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What Gaming Does to Your Brain—and How You Might Benefit

To stay away from Azeroth—which is to remain unsubscribed from Blizzard Entertainment’s enduring MMORPG, World of Warcraft —is no simple task. In fact, the gaming community has long (and only half-jokingly) referred to the orc- and elf-filled game as “ World of Warcrack .”

As somebody who, over the past 14 years, has racked up more than 600 days played, the pull of WoW ’s constant new dungeons, raids, and battlegrounds is something I can attest to. When I’m at a loose end, the first thing that comes to mind is logging on my level-60 rogue. And if I don’t play for an extended period of time, I’ll, quite literally, see WoW in my dreams. On a conscious and subconscious level, I can’t quite escape.

Video game “addiction,” though, isn’t solely relegated to WoW ; it’s cross-genre and cross-platform . Neither is addiction the only neurological and psychological side effect of video games. So how, scientifically, do video games—from MMORPGs to shooters and RPGs—affect our brains? And despite the drawbacks, can the brain benefit from video games?

When the subject of how video games affect us crops up, the first thing that comes to mind is video game addiction —a field that’s being increasingly studied by psychologists and neuroscientists alike and is often played up for headlines more than it is an actual mental health threat on its face. “Roughly speaking, there are no big differences between video game addiction and other addictions,” says Marc Palaus, who holds a PhD in cognitive neuroscience from the Open University of Catalonia. “One key aspect to understand how addictions work is the reward system of the brain. The reward system mediates how pleasant stimuli (such as the presence of food, water, social interaction, sexual contact, or video games in this case) act as positive reinforcers for behavior.” Once our brains have been exposed to something pleasurable, we often want (and then set out to get) more—and video games are certainly no exception.

Considering WoW ’s longevity and impressive following (at the time of writing, there are around 5 million monthly players ), it’s no surprise that DIY support communities have surfaced. /r/nowow , a subreddit of over 1,000 members, functions as a safe space where struggling WoW addicts can discuss broken relationships, wasted time, hindered education, and relapses. 

It’s a place I’ve personally found reassuring and frightening in equal measure—the highly engaging and enjoyable world-away-from-our-own-world, with its daily and weekly quests and never-ending updates, has sucked many a gamer in.

Lee Chambers, an environmental psychologist I spoke to, is someone whose story is similar to those posting on /r/nowow. “I found World of Warcraft in my second year of university, and sadly at a time when I was struggling with my mental health,” he said. “The game gave me the social connection I needed, but I became dependent on it as my mental health became worse, and I became embroiled in the game and avoided life, leading to me being taken home by my parents after isolating myself for weeks.” Thankfully, Chambers has since come out the other side.

The high-octane environments of shooters are a world apart from the slower-paced grind of an MMORPG like WoW , Final Fantasy XIV , and Elder Scrolls Online . And it’s Epic Games’ Fortnite , the candy-hued survival shooter, that’s particularly interesting when it comes to video games and the brain, not least because it’s become a cultural phenomenon, especially among young gamers whose brains are still developing.

At its core, Fortnite is a quick-fire and inherently repeatable game, with co-op, battle royale, and sandbox modes catering to different play styles. ( Fortnite Battle Royale matches last about 20 minutes, but players can be eliminated shortly after games begin, depending on their skill level and/or luck.) The thrill of staying alive in pressured, digital life-or-death scenarios, in addition to obtaining pop-culture-referencing skins and post-ironic dances, can release dopamine—one of the brain’s neurotransmitters. And after a match in Fortnite , the more dopamine that your brain releases and the more pleasure you feel, the greater your desire to play another round.

Fortnite ’s ability to keep gamers playing—not addicted, but certainly glued to the screen for extended periods—is well documented. In 2018, a year after the game’s official release, a 9-year-old girl in the UK was taken to rehab after deliberately wetting herself in order to keep playing—it became an international news story. A year later, in 2019, a Montreal-based legal firm sought to launch a class-action lawsuit against Epic Games; the firm argued that Epic had intentionally designed the game to be addictive. Prince Harry—as in the royal who’s sixth in line to the British throne—proclaimed, during a media event, “ That game shouldn't be allowed. ”

Despite the bad press, Fortnite , and games like it, have proven brain-related benefits. First- and third-person shooters improve spatial reasoning, decisionmaking , and, contrary to popular belief, attention . In an article published by Men’s Health , writer Yo Zushi said that “even the heart-racing pressure you feel as your mate hunts you down in Fortnite Battle Royale turns out to be good for you: ‘Positive stress’ in the context of gameplay helps to motivate you while increasing your ability to focus IRL.”

Neurological and psychological research on video games is in its infancy—it’s in its early alpha stage, if you will. That’s because video games, as we know them, are modern inventions. And when assessing the research so far, studies show that it isn’t all warnings and worries. In fact, video games can be effective tools for upgrading our brains and our cognitive skill sets—especially in the long run.

Video game research truly kicked off in the late ’90s, with Daphne Bavelier and C. Shawn Green leading the charge while at the University of Rochester. They began to explore the unconventional idea that video games could impact and perhaps even aid with neuroplasticity—a biological process where the brain changes and adapts when exposed to new experiences.

After years of research, they found that action games in particular—games where reflexes, reaction time, and hand-eye coordination are challenged, like in the now-retro classics Doom and Team Fortress Classic —provided tangible cognitive advantages that help us in everyday life. As Bavelier and Green noted in the July 2016 issue of Scientific American : “Individuals who regularly play action games demonstrate improved ability to focus on visual details, useful for reading fine print in a legal document or on a prescription bottle. They also display heightened sensitivity to visual contrast, important when driving in thick fog … The multitasking required to switch back and forth between reading a menu and holding a conversation with a dinner partner also comes more easily.”

In Bavelier’s TEDxCHUV talk “ Your Brain on Video Games ,” she makes the case that playing action games like Call of Duty in reasonable doses is positively powerful. Instead of parents perceiving their kids’ virtual zombie and designated “bad” guy shooting as brainless, it should instead be viewed as brain-boosting, she claims.

Others, too, have touted the brain-related benefits of video games. For instance, researchers at UC Irvine found that 3D games can improve the functioning of the hippocampus , which is the part of the brain that’s involved with learning and memory. Meanwhile, researchers from Queen Mary University of London and University College London found that video games can aid mental agility and enhance strategic thinking . This correlates with what James Mitchell, a UX designer and avid gamer, told me when I asked how he thought video games have impacted him: “I definitely think that my critical thinking and strategy has improved, and I find it easier to predict certain movements, especially relating to other games, and even card games. I have also learned to be more unpredictable with my movements.”

Despite video game research being a recent phenomenon, it’s proven that video games do provide out-and-out brain gains—good news for those of us partial to a video game (or two, or three, or 400). They can, however, have the potential to suck us in to a degree that isn’t healthy, which could potentially manifest as video game addiction.

So what can be done so our brains benefit from +3 agility and +3 intelligence without suffering from –5 stamina? How can a healthy relationship with video games be sustained? As C. Shawn Green—who earned a PhD in brain and cognitive studies—said to WIRED: “What healthy gameplay might look like in practice may differ greatly across individuals, and across the lifespan (e.g., in children versus adults). In other words, there really aren’t any one-size-fits-all guidelines for healthy gameplay that will work for everyone-is-a-different-size human beings.” Generally speaking, though, it’s important to be aware of how gaming may impact other areas of our lives in the short and long term, Green says. “It’s a matter of thinking through the proximal and downstream consequences,” he said.

Granted, the fact that games are specifically designed to keep us playing makes following this advice harder. But by remaining cognizant of our own (and our families’) gaming habits, making sure to log off sometimes to do other things, and by ultimately playing video games in a way that doesn’t unrestrictedly keep us on the hedonic treadmill , there’s potential to leverage gaming to be mentally more resilient, quicker, and smarter IRL.

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• Mental Health

Are There Mental Health Benefits of Video Games?

There are many misconceptions about video games and the impact they have on mental health. The truth is that video games have many benefits, including developing complex problem-solving skills and promoting social interaction through online gaming. Video games can be a great way to stimulate your mind and improve your mental health. 

Benefits of Video Games

Playing video games has numerous benefits for your mental health. Video games can help you relieve stress and get your mind going. Some benefits include: 

Mental stimulation. Video games often make you think. When you play video games, almost every part of your brain is working to help you achieve higher-level thinking. Depending on the complexity of the game, you may have to think, strategize, and analyze quickly. Playing video games works with deeper parts of your brain that improve development and critical thinking skills.

Feeling accomplished. In the game, you have goals and objectives to reach. Once you achieve them, they bring you a lot of satisfaction, which improves your overall well-being. This sense of achievement is heightened when you play games that give you trophies or badges for certain goals. Trying to get more achievements gives you something to work toward. 

Mental health recovery. Regardless of the type, playing games can help with trauma recovery. Video games can act as distractions from pain and psychological trauma. Video games can also help people who are dealing with mental disorders like anxiety, depression, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) , and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

Social interaction. Multiplayer and online games are good for virtual social interaction. In fast-paced game settings, you’ll need to learn who to trust and who to leave behind within the game. Multiplayer games encourage cooperation. It’s also a low-stakes environment for you to test out talking to and fostering relationships with new people. 

Emotional resilience. When you fail in a game or in other situations, it can be frustrating. Video games help people learn how to cope with failure and keep trying. This is an important tool for children to learn and use as they get older. 

Despite what people may think, playing video games boosts your mood and has lasting effects. Whether you’re using gaming to spend time with your friends or to release some stress, it's a great option. 

Playing for Your Well-Being

Playing video games has been linked to improved moods and mental health benefits. It might seem natural to think that violent video games like first-person shooters aren’t good for your mental health. However, all video games can be beneficial for different reasons.

Try strategic video games. Role-playing and other strategic games can help strengthen problem-solving skills. There’s little research that says violent video games are bad for your mental health. Almost any game that encourages decision-making and critical thinking is beneficial for your mental health. 

Set limits. Though video games themselves aren’t bad for your mental health, becoming addicted to them can be. Spending too much time gaming can lead to isolation. You may also not want to be around people in the real world. When you start to feel yourself using video games as an escape, you might need to slow down.

If you can’t stop playing video games on your own, you can contact a mental health professional .  

Play with friends. Make game time fun by playing with friends. There are online communities you can join for your favorite games. Moderate gaming time with friends can help with socialization, relaxation, and managing stress. 

Limits of Video Games as a Mood Booster

Video games stop being good for you when you play an excessive amount. More than 10 hours per week is considered “excessive.” In these cases, you may:

• Have anxious feelings
• Be unable to sleep
• Not want to be in social settings

Another troubling sign is using video games to escape real life. As noted above, this type of behavior can lead to video game addiction, which then leads to other negative behaviors. Too much gaming can become a problem, but in moderation, it can do great things for your mental health.

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Video Games Make You Smarter: Backed up by Research

Many people claim that video games make you smarter. However, intelligence is a broad concept, and we don’t know what effect video games have on it. Even then, lots of research has shown that video games can have a tangible impact on cognition. Let’s explore these in detail and answer the question, “Do video games make you smarter?”

Video games increase your attention span, improve decision making and problem-solving capabilities in competitive environments, and improve memory and learning. Video games improve the cognitive abilities that society values.

Take this quiz to understand your problematic relationship with video games:

Read further to learn how video games affect our cognitive capabilities.

Effect of Video Games on Attention

• A study by Green and Bavelier found that action video games enhance attentional control. According to this study, action games involve high-speed gameplay and contain objects that quickly pop in and out of the visual field. They seem to have the broadest benefits to perceptual and attentional abilities.

• Most action games require the player to keep their attention focused on specific objects or entities. These objects or entities can be presented in isolation or amongst other irrelevant distractions. As a result, action games notably boost selective attention, i.e., a person’s ability to focus on one particular stimulus.
• Gamers who play action games can track independently moving objects faster and better than non-video-game players. They demonstrate a higher degree of spatial awareness compared to their non-gamer counterparts.
• A test often used in the screening of ADD found that gamers had faster responses than those that did not play video games. Moreover, they did not sacrifice accuracy for speed. It is also important to note that the test recognized their responses as being anticipatory. That means that gamers relied on prediction rather than reaction. As a result, the study concluded that video game players are faster but not more impulsive than non-gamers.
• A study that compared 27 expert gamers with 30 amateur ones found that action games correlated with higher gray matter volume in the brain.

How Video Games Affect Memory and Learning

Memory is closely related to attention. Therefore, since games improve attention, they would have an impact on memory as well. Let’s take a look at some research.

• A study conducted by McDermott et al. compared the memory of action video game players with non-gamers. They found that action video game players excelled over non-gamers in tasks that involved retaining many memories. They also demonstrated higher precision with visual-spatial short term memory tasks.
• A study done by Ferguson, Cruz, and Rueda found that video game playing correlated positively with accuracy in visual memory. The study hypothesized that this was because video games primed the player to be sensitive to visual cues.
• According to researchers from the University of California , playing 3D video games can boost the formation of memories and improve hand-eye coordination and reaction times.
• A study conducted by Gnambs et al. found that while playing video games can result in a tiny hit to school performance, they don’t affect a child’s intelligence.
• According to some preliminary research, strategy games can increase older adults’ brain functions, and perhaps even protect against dementia and Alzheimer’s .
• A study by Lorenza et al. suggests that gaming trains the brain to be more flexible in updating and monitoring new information. Therefore, it enhances the memory capacity of gamers.

Video Games and Problem Solving

Most video games require a large amount of problem-solving. However, different games require different kinds of problem-solving.

• A l ongitudinal study conducted in 2013 found that playing strategy games correlated positively with problem-solving abilities and school grades in the following year. That means that adolescents that reported playing more strategy games tended to display better problem-solving ability.
• Scholars at Michigan State University did a study of about 500 12-year-olds. They found that the more kids played video games, the more creative they were in tasks such as drawing pictures and writing stories. However, the use of the internet, cellphones, and computers (aside from playing video games) was unrelated to creativity. Moreover, the increase in creativity was not related to whether the game was violent or non-violent.
• A University of Glasgow trial found that gaming improved communication skills, resourcefulness, and flexibility as video games increase critical thinking and reflective learning ability. These traits are central to graduates and are desirable to employers seeking to hire people out of university.

Video Games and Spatial Intelligence

Most video games, especially 3D ones, require gamers to develop excellent spatial skills to navigate complex environments. Let’s look at some studies that have looked at the relationship between video games and spatial intelligence.

• A 2007 study by Green and Bavalier found that video games significantly increased an inexperienced gamer’s ability to rotate complex shapes in their mind. It also found that subjects trained in action video games showed an increase in their ability to identify a single object, among other distracting ones.
• Another study confirmed that video game players showed a faster response time for easy and difficult visual search tasks than non-gamers.
• Avid action-video-game players were able to identify a peripheral target among many distracting objects more accurately than non-action-video-game players. The researchers showed them a sequence of objects, each of which they presented very briefly. They found that gamers were able to process this visual stream more efficiently than non-gamers. They were also able to track more objects than non-video-game-players.
• An fMRI study by Granek et al. found that extensive gaming alters the network in our brain that processes complex visual tasks. It makes the circuitry more efficient.

How Video Games Impact Decision Making

Video games, especially action games, require quick, on-the-fly decision-making capabilities. Avid gamers can make decisions under pressure. Here are some findings from relevant research.

• A study split participants aged 18 to 25 into two groups. One group played 50 hours of Call of Duty 2 and Unreal Tournament , and the other group played 50 hours of Sims 2 . The action game players made decisions 25% faster in a task unrelated to playing video games without sacrificing accuracy.
• One study explored ways to improve traditional training methods that aim to reduce people’s bias and improve their decision-making capabilities. They found that interactive video games improved general decision-making abilities both in the short term and long term. Susceptibility to bias was reduced by 31% in immediate tests, and after three months, the reduction will still more than 23%

Video Games and IQ

What is iq how much does it matter.

IQ is short for intelligence quotient. Researchers developed it to measure how well someone can use information and reasoning to answer questions or make predictions. IQ tests measure short-term and long-term memory and how quickly one can solve puzzles and recall information. It helps researchers check whether they are testing for the same “kind” of intelligence. However, it does not encapsulate the complexity of the mind. Other factors, such as social and economic status, influence IQ. Emotional Intelligence (EQ) is also a significant contributor to success.

IQ is a predictor of many things, but it does not define intelligence. It is generally a good predictor of a person’s success in life since the more intelligent a person is, the more likely they are to solve problems, learn new things, and get ahead in life. However, it can only predict how well people will do in particular situations, such as science, engineering, and art. Success in life requires more than just intelligence — it depends on persistence, ambition, opportunity, and luck.

Do Video Games Increase IQ?

Games select and filter for higher fluid IQs because games adequately, intellectually challenge us as kids when school was not enough. There are studies that children crave challenge and mastery, which games provide for them, and that creates a feedback loop.

What Does the Research Say?

A study conducted at the University of York found a correlation between young people’s skill at two popular video games (Dota 2 and League of Legends) and high intelligence levels.

The study set up two groups: the first group demonstrated their skill at League of Legends and then took a standard pen-and-paper intelligence test. They split the second group into Dota 2 players and gamers who played shooting games (Destiny and Battlefield 3).

The first group found that MOBA players tended to have higher IQs – a correlation seen in more traditional strategy games such as chess. In the second group, the researchers found that while MOBA players’ performance and IQ remained consistent as they got older, while the shooter game players’ performance declined after their teens.

While games can be good at indicators of a person’s IQ, that does not necessarily mean that they boost IQ.

Does Higher IQ Correlate with Risk of Addiction?

Smarter people are more likely to get addicted to video games because they may not be adequately challenged in school or at work, and video games fulfill this need for them. To recognize and overcome gaming addiction, you need to acknowledge who you are as a gamer. Gamers are, in fact, smarter than the average person. While we value intelligence in society, being smart is not enough to be successful.

Gamers use their high IQ to justify their lack of success, and it becomes an ego boost. Therefore, high intelligence becomes a justification for not needing to work hard and aim for success in life. That is how intelligence leads to avoidance.

Check out this video in which Dr. K talks about how intelligence leads to avoidance:

Issues with Video Game Studies

Some factors that influence video game training studies might bring the accuracy of these studies into question. A paper by Boot et al. discussed game training studies that tell the participants about the nature of the study. That can easily lead to bias, as the participants know whether they are in the experimental group or the control group.

For example, let’s assume that a study that aims to test the impact of action games on decision-making recruits gamers and non-gamers. It discloses the nature and aim of the study to the participants. It also tells them whether they will be in the experimental group or the control group.

The experimental group trains on an action game while the control group trains on a strategy game. After training, the researchers administer a test to both groups. It aims to measure the speed and accuracy of their decision-making. Since both groups know the aim of the study, the experimental group believes that they will do well on the test. Therefore, it creates a self-fulfilling prophecy, and they try their hardest. Meanwhile, the control group does not put in as much effort because they think that they are expected to match up to the experimental group. As a result, they don’t try hard and don’t perform too well.

Such an experiment does not control well for placebo. Unfortunately, many video game training studies are structured this way.

Intelligence is complicated and not understood very well. Therefore, it is hard to measure if video games make you smarter. However, we can measure aspects of our cognition and how video games affect it. It is also unclear to what degree video games boost our cognition. That is because they select for people whose attentional, memory, learning, problem-solving, and decision-making abilities are already above average. Despite all that, it is safe to say that gamers tend to rank higher for these cognitive abilities than the rest of the population.

If you feel that your gaming habit is affecting your life, we can help. Sign up to work with a HealthyGamer Coach, trained by Dr. Alok Kanojia himself. HealthyGamer Coaches are gamers who have taken control of their life, and know exactly what you’re going through.

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News Release

Monday, October 24, 2022

Video gaming may be associated with better cognitive performance in children

Additional research necessary to parse potential benefits and harms of video games on the developing brain.

On Monday, April 10, 2023, a Notice of Retraction and Replacement published for the article featured below . The key findings remain the same. The press release has been updated, in line with the retracted and replacement article, to clarify that attention problems, depression symptoms, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) scores were significantly higher among children who played three hours per day or more compared to children who had never played video games.

A study of nearly 2,000 children found that those who reported playing video games for three hours per day or more performed better on cognitive skills tests involving impulse control and working memory compared to children who had never played video games. Published today in JAMA Network Open , this study analyzed data from the ongoing  Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study , which is supported by the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) and other entities of the National Institutes of Health.

“This study adds to our growing understanding of the associations between playing video games and brain development,” said NIDA Director Nora Volkow, M.D. “Numerous studies have linked video gaming to behavior and mental health problems. This study suggests that there may also be cognitive benefits associated with this popular pastime, which are worthy of further investigation.”

Although a number of studies have investigated the relationship between video gaming and cognitive behavior, the neurobiological mechanisms underlying the associations are not well understood. Only a handful of neuroimaging studies have addressed this topic, and the sample sizes for those studies have been small, with fewer than 80 participants.

To address this research gap, scientists at the University of Vermont, Burlington, analyzed data obtained when children entered the ABCD Study at ages 9 and 10 years old. The research team examined survey, cognitive, and brain imaging data from nearly 2,000 participants from within the bigger study cohort. They separated these children into two groups, those who reported playing no video games at all and those who reported playing video games for three hours per day or more. This threshold was selected as it exceeds the American Academy of Pediatrics screen time guidelines , which recommend that videogaming time be limited to one to two hours per day for older children. For each group, the investigators evaluated the children’s performance on two tasks that reflected their ability to control impulsive behavior and to memorize information, as well as the children’s brain activity while performing the tasks.

The researchers found that the children who reported playing video games for three or more hours per day were faster and more accurate on both cognitive tasks than those who never played. They also observed that the differences in cognitive function observed between the two groups was accompanied by differences in brain activity. Functional MRI brain imaging analyses found that children who played video games for three or more hours per day showed higher brain activity in regions of the brain associated with attention and memory than did those who never played. At the same time, those children who played at least three hours of videogames per day showed more brain activity in frontal brain regions that are associated with more cognitively demanding tasks and less brain activity in brain regions related to vision.  

The researchers think these patterns may stem from practicing tasks related to impulse control and memory while playing videogames, which can be cognitively demanding, and that these changes may lead to improved performance on related tasks. Furthermore, the comparatively low activity in visual areas among children who reported playing video games may reflect that this area of the brain may become more efficient at visual processing as a result of repeated practice through video games.

While prior studies have reported associations between video gaming and increases in violence and aggressive behavior, this study did not find that to be the case. Though children who reported playing video games for three or more hours per day scored higher on measures of attention problems, depression symptoms, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) compared to children who played no video games, the researchers found that these mental health and behavioral scores did not reach clinical significance in either group, meaning, they did not meet the thresholds for risk of problem behaviors or clinical symptoms. The authors note that these will be important measures to continue to track and understand as the children mature.

Further, the researchers stress that this cross-sectional study does not allow for cause-and-effect analyses, and that it could be that children who are good at these types of cognitive tasks may choose to play video games. The authors also emphasize that their findings do not mean that children should spend unlimited time on their computers, mobile phones, or TVs, and that the outcomes likely depend largely on the specific activities children engage in. For instance, they hypothesize that the specific genre of video games, such as action-adventure, puzzle solving, sports, or shooting games, may have different effects for neurocognitive development, and this level of specificity on the type of video game played was not assessed by the study.

“While we cannot say whether playing video games regularly caused superior neurocognitive performance, it is an encouraging finding, and one that we must continue to investigate in these children as they transition into adolescence and young adulthood,” said Bader Chaarani, Ph.D., assistant professor of psychiatry at the University of Vermont and the lead author on the study. “Many parents today are concerned about the effects of video games on their children’s health and development, and as these games continue to proliferate among young people, it is crucial that we better understand both the positive and negative impact that such games may have.”

Through the ABCD Study, researchers will be able to conduct similar analyses for the same children over time into early adulthood, to see if changes in video gaming behavior are linked to changes in cognitive skills, brain activity, behavior, and mental health. The longitudinal study design and comprehensive data set will also enable them to better account for various other factors in the children’s families and environment that may influence their cognitive and behavioral development, such as exercise, sleep quality, and other influences.

The ABCD Study, the largest of its kind in the United States, is tracking nearly 12,000 youth as they grow into young adults. Investigators regularly measure participants’ brain structure and activity using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and collect psychological, environmental, and cognitive information, as well as biological samples. The goal of the study is to understand the factors that influence brain, cognitive, and social-emotional development, to inform the development of interventions to enhance a young person’s life trajectory.

The Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study and ABCD Study are registered service marks and trademarks, respectively, of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

About the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA): NIDA is a component of the National Institutes of Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. NIDA supports most of the world’s research on the health aspects of drug use and addiction. The Institute carries out a large variety of programs to inform policy, improve practice, and advance addiction science. For more information about NIDA and its programs, visit www.nida.nih.gov .

About the National Institutes of Health (NIH): NIH, the nation's medical research agency, includes 27 Institutes and Centers and is a component of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. NIH is the primary federal agency conducting and supporting basic, clinical, and translational medical research, and is investigating the causes, treatments, and cures for both common and rare diseases. For more information about NIH and its programs, visit www.nih.gov .

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  B Chaarani, et al.  Association of video gaming with cognitive performance among children .  JAMA Open Network.  DOI: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.35721 (2022).

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Video Games Play May Provide Learning, Health, Social Benefits, Review Finds

• Learning and Memory

Authors suggest balancing questions of harm with potential for positive impact

• The Benefits of Playing Video Games (PDF, 202KB)

WASHINGTON — Playing video games, including violent shooter games, may boost children’s learning, health and social skills, according to a review of research on the positive effects of video game play to be published by the American Psychological Association.

The study comes out as debate continues among psychologists and other health professionals regarding the effects of violent media on youth. An APA task force is conducting a comprehensive review of research on violence in video games and interactive media and will release its findings in 2014.  

“Important research has already been conducted for decades on the negative effects of gaming, including addiction, depression and aggression, and we are certainly not suggesting that this should be ignored,” said lead author Isabela Granic, PhD, of Radboud University Nijmegen in The Netherlands. “However, to understand the impact of video games on children’s and adolescents’ development, a more balanced perspective is needed.” 

The article will be published in APA’s flagship journal, American Psychologist .  

While one widely held view maintains playing video games is intellectually lazy, such play actually may strengthen a range of cognitive skills such as spatial navigation, reasoning, memory and perception, according to several studies reviewed in the article. This is particularly true for shooter video games that are often violent, the authors said. A 2013 meta-analysis found that playing shooter video games improved a player’s capacity to think about objects in three dimensions, just as well as academic courses to enhance these same skills, according to the study. “This has critical implications for education and career development, as previous research has established the power of spatial skills for achievement in science, technology, engineering and mathematics,” Granic said. This enhanced thinking was not found with playing other types of video games, such as puzzles or role-playing games.

Playing video games may also help children develop problem-solving skills, the authors said. The more adolescents reported playing strategic video games, such as role-playing games, the more they improved in problem solving and school grades the following year, according to a long-term study published in 2013. Children’s creativity was also enhanced by playing any kind of video game, including violent games, but not when the children used other forms of technology, such as a computer or cell phone, other research revealed.

Simple games that are easy to access and can be played quickly, such as “Angry Birds,” can improve players’ moods, promote relaxation and ward off anxiety, the study said. “If playing video games simply makes people happier, this seems to be a fundamental emotional benefit to consider,” said Granic. The authors also highlighted the possibility that video games are effective tools to learn resilience in the face of failure. By learning to cope with ongoing failures in games, the authors suggest that children build emotional resilience they can rely upon in their everyday lives.

Another stereotype the research challenges is the socially isolated gamer. More than 70 percent of gamers play with a friend and millions of people worldwide participate in massive virtual worlds through video games such as “Farmville” and “World of Warcraft,” the article noted. Multiplayer games become virtual social communities, where decisions need to be made quickly about whom to trust or reject and how to lead a group, the authors said. People who play video games, even if they are violent, that encourage cooperation are more likely to be helpful to others while gaming than those who play the same games competitively, a 2011 study found.

The article emphasized that educators are currently redesigning classroom experiences, integrating video games that can shift the way the next generation of teachers and students approach learning. Likewise, physicians have begun to use video games to motivate patients to improve their health, the authors said. In the video game “Re-Mission,” child cancer patients can control a tiny robot that shoots cancer cells, overcomes bacterial infections and manages nausea and other barriers to adhering to treatments. A 2008 international study in 34 medical centers found significantly greater adherence to treatment and cancer-related knowledge among children who played “Re-Mission” compared to children who played a different computer game. 

“It is this same kind of transformation, based on the foundational principle of play, that we suggest has the potential to transform the field of mental health,” Granic said. “This is especially true because engaging children and youth is one of the most challenging tasks clinicians face.”

The authors recommended that teams of psychologists, clinicians and game designers work together to develop approaches to mental health care that integrate video game playing with traditional therapy. 

Article: “The Benefits of Playing Video Games,” Isabela Granic, PhD, Adam Lobel, PhD, and Rutger C.M.E. Engels, PhD, Radboud University Nijmegen; Nijmegen, The Netherlands; American Psychologist , Vol. 69, No. 1. 

Isabela Granic can be contacted by email , cell: 011.31.6.19.50.00.99 or work: 011.31.24.361.2142

The American Psychological Association, in Washington, D.C., is the largest scientific and professional organization representing psychology in the United States. APA's membership includes more than 134,000 researchers, educators, clinicians, consultants and students. Through its divisions in 54 subfields of psychology and affiliations with 60 state, territorial and Canadian provincial associations, APA works to advance the creation, communication and application of psychological knowledge to benefit society and improve people's lives.

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Arts on the Brain

Emory undergrads experience & explore!

Video games on the Brain

Technology has expanded the canvas upon an artist’s ability to express their stories. Videogames prove to be an art form that can solely exist in the digital space and demonstrates a collision of art and science. Our brain interprets these artists’ creations in many ways, both presenting itself as beneficial, yet also damaging to the brain. Video games have both positive and negative effects on the brain, as they can be used for education purposes or can have more drastic consequences. 

When overviewing the positive effects of videogames on the brain there are some main areas of the brain to focus upon: premotor and parietal cortex, prefrontal cortex, dopamine and grey matter. Cognitively, all video games are proven to improve one’s problem solving ability as well as reasoning capabilities. 

Different types of video games develop different skills as well as activate different parts of the brain. More broadly speaking, games that require team efforts help develop collaboration abilities. Other action focused video games have the ability to increase brain activity in the premotor and parietal cortex, where motor skills, quick thinking, and control of sensory movements are required. These same video games have the ability to physically improve one’s peripheral vision as well as hand-eye coordination. Examples of these types of games include Space Invaders and Halo. Games that require more logical thinking, such as Tetris, display an increased use of the prefrontal cortex, where decision-making is controlled. Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that is released when learning and activates sensations of reward. In the context of playing video games, dopamine is released in the brain’s striatum, invoking senses of pleasure and addiction. 

For the sake of this post, I’ll be emphasising my focus on experiments regarding grey matter. Grey matter helps process information in the brain, by more specifically processing signals that are generated by other sensory organs in the body or other areas which contain grey matter. This grey matter serves to move motor sensory stimuli to nerve cells in the nervous system. There, synapses produce a response to the certain stimuli. Hippocampal grey matter, more specifically, is crucial for the maintenance of healthy cognition. One experiment demonstrated how playing video games has the potential to increase hippocampal grey matter in young adolescents. This experiment tested the influence of the video game Super Mario Kart on the grey matter in the hippocampal and cerebral region of adolescents. 

Figure 1: Demonstrates the increase of grey matter in the hippocampal region.

As seen in the brain scan it is apparent that there is a great increase of grey matter in the brain of the adults immediately after playing the video game. 

Though there are positive effects apparent when playing video games, some of the negative impacts outweigh those of the positive. More broadly speaking, some of the negative effects that videogames can have on the brain is that of the “video game brain.” This effect occurs when one has dedicated so much time to video games that the underside of the frontal lobe begins to shrink, leasing to other symptoms such as mood alterations. With more frequency of playing video games, a visible decrease in activity in the prefrontal lobe is apparent. This is known to lead to symptoms such as increased moodiness, anxiety, and aggressiveness, which may occur even after the conclusion of the game itself.

For the sake of this post, I will be focusing the spectrum of my research to the cingulate cortices. Studies have demonstrated that even one week of violent video gaming can lead to a decreased activation of the rostral anterior cingulate cortex and amygdala, during both numerical and emotional tasks. Both of which areas are utilized in solving and controlling emotional confliction. This frequent play of violent aggressive video games lead to symptoms such as players being relatively more anxious, spike in increases of violent-related and aggressive behaviors for the short and long term period. In the study, it was noted that when players shot and fired a weapon in violent video game play, there was a suppression of emotional response in these areas to cope with their actions afterwards. This is seen in the posterior cingulate cortex, which serves for motor control, cognition, and planning activated by emotions, or in this case weapon usage. Some video games that can demonstrate these effects on humans are Fornite and Call of Duty.

“Choosing to attack is associated with greater activity in the posterior anterior cingulate cortex, while choosing to defend was associated with activity in the rostral anterior cingulate cortex .” As demonstrated in the figure above, specific brain regions are active when choosing an attack or defend strategy. 

One of my favorite video games to play at the moment is Among Us. Among Us is a Social Deduction Game where one imposter tries to kill all the crewmates on board without exposing their identity. If seen killing, crewmates can report the killer and vote out the imposter. The crewmates are responsible for finishing as many simple tasks as they possibly can. Some of the brain functions involved in the game vary depending on the position you are assigned at the beginning of the game: crewmate or imposter. 

When playing the game Among Us strategies of how to operate are required, utilizing the frontal lobe to map out one’s judgement and impulse control. Controlling sensory movements in this action-filled game is crucial. Secondly, there is violence present in this game. So those in the positions of imposters will experience different activities in their brain than those who are crewmates. After the killing of a crewmate, the person playing the imposter will experience a suppression of emotional response after their killing, more specifically suppressed in the rostral angular cortex and the amygdala. Whereas the crewmate on the opposite hand, will feel emotions of reward and pleasure upon completion of their tasks and calling out those who may seem suspicious during the play of the game. This releases dopamine through the brian’s striatum. All in all, videogames all impact the players brain in different ways, having both positive and negative effects upon one’s cognition.

Works Cited:

Itgsnewsauthor. How Gaming Affects the Brain . 4 July 2015, 

www.itgsnews.com/how-gaming-affects-brain/. 

Izaak. (2020, September 22). How to play Among Us: Beginner’s guide, tutorial, and 

frequently asked questions. Retrieved November 01, 2020, from 

https://www.sportskeeda.com/esports/how-play-among-us-beginner-s-guide-tutorial-fr

equently-asked-questions

Melissinos, Chris. Video Games Are One of the Most Important Art Forms in History . 22 Sept. 

2015, time.com/collection-post/4038820/chris-melissinos-are-video-games-art/. 

Palaus, Marc, et al. Neural Basis of Video Gaming: A Systematic Review . 22 May 2017, 

www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5438999/. 

Robertson, Sally. What Is Grey Matter? 23 Aug. 2018, 

www.news-medical.net/health/What-is-Grey-Matter.aspx. 

Staff, Science X. Brain: A ‘Cingular’ Strategy for Attack and Defense . 20 Apr. 2015, 

medicalxpress.com/news/2015-04-brain-cingular-strategy-defense.html. 

West, Greg L., et al. Playing Super Mario 64 Increases Hippocampal Grey Matter in Older 

Adults . journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0187779. 

6 Comments Add yours

I really enjoyed your post! Although I don’t play video games that often, I definitely liked learning about how and why they activate different parts of the brain. I knew that playing lots of video games can be unhealthy for our minds and physical bodies, however, I didn’t realize that they could entirely shrink our frontal lobes in severe situations. I also enjoyed reading about the Among Us portion in your post as I might have had a slight obsession with it last month. I never even realized all the intricate connections between doing small tasks in an online game and how they affect different parts of my brain. Great read!

Hi Lyla, I love your post so much! It was well written and also intriguing. The strucure of this post was so clear that I could see an introduction, a positive effect part, a negative effect part, and a conclusion. When trying to explain some professional and biological stuffs, you perfectly used great and clear pictures to illustrate the explanation. Just as what Rishika said, I knew that it was definitely unhealthy for one who plays lots of video games, I failed to realize that video games could cause such severe situation such as shrinking the frontal lobes. Thanks you so much for bringing such good work to me!

Wow! Though I have heard of many of the positive effects of playing video games that you touched on like increased problem-solving skills and increased ability to work in teams, I had not heard much about the possible negative effects of gaming. In my experience, many negative claims I have heard about video games are brushed to the side and seen as a misunderstanding from an older, less informed generation. It was interesting to see activation in the posterior cingulate cortex as shown in figure 2, highlighting how the attack portion is activated during in-game attacks. Still, it was very cool to see both positive and negative effects explored in this post!

Hi Lyla, this is such an interesting post about arts and brain! I am also a player of both Mario and Among Us, and I really agree with your argument about the effect of the video game. Before reading your post, I haven’t realized how my brain would be affected by those video games and simply thought games could increase my brain activity. Now I get to know the specific areas like grey matter and frontal lobe will be impacted by the stimulus from games. It reminds me the reason why teenagers should not play too many video games. Proper time management on playing games can reduce the shrink on our frontal lobe, thus help maintain a normal function of controlling emotions and decision making. Thank you for posting it!

I really enjoyed this post and found it super relevant considering how much time people spend playing video games today. It was really interesting to hear about the different kinds of effects, both positive and negative, that video games can have on our brains. It seems to be important to find a balance so that one does not spend too much playing them. It may even be beneficial for someone to mix up what type of games they are playing so that the negative effects are less harmful. Overall, this was super interesting to read!

I really enjoyed reading this post and found it super relevant considering how much time people spend playing video games today. It was really interesting to hear about the different kinds of effects, both positive and negative, that video games can have on our brains. It seems to be important to find a balance so that one does not spend too much playing them. It may even be beneficial for someone to mix up what type of games they are playing so that the negative effects are less harmful. Overall, this was super interesting to read!

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Can playing video games improve cognition and adaptability?

A recent study by ADL with Sheppard Air Force Base has shown that a video game having specific design features (i.e., implicit rules, implicit rule changes, dynamic shifting environments, open endedness, and implicit feedback) can enhance specific cognitive capabilities after playing for 12 consecutive hours as compared to games without those features. This was determined by having airmen play either Portal 2™ (a game that has the design features) or Windows 7 Microsoft™ games (Solitaire, Minesweeper, Mahjong, and Hearts, all games lacking the five design features) bookended by pre- and post-play cognitive testing. Those playing Portal 2™ scored significantly higher on focused attention – in both signal detection (correctly recognizing and interpreting the information) and response latency (the amount of time taken to respond to the information). Scoring higher on these tests means that one can more easily and quickly detect what’s important from what isn’t important when solving problems.

Another very interesting finding was that playing video games for 19 hours a week or more may significantly increase cognitive capabilities in the areas of spatial working memory, spatial sequencing, and cognitive planning. This was discovered by grouping test results by those who identified themselves as playing 19 hours of video games per week (high gamers) or those playing less than that (low gamers). The differences on the cognitive tests were all significant (p=.001, p=.003, p=.001) with increased scores in high gamers. In other words, this means that playing video games seems to enhance spatial abilities such as remembering and tracking objects in space – i.e., creating a cognitive map – as well as the processes involved in the formulation, evaluation, and selection of a sequence of thoughts and actions to achieve a desired goal.

Why do we care? Spatial abilities are important in navigating from one place to another in the virtual or the real world – driving in traffic, getting to the office, going home; or if you’re a lab rat, learning the location of food at the end of a maze. However, they are also frequently noted as important to language acquisition and mathematical comprehension, and are important components of higher order thinking skills such as problem solving and critical thinking (Osberg, 1997). Cognitive planning makes use of these abilities as an individual thinks through the steps and sequence of steps to solve problems. This is a critical skill to reason out problem solutions and evaluate results, and supports cognitive adaptability as one mentally “tries out” various solutions to a novel problem before acting. An increase in spatial abilities and cognitive planning in combination with an increase in quality and quickness of signal detection, suggests that frequency of video game playing generally, as well as specifically playing games with the above mentioned features, can increase cognitive capabilities in the players and specifically those capabilities important to being cognitively adaptable.

Osberg, K. (1997). Spatial cognition in the Virtual Environment. Seattle: University of Washington.

Intelligence

Can popular video games improve intelligence and iq, 3 tips to boost intelligence and executive functions with video games..

Posted May 24, 2022 | Reviewed by Michelle Quirk

• A recent study in "Scientific Reports" indicates that playing more video games was associated with gains in intelligence.
• Time spent on social media and passive screen time were not associated with any gains in intelligence.
• Practical, real world gains from video games require a more deliberate, intentional use of gaming that uses strategies to promote generalization.

Does your child spend hours playing Minecraft, Roblox, or Fortnite? Is it a complete waste of time? Probably not, according to a recent study published in Scientific Reports . The authors of this important new research conclude that children who played more video games at the age of 10 showed the greatest gains in intelligence and other cognitive skills at the age of 12. This study measured intelligence by assessing reading comprehension, vocabulary, executive functioning , attention , visual-spatial processing, and the capacity to learn over repeated trials. Essentially, kids who played more video games improved their intelligence and IQ scores. Interestingly, watching videos and involvement with social media did not have any positive impact on intelligence in this study. The study essentially stated that video games can make you smarter.

This study should be viewed with the understanding that kids are spending a lot of time playing video games and on their screens. Teens are spending nearly nine hours per day using video games, apps, social media, and other technologies. While some of this time is for school or research, most kids are spending almost four hours per day engaged in recreational screen use. Some of this is time is spent passively watching YouTube videos or bingeing on Netflix. These activities, according to the Scientific Reports study, may actually be related to lower levels of intelligence and cognitive functioning. Most of the remainder of recreational screen time is not shoot 'em up gameplay. Instead, most gaming is cognitively challenging using skills such as planning, organization, flexibility, and self-control , and the reason that your kids may learn from popular video gameplay.

From my perspective as a psychologist, the unleveraged brainpower required to beat video games could serve another purpose. After all, the best games—the ones kids want to play—are not easy and require problem-solving, critical thinking, and executive functioning skills. You need to use your brain! Because the popular games are fun, players are motivated to challenge themselves to reach new and higher levels and to use a variety of neurocognitive skills to get there. Cognitive skills such as multiple object tracking and resistance to visual interference are used in response to game demands and are among the many cognitive skills that may improve with gameplay. Evidence that gameplay improves cognitive functioning derives primarily from studies of action-based games where these skills are challenged. These cognitive changes essentially result from the engaging and repetitive exercise of specific brain-based skills.

Using Metacognition

However, there is a more powerful way to translate game time into improved cognitive skills. It’s a bit more work and requires the deliberate intention to learn from gameplay. This approach requires the use of metacognition , or "thinking about thinking." Metacognition is widely accepted as the single most important component of applied learning. Video game players who think about their gameplay, deliberately consider their game actions, and respond to game feedback are using skills that they can apply in the real world. This approach may be better suited for strategy, puzzle, sandbox, simulation, and role-playing games (RPGs) since these games directly demand the use of critical thinking and problem-solving.

3 Tips to Boost Intelligence and Executive Functions With Video Games

Video games provide a powerful opportunity for learning because of the level of children's attention, persistence, and resistance to frustration. The addition of these three additional steps is crucial to making game-based learning into real-world skills. These steps sound simple, but they require that gamers either intentionally take these actions or are guided in how to do so. They are based upon well-regarded, evidence-based research on teaching children with learning differences.

These three simple steps (detect, reflect, and connect) make intuitive sense to students, can also be applied to non–screen-based learning, and are easy to remember. If you want to learn something, you have to pay attention or identify (detect) what you are trying to learn, recognize and think about (reflect) how it is helpful, and then learn to use or apply (connect) this knowledge to many situations.

At its core, detect, reflect, and connect are the basis for the transfer or generalization of learning. Children learn real-world skills by being able to identify the skills they are using and then practice and use these skills in another setting. These types of skills are not robotic, automatic, or a simple response to a stimulus but are the skills necessary for children growing up in the 21st century.

The "detect" component is about identifying the skill. Some students readily see when they are using a specific soft skill and how it helps them. For example, children who organize their backpacks before starting homework recognize that this will help them find and complete all their work. Many others would need instruction in order to identify skills that may have helped them in the past. Before they can know how to use a skill in a new area, they need to be able to identify, or “detect,” when they used it successfully in the past.

The "reflect" step helps with evaluating decision-making and actions. This is a cognitive process that requires youngsters to assess how a skill has helped them in previous settings and how it might help them in other situations. Reflection helps with looking at the components of the skill, determining when it was applied, and making the connection with how those skills were effective in solving a particular problem. The action of the "reflect" step also involves the capacity to be flexible and learn from mistakes. Individuals who “reflect” use a metacognitive or “thinking about one's thinking” approach. Metacognition has been identified across dozens of studies as one of the most significant tools for learning, performing well on tests, and retaining knowledge.

The "connect" step facilitates the use of the acquired skill in a variety of situations. One of the biggest shortcomings of many learning opportunities is the inability of learners to take what they have learned in one situation and apply it to another. This application requires practice. The "connect" step helps people to take something they learned in one situation and use it effectively in another. Parents and educators often forget that the "connect" step is most effective when they guide kids in applying it in new settings.

Berard, A. V., Cain, M. S., Watanabe, T., & Sasaki, Y. (2015, March 25). Frequent video game players resist Perceptual Interference. PLOS ONE. Retrieved May 23, 2022, from https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.012…

Merrill, M. D. (2019, August 14). First principles of instruction. Retrieved May 23, 2022, from https://mdavidmerrill.wordpress.com/publications/first-principles-of-in…

Sauce, B., Liebherr, M., Judd, N., & Klingberg, T. (2022). The impact of digital media on Children’s intelligence while controlling for genetic differences in cognition and socioeconomic background. Sci Rep, 12. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/jtwk7

Veenman, M. V., Van Hout-Wolters, B. H., & Afflerbach, P. (2006). Metacognition and learning: Conceptual and methodological considerations. Metacognition and Learning, 1(1), 3–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-006-6893-0

Randy Kulman, Ph.D. , is a child clinical psychologist, parent of 5, and founder of LearningWorks for Kids. He is the author of Train Your Brain for Success and Playing Smarter in a Digital World .

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Video games help brain to improve strategic thinking

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Certain types of video games can help to train the brain to become more agile and improve strategic thinking, according to scientists from Queen Mary University of London and University College London (UCL).

The researchers recruited 72 volunteers and measured their 'cognitive flexibility' described as a person's ability to adapt and switch between tasks, and think about multiple ideas at a given time to solve problems.

Two groups of volunteers were trained to play different versions of a real-time strategy game called StarCraft, a fast-paced game where players have to construct and organise armies to battle an enemy. A third of the group played a life simulation video game called The Sims, which does not require much memory or many tactics.

All the volunteers played the video games for 40 hours over six to eight weeks, and were subjected to a variety of psychological tests before and after. All the participants happened to be female as the study was unable to recruit a sufficient number of male volunteers who played video games for less than two hours a week.

The researchers discovered that those who played StarCraft were quicker and more accurate in performing cognitive flexibility tasks, than those who played The Sims.

Dr Brian Glass from Queen Mary's School of Biological and Chemical Sciences, said: "Previous research has demonstrated that action video games, such as Halo, can speed up decision making but the current work finds that real-time strategy games can promote our ability to think on the fly and learn from past mistakes."

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"Our paper shows that cognitive flexibility, a cornerstone of human intelligence, is not a static trait but can be trained and improved using fun learning tools like gaming."

Professor Brad Love from UCL, said: "Cognitive flexibility varies across people and at different ages. For example, a fictional character like Sherlock Holmes has the ability to simultaneously engage in multiple aspects of thought and mentally shift in response to changing goals and environmental conditions."

"Creative problem solving and 'thinking outside the box' require cognitive flexibility. Perhaps in contrast to the repetitive nature of work in past centuries, the modern knowledge economy places a premium on cognitive flexibility."

Dr Glass added: "The volunteers who played the most complex version of the video game performed the best in the post-game psychological tests. We need to understand now what exactly about these games is leading to these changes, and whether these cognitive boosts are permanent or if they dwindle over time. Once we have that understanding, it could become possible to develop clinical interventions for symptoms related to attention deficit hyperactivity disorder or traumatic brain injuries, for example."

Queen Mary, University of London

Posted in: Medical Science News | Medical Research News

Tags: Brain , Hyperactivity , Research

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Can Video Gameplay Improve Undergraduates’ Problem-Solving Skills?

Benjamin emihovich.

University of Michigan - Flint, Flint, USA

Nelson Roque

Pennsylvania State University, State College, USA

Justin Mason

University of Florida, Gainesville, USA

In this study, the authors investigated if two distinct types of video gameplay improved undergraduates’ problem-solving skills. Two groups of student participants were recruited to play either a roleplaying video game (World of Warcraft; experimental group) or a brain-training video game (CogniFit; control group). Participants were measured on their problem-solving skills before and after 20 hours of video gameplay. Two measures were used to assess problem-solving skills for this study, the Tower of Hanoi and The PISA Problem Solving Test. The Tower of Hanoi measured the rule application component of problem-solving skills and the PISA Problem Solving test measured transfer of problem-solving skills from video gameplay to novel scenarios on the test. No significant differences were found between the two groups on either problem-solving measure. Implications for future studies on game- based learning are discussed.

Introduction

Video games are played by more than half of the U.S population and the video game industry generated $36 billion in 2018 ( ESA, 2018 ). Given the popularity and success of the video game industry, game- based scholars are exploring how well-designed video games can be used to improve a wide range of knowledge, skills, and abilities referred to as game-based learning (GBL). Proponents of GBL argue that well-designed video games are grounded by active participation and interaction as the focal point of the learner experience and can lead to changes in behavior and cognition ( Ifenthaler, Eseryel, & Ge, 2012 ; Shute et al., 2019 ). Moreover, well-designed video games immerse players in environments that can provide a framework for learning experiences by promoting engagement and transfer from simulated worlds to the natural world ( Dede, 2009 ).

Current American students are not receiving adequate exposure to authentic ill-structured problem-solving scenarios in their classrooms, and schools need to address the acquisition of problem-solving skills for students in the 21st century ( Shute & Wang, 2016 ). American students trail their international counterparts in problem-solving skills on the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) Problem Solving Test. Furthermore, American business leaders complain about recent college graduates’ lack of problem-solving skills. Two surveys conducted by the Association of American Colleges and Universities of business leaders and students indicated that problem-solving skills are increasingly desirable for American employers, but only 38% of employers reported that recently hired American college graduates could analyze and solve complex problems while working ( Hart Associates, 2018 ).

Researchers of video game studies find that gameplay can be positively associated with the improvement of problem-solving skills ( Shute, Ventura, & Ke, 2015 ; Spires et al., 2011 ). However, current discourse in the field of gameplay and problem-solving skills centers primarily on descriptive research ( Eseryel et al., 2014 ) which can be summarized based on the following premise: video games require players to solve problems, and over time, playing video games will lead to improved problem- solving skills ( Hung & Van Eck, 2010 ). Descriptive research is important to argue that video games support problem-solving skills, but further empirical research is needed to demonstrate whether problem-solving skills are acquired through video gameplay. This research study addressed whether two distinct types of video gameplay empirically affects undergraduates’ problem-solving skills.

Video Games and Problem-Solving Skills

According to Mayer and Wittrock’s (2006) definition, problem solving includes four central characteristics: (1) occurs internally to the problem solver’s cognitive system; (2) is a process that involves conceptualizing and manipulating knowledge; (3) is goal directed; and (4) is dependent on the knowledge and skills of the problem solver to establish the difficulty in which obstacles must be overcome to reach a solution. Unlike the well-structured problems that students face in formal learning settings, well-designed games provide students with challenging scenarios that promote problem-solving skills by requiring players to generate new knowledge from challenging scenarios within interactive environments, while also providing immersive gameplay that includes ongoing feedback for the players to hone their problem-solving skills over time ( Van Eck, Shute, & Rieber, 2017 ). Rules govern video gameplay mechanics and one component of problem solving is the ability to apply existing rules in the problem space known as rule application ( Shute et al., 2015 ). One example of a rule application is found in the well-researched problem-solving puzzle the Tower of Hanoi ( Huyck & Kreivenas, 2018 ; Schiff & Vakil, 2015 ; TOH, 2019 ). The rule application component of problem-solving skill is one of the dependent variables in this study. Rule application refers to the problem-solver’s representation of the problem space through direct action, which is critical to problem solving ( Van Eck et al., 2017 ).

Literature Review

Video gameplay and transfer.

Researchers contend that the hidden power of well-designed video games is their potential to address higher-level learning, like retention, transfer, and problem-solving skills ( Gee, 2008 ; Shute & Wang, 2015 ). Retention is the ability to remember the presented information and correctly recall it when needed, while transfer is the ability to apply previously learned information in a novel situation ( Stiller & Schworm, 2019 ). Possible outcomes of playing video games may include the improvement of collaborative problem-solving skills, confidence, and leadership skills that are transferable to the workforce environment. Recent research on video game training studies and transfer of cognitive and noncognitive skills indicates that gameplay is positively associated with the improvement of attention, problem-solving skills, persistence ( Green & Bavelier, 2012 ; Rowe et al., 2011 ; Shute et al., 2015 ; Ventura et al., 2013 ), executive functions ( Oei & Patterson, 2014 ), and hypothesis testing strategies ( Spires et al., 2011 ). However, other researchers have found null effects of video gameplay and transfer of cognitive skills ( Ackerman, et al., 2010 ; Baniqued, Kranz, et al., 2013 ; Boot et al., 2008 ).

A recent meta-analysis of brain-training interventions found that brain-training interventions can improve performance on trained tasks but there were fewer examples of interventions indicating improved performance on closely related tasks, and minimal evidence that training enhances performance on daily cognitive abilities ( Simons et al., 2016 ). Among those finding null effects, questions were raised about the methodological shortcomings of video game training and transfer studies that are common pitfalls in experimental trials. Some of the pitfalls included failing to report full methods used in a study and lack of an effective active control condition that can expect to see similar improvement in competencies as the experimental group ( Baniqued et al., 2013 ; Boot, 2015 ; Boot, Blakely & Simons, 2011 ). Unless researchers define recruitment methods for participants and their gaming expertise (novice vs. expert), as well as compare active control groups with experimental groups receiving equal training games, then differential improvement is indeterminable ( Boot et al., 2013 ; Shute et al., 2015 ). The recruitment approach is outlined in the Method section.

Motivation for Selection of Games

The video games selected for this research study were based on the problem-solving skills players exercise and acquire through gameplay that were aligned with the problem-solving skills assessed on the external measures, the PISA Problem Solving Test and the Tower of Hanoi (TOH). Well-designed video games include sound learning principles embedded within gameplay such as requiring players to solve complex problems which can then be applied to other learning contexts ( Lieberman et al., 2014 ). In this study, the authors examined the effects of playing World of Warcraft ( Activision Blizzard, 2019 ) and CogniFit ( CogniFit, 2019 ) for twenty hours on undergraduates’ problem-solving skills (rule application and problem-solving transfer). The inclusion of CogniFit addresses a main concern of game-based research which is the lack of an active control condition to determine differential improvement ( Boot et al., 2013 ).

Problem-Solving and Video Gameplay Model

The authors have identified observable in-game behaviors (i.e., indicators) during gameplay that provide evidence for each of the problem-solving processes on the PISA Problem Solving Test. The process included playing each video game extensively, checking community forums for solutions to the most challenging problems for each game, and viewing experts’ gameplay video channel streams on YouTube. After generating a list of credible indicators, those selected were based on the following criteria: (a) relevance to the PISA problem solving levels of proficiency and (b) verifiable through gameplay mechanics. Examples of indicators for the PISA problem-solving processes for each game are listed in Tables 1 and ​ and2. 2 . The purpose of developing the problem-solving behavior model is to operationalize the indicators of gameplay that align with the cognitive processes being assessed on the PISA test (i.e., Exploring and Understanding, Representing and Formulating). The PISA Problem Solving Test contains questions representing six levels of proficiency: Level 1 is the most limited form of problem-solving ability such as rule application (solving problems with simple rules or constraints) and Level 6 is the complex form of problem-solving ability (executing strategies and developing mental models to solve problems). The PISA test will determine whether there is transfer of problem-solving skills from video gameplay to novel scenarios.

Examples of indicators for each PISA problem-solving process in Warcraft

Examples of indicators for each PISA problem-solving process in CogniFit

World of warcraft

Massive multiplayer online role-playing games (MMORPGs) require players to manage resources, adapt playstyle to the environment, test new skills and abilities, identify and apply rules to solve problems as well as explore the story of the game through questing. MMORPGs like Warcraft provide gameplay experiences that are analogous to meaningful instruction by offering complex multifaceted problems that require model-based reasoning—understanding interrelated components of a system, and feedback mechanisms among the components to find the best solutions to problems that arise using available tools and resources in a given environment ( Chinn & Malhotra, 2002 ; Steinkuehler & Chmiel, 2006 ). Therefore, if MMORPGs provide an authentic sense of inquiry into solving problems through gameplay, then it is worth testing whether these gameplay experiences transfer to novel problem-solving scenarios.

One specific example of transfer from gameplay in the MMORPG Warcraft to a natural context concerns the problem of reducing travel time. When players enter the game environment, they must account for extended travel time between different activities such as exploration, questing, and combat. To solve this problem, players are given a tool that can be accessed on their user interface by pressing (M) on their keyboard, which opens the map. Listed on the map are designated flight paths (FPs) that act as a taxi service for players. The image in Figure 1 indicates the various FPs a player has unlocked on their world map as well as those that have yet to be discovered ( Activision Blizzard, 2019 ). The flight path is a handy tool because it connects the goal of completing quests as soon as possible to earn rewards with the knowledge that using flight paths greatly reduces travel time between quests. Greatly reducing travel time results in a more efficient way to complete many of the sub goals in the game, and as noted by Shute and Wang (2016) the use of tools and resources efficiently is an important part of problem solving during gameplay.

Player map listing flight path locations in World of Warcraft (2019)

Now, consider one of the questions being assessed on an external measure in the study, the PISA Problem Solving Test. Individuals are given a map that shows the roads between each city, a partially filled-in key that shows distances between cities in kilometers, and the overall layout of the area. The purpose of this question is to assess how individuals calculate the shortest distance from one city to another. To solve the problem, individuals are required to calculate the distance between the two cities of Nuben and Kado using the resources available. This is the same kind of problem that Warcraft players experience during gameplay when travelling between locations to complete quests. Both problem scenarios share the same overlapping components, the ability of the problem solver to use given tools and resources efficiently to find the most direct route that reduces travel time between two separate locations. Figure 2 illustrates this problem scenario on the PISA test ( OECD, 2003 ).

Problem scenario for planning the best route for a trip from PISA (2003)

The brain training game CogniFit claims to have developed a patented system that measures, trains, and monitors cognitive skills like rule application, attention, memory, and visual perception and their relation to neurological pathologies. According to the CogniFit (2019) website the company states there are transfer effects from their mini games to problem solving in the natural world. The brain training game is selected as an active control condition based on this claim as well as repeated practice of rule application embedded into the gameplay experience.

One example of rule application in the brain training game CogniFit occurs in the mini-game Gem Breaker 3D. This mini-game requires players to direct a paddle back and forth across the screen to bounce a ball off the paddle that breaks the gem blocks without letting the ball touch the bottom of the screen. The initial tutorial informs players that improvement of their hand-eye coordination and processing speed skills are emphasized through gameplay with over 100 levels available to master. Feedback is provided to players with a score for each level showing where they can improve. Once all gem blocks are broken the level is completed and a new level begins. However, each player only has access to 4 balls for each level, and if they lose, the game reverts to the beginning. The tutorial shows players how to use the mouse to control the paddle back and forth across the screen while the spacebar launches the ball. Once a gem is broken there is a chance for a power-up to be gained such as shooting multiple balls, explosives, missiles, side quests or power-ups. Figure 3 illustrates the rules of the mini-game in Gem Breaker 3D ( CogniFit, 2019 ).

Rules for the mini-game Gem Breaker 3D listed in the initial tutorial (2019)

Rule application occurs when playing the TOH and requires one to move an entire stack of disks (i.e., a number between 3 and 8) of varied sizes from one of three rods to another. While playing, players are constrained by the following rules: (1) only one disk can be moved at a time; (2) no disk can be placed on a smaller one; (3) only the uppermost disk can be moved on a stack. Rule application is demonstrated by the problem solver in the TOH by configuring the disks and the rods to reach a solution in the problem space. By configuring the disks onto the rods, each move of a disk indicates the problem solver attempting to creatively apply the rules, which is vital to problem solving ( Shute et al., 2019 ). Figure 4 illustrates the problem space in an online version of the TOH (2019) .

Problem space in an online version of the Tower of Hanoi puzzle with 5 disks (2019)

Both video games require players to apply rules to solve problems and rule application is a component of problem solving ( Van Eck et al., 2017 ). As an example, Warcraft players learn that they can only cast certain spells in combat while standing still or that eating and drinking food while sitting down hastens the regeneration of health. Similarly, when playing the mini-game Gem Breaker 3D in CogniFit players use a paddle and a ball to break bricks. One of the first rules players encounter in the game is that they can only move the paddle left or right across the screen or that bonus bricks have special effects like increasing ball speed. The rules are more explicit in CogniFit than Warcraft so brain-training gameplay may promote better performance on solving the TOH. Each move with the paddle and ball is an example of applying the rules, and this is frequently done during gameplay in CogniFit .

However, CogniFit mini-games lack some of the salient gameplay features in Warcraft such as roleplaying gameplay, meaningful interactions with other players, and richly designed problem spaces that GBL scholars suggest are important to the transfer of problem-solving skills from video gameplay to novel contexts measured on the PISA Problem Solving Test. Warcraft gameplay provides players with repeated practice to solve authentic ill-structured problems in rich detailed problem-solving scenarios that may be better suited for transfer to novel scenarios on the test.

Research Questions

After describing the video gameplay conditions of Warcraft and CogniFit as well as reviewing the literature on problem-solving skills, the authors seek to answer the following research questions:

• Is there a change, from pretest to posttest, on the rule-application component of problem solving, after 20 hours of video gameplay, on either a role playing or brain-training video game?
• Does an immersive, collaborative role-playing video game promote transfer of problem-solving skills to novel scenarios better than a brain-training video game for undergraduates after 20 hours of video gameplay?

Setting and Participants

For this study, 91 undergraduate student participants (M Age = 19.32; SD Age = 1.43) were recruited to participate in this study and completed the initial questionnaire for the study, assessing: age, gender, ethnicity, major, and video games played daily. Participants were not invited to participate if they were not students at the data-collecting institution, were not 18–23 years old, or if they reported playing 30 or more minutes of Warcraft or CogniFit . 56 participants were randomly assigned to either the experimental group Warcraft or the control group CogniFit , yet only 34 completed the study ( n = 17 per group). Participant attrition for both groups were attributed to lack of time to complete the study or being too busy with schoolwork. Given the nature of our research questions assessing change as a function of training, subsequently presented analyses only include data from the 34 participants (17 males and 17 females) who completed the study (M Age = 19.44; SD Age = 1.41).

The independent variable in this research study is the video game with two levels: a roleplaying video game ( Warcraft ) and a brain-training video game ( CogniFit ). The video games provide players with repeated problem-solving scenarios requiring players to engage in problem-solving processes. The dependent variable measured for this study is problem-solving skill. One measure assessed the component of rule application of problem solving to solve a puzzle which is the TOH. The second measure assessed problem-solving in novel scenarios which is the PISA Problem Solving Test. Both groups were assessed on the TOH and the PISA Problem Solving Test. The TOH was used to assess research question 1 and the PISA Problem Solving Test was used to assess research question 2.

The Tower of Hanoi

Recall, the TOH is a valid and reliable experimental paradigm that can be used to assess rule application, problem solving and transfer ( Huyck & Kreivenas, 2018 ; Schiff & Vakil, 2015 ). Rule application is demonstrated by the problem solver in the TOH by configuring the disks and the rods to reach a solution in the problem space. By configuring the disks on to the rods, each move of a disk indicates the problem solver attempting to creatively apply the rules. Participants played the TOH on a computer from a free website online. The test score (i.e., lower scores are better) for completing the TOH can range anywhere from 31 (which is the minimal number of moves to execute) until it is solved.

PISA Problem Solving Test

The second external problem-solving measure in this study is the (2003) version of the PISA Problem Solving Test. The PISA Problem Solving Test ( OECD, 2003 ) contains 10 novel problem-solving scenarios, and within each scenario there is a range of one to three different questions that must be solved. There are 19 total questions on the test across all scenarios that required students to solve problems. For this study, participants completed five novel problem-solving scenarios for the pretest and the remaining five novel problem-solving scenarios for the posttest. The levels of proficiency for each question are randomized across all problem-solving scenarios. Each problem-solving scenario is independent from one another and each of the 19 questions across all scenarios being assessed in this study are isomorphic from the questions that were implemented in 2003. The scoring for most questions was either correct or incorrect, with some questions allowing for partially correct answers. Participants that answered each question correctly were awarded one point, while partially correct answers awarded participants a half-point.

Participants for this study were recruited via flyers posted publicly on campus and dormitory bulletin boards. Over the course of eight weeks, participants engaged in 10 gameplay sessions that lasted two hours each. Participants had the opportunity to complete these 10 sessions in two-hour time-blocks that were made available Monday through Friday for eight consecutive weeks. Participants completed the experiment in a classroom lab on campus at the university. In this experiment, student participants were randomly assigned to play one of two video games.

Participants in the experimental condition played the popular roleplaying video game Warcraft that promotes learning new terminologies, mastering interrelated skills and abilities, applying rules to solve problems, goal setting, and reflecting on progress. In addition, participants in the active control condition played the brain-training video game CogniFit (2019) . The video game allows players to select various mini-games including Gem Breaker 3D that may enhance cognitive abilities including rule application, memory, and focus. Student participants in this study were guided by discovery learning and provided with in-game tutorials for each condition while learning to solve problems through active exploration, interacting with the game environment and self-direction ( Westera, 2019 ). At pre-test and post-test participants had 20 minutes to complete isomorphic versions of the TOH as many times as possible. All participants successfully completed the TOH once during the pretest and once during the posttest. At pre-test and post-test, participants also had 20 minutes to complete as many questions as possible on The PISA Problem Solving Test. The pretest required participants to answer nine questions and the posttest required participants to answer 10 questions from multiple problem-based scenarios. Each problem-based scenario was unique, and some examples included the following: (1) calculating the distance between two points given a map; (2) developing a decision tree diagram of a library loan system; and (3) calculating daily energy needs for an individual given a set menu.

Data Structure and Analyses

The full dataset used for all analyses to be presented, contained data from 34 participants. All participants attempted three parallel, computerized forms of the TOH at baseline and at the end of the intervention. Due to the nature of the task’s programming, if participants did not complete a TOH task, the total number of moves attempted was not output to the data file. This will be expanded upon in the results section by utilizing three analyses which included an independent t-test comparing the mean number of incomplete TOH games between the groups, an independent t-test comparing the mean gain score of TOH between the groups, and a multiple linear regression predicting max gain score of TOH by group, by gain score count, and by group, gain score count, and PISA gain. All analyses in sections below were completed in R, version 3.4.3. Packages used for data analysis include: dplyr , for data wrangling ( Wickham et al., 2019 ), and ggplot2 for visualizations ( Wickham, 2016 ), and MASS for stepwise regression analyses ( Venables & Ripley, 2002 ).

Assessing Group differences in Completion

Although groups differed on the overall number of incomplete TOH sessions at pre-testing (N COGNITIVE = 13; N GAMING = 8), an independent t-test of the average number of incomplete games by group, was not significant (p > .05). Furthermore, an independent t-test revealed no group differences for the overall number of incomplete TOH sessions at post-testing (N COGNITIVE = 3; N GAMING = 2; p > .05). A repeated-measures ANOVA revealed a significant time effect, F(1,32) = 13.386, p<.001. However, group, F(1,32) = 1.609, p=.214, nor group by time interaction were significant, F(1,32)=.837, p=.367. On average, participants completed an additional half TOH session (i.e., .47, SD = .53) after receiving either training package (M Pre = .62, SD = .70; M Post = .15, SD = .36). Table 3 shows the means and standard deviations for the pretest and posttest scores participants completed in the experimental ( Warcraft ) and control ( CogniFit ) groups. The mean scores in the table indicate how many moves on average each participant could successfully solve the puzzle per group. For this study, participants had 20 minutes to complete as many questions as possible for the pretest and 20 minutes to do the same for an isomorphic version of the posttest. Table 4 shows the means and standard deviations for the PISA pretest and posttest scores of participants in the experimental ( Warcraft ) and control ( CogniFit ) groups.

Pretest and posttest scores by group on the Tower of Hanoi

Pretest and posttest scores by group on the PISA Problem Solving Test

Quantifying Improvement in Performance

In order to quantify improvement after the intervention, gain scores were calculated by the following formula, for each instance of the TOH task encountered (i.e. three sessions):

Gain scores produced from this calculation can be interpreted as follows: negative gain scores indicating improvement (fewer total moves at post-testing), and positive gain scores indicating a decrement in performance (more total moves at post-testing). As a result of incomplete games not producing the number of moves, for some participants, no gain score calculation was possible. At pretesting, the cognitive training group had three missing gain scores for the second TOH and 10 for the third TOH whereas the game training group had one missing gain score for the second TOH and seven for the third TOH. To account for this, when calculating average gain scores for each participant, averages were weighted by the number of completed games (i.e. averaging by the number of incomplete sessions would result in an undefined calculation, as some participants completed all sessions). Table 5 shows the results of an unpaired t-test on the average weighted gain scores found no group differences in TOH gain scores ( p > .05). Additionally, an unpaired t-test on the average PISA gain scores found no group differences gain scores ( p > .05).

Problem solving performance compared across training groups

Sensitivity Analysis

Due to missing data issues discussed above, the final analysis involves a stepwise multiple linear regression (forward and backward; AIC used for final model variable selection conducted using R package MASS, function stepAIC; Venables & Ripley, 2002 ), predicting max gain score (max of all three potential gain scores) by group membership (WoW or Cognitive Training), total gain score count, and a gain score derived from pre and post measurements on the PISA task (2003). Based on the stepwise regression procedure analysis results in Table 6 , the best fitting, significant, multiple regression model was found to be a model predicting max gain score from gain score count (no predictor for group membership or PISA gain score; F(1,32) = 14.41; p < .001; R 2 = .3104; adjusted R 2 = 0.2889). Participants predicted max gain score is equal to −111.70 + 48.87 (Gain Count), where gain score is in the unit of number of moves. Max gain score increased by 48.87 for every one unit increase in gain score count (more gain scores, closer to 0; less improvement after the intervention). Gain score count was a significant predictor of max gain score (t=3.796; p < 0.001), indicating potential practice effects from repeated exposure to the task. Practice effects will be discussed in subsequent sections.

Stepwise regression model path, analysis of deviance table and the row with the best fitting model, using AIC as criterion, is highlighted in gray

Evidence for Research Question 1

The initial hypothesis regarding the first question was that a brain-training game would help participants improve their rule application component of problem-solving skill better than a roleplaying game after 20 hours of gameplay for several reasons. One reason is that the rules are more explicit during brain-training gameplay and because of claims made by CogniFit that brain-training gameplay will improve its users’ brain fitness or ability to rely on more than one problem-solving strategy. While both games require players to apply rules to solve problems, only CogniFit markets its product as a tool that can help users to solve problems in their daily lives ( CogniFit, 2019 ). This claim also suggests that brain-training gameplay can help users transfer skills learned in-game to novel problem-solving scenarios in the natural world. However, the results indicated that there was no significant difference in gain scores (i.e., in Post - Pre Gain scores) in terms of TOH performance (t-test comparing gain scores: p = .746) between the two gaming conditions (i.e., Warcraft and CogniFit ), though both groups improved from baseline to post-testing assessment, likely attributable to practice effects (see Figure 5 ). Overall, the results contradicted our initial hypothesis for Research Question 1; implications are discussed next.

Average number of moves in the Tower of Hanoi task across (up to 3) sessions per person, per timepoint. The left panel represents scores for the CogniFit (COG) group, and the right panel represents scores for the Warcraft (WOW) group.

Implications of Results for Research Question 1

Solving problems in an immersive game like Warcraft provided players with repeated practice of applying rules and using tools to find creative solutions to similar but varied problems. As players reflected on their choices, they learned how to use the tools by analyzing givens and constraints in unison to achieve maximum character performance and develop optimal solutions to general problems. CogniFit players did not experience immersive gameplay, but instead repeated problem-solving scenarios that were varied but required fewer tools and resources to be solved. Once CogniFit players knew how to use the paddle and the ball in unison, the only additional resources to use during gameplay were power-ups, bonus bricks, and traps. Roleplaying gameplay required players to solve problems using additional tools and resources efficiently which was a more complex task than using the ball and paddle during brain-training gameplay. Strategizing when and how to apply rules through varied but different problem scenarios with multiple tools and resources through immersive gameplay was beneficial for Warcraft participants. Moreover, players in Warcraft could receive feedback with help from other players learning when and how to apply tools and resources to solve problems. CogniFit players received feedback at the end of each level with an overall score and corrected mistakes through trial and error without additional support.

evidence for Research Question 2

The initial hypothesis regarding the second question was that training on an immersive, collaborative roleplaying video game for 20 hours would engender transfer of problem-solving skills to novel problem-solving scenarios on the PISA Problem Solving Test better than a brain-training video game. One reason is that research on MMORPGs including Warcraft indicates that players co-constructed knowledge by challenging and supporting novel ideas to in-game problem-solving scenarios through online discussion forums as well as discovering optimal solutions to in-game problems by combining multiple abilities and resources available to players ( Chinn & Malhotra, 2002 ; Steinkuehler & Chmiel, 2006 ). Efficiently using tools and resources is a component of problem solving and is central to the roleplaying gameplay experience ( Shute & Wang, 2016 ).

However, the results indicated that after 20 hours of gameplay of Warcraft or CogniFit there was no improved performance on the PISA (i.e., comparing PISA Gain Scores; p = .748). Overall, the mean scores for Warcraft participants were slightly better than CogniFit participants on the isomorphic versions of the PISA Problem Solving pretest and posttest - indicating baseline differences between the two groups in terms of performance. Overall, there were no significant differences found between roleplaying and brain-training gameplay on transfer of problem-solving skills (see Figure 6 ). The implications for the results from research question 2 are discussed next.

PISA Scores before and after the intervention. The left panel represents scores for the COG group, and the right panel represents scores for the WOW group.

Implications of Results for Research Question 2

Given that both video game training and “brain-training” did not significantly improve problem-solving skills has several implications. The gameplay behaviors exhibited by players in each condition were aligned with the problem-solving processes on the PISA Problem Solving Test. However, possible reasons for lack of transfer in this study in addition to small sample size include (a) collaborative, immersive roleplaying gameplay may help promote problem-solving skills related to in-game problem solving scenarios but not necessarily to improved performance on external problem-solving assessments, and (b) problem-solving during Warcraft gameplay may be too domain specific to transfer to novel problem-solving scenarios on the PISA Problem Solving Test.

The misalignment between the problem-solving domains of Warcraft and the PISA Problem Solving Test could have hindered the possibility of finding a transfer effect. As an example, Warcraft players must learn how to navigate an immersive environment, use complex tools efficiently and effectively to solve problems during gameplay and interact with both the environment and other characters to solve problems. However, solving problems on the PISA Problem Solving Test is not an immersive experience. It was also a solitary activity; participants did not collaborate or interact with each other while taking the test. The OECD designed the PISA Problem Solving Test to cover more general problem-solving skills to complement domain-specific skills ( Greiff et al., 2014 ). Selecting a problem-solving assessment which is embedded within an immersive environment that requires players to engage in collaborative problem-solving processes (i.e. experienced in video gameplay) using tools and resources efficiently could have been a more viable assessment to measure transfer of problem-solving skills in this study. Further research is still warranted to determine if video gameplay can promote transfer of problem-solving skills to novel scenarios. The limitations of this research study are addressed in the next section.

Limitations

Given time and resource constraints, the sample size of this study is small and lacks statistical significance to make claims regarding the general population. With more available resources, recruitment would have likely continued for an additional semester to raise the sample size for the study. Students that did not complete the study cited time constraints as the main reason they were unable to fulfill the 20 hours of video gameplay requirement. The optimal time to run the study would have been during Fall and Spring semesters instead of Spring and Summer. In Fall and Spring, more students would have been available for recruitment as well as increased scheduling flexibility and time to complete the intervention during the academic year for the participants. Given that the authors monitored participants during video gameplay in case any problems arose, there may have been expectancy effects that impacted participants. For example, participants’ gameplay experiences may have been negatively or positively affected when being monitored. The potential for participants to alter their behavior simply because they are being studied is known as the Hawthorne Effect ( Benedetti, Carlino & Piedimonte, 2016 ). In addition, the inclusion of a more immersive assessment that measures problem-solving skill transfer could have led to improved outcomes when compared to a more traditional assessment like the PISA Problem-Solving Test (2003).

Future Implications

The main goal of this study was to examine the impact of two distinct types of video gameplay; role playing ( Warcraft ) and brain-training ( CogniFit ) on problem-solving skills for undergraduates. Specifically, if video gameplay can improve the rule application component of problem solving and whether problem solving during gameplay transferred to novel problem-solving scenarios. This study addressed some of the methodological shortcomings found in previous video game training and transfer studies that failed to report recruitment methods, define study variables, and provide an active control group in which participants could expect receive equal improvement from competencies ( Baniqued et al., 2013 ; Boot et al., 2013 ). As a result, possible placebo effects are likely mitigated in this experiment improving upon methodological pitfalls affecting other video game training studies ( Anderson et al., 2010 ; Ferguson & Kilburn, 2009 ).

The results from this study suggest that neither a commercially available video game ( Warcraft ) or a commercially available “brain-training” package ( CogniFit ) resulted in improvements in the rule-based component of problem solving (as assessed by the TOH puzzle). Moreover, aside from a lack of improvement in the rule-based component, 20-hours of training did not promote transfer of problem-solving skills to novel scenarios (as assessed by the PISA Problem Solving Task), which is consistent with similar research findings on cognitive training and transfer ( Souders et al., 2017 ). Sensitivity analyses conducted found evidence for practice effects in gain scores, illustrating that rather than improvement due to the training packages, improvement seems related to multiple, closely spaced assessments. Future research can complement this study by increasing the sample size and testing similar immersive well-designed video games on participant knowledge, skills, and abilities, in addition to directly cuing participants to be aware of the strategies (i.e., perceptual and cognitive strategies) they might carry with them from the digital world to the real-world.

Acknowledgment

Nelson Roque was supported by National Institute on Aging Grant T32 AG049676 to The Pennsylvania State University.

Benjamin Emihovich is an Assistant Professor of Educational Technology in the Education Department at the University of Michigan-Flint and is the program faculty coordinator for the online Educational Technology (M.A.) program. He currently teaches undergraduate and graduate students in the areas of Instructional Design and Technology as well as curriculum and instruction. His research area focuses on the following; game-based learning, assessments for learning in immersive environments, and emerging learning technologies.

Nelson A. Roque is a NIA T32 Postdoctoral Fellow, at Penn State’s Center for Healthy Aging. Nelson earned his Ph.D. in Cognitive Psychology from Florida State University in 2018. Nelson has a strong background in visual attention, focusing on how to reliably measure it, how it relates to individual difference factors (e.g., age, sleep) and translating insights from theoretical work in visual attention to applied contexts (e.g. medication errors).

Justin Mason is a Postdoctoral Associate in Rehabilitation Science at the University of Florida. His research interests include interventions suitable for mitigating age-related cognitive and physical decline in older adults. Additionally, he’s interested in factors that influence older adults’ adoption and acceptance of emerging technologies.

Contributor Information

Benjamin Emihovich, University of Michigan - Flint, Flint, USA.

Nelson Roque, Pennsylvania State University, State College, USA.

Justin Mason, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA.

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5 video games to help tweens and teens boost reasoning skills

By Amanda Morin

Expert reviewed by Jessica Millstone, EdM, MPS

You may worry that your teen or tween plays too many video games. But there are some great games for building critical-reasoning skills. Those skills help kids become good decision makers and problem solvers.

The object of SimCity and SimCity Creator is to build a civilization from the ground up. Players have to plan and anticipate what the city will need as it evolves. A society that begins with hunters can quickly grow into one that needs factories and school. Players need to know zoning laws and municipal codes as they build. They also must use problem-solving skills to find ways to meet the challenges of supply and demand.

Scribblenauts

Scribblenauts is much less action packed than some other video games. But it uses critical reasoning in a unique way. Players have to solve the spatially oriented obstacles the hero encounters going through the levels. And they do it by literally writing the solution and having it appear. Players can write simple things, such as “ropes.” Or they can write crazier things, such as “Yeti the snowman-like creature on a lawnmower.”

Portal is set in a 3D world called Aperture Science Enrichment Center. Players work together to get around obstacles that keep characters from getting out of Aperture. Tasks get harder as players improve. They range from putting an object in the right place in order to open a door to getting through multiple portals in a short time. Schools often use Portal 2 because it’s a fun way to think about spatial reasoning and basic physics.

Minecraft is a video game that your teen or tween can customize. Players must figure out ways to use virtual blocks to build communities. They also must mine the materials they need to make tools, food, clothing, and whatever else they need to sustain their environment. Multiple modes of game play give players a chance to see how different plans pan out. If one doesn’t work, players can rebuild from scratch.

The Legend of Zelda

In this series, players attempt to save kingdoms, battle monsters, and follow a story line. They must use flexible thinking, planning, and working memory skills as they navigate the game. They also need to solve puzzles, learn how to master swordplay, and deal with other characters. All of this goes on with distractions in the background. The game doesn’t have voiceovers, so your tween or teen will be practicing reading skills as well.