insiders’ and the term ‘insider perspective’ has a special place in the qualitative dogma.

In quantitative study, data is usually analyzed using computer software (e.g. t-test) and presented in numerical forms (by using percentage, for example). Quantitative studies usually start with a (written) hypothesis that needs to be “tested” by conducting the research. In contrast, qualitative studies start with the assumption that the research topic must be understood “holistically”

(McKay, 2006, )

Interpretive analysis of Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is fundamentally interpretive, which means that the research outcome is ultimately the product of the researcher’s subjective interpretation of the data. Several alternative interpretations are possible for each dataset, and because QUAL studies utilize relatively limited harmonized equipment or diagnostic methods, finally the researcher will decide it. As Miles and Huberman (I994: 7) conclude, ‘The researcher is essentially the main “measurement device” in the study’. Accordingly, in qualitative research, the researcher’s own values, personal history, and ‘position’ on characteristics such as gender, culture, class, and age become integral part of the inquiry

(Haverkamp 2005).

One of the most challenging issues amongst qualitative researchers concerns the question as to whether researchers need to enter a QUAL project with only nominal background knowledge so as not to ‘contaminate’ the developing nature of the study. Glaser and Strauss (I967) were explicit about this requirement and it has ‘become one of the main tenets of the qualitative inquiry that the results ’emerge’ naturally, without any biased interference of the researcher. The researcher, therefore, needs to adopt a ‘tabula rasa’ orientation and Glaser and Strauss proposed that the researcher’s ‘theoretical sensitivity’ is only to appear when the data has already been collected and partially analyzed so that the concepts and hypotheses that have emerged from the data can be combined with existing knowledge.’ Miles and Huberman (I994) go one step further when they claim that it is the researchers’ background knowledge that helps them to see and decipher details, complexities, and subtleties, as well as to decide what kind of questions to ask or which incidents to attend to closely.

The topics of greatest interest for qualitative researchers are human behaviors and socio-cultural patterns and norms, which underlie the behaviors. Data are viewed in a “holistic” fashion, without attempting to separate them into their components, and preferably following the interpretations of the people who are the object of the research (“emic” interpretations) In data collection, ethnographic research (as the most typical and concrete example of qualitative research) doesn’t usually use “instruments,” rather “processes” that are supposedly free of bias and prior assumptions: free, prolonged observation, at times “participant observation,” open- ended interviews, “triangulation” of information and interpretation, “informant checking,” access to existing documents.

Strengths and Weaknesses of Qualitative Research: Qualitative research has traditionally been seen as a successful way of discovering new, unexplored spaces. If a fact is not so popular, the detailed study of a few cases is principally suitable because it does not depend on previous literature or first-hand findings received previously (Eisenhardt I989). Qualitative methods are useful for making sense of highly complex situations. In such cases there is a real danger for researchers in general to produce reduced and simplified interpretations that distort the bigger picture; the participant-sensitivity of qualitative research is very helpful in deciding what aspects of the data require special attention because it offers priority guidelines that are validated by the main actors themselves.

Qualitative vs. Quantitative research

Qualitative research can be best understood through the meanings in subjective experiences. The relation between subjective experience and language is a collaborative process; language is used to explain meaning, but the other way round, language influences how meaning is formed. Voicing experiences is a complex procedure as the meaning of experiences is often not completely comprehensible or user -friendly and difficult to express in language. Because interpretation and understanding meanings are central in qualitative research and text is the ‘vehicle’ with which meaning is ultimately transferred to the reader, language differences generate additional challenges that might hamper the transfer of meaning and might result in loss of meaning and thus loss of the authority of the qualitative study.

Qualitative research is often process-oriented or open ended. Qualitative researchers aim to study individuals and events in their natural settings (Tetnowski & Damico, 2001). That is, rather than trying to control circumstantial factors through the use of laboratories or other artificial environments, qualitative researchers tend to be more interested in presenting a natural and holistic picture of the phenomena being studied. In contrast, quantitative research usually begins with a carefully defined research question that guides the process of data collection and analysis. Thus, whereas quantitative researchers set out to test specific hypotheses, qualitative researchers tend to approach the research context with the purpose of observing whatever may be present there, and letting further questions occur from the context.

To capture the richness of experience in language, people commonly use narratives and metaphors (Polkinghorne 2005). Metaphors vary from culture to culture and are language- specific (Lakoff and Johnson 1980). Language also influences what can be expressed, and some linguists even state that social reality as experience is unique to one’s own language; those who speak different languages would perceive the world differently (Chapman 2006).Qualitative research is considered valid when the distance between the meanings as experienced by the participants and the meanings as interpreted in the findings is as close as possible (Polkinghorne 2007). The importance and utility of qualitative methods is increasingly being recognized in the field of second language research. Next, commonly used methods for gathering qualitative data are outlined, including case studies, ethnographies, interviews, observational techniques, verbal protocols, and diaries/journals.

Whereas most quantitative researchers consider impartiality to be a goal of their research, some qualitative researchers may consciously take ideological positions. This sort of research is sometimes described as ‘critical,’ meaning that the research may have particular social or political goals.

Quantitative research generally begins with an experimental design in which a hypothesis is followed by the quantification of data and statistical investigation. ‘The observations in quantitative research (whether tests, attitudes scales of the subjects observed, behaviors categorized and counted according to instruments, etc.) usually are based on an observation scheme or descriptive categories that have been developed prior to the research.’ Moreover, these observations are made in a planned way, according to an order determined by the design of the research, and with categories that cannot be changed once the research is ongoing.

Qualitative studies, on the other hand, generally are not set up as experiments; the data cannot be easily quantified, and the analysis is interpretive rather than statistical. Quantitative research can be conceptually divided into two types: associational and experimental. What is common in both types is that researchers are attempting to determine a relationship between or within variables. The goal of associational research is to determine whether a relationship exists between variables and, if so, the strength of that relationship. This is often tested statistically through correlations, which allow a researcher to determine how closely two variables (e.g., motivation and language ability) are related in a given population. Associational research is not concerned with causation, only with co-occurrence. In experimental studies, researchers deliberately manipulate one or more variables (independent variables) to determine the effect on another variable (dependent variable). Many types of experimental research involve a comparison of pretreatment and post treatment performance.

Despite the fact that dissimilarities can be drawn between qualitative and quantitative research, these two research types are by no means as dichotomous as they sometimes appear to be. Compounding this confusion, it is increasingly common for researchers to present and discuss both quantitative and qualitative data in the same report, or to use methods associated with both types of research in a process sometimes known as split methods or multiple methods.

For example, Sullivan and Pratt (1996) used both quantitative and qualitative methodologies to investigate the effects of computer technology on ESL student writers. The researchers used quantitative approaches to compare student essays in two types of writing environments (classes using computer technology and traditional oral classrooms); qualitative analyses were then used to compare the types and patterns of discourse in those environments.

By combining these approaches, Sullivan and Pratt were able to present a more detailed picture of how the computer technology affected the quality of the students’ writing, their patterns of discourse, and their perspectives on the value of the technology.

The growing practice of utilizing qualitative and quantitative data illustrates the fact that these two research approaches should not be viewed as opposing poles in a dichotomy, but rather as complementary means of investigating the complex phenomena at work in second language acquisition.

GATHERING QUALITATIVE DATA

A wide variety of different techniques are used in the collection of qualitative data. Each approach and method can be seen as contributing its own piece of the puzzle in qualitative researchers’ attempts to obtain rich, detailed, participant-oriented pictures of the phenomena under study. Murcott (1997) argues that the key questions for the qualitative methodology chapter are: How did you go about your research? What overall strategy did you adopt and why? What design and techniques did you use? Why those and not others?

The most commonly used qualitative data collection methods, include:

• Ethnographies
• Case studies
• Diaries/journals
• Observational techniques

Ethnographies: It can be said from a second language research perspective that ethnographic research aims “to describe and interpret the cultural behavior, including communicative behavior, of a group” (Johnson, 1992, p. 134) or, in other words, to carry out research from the participants’ point of view, using categories relevant to a particular group and cultural system. Another important principle of ethnographic research is the holistic approach taken to describing and explaining a particular pattern in relation to a whole system of patterns. One advantage of using an ethnographic approach is that the research questions employed in these studies can be dynamic, subject to constant revision, and refined as the research continues to uncover new knowledge. For example, an ethnographer studying second language writing classrooms may enter the research process with the aim of describing the patterns of interaction between teachers and students and illustrating how those patterns are related to the writing process. Ethnographic approaches are particularly valuable when not enough is known about the context or situation to establish narrowly defined questions or develop formal hypotheses. Because ethnographies typically employ multiple methods for gathering data, such as participant observations and open- ended interviews as well as written products, ethnographic research may be able to provide an holistic, culturally grounded, and emic (using categories of people studied) perspective of the phenomena under investigation.

In embarking on an ethnographic study, researchers need to be aware of some potential challenges and sensitive issues. First of all, ethnographies involve intensive research over an extended period of time. They require a commitment to long-term data collection, detailed and continuous record keeping, and repeated and careful analysis of data obtained from multiple sources. It is also important for the researcher to realize that ethnographic approaches to research may create potential conflicts between the researcher’s roles as an observer and a participant. If the researcher participates in an event he or she is observing, this may leave little time for the carefully detailed field notes that ethnographies may require. This can be rectified to a certain extent by audio and video tape recording. However, and more seriously, the researcher’s participation may change the nature of the event. Researchers thus need to be aware of how they can supplement and triangulate ethnographic data obtained through participant observation, and they must carefully consider how their dual roles might influence the data collected. In addition to these practical concerns, there are theoretical issues that the researcher should take into consideration. First of all, it has been argued that an ethnographer’s focus on describing a culture is problematic, because “there is no such thing as a social group that is not constantly destabilized by both outside influences and personal idiosyncrasy and agency” (Ramanathan & Atkinson, 1999, p. 45). In its strong form, this criticism implies that any attempt to describe a group is to some extent misguided on the part of the ethnographer. A second theoretical concern about ethnographies concerns the act of writing up the research. Because research reports adhere to certain (culturally influenced) standards of writing, the otherwise accurate picture an ethnographer has recorded may come out skewed. Finally, it is often difficult to generalize the findings of ethnographic research to other problems or settings because of the highly specific nature of such work.

Interviews A number of different interview types can be employed to gather data for qualitative research. Interviews are often associated with survey-based research, as well as being a technique used by many qualitative researchers. Structured interviews resemble verbal questionnaires and allow researchers to compare answers from different participants. Less rigid are semi-structured interviews, in which the researcher uses a written list of questions as a guide, while still having the freedom to digress and probe for more information. In unstructured interviews, on the other hand, no list of questions is used. Instead, interviewers develop and adapt their own questions, helping respondents to open up and express themselves in their own terms and at their own speed. Unstructured interviews are more similar to natural conversations, and the outcomes are not limited by the researcher’s preconceived ideas about the area of interest. Some interviews can also be based around a stimulus—for example, a completed questionnaire or a videotape of a lesson. Focus-group sessions are related to such interviews, and usually involve several participants in a group discussion, often with a facilitator whose goal it is to keep the group discussion targeted on specific topics, again often using a stimulus for discussion, such as a videotape or previously elicited data.

Interviews can allow researchers to investigate phenomena that are not directly observable, such as learners’ self-reported perceptions or attitudes. Also, because interviews are interactive, researchers can elicit additional data if initial answers are vague, incomplete, off-topic, or not specific enough. Another advantage of interviews is that they can be used to produce data from learners who are not comfortable in other modes. Depending on the research question and the resources available, interviews can also be conducted in the learner’s Ll, thus removing concerns about the proficiency of the learner impacting the quality and quantity of the data provided.

Researchers must also take note of the potential drawbacks of interviews. For example, Hall and Rist (1999) made the point that interviews may involve “selective recall, self-delusion, perceptual distortions, memory loss from the respondent, and subjectivity in the researcher’s recording and interpreting of the data”.

Multiple interviews —that is, interviewing the same subject more than once, or interviewing many different subjects—is one potential means of addressing such issues. Another concern is that good interviewing is a skill. It may not be easy for novice researchers to conduct unstructured interviews without practice and / or training in drawing participants out, encouraging them to express themselves, and gathering valuable data on the area of interest. Given that participants’ attitudes toward other people can impact what they say, there is also the danger of the so-called halo effect.

The following suggestions may be useful in interviewing:

• Be sensitive to (and / or match the interviewer’s characteristics with) the age, gender, and cultural background of the interviewee.
• Encourage open-ended discussion—for example, by keeping silent, or by saying ‘Anything else?” rather than accepting a first answer as the interviewee’s final and complete response to a question.
• Develop skills in anticipating and addressing communication problems.
• Try to make the interviewee as comfortable as possible. This can be done by conducting the interview in a familiar place, beginning with small talk to relax the interviewee, and/ or using the Ll if a communication problem arises or if the interviewee so prefers.
• Place the key questions in the middle of the interview, because the interviewee may be nervous in the beginning and tired by the end.
• Mirror the interviewee’s responses by repeating them neutrally to provide an opportunity for reflection and further input.

When appropriate qualitative research methods are chosen to address a particular problem, and when the proper standards of empirical rigor are met through triangulation of research perspectives, consideration of emic perspectives, and cyclical data collection and analysis, qualitative research can reliably help us to gain a deeper understanding of the nature of second language learning.

Case Studies Like ethnographies, case studies generally aim to provide a holistic description of language learning or use within a specific population and setting. However, whereas ethnographies focus on cultural patterns within groups, case studies tend to provide detailed descriptions of specific learners (or sometimes classes) within their learning setting. Case studies are also usually associated with a longitudinal approach, in which observations of the phenomena under investigation are made at periodic intervals for an extended period of time. Case studies have been used in a wide variety of second language research studies.

One main advantage of case studies is that they allow the researcher to focus on the individual in a way that is rarely possible in a group research. Case studies stand in sharp contrast to these approaches by providing insights into the complexities of particular cases in their particular contexts”. In addition, case studies can be conducted with more than one individual learner or more than one existing group of learners for the purpose of comparing and contrasting their behaviors within their particular context. Case studies clearly have the potential for rich contextualization that can shed light on the complexities of the second language learning process.

In the opening sections of reports, qualitative and quantitative research can be quite similar. However, qualitative and quantitative research can be different in their final stages insofar as qualitative research reports can be more varied in terms of organization and in terms of the specific sections. They also demand persuasive and skilled writing in order to effectively summarize large amounts of data and to communicate the significance of the research to the reader.

Qualitative research must also address many other elements that are inherent to non-quantitative research, as Different paradigms of qualitative research potentially involve distinct standards for reporting and stylistic elements. Qualitative research can involve a range of data collection methods, including, for instance, structured and unstructured classroom observations, structured and unstructured informal interviews, case studies, introspective analyses, and diary studies. Because it seems that acceptable reports vary based on the research paradigm and methods that the qualitative researcher adopts, qualitative researchers must decide how to organize their reports so that their ideas are best communicated to the intended audience. Heath (1997) suggested that qualitative reports include introduction, research paradigm, and research method sections, and that they address preliminary biases, suppositions, and hypotheses. The introduction to qualitative reports might begin with a quotation or a vignette before describing the research question and situating it within a theoretical context. The research design section should be used to represent the epistemological, conceptual foundations and assumptions of the qualitative research paradigm chosen and should contain citations of authors who have defined the paradigm, thus increasing the validity of the design. The research methods section should include sufficient detail in order to increase its verisimilitude (i.e., authenticity and credibility). As such, the instrumentation used to collect the data, as well as the specific procedures followed, should be described. Reports should clearly state how the researcher gained access to participants and what kind of relationship was established between the researcher and participants. The nature of the data and how they were collected should also be clearly stated.

Particularly important for qualitative research is the inclusion of information about procedures such as how decision-making was carried out and how the researcher implemented data reduction and reconstruction. It is also important for researchers to provide a clear sense of how much data were collected (e.g., how many interviews, and of what length, how many hours of observation, and over what period of time), because this is vital in assessing the strength of the research overall.

The boundaries of the case study must also be clearly described and motivated—for instance, why a particular case was selected, and how and in what contexts data were collected. In addition, although generalizations are seldom made based on case studies, the researcher should not only report findings but also draw conclusions that contribute to an overall understanding of a phenomenon within a theoretical framework. Like case studies of individuals, classroom observation research should make the role of the researcher in the classroom explicit. If surveys or questionnaires are employed to supplement and triangulate qualitative data, the researcher should report issues such as what the response rates were, whether or not there was a nonresponse bias, how analyses were performed, and whether any generalizations can be drawn from the results. It is also common to include copies of survey or interview questions in the appendixes. In summary, then, each qualitative research paradigm requires a unique consideration of its crucial elements when a report is written, in part because there are different research paradigms and many means of collecting and analyzing data. Because of this, researchers need to take particular care to detail (and justify) how they collected and analyzed their data. When reporting the results of a qualitative study, researchers should also take into account the importance of rich or thick description. If the purpose of the research is to describe and classify the observed data, rich description is often utilized. The evidence reported should be detailed, multilayered, and comprehensive. Rather than reporting a limited number of anecdotes that support the conclusions, researchers should try to provide detail about a systematic selection of the data that represents both the central tendencies and variations.

The purpose of some qualitative research, such as ethnographies, is to go beyond mere description and attribute observations to underlying constructs and systems of meaning. An important question in qualitative research write-ups is how much interpretation of the data the writer should provide. Many qualitative researchers suggest that although writers may offer their own interpretations, they should also provide an adequate basis for their readers to construct their own independent interpretations. This may be accomplished by separating presentation of data (e.g., vignettes, interview excepts, etc.) from discussion and analysis.

SUMMING UP :MIXED METHOD: It is becoming the case that quantitative and qualitative research methods are not viewed as dichotomous. Also, survey-based research methods like questionnaires, are often used to triangulate both more quantitative and more qualitatively oriented data. However methods are classified, second language researchers are increasingly taking into account the fact that data can be collected using a wide range and combination of methods. When included in a primarily quantitative report, qualitative data or analytic techniques may provide unique insights that would escape both the researcher and the reader if statistical counts and analyses were used in isolation. For example, graphs representing the data frequency distribution, measures of central tendencies (means, modes, or medians), and range and standard deviation characteristics of the data can help confirm the validity of any trends, patterns, or groupings that the researcher has identified through a qualitative analysis. Hence, it may be best if researchers, even if they identify their research as primarily qualitative or quantitative, not rule out the inclusion of both types of data in their reports. In reporting their studies, researchers need to consider all elements and requirements that will best explain the data to the audience.

• Akbari, R. (2008). Post-method discourse and practice. TESOL Quarterly, 42(4), 641- 652.
• Brown, J. D., & Rodgers, T. S. (2009). Doing second language research. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Davis, K. A. (2011). Critical qualitative research in second language studies: Agency and
• advocacy. Charlotte, N.C: Information Age Publishing.
• Fraenkel, J. R., & Wallen, N. E. (2007). How to design and evaluate research in education. Boston:McGraw-Hill.
• Fahim, M., Pishghadam, R. (2009). Postmodernism and English Language Teaching. IJALS. 1, 27-54.
• Gholami, J., Bonyadi, A., Mirzaei, A. (2012). Postmodernism vs. Modernism in Iranian Non- Governmental English Language Institutes. Modern Journal of Language Teaching Methods, 128-143.
• Griffin, G. (2005). Research methods for English studies. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
• Kumaravadivelu, B. (1994). “The post-method condition: Emerging strategies for second/foreign language teaching”. TESOL Quarterly, 28, 27-48.
• Kumaravadivelu, B. (1999). “Critical classroom discourse analysis”. TESOL Quarterly, 33, 453-484.
• Kumaravadivelu, B. (2001). “Toward postmethod pedagogy”. TESOL Quarterly, 35(4), 537-560.
• Kumaravadivelu, B. (2003a). “Critical language pedagogy: A postmethod perspective on English language teaching”. World Englishes, 22(4), 539-550.
• Kumaravadivelu, B. (2003b). Beyond Methods: Macrostrategies for Language Teaching, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
• Kumaravadivelu, B. (2006). “TESOL methods: Changing tracks, challenging trends”, TESOL Quarterly 40(1), 59-81.
• Lester, J. D. (2011). Principles of writing research papers. Boston: Longman.
• Perry, F. L. (2005). Research in applied linguistics: Becoming a discerning consumer. Mahwah, N.J: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
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• Wallwork, A. (2011). English for writing research papers. New York: Springer.

Qualitative research in education : Background information

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• SAGE researchmethods SAGE Research Methods is a tool created to help researchers, faculty and students with their research projects. Users can explore methods concepts to help them design research projects, understand particular methods or identify a new method, conduct their research, and write up their findings. Since SAGE Research Methods focuses on methodology rather than disciplines, it can be used across the social sciences, health sciences, and other areas of research.
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Qualitative Research Topics in Language Teacher Education

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Description

Student and novice researchers may have a general idea for a topic they would like to research, but have a difficult time settling on a more specific topic and its associated research questions. Addressing this problem, this book features contributions from over thirty diverse and experienced research supervisors, mentors, and principal investigators in the field of language teacher education. The chapters are autobiographic in nature, with each contributing author reflecting on relevant, current and innovative research topics through the lens of their own professional life and research work. Offering explicit research topics and strategies for each area of expertise, this book will serve as a useful reference for the seasoned qualitative or narrative researcher, and a helpful guide for new researchers and teacher researchers narrowing down their own research topics.

Table of Contents

Gary Barkhuizen is professor of applied linguistics at the University of Auckland, New Zealand. His teaching and research interests are in the areas of language teacher education, teacher and learner identity, study abroad, and narrative inquiry. He is editor of Reflections on Language Teacher Identity Research (Routledge, 2017) and co-author of Narrative Inquiry in Language Teaching and Learning Research (Routledge, 2014).

Critics' Reviews

"Gary Barkhuizen’s new edited collection is thoughtfully curated, illuminating, immensely useful, and welcomingly accessible. I appreciate the context and interest provided by the autobiographical sections, as well as the specificity of the advice and of the topic suggestions. This book fills a very real need, gathers a wealth of expertise in one volume, and from now on will be essential reading for scholars at any stage of their careers." Stephanie Vandrick, University of San Francisco , USA. "This book offers us a wide range of topics in qualitative research in language teacher education. It is an excellent introduction for graduate students who are planning research projects, language teachers who are reflecting on their teaching and trying to improve it further, and teacher educators who are designing and running teacher education programmes. It could become one of the few books you need to refer to throughout the different stages of your development as a language teaching professional." Masaki Oda, Tamagawa University , Japan. "This is an excellent resource for graduate students looking for research topics for their theses or dissertations. Written by established L2 scholars from around the world, each chapter provides up to date research topics within applied linguistics and language education that could form the basis for graduate students and novice L2 scholars to carry out productive research studies. I highly recommend this book!" Willy A. Renandya, National Institute of Education , Singapore.

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Qualitative Inquiry in Education: Theory & Practice

About the Journal

Qualitative Inquiry in Education: Theory and Practice (QIETP) is a biannual peer-reviewed journal focusing on qualitative research methods, theories, and applications in the field of education. The main purpose of the journal is to contribute to the expansion and deepening of knowledge, discussions, and applications of qualitative research in education.

The QIETP provides current and significant qualitative research studies for researchers, academics, teachers, education policy-makers, and practitioners working in educational sciences and interdisciplinary fields. The journal publishes original and contributory research on the development, application, and evaluation of qualitative research methods and theories.

The scope of the journal includes:

• Qualitative research methods, theories, and applications in education
• Development and evaluation of qualitative research methods and theories in education
• Interdisciplinary connections and impacts of qualitative research in education
• Qualitative research on education policies and practices
• Qualitative research on teacher education and professional development
• Qualitative research on educational technology and digital environments
• Qualitative research on the impact of cultural, social, and societal factors on education

QIETP aims to be a reliable and enduring platform dedicated to qualitative research in education, adhering to high ethical and scientific standards. In this direction, the journal continuously develops and renews itself to meet the needs and expectations of researchers, academics, and professionals in the field of education.

In this context, QIETP  aims to emphasize the importance and value of qualitative research in education, encouraging knowledge sharing and collaboration between different disciplines, cultures, and geographies. The journal supports studies aimed at revealing the future directions of educational research and the impact of qualitative research methods in the field of education, providing valuable insights. Qualitative Inquiry in Education: Theory and Practice continues to pursue its goal of being an essential resource at both academic and applied levels by contributing to the ongoing development of qualitative research in education.

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Lessons From an Exploratory Qualitative Survey on Simulation Opportunities for Clinical Education in Speech-Language Pathology and Audiology in South Africa

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Phenomenon : This study explored experiences of simulation-based clinical education in the Speech-Language Pathology and Audiology professions in South Africa, a Global South context where research on this topic is limited. In this context, the COVID-19 pandemic brought simulation to the forefront of clinical education as a training solution when in-person encounters were impossible. As these simulation-based training approaches gain traction, with continued use post-pandemic, it is important to understand how they are currently being used so that appropriate support can be offered to ensure their efficiency and success in the future. Approach : We distributed a survey to South African university departments offering Speech-Language Pathology and Audiology training, inviting participation from students across years of study and clinical educators. Data were collected between October 2022 and February 2023. Twelve responses were received: three from clinical educators and nine from students. We analyzed the responses using descriptive statistics and a domain summary approach. Findings : Simulated activities were implemented as options for clinical education in South African Speech-Language Pathology and Audiology (SLP/A) programs during the pandemic, albeit in a somewhat haphazard way depending on available resources, often with limited preparation or guidance. Some universities have continued using aspects of simulation training post-pandemic. Insights : Our findings, although preliminary, are somewhat consistent with Global North literature, particularly regarding barriers and challenges to implementing these approaches in clinical education. We offer suggestions for enhancing the support of simulation-based clinical education in our context.

• clinical education
• South Africa
• speech-Language Pathology

Clinical education across the health professions has traditionally involved in-person methods of clinical placements, with a strong focus on direct supervision and in-person patient contact. However, increases in student numbers, decreases in placement opportunities, and pressures on healthcare systems and universities have forced training institutions to think creatively about effective, efficient, and sustainable methods of clinical education. Citation 1

Simulation-based approaches have become well-established as a method of clinical education across the health professions, including in the Speech-Language Pathology and Audiology (SLP/A) professions. Such approaches offer alternative and supplementary methods for preparing students for clinical practice, with training institutions ideally moving toward offering a mixture of both in-person and remote, virtual, or simulated opportunities for clinical education. Citation 2 , Citation 3

Although simulation has been implemented in both professions prior to COVID-19 particularly in the Global North, the use of simulation-based training increased particularly during the pandemic when it was offered as a solution to ensure that clinical education continued despite restricted access to patients. Citation 4 , Citation 5 Technological approaches embraced during this time are likely to be used increasingly going forward, Citation 6 , Citation 7 making it important to understand current practices and experiences involving simulation-based approaches to clinical training.

Although there is substantial literature on this topic from the Global North, limited research has been conducted on the use of simulation-based clinical training in the SLP/A field in the Global South, where resources to support and facilitate simulated activities may be limited, training programs are not necessarily well-established, and additional complexities exist. In this paper, we report on a survey of simulation-based approaches to clinical education in SLP/A in South Africa, where such approaches are only beginning to gain traction, clinical educators may not have training in utilizing these approaches, and there are limited context-specific guidelines available to support students and clinical educators. Citation 8

Opportunities for simulation-based clinical education in SLP/A

Simulation-based clinical education involves a variety of structured activities that represent actual or potential clinical practice situations, Citation 9 with fidelity referring to how closely the simulated activity matches reality. Citation 10 Low-fidelity simulations are typically used to facilitate student learning of procedural or practical skills whereas high-fidelity simulations provide opportunities for more complex skills through the provision of scenarios and related, realistic feedback. Citation 11 Simulated activities used in SLP/A include role-play, computer-based simulation, and virtual environments, and they may involve standardized patients or manikins, etc. Citation 10

There are several challenges that may be addressed through simulation-based training, such as variations in quality clinical education at external sites, dealing with complex interactions where prerequisite learning may be needed, and the availability of professionals for student supervision at clinical placement sites. Citation 12 In SLP/A, simulation-based approaches can partially replace traditional placement time for students without loss of competency; Citation 13 lead to increased confidence in skills for students; Citation 14 provide a safe environment for students to practice applying theoretical knowledge to practice; Citation 15 and minimize risks for students and patients, Citation 16 amongst other advantages. Although there may be challenges with using some simulated approaches such as standardized patients, Zraick Citation 17 encourages educators to consider involving them to facilitate student learning of clinical skills and to assess students’ clinical competency. Clinard Citation 18 however reinforces the need to examine the effectiveness of simulation-based education.

Experiences and practices of simulation-based approaches for clinical training in SLP/A

There is literature documenting experiences of and perspectives on simulation-based clinical education opportunities in SLP/A, across various types of simulated activities both before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. Studies have been conducted in Audiology Citation 2 , Citation 19 and SLP, Citation 20 with a strong focus on Global North contexts. Findings generally suggest benefits of using interprofessional simulation training as a means to improve students’ confidence in knowledge and skills. Citation 2

The literature frequently reports positive responses from students to simulated activities and increased confidence in clinical skills, although Busch and Ma Citation 21 caution that their research showed moderate to positive sentiments regarding satisfaction, confidence and interpersonal skills gained from simulated activities. Walker Citation 22 and Andre et al. Citation 19 note a lack of structure and guidance, and Alanazi et al. Citation 23 mention a lack of preparation and debriefing for simulation activities.

There is limited research available from the Global South on experiences and perceptions of simulation in SLP/A. A review of simulation-based clinical education in Audiology Citation 2 includes only a few studies from Global South contexts such as Saudi Arabia and Malaysia. A study from Chile Citation 24 notes SLP students’ positive perceptions of simulated activities. A study from Malaysia Citation 25 reports that standardized patient training offers good learning opportunities for case history-taking amongst student audiologists. Although a few articles have been published on simulation-based learning and its implications for SLP/A in South Africa (e.g., Nagdee et al.’s study Citation 26 ), these have tended to take the form of reviews of literature predominantly from the Global North rather than offering empirical evidence from the South African context to contribute to an understanding of the use of simulation in clinical education in these fields.

The current study

The aim of the current study was to explore the implementation, experiences, and challenges of clinical educators and students involved in simulation-based clinical education in SLP/A in South Africa. South Africa, with its backdrop of significant demographic diversity, extremes of resource allocation, and history of medical innovation, provides an interesting context in which to conduct research on this topic. While there is very limited research on simulation in the SLP/A field in this context, studies on simulation experiences in other clinical education fields in South Africa suggest that these approaches may be difficult to implement in this context for a number of reasons. These include logistical challenges, costs especially related to high-fidelity simulation, Citation 27 a lack of trained educators with knowledge and skills in simulation, Citation 28 a lack of simulation facilitators, Citation 29 unprepared students, Citation 30 and a lack of equipment for simulated activities. Citation 31 Understanding how simulation is being used in SLP/A clinical education in South Africa, as well as student and clinical educators’ experiences in this regard, can assist in gaining insight into how best to support its use for clinical education.

Both authors of this manuscript are dually qualified as Speech-Language Pathologists and Audiologists, although JW works in the SLP department and AK works in the Audiology department at the same university. Both authors are currently involved in studies on simulation opportunities in SLP/A, and both authors have experience as clinical educators who have supervised student learning during simulated activities. Working in the South African context requires constant reflexivity and engagement with the realities of this context. Clinical teaching and learning can be more challenging due to the diversity in student bodies, limited resources, external pressures such as educational expenses, etc. Our experience as clinical educators and academics has also made us aware of the challenges associated with planning curriculum such that students are afforded sufficient opportunity to bridge the gap between theory and practice.

Study design

We employed a descriptive survey research design for this exploratory study, including both closed- and open-ended questions. The qualitative aspects of the study were guided by suggestions for qualitative descriptive studies Citation 32 and qualitative online surveys. Citation 33 We designed an anonymous national online survey with options for responses from different stakeholders (including students, academics and clinical educators in SLP/A) to gain perspective on their experiences of simulated activities in clinical education. The decision to use this design was based on experience with a similar project Citation 34 where using a qualitative online survey had yielded a satisfactory number of participants and sufficiently rich data. In their description of qualitative surveys, Braun et al. Citation 33 assert that this approach can be used successfully to gain insights into participants’ experiences, perceptions, and reported practices. The open-ended questions were thus used as an opportunity for participants to elaborate on particular closed-ended responses and relay their experiences of engaging with simulation-based clinical education.

In our planning, we considered different options and configurations for approaching this exploratory study. We decided to target both SLP/A in the same study because these professions are often housed in the same department at South African universities. This decision was related to factors such as survey fatigue (noted in other recent studies we had conducted) and to the challenges of accessing university-based participants (which we describe later in this paper). We offered participants the option of participating in an online interview instead of completing a survey, but the response rate for this option was poor and we did not pursue it.

Survey design

To describe the types of simulated activities used within the SLP/A curricula for clinical education;

To explore participants’ understanding of simulation in clinical training;

To investigate how simulation approaches are currently being implemented in SLP/A clinical education programs in South Africa;

To describe the experiences of stakeholders who have engaged in simulated activities as part of clinical training; and

To describe the challenges or barriers encountered by stakeholders involved in simulated activities.

Our question design was informed in part by JW’s qualitative survey of telepractice experiences in clinical training. Citation 34 The academic and clinical educator survey consisted of 29 questions (6 demographic, 6 closed-ended, 17 open-ended) and the student survey consisted of 23 questions (3 demographic, 4 closed-ended, 16 open-ended). Topic areas included: types of simulated activities, implementation within the institution, preparation received for these activities, facilitators, challenges, and thoughts about additional support required. All open-ended questions were presented as free text boxes. The survey link was developed using Microsoft Forms. A list of the survey questions may be found in the Supplementary Material.

Both authors designed the survey questions, which then went through a refinement process informed by the input of two research assistants. Most questions in the survey were found to be clear, straightforward and understandable, with minor revisions made to enhance clarity and reduce repetition.

Participants and recruitment strategy

There are seven universities in South Africa that offer SLP/A degrees. All South African degree programmes in the SLP/A professions are offered as a four-year undergraduate curriculum. The survey link was distributed to five universities. The SLP department at one of the universities is still new and we did not receive a response to our request to distribute the survey. Another university did not provide us with permission. We also advertised the study via the South African Speech Language and Hearing Association and on profession-specific Facebook pages. The advertising and recruitment process took place over several months.

Securing permission from each university to distribute our survey posed a significant challenge. This process took several months as we had to navigate the requirements of each university to access students and clinical educators for research purposes. In some instances, we had to obtain ethics clearance from institutions in addition to the ethics clearance already secured through our own university.

Participants were selected using non-probability, purposive sampling. Participants comprised (1) qualified academics and clinical educators registered with the Health Professions Council of South Africa who are singly or dually qualified as Speech-Language Pathologists and/or Audiologists; and (2) students registered in an undergraduate speech therapy or audiology programme who had some exposure to “hands-on” clinical practice. All participants needed to have experience of simulation opportunities. We did not specify inclusion criteria according to characteristics such as gender. The total size of the student body across all universities that offer SLP/A degrees is approximately 1000–1500, with approximately 60–100 clinical educators.

The final response rate for the survey included 12 participants – nine students and three clinical educators. One student only partially completed the survey. The distribution of participants across universities and student and clinical educator (CE) participant groups is illustrated in Figure 1 . Unfortunately, we do not have information on how many people may have clicked on the survey link but not started it; however, since the questions were not compulsory, our sample does include incomplete responses. Responses to the qualitative questions ranged from a few words to several sentences or a short paragraph.

Figure 1. Distribution of survey responses across participant groups and universities.

Ethical considerations

Ethics clearance was obtained from the University’s Human Research Ethics Committee (HREC) Non-Medical (clearance #H220439). Completion of the anonymous survey was taken to mean implied consent was given. The data were saved in an Excel spreadsheet and stored in a password-protected, encrypted data cloud. We extended the survey to colleagues at our own university but ensured that the survey links were distributed by departmental administrators to avoid potential coercion. Similarly, we encouraged department heads to distribute the survey links via departmental administrators to avoid potential coercion of students and colleagues known to them, and colleagues at other universities known to us.

Data collection

Data were collected between October 2022 and February 2023.

Data analysis

Given the low number of participants and the disparate perspectives across some categories of participants, it proved difficult to apply true thematic analysis to this dataset as we had originally planned. We therefore analyzed the data using descriptive statistics for closed-ended questions and a domain summary approach for open-ended questions (as described by Braun et al. Citation 35 ). Findings were separated out by profession and participant category. AK analyzed questions related to study objectives one to three and JW analyzed questions related to objectives four and five. We held several debriefing discussions to achieve consensus on the domain summaries identified in the data analysis.

Trustworthiness

We ensured credibility through regular peer debriefing sessions. Transferability was promoted by including questions about participant demographics to ensure that the context was not ignored, and through purposive sampling of participants. Dependability was achieved by keeping a detailed record of the methods and design of the study. Confirmability was achieved through regular auditing and discussion between the authors to promote reflexivity.

Our findings related to aspects of simulation such as the types of activities used for clinical training, the clinical areas targeted via simulation-based approaches, participants’ understanding and implementation of simulation, and a strong focus on participants’ experiences of simulation-based opportunities.

Types of simulated activities used for clinical education

Participants mentioned a range of clinical areas targeted for simulated activities at their institutions, across SLP and Audiology ( Table 1 ).

Table 1. Clinical areas reportedly targeted by SLP/A simulation activities.

According to most (six of the eight) student responses, simulation was predominantly used to target child language (including language intervention for school-aged children). All clinical educators and most students indicated having personal experience with the simulation areas mentioned.

Understanding and implementation of simulation in SLP/A programs

Because the literature suggests that simulation is in its infancy in our context, we felt it important to explore participants’ conceptualization of simulation because their understanding may influence what is implemented. Five of the eight student responses suggested that simulated activities mimic real-life scenarios or aspects of clinical care. Two clinical educators referred to the use of cases or case studies and one indicated the use of role-play and online presentations. Another clinical educator described simulated learning as involving artificially created scenarios to provide an experience of something that is possible in real life.

Responses from participants regarding the types of simulated activities reportedly implemented as part of clinical training are detailed in Figure 2 . Findings indicated a strong reliance on low-fidelity simulation activities such as role-play and case studies with less of a reliance on high-fidelity activities such as virtual reality and manikin work. Clinical educators appeared to over-report advanced technology use compared to students. Conversely, students reported greater use of low-fidelity simulation, compared to clinical educators. This discrepancy may have arisen because not all the universities included were represented by both clinical educator and student participants and each university has different simulation resources available.

Figure 2. Types of simulated activities reportedly implemented.

Two clinical educators indicated that simulation is used to supplement clinical teaching and one indicated that it is used both to supplement and to replace traditional approaches to clinical training in some areas. All clinical educators indicated that simulation activities were used for clinical, SLP/A assessment tasks only. In comparison, students indicated that these simulated activities included assessment and treatment, with two students indicating assessment or treatment only. Again, this disparity could have arisen because we did not have both clinical educator and student participants from all universities. The number of simulated cases that students were reportedly exposed to varied from two to 10 sessions.

Two clinical educators indicated that simulation is still being used post-pandemic. Half of the student participants indicated that simulation is still being used and the other half indicated its use at the height of the pandemic only. Minimal to no training was received to facilitate or supervise simulated cases. Student preparation included observation, related theory and an online orientation.

Clinical educators’ experiences of simulated activities

Clinical educators’ responses to questions regarding experiences of providing or supervising simulated activities related to several different aspects – for example, the need for debriefing after simulated tasks; the challenges of teaching communication aspects online; and the appropriateness of using international software programs and cases. Their experiences related to various types of simulated activities such as role-play, standardized patients, case studies, computer-based simulations and virtual reality.

When asked how their experiences of simulated activities might differ from in-person clinical activities, clinical educators described simulation as having “ ups and downs” (PID10) and spoke about challenges related to “ mimicking reality accurately and it being costly” (PID10). They also mentioned shifts in supervisory and marking styles required when implementing simulation-based activities, because “ it is difficult to assess student progress as there is no concrete evidence to prove that they completed the work themselves ” (PID13) and “ as a supervisor one’s role is different [compared to traditional training approaches] ” (PID22).

Despite these challenges, some clinical educators mentioned that simulation has provided new opportunities for student learning and allowed for extension beyond ‘traditional’ approaches to clinical education. As one participant indicated, simulation “ provided a different type of learning opportunity for students and there were opportunities for assessment tools or procedures not routinely used in the clinic” (PID22).

Clinical educators highlighted the challenges of determining progress and allocating marks for clinical skills taught and assessed via simulated activities that students completed in their own time, “ as there is no concrete evidence to prove that they completed the work themselves” (PID13). In addition, some clinical educators mentioned that “ some students achieve marks disproportionate to other marks” (PID22), suggesting challenges in achieving equivalence of marks across different types of clinical training opportunities.

Clinical educators offered suggestions regarding elements required to ensure the successful implementation of simulation-based clinical education, such as “ more training on designing and facilitating simulations ” (PID10), “ a sound theoretical basis ” (PID 10) for students, and “ more case-based examples ” (PID13). One clinical educator spoke about the need for students to think holistically and see the bigger picture when engaging in simulated learning activities. Another clinical educator spoke about the need for students to work independently as well as in groups with other students and to be guided by clinical educators. A third clinical educator spoke about students requiring an attitude to learning in order to engage successfully with simulation.

In terms of carrying simulated clinical learning opportunities forward, one clinical educator spoke about it being a growing field that requires further research. Another clinical educator spoke about the need for the Health Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA) to allow simulated activities as part of clinical hours (at the time of the study there was a cap on the number of clinical training hours for SLP/A that could be acquired via simulated activities, set at no more than 15% of the total clinical hours).

Students’ experiences of simulated activities

Most students (six of the seven who responded to this question) indicated a positive experience of clinical learning via simulation. Students found simulated-based activities offered them a helpful platform to make the transition from theory to practice – “ a way to learn without diving headfirst into real life patients” (PID14). They valued opportunities to “ practice with cases and improve knowledge ” in a safe environment that “ allows for mistakes to occur ” (PID23).

There were some challenges noted, however. One student indicated that engaging with simulation-based activities was not a positive experience and they did not feel they learned as much as they could have via a real-life scenario. Another student indicated that they found role-play awkward to engage in. Some students felt that simulated activities were more rigid and inflexible compared to real-life cases because “ you don’t have the opportunity to try different options and methods and you’re forced to do it one way” (PID15). This was coupled with feelings of frustration at not seeing a case through from start to finish due to one “not being able to see if the treatment works as it is not a real patient” (PID23).

One student spoke particularly about peer role plays, which seemed to be used frequently across the universities. This student found them unrealistic, citing an example of having to role-play a child with a communication disorder. Other students spoke about feeling less inclined to participate and engage in simulated activities because they did not involve real patients. In particular, students reported feeling “ less empathetic ” (PID 24) when engaging with a simulated patient because the simulated activity did not feel sufficiently realistic and the personal aspect of being able to connect with a real patient was missing from simulated activities.

When asked how they felt simulated activities prepared them clinically for in-person scenarios, one student felt that simulation-based training helped with critical thinking, knowledge, and “ familiar[ity] with the audiological equipment ” (PID28) and testing procedures. Another student felt that simulation offers a useful way of including more practical demonstrations in lectures. However, challenges were noted in terms of the short time frame between completion of theoretical content and engagement with simulated activities requiring the transfer of skills learned in simulated tasks into a real-life scenario, leaving students with little time to process and make sense of the theory.

Students also provided some insight into aspects that assisted them to engage with simulated activities. Responses were varied, referring to facilitators such as internet access, engaging with relevant clinical educators and lecturers, and understanding theoretical knowledge. Two students spoke about being placed in a group, which helped them to work through simulated cases: “ It was easier discussing with my classmates how to do the cases and navigating ourselves through the program .” (PID20)

When asked whether they thought simulated activities are an acceptable alternative to in-person clinical education, half of the students indicated yes and half indicated no. One student indicated that simulated activities should be used in conjunction with in-person activities. Responses related to the support participants required for simulated activities were rather ambivalent, with one student indicating no need for additional support and another indicating that they were not sure what support they required. Three students specified the type of support they felt they required, which included the need for access to better technology ( n  = 1), more advice from the lecturer ( n  = 1), and clearer instructions about the simulated task ( n  = 1).

Our findings, although preliminary, seem to confirm assertions in the literature that the use of simulation-based clinical education is in its infancy across the SLP/A professions in South Africa. This is evident in participant responses related to the period in which simulation was initiated or implemented. Some universities implemented simulation under emergency conditions during the COVID-19 pandemic to ensure that students continued to obtain clinical hours and experience – but not all universities appear to have continued to use simulation-based clinical education post-pandemic. Our results show that simulation opportunities have been or are being used across a range of clinical areas and disorders, which is promising.

Our findings are somewhat consistent with Global North literature, particularly on the topic of experiences of simulation in clinical education. Similar to previous studies, Citation 2 student participants reported simulation-based learning opportunities as generally positive experiences. Student understanding of the concept of simulation closely aligns with literature suggesting that it involves replication of real-life scenarios. Citation 36

Although the COVID-19 pandemic propelled the use of simulated activities for clinical education in our context, these activities seem to have been implemented rather haphazardly without much structure or careful planning, or else have continued to be implemented based on somewhat shaky foundations with limited preparation of students and their educators. Simulated activities can provide positive opportunities for clinical learning, but there is a lot of groundwork required to better prepare students and staff for engaging with these scenarios and a need to consider the degree of realism of such activities in relation to clinical outcomes. These findings echo those of studies conducted in other health professions engaging with simulation in South Africa Citation 28–30 and also with the findings of studies conducted further afield. Dudding and Nottingham, Citation 37 for example, reported barriers to simulated learning including a lack of knowledge, undertrained staff, and minimal guidance from professional accrediting bodies – suggesting that the challenges to implementing simulation-based clinical education may be more widespread than we had initially assumed.

Simulated activities for clinical education in our study (based on the types of simulated activities reportedly implemented) primarily seem to involve low-fidelity tasks such as case studies or peer role plays, which students were often left to complete in their own time, and which can pose problems for clinical educators in terms of marking. This trend may relate to a lack of funding and resources to facilitate the implementation of more high-fidelity, technology-driven options or the inclusion of trained simulated patients, confirming the findings of studies conducted on simulation experiences in other health professions in South Africa. Citation 27 , Citation 31 Our findings differ in this regard from studies such as that of Dudding and Nottingham Citation 37 who report widespread use of high-fidelity techniques for simulation training in SLT/A in the United States, using approaches such as standardized patients and computer-based simulations.

The gaps in terms of preparation are explained by the emergency conditions under which simulation was introduced during the COVID-19 pandemic to ensure continuous clinical training. Citation 8 However, if simulation is to be integrated successfully into SLP/A curricula in our context and used to its full potential, comprehensive context-specific training opportunities need to be made available for both students and clinical educators. Van der Merwe and colleagues Citation 29 highlight the need for educator competency in both the development and delivery aspects of simulated activities to ensure requisite student learning. Watermeyer et al., Citation 38 in relation to telepractice, have argued that preparation and training should be tailored toward student needs and grounded in an understanding gleaned from the empirical study of real-time clinical teaching activities.

Both clinical educators and students referred to the central role of theory in relation to simulated activities, with student responses offering some important points for consideration in terms of how simulation is integrated with theoretical content. Students also raised concerns related to their engagement with simulated activities – for example, the rigidity of cases and the lack of realistic engagements with patients. These findings point to the need to consider how to facilitate and support highly immersive simulated learning opportunities with careful consideration of intended learning outcomes, students’ levels of experience, contextually related resource availability and institutional and student needs. Citation 29 , Citation 36

The concerns raised by students regarding their ability to engage with simulated activities need to be considered too – in particular, their dissatisfaction with the lack of realism in the simulated scenarios and their inability to engage with these activities in a truly empathetic manner. Alinier and Oriot Citation 36 address these issues at length in their debate paper, emphasizing the need to make simulated activities work for students in a realistic manner. They suggest focusing more strongly on pre-simulation debriefing activities, during which some of the issues around students’ disbelief and the challenges related to a lack of true reality and simulated activities can be addressed. They also suggest that more time needs to be spent on preparing students to engage with simulated activities not just in terms of the technical skills involved, but also focusing on professional conduct, behavior and communication skills – and the latter presents an important future research thrust with which we are currently engaging.

Limitations

Limitations of the study include the small sample size; the omission of responses by some participants to the open-ended questions; and the lack of opportunity for us to probe answers further since there were not enough participants who accepted the offer of an interview. We acknowledge that we have not included in this study an audit of what each university is doing in terms of simulation, which presents an important opportunity for a follow-up study.

We were disappointed by the low response rate to our survey given the total national population of students and clinical educators across SLP/A. While general research fatigue trends undoubtedly played a role here Citation 39 and the length of the survey may have contributed too, we wondered whether the poor response rate again confirms that simulation as a clinical education tool is in its infancy in our context.

Regardless of the limitations, our experience in conducting this study has important implications for future studies. We believe this kind of research into experiences across training institutions in SLP/A is essential if we are to understand and strengthen clinical practices, particularly in Global South contexts where these approaches to clinical teaching may be relatively novel and have been implemented in less-than-ideal emergency situations. However, this kind of national-level research and implementation of curricular advancements requires buy-in from institutions and departments. Perhaps there is an opportunity to encourage greater participation in this type of research if students and clinical educators are able to see direct implications of the research for their own practice.

If we are to move forward with building capacity and implementing simulation approaches as strong, effective means of supplementing traditional approaches to clinical education in SLP/A, then it is important that this is done with clear expectations, structure, and support. Support may include guidelines for clinical educators on how to effectively incorporate simulation within the curriculum. In addition, the development of communities of practice across health professions may be helpful for offering support to clinical educators involved in clinical education – especially in Global South contexts where there may be particular challenges and resource constraints to implementing simulation opportunities.

Supplemental Material

Acknowledgments.

Thank you to the participants who responded to the survey. We are also grateful for the assistance we received from Sonto Madonsela and Rhona Nattrass with refining the questions for the survey.

The authors report there are no competing interests to declare.

Data availability statement

The data that support the findings of this study are not publicly available due to privacy or ethical restrictions. However, they can be shared in anonymized format on reasonable request.

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Joint PhD Program in English and Education

monét cooper is a 2024-2025 recipient of the AERA Minority Dissertation Fellowship in Education Research*

The American Educational Research Association (AERA) has awarded monét cooper a  2024-2025 Minority Dissertation Fellowship in Education Research . The selection committee was impressed by cooper’s scholarly achievements, the quality of her proposed research, and her potential to contribute to education research. Cooper’s dissertation is titled, “Between Freedom and Capture: Quare Youths’ Literacies of Everyday Aliveness in the Un/care of School.”

In a highly selective process, AERA’s Minority Dissertation Fellowship Program awards fellowships to members of racial and ethnic groups historically underrepresented in education research, and offers mentoring and guidance toward the completion of their doctoral studies. An important aim of the fellowship is to enhance the racial and ethnic diversity of faculty, scholars, and researchers across the education research field.

All new Minority Dissertation Fellows are in the final stages of their dissertation studies across a broad range of education research topics, such as LGBTQ issues in schools, pedagogy, and undocumented students in college. Many of these studies focus on minoritized racial and ethnic groups in education and schools. The awardees frame their research around a range of disciplines and subfields of education research, including higher education, psychometrics, and psychology.

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Meet the 2024 Winners of Major Scholarships

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Each year, graduate students in McGill's Department of Integrated Studies in Education (DISE) apply for external scholarships to support their research studies. These are prestigious scholarships awarded to top-ranked graduate students across Canada. We are very pleased to announce that three graduate students from McGill's Language Education program have won this year's major scholarships:

Albert Maganaka has won the SSHRC Doctoral Fellowship for his research on the Impact of Church-based ESL Programs on the English Proficiency of Adult Immigrant Learners. His doctoral study, under the supervision of Dr. Caroline Riches , seeks to reveal the objectives, motivations, and perceptions of students in these religiously-affiliated language programs, with a focus on curriculum, instructional methods, teacher qualifications, and teaching styles. The SSHRC Fellowship enables Albert to examine how religious institutions influence language education. His research aims to contribute to the dynamic field of English language teaching, providing valuable recommendations for improving church-run and similar adult ESL programs. These insights are expected to benefit future learners and the educational landscape at large. Albert’s inspiration stems from his extensive work in the immigration sector, where he assists newcomers in integrating into Canadian society through language education. Despite churches’ vital role in immigrant settlement and integration in Canada, their contributions remain relatively uncharted. Albert’s research bridges this gap, shedding light on place-based education within church-run ESL programs, ultimately enriching our understanding of community-based language learning.

Kiana Kishiyama has won the Canada Graduate Scholarship – Masters Program (SSHRC CGS-M) (Joseph-Armand Bombardier Graduate Scholarship). Her MA research, supervised by Dr. Angelica Galante , is titled Reclaiming identity through language learning: Examining the lived experiences among adoptees in Canada . Kiana’s work is largely inspired by her own lived experiences with her heritage language learning as an international adoptee. Through her research, she hopes to document the heritage language learning-related experiences of international adoptees throughout Canada and how those experiences intersect with their identities. While little research has been conducted in this area, Kiana hopes to pioneer this investigation and contribute to the small yet impactful body of literature on heritage language learning by international adoptees.

Cris Barabas , an incoming third year PhD student in educational studies and this year’s runner-up of the department’s Emerging Scholar Award has recently won both the Canada Graduate Scholarship (SSHRC CGS-D) and the Fonds de recherche du Québec-Société et culture (FRQSC) doctoral awards. He is supervised by Dr. Amir Kalan and his doctoral research proposal is tentatively titled The Sociomateriality of Literacies in Community Centers: A Study of Immigrant Youth’s Entanglements and Becomings . His thesis will apply a posthumanist approach and theoretical framings to further understand immigrant youth’s engagements with literacies and becomings with (new) identities, language(s), institutions, and the land. Barabas has also successfully completed his tenure as the Principal Editor of the Journal of Language and Literacy Education at the University of Georgia.

Congratulations to this year's winners of these prestigious scholarships. We wish you success in your research journey!

Department and University Information

• Open access
• Published: 20 June 2024

Risk factors and service gaps affecting a sustainable work: a qualitative multi-stakeholder analysis in the context of persons with acquired brain injury living in Switzerland

• Katarzyna Karcz 1 ,
• Urban Schwegler 1 , 2 ,
• Barbara Schiffmann 1 &
• Monika E. Finger 1  

BMC Health Services Research volume  24 , Article number:  753 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Introduction

Along with the social and economic challenges posed by an aging society, creating work conditions that allow persons to stay healthy and work into old age has become a major task of Western societies. Retaining employment after returning to work is particularly difficult for individuals with a disability, as evidenced by the high rate of premature labor market dropout. Individuals with acquired brain injury (ABI) exemplify this challenge, as it often impairs cognitive, technical, and interpersonal abilities that are crucial in today’s labor market. To effectively support these individuals, vocational integration practitioners require comprehensive knowledge of risk factors for premature labor market dropout and effective strategies for sustainable work.

This study aimed to identify perceived risk factors and related service gaps regarding sustainable work for people with ABI, as reported by affected individuals, employers, vocational integration professionals, and health professionals.

Secondary data analysis. Data that was originally collected through seven focus groups and two interviews with persons with ABI, 15 interviews with employers, and 13 interviews with vocational integration and health professionals in the context of the project ‘Sustainable employment’ was re-analysed thematically.

Two major themes of risk factors were identified: (1) person-related factors (including the subthemes: post-ABI impairments; lack of understanding of post-ABI impairments; poor health management) and (2) environment-related factors (including the subthemes: challenges related to the service structure; insufficient knowledge and education about ABI; challenges at the workplace; difficulties in private life). While stakeholders noted the variety of the currently available services, they particularly pointed to the missing long-term monitoring and counseling services for persons with ABI following the initial return-to-work, reflecting a major challenge for sustainable work. An overarching gap related to the fragmentation of the service structure and the lack of case coordination along the working life.

Conclusions

Multiple stakeholders emphasized the importance of empowering individuals, ensuring easy access to professional support, and providing a suitable work environment to address key risk factors and facilitate sustainable work for individuals with ABI. Continuous coaching, long-term monitoring and counseling following return-to-work, were identified as potential strategies to achieve these goals.

Peer Review reports

Along with the socio-economic challenges posed by an aging society, creating work conditions that enable persons to stay healthy and able to work into old age has become a significant task of Western societies [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 ]. For persons with a disability, retaining employment after return-to-work (RTW) represents a particular challenge, as indicated by the high number of premature dropouts from the labor market among this group [ 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 ]. Therefore, vocational integration services aim to ensure the best possible conditions for supporting sustainable employment throughout a person’s lifespan. A sustainable work situation can be defined as ‘a person-job-workplace match that enables a person to remain healthy and satisfied at work over time, with a work performance meeting the expectations of both the person and the employer’ [ 10 ].

Persons with an acquired brain injury (ABI) make an exemplary case for the challenge of sustaining work over time as their health condition strongly affects the ability to perform cognitive, technical, and interpersonal tasks that are increasingly relevant in today’s labor market [ 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 ]. An acquired brain injury represents an incisive life event resulting in a high monetary and nonmonetary burden for those affected as well as the society [ 16 ]. Maintaining gainful employment after ABI is thus important not only for ensuring individuals’ financial self-sufficiency, self-worth, social inclusion as well as quality of life, but also for lowering socio-economic costs and increasing tax revenues [ 17 , 18 , 19 ]. ABI reflects a traumatic (i.e., due to an accident) or non-traumatic (i.e., due to a disease such as stroke) damage to the brain that occurs during life and is not related to any degenerative disease such as multiple sclerosis or Alzheimer. While a mild ABI may result in little to no limitations, severe injuries can lead to significant lifelong disability. ABI may involve a wide range of problems, including observable ones such as movement and balance disorders and non-observable ‘silent’ ones like concentration issues, increased fatigability, emotional instability, and planning difficulties [ 20 ]. While in some cases functioning may still improve several years after ABI onset [ 21 ], it is more common that people with ABI experience a decline in functioning over time [ 22 ].

Internationally, there exist approximately 73 million working-age people with ABI, with around 90’000 of them living in Switzerland [ 23 ]. RTW rates range from 11% to 85% globally [ 24 , 25 , 26 ]. In Switzerland, data on the employment rates for people with ABI is missing, but according to support organizations for people with ABI, a substantial number of those affected struggle to maintain their jobs or drop out from the labor market prematurely [ 27 ]. Sustainable employment is particularly hampered by non-visible impairments, that lead employers and co-workers but also people with ABI to overestimate affected workers’ abilities, resulting in a lack of support or the assignment to unsuitable work tasks. Such a work situation can lead to overwork and increased fatigue [ 28 , 29 ]. Discrepancies between the affected individual and the employer regarding the perception of job performance as well as an unstable work performance can also increase the risk for job loss [ 30 , 31 ].

In Switzerland, individuals with acute ABI that show significant neurological symptoms typically undergo two to twelve weeks of initial inpatient or outpatient neurorehabilitation. Subsequently, a range of services that are funded by the health, accident or disability insurance supports the recovery as well as the work and community integration of those affected [ 32 ]. The Swiss Disability Insurance (IV), a mandatory system funded by wage deductions and federal support, provides a disability pension based on income loss rather than the severity of the injury, which - in case of traumatic brain injuries – is complemented by accident insurance benefits. The IV also covers medical treatments, assistive devices as well as vocational integration services (e.g., vocational counselling, job placement) that are aimed at returning people to the labor market. Fragile Suisse represents the support organization for individuals with ABI in Switzerland and provides help with a particular focus on community integration, including work as well as social counseling with respect to the navigation through the administrative issues in the context of the health and social security system.

To provide optimal support services for persons with ABI, both service providers and payers require conclusive knowledge on risk factors for premature labor market dropout as well as strategies to optimally promote sustainable work. This knowledge may best be generated through a need-driven approach that incorporates the view of the key stakeholders in the vocational integration process. The present study thus aimed to identify risk factors and related service gaps regarding a sustainable work by taking individuals with ABI as an exemplary case and by integrating the view of those affected, their employers, as well as health and vocational integration professionals.

To address our research question, we carried out a secondary analysis of data collected in the context of our previous project ‘Sustainable employment’ [ 33 ]. Data was collected between May 2019 and July 2020.

Data source: the ‘Sustainable employment’ project

The original project aimed to identify barriers and facilitators to sustainable employment for individuals with a disability, specifically focusing on those with acquired brain injuries and spinal cord injuries (SCI) [ 33 ]. To respond to this study aim, we conducted focus group discussions and semi-structured interviews [ 34 , 35 ] with individuals with ABI and SCI [ 36 ], health and vocational integration professionals [ 37 ], as well as employers of persons with ABI and SCI [ 38 ]. Based on our finding that the availability and structure of vocational integration services were perceived as a major barrier to employment sustainability, especially for persons with ABI, we decided to conduct an in-depth secondary analysis of the qualitative data, focusing on perceived service gaps and their relation to the identified risk factors for sustainable employment of people with ABI. While the original project analyzed the perspective of all three stakeholder groups separately, the present study merges the perspectives of the stakeholder groups. In the current secondary analysis, the gathered data was re-analyzed thematically [ 34 , 39 ].

Participants

The sample included persons with ABI who worked for at least two years after the onset of their injury, employers with experience in employing an affected person as well as health and vocational integration professionals experienced in the topic of ABI. Individuals who were unable to go back to work successfully were not included as the ‘Sustainable employment’ project did not focus on factors affecting RTW but on barriers and facilitators to sustaining employment after having returned to work post-ABI. Employers represented companies of different sizes and sectors (private, public, non-profit). Professionals were expected to be familiar with the spectrum of the existing support services as well as with the administrative and legal regulations of the Swiss health and social security system.

We employed multiple recruitment strategies. Initially, we made announcements in the publications and on the webpage of Fragile Suisse, the support organization for individuals with ABI, their families, and professionals. Additionally, we distributed flyers via health and vocational integration professionals and received recommendations for candidate participants from two vocational rehabilitation departments and the work integration group of the Swiss Association of Rehabilitation. Finally, recruitment was facilitated through personal contacts of authors of this study (MF and BS).

Data collection

We conducted seven focus groups and two single interviews, including a total of 23 persons with ABI. In addition, we carried out 15 interviews with employers and 13 interviews with professionals. Sample characterstics are presented in Tables  1 , 2 and 3 . The focus group discussions included three affected persons, lasted between 90 and 120 min and took place in seminar rooms located at different cities in the German-speaking region of Switzerland. We chose focus groups as our primary data collection method for persons with ABI to facilitate discussions and the exchange of experiences among participants with different characteristics. Single interviews were offered to two volunteers who were unable to participate in the focus groups due to their ABI-related limitations. These interviews were conducted at participants’ homes and took between 45 and 90 min. Interviews with employers and professionals lasted between 30 and 70 min and were conducted at their workplace, except two being carried out at the Swiss Paraplegic Research Institute in Nottwil and three that were conducted online via Zoom. Interviews were chosen as data collection method for employers and professionals due to time constraints, organizational barriers and ethical issues (the necessity to maintain anonymity of persons with ABI). The focus groups and the interviews followed the same procedure of discussing facilitators and barriers for sustainable work, service gaps and risk factors for labor market dropout. Detailed information on the data collection is published elsewhere [ 36 , 37 , 38 ]. The guidelines of the focus groups and the interviews are provided in the supplementary material (S1-S4).

Focus groups and interviews were audio recorded, transcribed verbatim and anonymized. MF (a physiotherapist experienced in qualitative research) and BS (a sociologist experienced in qualitative research) conducted the focus group discussions and the interviews. The first author (KK, a sociologist and psychologist with experience in qualitative research) participated in all focus groups as an assistant and note-taker.

Data analysis

We conducted a thematic analysis according to Braun & Clarke [ 34 , 39 ] with an inductive coding throughout the process. Data were coded by KK using the software MaxQDA. Additionally, MF independently coded one interview from each participant group. KK and MF compared and discussed then the coding schemes until agreement was achieved. We operationalized risk factors as ‘aspects associated with an increased risk of unsustainable work’ and service gaps ‘as differences between the actual support provision and the participants’ support needs’. Risk factors were coded inductively (e.g., rapid fatigability, headache) and then grouped into subthemes of similar factors (e.g., post-ABI impairments). The subthemes formed the two overarching themes, i.e., person-related and environment-related factors. Identified service gaps were first coded inductively and then assigned to the related risk factors. The coding scheme and the assignment of the subthemes were extensively discussed among all authors throughout the coding process.

In the following, we describe the service gaps reported by our participants in relation to the perceived risk factors for sustainable work. Sub-themes are grouped into the overarching themes person-related and environment-related factors (see Table  4 ).

Person-related risk factors and service gaps

Post-abi impairments.

Individuals emphasized the negative impact of cognitive post-ABI impairments on their work performance, while employers highlighted the unstable health and the unpredictability of work performance, leading to difficulties in the work organization. A common problem represent the affected individuals’ inability to accurately assess and predict their own work capabilities, resulting in potential errors or unmet deadlines. All stakeholder groups agreed that a close monitoring by a vocational integration specialist during the return-to-work phase is essential, including professional coaching to adjust job demands based on the individual’s recovery state. Professionals pointed to the various work counseling services, typically funded by the IV, but noted that the accessibility and timing of these services are often unstructured and depend on whether vocational measures are part of the rehabilitation process or initiated later by requests of those affected, their general practitioner or a caregiver.

Lack of understanding of post-ABI impairments and poor health management

All stakeholder groups recognize that the poor understanding of ABI-related impairments and the inability to recognize body signals, like fatigue, jeopardizes stable employment. Without this awareness, it’s hard for those affected to develop a disability-friendly life and work style. Stakeholders emphasized the need for vocational integration specialists and psychologists that teach effective self-management strategies already during rehabilitation to empower persons with ABI and support in becoming experts in their own disability. However, professionals reported that medical staff’s tight schedules pose challenges to providing this education and care effectively during the medically-oriented initial rehabilitation.

Persons with ABI and health professionals consider ongoing personal coaching from neuropsychologists, occupational therapists, or vocational integration specialists as crucial for managing post-ABI challenges and adapting to new career paths. While such support is typically provided in neurorehabilitation, the awareness and availability of such services are lower among those with mild to moderate injuries who are discharged early from rehabilitation. Professionals also highlighted the need for extended neuropsychological coaching beyond the vocational integration phase to promote sustainable employment. Yet, accessing these services is difficult due to complex procedures, long waiting times for approvals, and limited resources of patient organizations.

Environment-related risk factors and service gaps

Challenges related to the service structure, fragmentation of services.

Service fragmentation was identified as a critical gap by all stakeholder groups, noting a poor coordination across different phases of working life. The RTW period was especially emphasized, with various services offered by governmental, non-governmental, inpatient, outpatient, and private institutions to support disability onset. However, stakeholders highlighted significant challenges in the coordination and accessibility of these services. Additionally, they pointed to regional differences in service regulations and financing, influenced by factors like workplace location, employer’s insurance, and availability of private insurance options.

Lack of case management across the work life

Participants reported a significant gap in case management across the work life of individuals with ABI, noting a lack of long-term coordination between various service settings such as inpatient, outpatient, and long-term care. They highlighted the absence of a dedicated person or institution to guide through the system procedures, leaving individuals with ABI to navigate their post-discharge care pathway independently.

Furthermore, all groups emphasized the need for long-term monitoring that integrates medical and work-related issues to address potential functional declines that could affect work performance. Despite this need, IV cases typically close after two years, assuming stabilization. Although the person or their employer can still apply for support even after integration has been completed, long waiting times for a counselling appointment and a high administrative burden often discourage both from contacting the IV. Participants pointed out that in these situations, the support of patient organizations is crucial for persons with ABI, their families and their employers. Patient organizations may take on case coordination in terms of acting as an intermediary between affected persons and the insurances or finding suitable providers (specialists, coaches, shift workers, etc.). When a patient organization was involved, its support was largely successful according to the study participants.

Fixed timelines in the vocational integration process

Participants criticized the rigidity of the vocational integration process for individuals with ABI, including the fixed timing of work capacity assessments used to determine disability pensions that often occure before individuals reached a stable recovery state. Shifting work capacity assessments until stable stage could lead to a more effective and sustainable RTW processes. In addition, persons with ABI would like more flexibility in their daily or weekly workload so as not to be overburdened when their work capacitiy fluctuates for health reasons – employers on the other hand pointed out that they need employees with a workload that is as reliable as possible. Although reassessment of work capacity is possible when it fluctuates due to health issues, it typically happens late, under duress, and involves lengthy administrative procedures. Professionals suggest that allowing for timely adjustments of workloads would prevent overburdening, and benefit the individual, the workplace as well as the social system both economically and health-wise.

Confusing and complicated administrative processes for persons with ABI

Although participants shared both, negative and positive examples of working with insurance companies, all stakeholders found dealing with administrative procedures or regular disability benefits revisions to be stressful and time-consuming. According to employers and professionals, the stress and frustration experienced by persons with ABI in dealing with insurance policies leads to further decline in their work performance.

Lack of common ABI-specific guidelines and inadequate funding

The absence of established guidelines, leads to insufficient funding due to a lack of legal support. Medical professionals highlight that this results in insufficient funding for adequately long inpatient stays in emergency, acute care, and initial rehabilitation, often causing missing or incomplete ABI diagnoses and inadequate vocational interventions. They urge the creation of standardized guidelines to support financial claims and recommend an interdisciplinary team, including neurologists or neuropsychologists, for diagnosing suspected ABI. Limited resources also restrict follow-up assessments to properly evaluate recovery post-ABI. Additionally, the lack of guidelines which would provide a basis for financial claims impedes also long-term support, such as job coaching for affected individuals and employers. Despite patient and employer organizations stepping in to some extent, fundraising and lack of resources create a barrier to meet the support needs.

Insufficient knowledge and education about ABI

Insufficient knowledge about ABI was identified as a significant gap in two areas. First, the discrepancies in professionals’ knowledge on ABI, its procedures, and its impact on daily life leads to inconsistent support, depending heavily on the competence and network of the case manager or specialist involved.

Second, professionals and affected persons reported a lack of knowledge about ABI and its impact on work and daily life among employers and co-workers, resulting in a lack of understanding of persons’ needs in relation to ABI-specific work adjustments. To address this, training HR staff or designating a person within the company to learn how to best support persons with ABI as well as their supervisors and co-workers could be a promising intervention target.

Workplace challenges

Poor person-job match.

One of the key challenges to maintain the work over time is to establish a good person-job match, which broadly refers to the fit between persons’ abilities, needs, and interests and the requirements and characteristics of their jobs [ 41 ]. As reported by all stakeholder groups, person-job mismatches were often related to too many or too difficult job tasks. In the long run, such situation can lead to overwork and premature dropout. To prevent these issues, it’s recommended that the final assessment of an employee’s work capacity and support needs should be conducted only after reaching a stable post-injury state, with regularly follow-ups regarding person-job match by both the employee and supervisor.

Workplace restructuring

All stakeholder groups perceived changes in the work situation as a risk factor due to the high level of adjustment required from those affected. Moreover, when the work environment changes, arrangements that have been put in place to support the employee are likely to be discontinued. Additional professional advice, such as coaching or mediation, should be offered on request for challenging cases. However, the availability and funding of such services is limited. Employers expressed a wish for a single point of contact or helpline where they could get immediate support regarding key issues or access to a specialist if needed.

Difficulties in private life

Professionals and employers frequently cited personal life issues as a significant risk factor for individuals with ABI. Family conflicts or changes in support networks can have a more negative impact than before the onset of ABI, draining personal resources and reducing work capabilities. To mitigate this, professionals recommend providing psychological support to family members and educating them about ABI consequences and available supports, such as through a helpline. At present no such services exist apart from support from patients organizations.

Based on a multi-stakeholder approach, our study identified service needs related to the sustainable employment of persons with ABI by linking existing services and perceived service gaps with main risk factors for sustainable work. We identified several person-related (e.g., lack of understanding of post-ABI impairments) and environment-related risk factors (e.g., fragmentation of services; workplace restructuring) associated with different stages of vocational integration (rehabilitation, work integration, and long-term work-related support).

Perceived service gaps were found to be highly interdependent and mainly related to accessibility, funding and availability of services. Service quality was mainly an issue in terms of poor professional commitment and ABI-related knowledge.

Person-related factors

Our results point to the need of services that enhance the understanding of ABI impacts on daily life, that empower individuals to assess their abilities, and that teach self-management of health. While self-management of disability in daily life is recognized as important [ 42 , 43 , 44 , 45 , 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 ], rehabilitation and vocational integration services typically prioritize physical and vocational skills over person-centered skills, despite evidence supporting the importance of empowerment early on [ 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 ]. Most participants also reported difficulty accessing services focused on person-centered skills in outpatient or vocational settings after insurance claim closed, particularly for injuries deemed ‘minor’. This reflects a lack of recognition of ABI as a chronic condition that can improve or worsen over time [ 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 ]. Interdisciplinary guidelines and ABI-related training for professionals could improve the focus on person-centered skills in medical and vocational programs.

Environment-related factors

Our results suggest that an ideal setting for work integration would be on-the-job mentoring by a vocational counsellor who coordinates the patient’s skills and needs with the employer’s possibilities and expectations and the funding (insurance). Since there is no legal basis in Switzerland that obliges an employer to continue to employ a worker with reduced work capacity, a close cooperation with the employer is crucial for successful RTW and long-term employment. Participants of our study highlighted that the possibility of a partial pension can help persons with a disability and their employers to find a mutually agreed person-job match which is a central aspect of vocational integration [ 54 , 55 ].

When it comes to finding a new employment, injured workers are largely left to their own devices, due to limited support from the IV or public employment services, exacerbated by a lack of trained staff to assist those with invisible impairments like ABI [ 56 ]. Our findings imply that employment offices establish specialized units with medically trained staff to improve support for these individuals.

After RTW, both employer and employee must continually assess and adjust the work situation as needed. However, over 90% of companies in Switzerland are small and medium-sized enterprises [ 57 ] which do not have trained staff and cannot rely on their own resources. Therefore, when problems arise in terms of long-term health management, an official service with easy and widely known access to counseling and timely vocational support measures would be important to preserve sustainable employment. This could be managed by IV or through support organizations like Fragile Suisse [ 27 , 58 ].

Finally, the impact of ABI extends beyond the individual to affect caregivers and family members, who face significant unacknowledged burdens in terms of direct care, taking on household tasks, reduced social contact and financial losses due to reduced working hours. In Switzerland, this support goes widely unnoticed, although continuous overburden may lead to severe psychological, physical and social problems [ 27 ]. Enhancing caregiver support through standardized assessments and providing psychological and psychosocial support could mitigate the profound challenges they face.

The big picture

Despite Switzerland disposing one of the best health and social security systems globally [ 59 ], it suffers from significant fragmentation in financing and service provision across systems, institutions, providers, and settings. As visible in our results, different legal foundations, unclear responsibilities and poorly coordinated processes lead to patients receiving inadequate care despite the comprehensive range of services provided.

Recent legal revisions aim to improve work integration measures, with regional efforts enhancing coordination with local job offices. However, patients often hesitate to engage with administrative procedures, as navigating their complexities can be overwhelming. Fragile Suisse’s pilot projects [ 58 ], providing comprehensive support from medical incidents to social or professional reintegration, are well-received but under-resourced. These projects suggest that a Switzerland-wide formal case coordination approach could significantly improve vocational reintegration and sustainable work for people with ABI. Adopting a structured service pathway could enhance service overview, enable performance evaluation, and make the health and social systems more cost-effective. The Swiss Paraplegic Foundation’s model [ 60 ] for spinal paralysis could serve as a blueprint for managing ABI and other chronic conditions.

Strengths and limitations

A strength of our study was the inclusion of a broad range of stakeholders who are directly confronted with service needs and gaps across the work-lifespan of persons with ABI - from initial rehabilitation through vocational rehabilitation, sustained work, and retirement. Using this approach, we were able to identify individual service needs at the micro level and discuss overarching challenges at the meso and macro level that affect the continuum of service provision.

A limitation of this study is the analysis of previously collected data. Although, participants discussed services and service gaps for sustainable employment in the original interviews, services were not the main focus of the primary study. Additionally, the majority of persons with ABI were employed, therefore some risk factors could have been missed.

Practical, policy and research implications

Existing research underscores the importance of work for the psychosocial adjustment and health of individuals with ABI, with RTW contributing to higher self-esteem, life satisfaction, and economic independence [ 61 , 62 ]. Our study advocates for a policy shift towards funding coordinated long-term, participation-oriented interventions as part of a comprehensive service provision along the continuum of care.

Addressing fragmentation of services through the coordination of settings and measures would optimize not only the support for persons with ABI but also for people with other disability or long-term conditions and their sustainable work [ 63 , 64 ]. Establishing national guidelines developed and agreed upon by an interdisciplinary group of stakeholders (service providers, insurances, policy makers and affected persons as well as their employers) with the use of an integrated knowledge translation approach [ 65 , 66 , 67 ], and developing a framework to monitor service effectiveness are critical for optimizing interventions. Additionally, professional education and quality measures need enhancement.

Currently, Switzerland lacks a national database on ABI, service provision, and employment status. Therefore, cohort studies that track services, health, social, and RTW outcomes are essential for creating effective strategies. Adopting a mixed-methods approach that combines longitudinal labor market data with qualitative research will help to identify the most effective support strategies for sustainable work participation among those with ABI.

Our study highlights service gaps in vocational integration and long-term employment for persons with ABI in Switzerland, linking these gaps to existing risk factors for sustainable work. A key finding is the need for better integrated care and streamlined service pathways focused on sustainable vocational integration, including services that support person-centered skills and case coordination throughout the working life. The development of national guidelines for selecting and timing interventions, along with implementing a comprehensive monitoring system, could enhance the evaluation and optimization of intervention quality and service efficacy.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets generated and/or analysed during the current study are not publicly available in order to protect the anonymity of participants but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

We would like to express our gratitude to all interview participants for sharing their expertise and for spending time and effort to accomplish this study. We are grateful to the supportive persons of Fragile Suisse and ParaWork for their help in recruiting suitable interview participants.

This work was supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation under grant no. 10001G_215144/1.

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Karcz, K., Schwegler, U., Schiffmann, B. et al. Risk factors and service gaps affecting a sustainable work: a qualitative multi-stakeholder analysis in the context of persons with acquired brain injury living in Switzerland. BMC Health Serv Res 24 , 753 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-024-11128-3

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Holistic Pedagogical Support to Address Postgraduate Students’ Challenges in Academic Publishing: The Case of a Business School in Indonesia

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The research literature is rife with studies that explicate how novice academic writers face fears and experience anxieties when writing in English as a Second Language (ESL) contexts. However, many studies have failed to put forward a holistic approach to address the issue. This study fills in this gap by reporting how integrating language and content instruction and providing out-of-classroom assistance for students at a master’s level in an Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB)-accredited business school can help them become more confident academic writers and accomplish their publishing goals. This research employed a qualitative research approach through which ten students were interviewed in-depth. The findings of the study reveal that students do not only experience language and content related fears and challenges, but also challenges that are existential in nature. This implies that finding meaning and purpose in their research endeavors which aligns with their professional careers is important. The study makes a case for a holistic pedagogical support for students within a Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) approach, while putting in place a definitive mentoring system outside of class sessions. Future research may evaluate the effectiveness of such a support program for academic publishing and explore ways to adequately address the need for a research agenda that is meaningful for students’ professional and academic careers.

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Talaue, F.G., Hendijani, R.B. Holistic Pedagogical Support to Address Postgraduate Students’ Challenges in Academic Publishing: The Case of a Business School in Indonesia. Asia-Pacific Edu Res (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40299-024-00878-7

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s40299-024-00878-7

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