examples of case study introduction

Business growth

Marketing tips

16 case study examples (+ 3 templates to make your own)

I like to think of case studies as a business's version of a resume. It highlights what the business can do, lends credibility to its offer, and contains only the positive bullet points that paint it in the best light possible.

Imagine if the guy running your favorite taco truck followed you home so that he could "really dig into how that burrito changed your life." I see the value in the practice. People naturally prefer a tried-and-true burrito just as they prefer tried-and-true products or services.

To help you showcase your success and flesh out your burrito questionnaire, I've put together some case study examples and key takeaways.

What is a case study?

A case study is an in-depth analysis of how your business, product, or service has helped past clients. It can be a document, a webpage, or a slide deck that showcases measurable, real-life results.

For example, if you're a SaaS company, you can analyze your customers' results after a few months of using your product to measure its effectiveness. You can then turn this analysis into a case study that further proves to potential customers what your product can do and how it can help them overcome their challenges.

It changes the narrative from "I promise that we can do X and Y for you" to "Here's what we've done for businesses like yours, and we can do it for you, too."

16 case study examples 

While most case studies follow the same structure, quite a few try to break the mold and create something unique. Some businesses lean heavily on design and presentation, while others pursue a detailed, stat-oriented approach. Some businesses try to mix both.

There's no set formula to follow, but I've found that the best case studies utilize impactful design to engage readers and leverage statistics and case details to drive the point home. A case study typically highlights the companies, the challenges, the solution, and the results. The examples below will help inspire you to do it, too.

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People love a good farm-to-table coffee story, and boy am I one of them. But I've shared this case study with you for more reasons than my love of coffee. I enjoyed this study because it was written as though it was a letter.

In this case study, the founder of Volcanica Coffee talks about the journey from founding the company to personally struggling with learning and applying digital marketing to finding and enlisting AdRoll's services.

It felt more authentic, less about AdRoll showcasing their worth and more like a testimonial from a grateful and appreciative client. After the story, the case study wraps up with successes, milestones, and achievements. Note that quite a few percentages are prominently displayed at the top, providing supporting evidence that backs up an inspiring story.

Takeaway: Highlight your goals and measurable results to draw the reader in and provide concise, easily digestible information.

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This Airtable case study on Taylor Guitars comes as close as one can to an optimal structure. It features a video that represents the artistic nature of the client, highlighting key achievements and dissecting each element of Airtable's influence.

It also supplements each section with a testimonial or quote from the client, using their insights as a catalyst for the case study's narrative. For example, the case study quotes the social media manager and project manager's insights regarding team-wide communication and access before explaining in greater detail.

Takeaway: Highlight pain points your business solves for its client, and explore that influence in greater detail.

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My favorite part of Figma's case study is highlighting why EndeavourX chose its solution. You'll notice an entire section on what Figma does for teams and then specifically for EndeavourX.

It also places a heavy emphasis on numbers and stats. The study, as brief as it is, still manages to pack in a lot of compelling statistics about what's possible with Figma.

Takeaway: Showcase the "how" and "why" of your product's differentiators and how they benefit your customers.

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Zapier's case study leans heavily on design, using graphics to present statistics and goals in a manner that not only remains consistent with the branding but also actively pushes it forward, drawing users' eyes to the information most important to them. 

The graphics, emphasis on branding elements, and cause/effect style tell the story without requiring long, drawn-out copy that risks boring readers. Instead, the cause and effect are concisely portrayed alongside the client company's information for a brief and easily scannable case study.

Takeaway: Lean on design to call attention to the most important elements of your case study, and make sure it stays consistent with your branding.

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In true OpenAI fashion, this case study is a block of text. There's a distinct lack of imagery, but the study features a narrated video walking readers through the product.

The lack of imagery and color may not be the most inviting, but utilizing video format is commendable. It helps thoroughly communicate how OpenAI supported Ironclad in a way that allows the user to sit back, relax, listen, and be impressed. 

Takeaway: Get creative with the media you implement in your case study. Videos can be a very powerful addition when a case study requires more detailed storytelling.

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GitHub's case study on Shopify is a light read. It addresses client pain points and discusses the different aspects its product considers and improves for clients. It touches on workflow issues, internal systems, automation, and security. It does a great job of representing what one company can do with GitHub.

To drive the point home, the case study features colorful quote callouts from the Shopify team, sharing their insights and perspectives on the partnership, the key issues, and how they were addressed.

Takeaway: Leverage quotes to boost the authoritativeness and trustworthiness of your case study. 

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Contentful's case study on Audible features almost every element a case study should. It includes not one but two videos and clearly outlines the challenge, solution, and outcome before diving deeper into what Contentful did for Audible. The language is simple, and the writing is heavy with quotes and personal insights.

This case study is a uniquely original experience. The fact that the companies in question are perhaps two of the most creative brands out there may be the reason. I expected nothing short of a detailed analysis, a compelling story, and video content. 

Takeaway: Inject some brand voice into the case study, and create assets that tell the story for you.

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Asana's case study on Zoom is longer than the average piece and features detailed data on Zoom's growth since 2020. Instead of relying on imagery and graphics, it features several quotes and testimonials. 

It's designed to be direct, informative, and promotional. At some point, the case study reads more like a feature list. There were a few sections that felt a tad too promotional for my liking, but to each their own burrito.

Takeaway: Maintain a balance between promotional and informative. You want to showcase the high-level goals your product helped achieve without losing the reader.

9 . .css-12hxxzz-Link{all:unset;box-sizing:border-box;-webkit-text-decoration:underline;text-decoration:underline;cursor:pointer;-webkit-transition:all 300ms ease-in-out;transition:all 300ms ease-in-out;outline-offset:1px;-webkit-text-fill-color:currentColor;outline:1px solid transparent;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']{color:var(--zds-text-link, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']:hover{outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #2b2358);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']:focus{color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']:hover{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-5, #a8a5a0);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']:focus{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);outline-color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']{color:var(--zds-text-link, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']:hover{color:var(--zds-text-link, #2b2358);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']:focus{color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']:hover{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-5, #a8a5a0);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']:focus{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);outline-color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='inherit']{font-weight:inherit;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='normal']{font-weight:400;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='bold']{font-weight:700;} Hickies and Mailchimp

I've always been a fan of Mailchimp's comic-like branding, and this case study does an excellent job of sticking to their tradition of making information easy to understand, casual, and inviting.

It features a short video that briefly covers Hickies as a company and Mailchimp's efforts to serve its needs for customer relationships and education processes. Overall, this case study is a concise overview of the partnership that manages to convey success data and tell a story at the same time. What sets it apart is that it does so in a uniquely colorful and brand-consistent manner.

Takeaway: Be concise to provide as much value in as little text as possible.

10. .css-12hxxzz-Link{all:unset;box-sizing:border-box;-webkit-text-decoration:underline;text-decoration:underline;cursor:pointer;-webkit-transition:all 300ms ease-in-out;transition:all 300ms ease-in-out;outline-offset:1px;-webkit-text-fill-color:currentColor;outline:1px solid transparent;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']{color:var(--zds-text-link, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']:hover{outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #2b2358);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']:focus{color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']:hover{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-5, #a8a5a0);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']:focus{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);outline-color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']{color:var(--zds-text-link, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']:hover{color:var(--zds-text-link, #2b2358);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']:focus{color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']:hover{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-5, #a8a5a0);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']:focus{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);outline-color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='inherit']{font-weight:inherit;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='normal']{font-weight:400;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='bold']{font-weight:700;} NVIDIA and Workday

The gaming industry is notoriously difficult to recruit for, as it requires a very specific set of skills and experience. This case study focuses on how Workday was able to help fill that recruitment gap for NVIDIA, one of the biggest names in the gaming world.

Though it doesn't feature videos or graphics, this case study stood out to me in how it structures information like "key products used" to give readers insight into which tools helped achieve these results.

Takeaway: If your company offers multiple products or services, outline exactly which ones were involved in your case study, so readers can assess each tool.

11. .css-12hxxzz-Link{all:unset;box-sizing:border-box;-webkit-text-decoration:underline;text-decoration:underline;cursor:pointer;-webkit-transition:all 300ms ease-in-out;transition:all 300ms ease-in-out;outline-offset:1px;-webkit-text-fill-color:currentColor;outline:1px solid transparent;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']{color:var(--zds-text-link, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']:hover{outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #2b2358);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']:focus{color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']:hover{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-5, #a8a5a0);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']:focus{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);outline-color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']{color:var(--zds-text-link, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']:hover{color:var(--zds-text-link, #2b2358);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']:focus{color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']:hover{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-5, #a8a5a0);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']:focus{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);outline-color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='inherit']{font-weight:inherit;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='normal']{font-weight:400;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='bold']{font-weight:700;} KFC and Contentful

I'm personally not a big KFC fan, but that's only because I refuse to eat out of a bucket. My aversion to the bucket format aside, Contentful follows its consistent case study format in this one, outlining challenges, solutions, and outcomes before diving into the nitty-gritty details of the project.

Say what you will about KFC, but their primary product (chicken) does present a unique opportunity for wordplay like "Continuing to march to the beat of a digital-first drum(stick)" or "Delivering deep-fried goodness to every channel."

Takeaway: Inject humor into your case study if there's room for it and if it fits your brand. 

12. .css-12hxxzz-Link{all:unset;box-sizing:border-box;-webkit-text-decoration:underline;text-decoration:underline;cursor:pointer;-webkit-transition:all 300ms ease-in-out;transition:all 300ms ease-in-out;outline-offset:1px;-webkit-text-fill-color:currentColor;outline:1px solid transparent;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']{color:var(--zds-text-link, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']:hover{outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #2b2358);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']:focus{color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']:hover{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-5, #a8a5a0);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']:focus{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);outline-color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']{color:var(--zds-text-link, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']:hover{color:var(--zds-text-link, #2b2358);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']:focus{color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']:hover{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-5, #a8a5a0);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']:focus{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);outline-color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='inherit']{font-weight:inherit;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='normal']{font-weight:400;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='bold']{font-weight:700;} Intuit and Twilio

Twilio does an excellent job of delivering achievements at the very beginning of the case study and going into detail in this two-minute read. While there aren't many graphics, the way quotes from the Intuit team are implemented adds a certain flair to the study and breaks up the sections nicely.

It's simple, concise, and manages to fit a lot of information in easily digestible sections.

Takeaway: Make sure each section is long enough to inform but brief enough to avoid boring readers. Break down information for each section, and don't go into so much detail that you lose the reader halfway through.

13. .css-12hxxzz-Link{all:unset;box-sizing:border-box;-webkit-text-decoration:underline;text-decoration:underline;cursor:pointer;-webkit-transition:all 300ms ease-in-out;transition:all 300ms ease-in-out;outline-offset:1px;-webkit-text-fill-color:currentColor;outline:1px solid transparent;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']{color:var(--zds-text-link, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']:hover{outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #2b2358);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']:focus{color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']:hover{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-5, #a8a5a0);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']:focus{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);outline-color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']{color:var(--zds-text-link, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']:hover{color:var(--zds-text-link, #2b2358);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']:focus{color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']:hover{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-5, #a8a5a0);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']:focus{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);outline-color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='inherit']{font-weight:inherit;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='normal']{font-weight:400;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='bold']{font-weight:700;} Spotify and Salesforce

Salesforce created a video that accurately summarizes the key points of the case study. Beyond that, the page itself is very light on content, and sections are as short as one paragraph.

I especially like how information is broken down into "What you need to know," "Why it matters," and "What the difference looks like." I'm not ashamed of being spoon-fed information. When it's structured so well and so simply, it makes for an entertaining read.

14. .css-12hxxzz-Link{all:unset;box-sizing:border-box;-webkit-text-decoration:underline;text-decoration:underline;cursor:pointer;-webkit-transition:all 300ms ease-in-out;transition:all 300ms ease-in-out;outline-offset:1px;-webkit-text-fill-color:currentColor;outline:1px solid transparent;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']{color:var(--zds-text-link, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']:hover{outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #2b2358);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']:focus{color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']:hover{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-5, #a8a5a0);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']:focus{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);outline-color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']{color:var(--zds-text-link, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']:hover{color:var(--zds-text-link, #2b2358);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']:focus{color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']:hover{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-5, #a8a5a0);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']:focus{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);outline-color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='inherit']{font-weight:inherit;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='normal']{font-weight:400;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='bold']{font-weight:700;} Benchling and Airtable

Benchling is an impressive entity in its own right. Biotech R&D and health care nuances go right over my head. But the research and digging I've been doing in the name of these burritos (case studies) revealed that these products are immensely complex. 

And that's precisely why this case study deserves a read—it succeeds at explaining a complex project that readers outside the industry wouldn't know much about.

Takeaway: Simplify complex information, and walk readers through the company's operations and how your business helped streamline them.

15. .css-12hxxzz-Link{all:unset;box-sizing:border-box;-webkit-text-decoration:underline;text-decoration:underline;cursor:pointer;-webkit-transition:all 300ms ease-in-out;transition:all 300ms ease-in-out;outline-offset:1px;-webkit-text-fill-color:currentColor;outline:1px solid transparent;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']{color:var(--zds-text-link, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']:hover{outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #2b2358);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']:focus{color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']:hover{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-5, #a8a5a0);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']:focus{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);outline-color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']{color:var(--zds-text-link, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']:hover{color:var(--zds-text-link, #2b2358);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']:focus{color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']:hover{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-5, #a8a5a0);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']:focus{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);outline-color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='inherit']{font-weight:inherit;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='normal']{font-weight:400;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='bold']{font-weight:700;} Chipotle and Hubble

The concision of this case study is refreshing. It features two sections—the challenge and the solution—all in 316 words. This goes to show that your case study doesn't necessarily need to be a four-figure investment with video shoots and studio time. 

Sometimes, the message is simple and short enough to convey in a handful of paragraphs.

Takeaway: Consider what you should include instead of what you can include. Assess the time, resources, and effort you're able and willing to invest in a case study, and choose which elements you want to include from there.

16. .css-12hxxzz-Link{all:unset;box-sizing:border-box;-webkit-text-decoration:underline;text-decoration:underline;cursor:pointer;-webkit-transition:all 300ms ease-in-out;transition:all 300ms ease-in-out;outline-offset:1px;-webkit-text-fill-color:currentColor;outline:1px solid transparent;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']{color:var(--zds-text-link, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']:hover{outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #2b2358);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='ocean']:focus{color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']:hover{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-5, #a8a5a0);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='white']:focus{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);outline-color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']{color:var(--zds-text-link, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']:hover{color:var(--zds-text-link, #2b2358);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='primary']:focus{color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);outline-color:var(--zds-text-link-hover, #3d4592);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']:hover{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-5, #a8a5a0);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-color='secondary']:focus{color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);outline-color:var(--zds-gray-warm-1, #fffdf9);}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='inherit']{font-weight:inherit;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='normal']{font-weight:400;}.css-12hxxzz-Link[data-weight='bold']{font-weight:700;} Hudl and Zapier

I may be biased, but I'm a big fan of seeing metrics and achievements represented in branded graphics. It can be a jarring experience to navigate a website, then visit a case study page and feel as though you've gone to a completely different website.

The case study is essentially the summary, and the blog article is the detailed analysis that provides context beyond X achievement or Y goal.

Takeaway: Keep your case study concise and informative. Create other resources to provide context under your blog, media or press, and product pages.

3 case study templates

Now that you've had your fill of case studies (if that's possible), I've got just what you need: an infinite number of case studies, which you can create yourself with these case study templates.

Case study template 1

If you've got a quick hit of stats you want to show off, try this template. The opening section gives space for a short summary and three visually appealing stats you can highlight, followed by a headline and body where you can break the case study down more thoroughly. This one's pretty simple, with only sections for solutions and results, but you can easily continue the formatting to add more sections as needed.

Case study template 2

For a case study template with a little more detail, use this one. Opening with a striking cover page for a quick overview, this one goes on to include context, stakeholders, challenges, multiple quote callouts, and quick-hit stats. 

Case study template 3

Whether you want a little structural variation or just like a nice dark green, this template has similar components to the last template but is designed to help tell a story. Move from the client overview through a description of your company before getting to the details of how you fixed said company's problems.

Tips for writing a case study

Examples are all well and good, but you don't learn how to make a burrito just by watching tutorials on YouTube without knowing what any of the ingredients are. You could , but it probably wouldn't be all that good.

Have an objective: Define your objective by identifying the challenge, solution, and results. Assess your work with the client and focus on the most prominent wins. You're speaking to multiple businesses and industries through the case study, so make sure you know what you want to say to them.

Focus on persuasive data: Growth percentages and measurable results are your best friends. Extract your most compelling data and highlight it in your case study.

Use eye-grabbing graphics: Branded design goes a long way in accurately representing your brand and retaining readers as they review the study. Leverage unique and eye-catching graphics to keep readers engaged. 

Simplify data presentation: Some industries are more complex than others, and sometimes, data can be difficult to understand at a glance. Make sure you present your data in the simplest way possible. Make it concise, informative, and easy to understand.

Use automation to drive results for your case study

A case study example is a source of inspiration you can leverage to determine how to best position your brand's work. Find your unique angle, and refine it over time to help your business stand out. Ask anyone: the best burrito in town doesn't just appear at the number one spot. They find their angle (usually the house sauce) and leverage it to stand out.

Case study FAQ

Got your case study template? Great—it's time to gather the team for an awkward semi-vague data collection task. While you do that, here are some case study quick answers for you to skim through while you contemplate what to call your team meeting.

What is an example of a case study?

An example of a case study is when a software company analyzes its results from a client project and creates a webpage, presentation, or document that focuses on high-level results, challenges, and solutions in an attempt to showcase effectiveness and promote the software.

How do you write a case study?

To write a good case study, you should have an objective, identify persuasive and compelling data, leverage graphics, and simplify data. Case studies typically include an analysis of the challenge, solution, and results of the partnership.

What is the format of a case study?

While case studies don't have a set format, they're often portrayed as reports or essays that inform readers about the partnership and its results. 

Related reading:

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Hachem Ramki

Hachem is a writer and digital marketer from Montreal. After graduating with a degree in English, Hachem spent seven years traveling around the world before moving to Canada. When he's not writing, he enjoys Basketball, Dungeons and Dragons, and playing music for friends and family.

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Methodology

• What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on May 8, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

Table of contents

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyze the case, other interesting articles.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

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Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

• Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
• Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
• Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
• Open up new directions for future research

TipIf your research is more practical in nature and aims to simultaneously investigate an issue as you solve it, consider conducting action research instead.

Unlike quantitative or experimental research , a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

Example of an outlying case studyIn the 1960s the town of Roseto, Pennsylvania was discovered to have extremely low rates of heart disease compared to the US average. It became an important case study for understanding previously neglected causes of heart disease.

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience or phenomenon.

Example of a representative case studyIn the 1920s, two sociologists used Muncie, Indiana as a case study of a typical American city that supposedly exemplified the changing culture of the US at the time.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

• Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
• Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
• Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews , observations , and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data.

Example of a mixed methods case studyFor a case study of a wind farm development in a rural area, you could collect quantitative data on employment rates and business revenue, collect qualitative data on local people’s perceptions and experiences, and analyze local and national media coverage of the development.

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

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In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis , with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyze its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Ecological validity

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

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How to Write a Case Study: A Step-by-Step Guide (+ Examples)

by Todd Brehe

on Jan 3, 2024

If you want to learn how to write a case study that engages prospective clients, demonstrates that you can solve real business problems, and showcases the results you deliver, this guide will help.

We’ll give you a proven template to follow, show you how to conduct an engaging interview, and give you several examples and tips for best practices.

Let’s start with the basics.

What is a Case Study?

A business case study is simply a story about how you successfully delivered a solution to your client.

Case studies start with background information about the customer, describe problems they were facing, present the solutions you developed, and explain how those solutions positively impacted the customer’s business.

Do Marketing Case Studies Really Work?

Absolutely. A well-written case study puts prospective clients into the shoes of your paying clients, encouraging them to engage with you. Plus, they:

• Get shared “behind the lines” with decision makers you may not know;
• Leverage the power of “social proof” to encourage a prospective client to take a chance with your company;
• Build trust and foster likeability;
• Lessen the perceived risk of doing business with you and offer proof that your business can deliver results;
• Help prospects become aware of unrecognized problems;
• Show prospects experiencing similar problems that possible solutions are available (and you can provide said solutions);
• Make it easier for your target audience to find you when using Google and other search engines.

Case studies serve your clients too. For example, they can generate positive publicity and highlight the accomplishments of line staff to the management team. Your company might even throw in a new product/service discount, or a gift as an added bonus.

But don’t just take my word for it. Let’s look at a few statistics and success stories:

5 Winning Case Study Examples to Model

Before we get into the nuts and bolts of how to write a case study, let’s go over a few examples of what an excellent one looks like.

The five case studies listed below are well-written, well-designed, and incorporate a time-tested structure.

1. Lane Terralever and Pinnacle at Promontory

This case study example  from Lane Terralever  incorporates images to support the content and effectively uses subheadings to make the piece scannable.

2. WalkMe Mobile and Hulyo

This case study  from WalkMe Mobile  leads with an engaging headline and the three most important results the client was able to generate.

In the first paragraph, the writer expands the list of accomplishments encouraging readers to learn more.

3. CurationSuite Listening Engine

This is an example of a well-designed printable case study . The client, specific problem, and solution are called out in the left column and summarized succinctly.

4. Brain Traffic and ASAE

This long format case study (6 pages) from Brain Traffic  summarizes the challenges, solutions, and results prominently in the left column. It uses testimonials and headshots of the case study participants very effectively.

5. Adobe and Home Depot

This case study  from Adobe and Home Depot  is a great example of combining video, attention-getting graphics, and long form writing. It also uses testimonials and headshots well.

Now that we’ve gone over the basics and showed a few great case study examples you can use as inspiration, let’s roll up our sleeves and get to work.

A Case Study Structure That Pros Use

Let’s break down the structure of a compelling case study:

Choose Your Case Study Format

In this guide, we focus on written case studies. They’re affordable to create, and they have a proven track record. However, written case studies are just one of four case study formats to consider:

• Infographic

If you have the resources, video (like the Adobe and Home Depot example above) and podcast case studies can be very compelling. Hearing a client discuss in his or her own words how your company helped is an effective content marketing strategy

Infographic case studies are usually one-page images that summarize the challenge, proposed solution, and results. They tend to work well on social media.

Follow a Tried-and-True Case Study Template

The success story structure we’re using incorporates a “narrative” or “story arc” designed to suck readers in and captivate their interest.

Note:  I recommend creating a blog post or landing page on your website that includes the text from your case study, along with a downloadable PDF. Doing so helps people find your content when they perform Google and other web searches.

There are a few simple SEO strategies that you can apply to your blog post that will optimize your chances of being found. I’ll include those tips below.

Craft a Compelling Headline

The headline should capture your audience’s attention quickly. Include the most important result you achieved, the client’s name, and your company’s name. Create several examples, mull them over a bit, then pick the best one. And, yes, this means writing the headline is done at the very end.

SEO  Tip:  Let’s say your firm provided “video editing services” and you want to target this primary keyword. Include it, your company name, and your client’s name in the case study title.

Write the Executive Summary

This is a mini-narrative using an abbreviated version of the Challenge + Solution + Results model (3-4 short paragraphs). Write this after you complete the case study.

SEO  Tip:  Include your primary keyword in the first paragraph of the Executive Summary.

Provide the Client’s Background

Introduce your client to the reader and create context for the story.

List the Customer’s Challenges and Problems

Vividly describe the situation and problems the customer was dealing with, before working with you.

SEO  Tip:  To rank on page one of Google for our target keyword, review the questions listed in the “People also ask” section at the top of Google’s search results. If you can include some of these questions and their answers into your case study, do so. Just make sure they fit with the flow of your narrative.

Detail Your Solutions

Explain the product or service your company provided, and spell out how it alleviated the client’s problems. Recap how the solution was delivered and implemented. Describe any training needed and the customer’s work effort.

Show Your Results

Detail what you accomplished for the customer and the impact your product/service made. Objective, measurable results that resonate with your target audience are best.

List Future Plans

Share how your client might work with your company in the future.

Give a Call-to-Action

Clearly detail what you want the reader to do at the end of your case study.

Talk About You

Include a “press release-like” description of your client’s organization, with a link to their website. For your printable document, add an “About” section with your contact information.

And that’s it. That’s the basic structure of any good case study.

Now, let’s go over how to get the information you’ll use in your case study.

How to Conduct an Engaging Case Study Interview

One of the best parts of creating a case study is talking with your client about the experience. This is a fun and productive way to learn what your company did well, and what it can improve on, directly from your customer’s perspective.

Here are some suggestions for conducting great case study interviews:

When Choosing a Case Study Subject, Pick a Raving Fan

Your sales and marketing team should know which clients are vocal advocates willing to talk about their experiences. Your customer service and technical support teams should be able to contribute suggestions.

Clients who are experts with your product/service make solid case study candidates. If you sponsor an online community, look for product champions who post consistently and help others.

When selecting a candidate, think about customer stories that would appeal to your target audience. For example, let’s say your sales team is consistently bumping into prospects who are excited about your solution, but are slow to pull the trigger and do business with you.

In this instance, finding a client who felt the same way, but overcame their reluctance and contracted with you anyway, would be a compelling story to capture and share.

Prepping for the Interview

If you’ve ever seen an Oprah interview, you’ve seen a master who can get almost anyone to open up and talk. Part of the reason is that she and her team are disciplined about planning.

Before conducting a case study interview, talk to your own team about the following:

• What’s unique about the client (location, size, industry, etc.) that will resonate with our prospects?
• Why did the customer select us?
• How did we help the client?
• What’s unique about this customer’s experience?
• What problems did we solve?
• Were any measurable, objective results generated?
• What do we want readers to do after reading this case study analysis?

Pro Tip:  Tee up your client. Send them the questions in advance.

Providing questions to clients before the interview helps them prepare, gather input from other colleagues if needed, and feel more comfortable because they know what to expect.

In a moment, I’ll give you an exhaustive list of interview questions. But don’t send them all. Instead, pare the list down to one or two questions in each section and personalize them for your customer.

Nailing the Client Interview

Decide how you’ll conduct the interview. Will you call the client, use Skype or Facetime, or meet in person? Whatever mode you choose, plan the process in advance.

Make sure you record the conversation. It’s tough to lead an interview, listen to your contact’s responses, keep the conversation flowing, write notes, and capture all that the person is saying.

A recording will make it easier to write the client’s story later. It’s also useful for other departments in your company (management, sales, development, etc.) to hear real customer feedback.

Use open-ended questions that spur your contact to talk and share. Here are some real-life examples:

Introduction

• Recap the purpose of the call. Confirm how much time your contact has to talk (30-45 minutes is preferable).
• Confirm the company’s location, number of employees, years in business, industry, etc.
• What’s the contact’s background, title, time with the company, primary responsibilities, and so on?

Initial Challenges

• Describe the situation at your company before engaging with us?
• What were the initial problems you wanted to solve?
• What was the impact of those problems?
• When did you realize you had to take some action?
• What solutions did you try?
• What solutions did you implement?
• What process did you go through to make a purchase?
• How did the implementation go?
• How would you describe the work effort required of your team?
• If training was involved, how did that go?

Results, Improvements, Progress

• When did you start seeing improvements?
• What were the most valuable results?
• What did your team like best about working with us?
• Would you recommend our solution/company? Why?

Future Plans

• How do you see our companies working together in the future?

Honest Feedback

• Our company is very focused on continual improvement. What could we have done differently to make this an even better experience?
• What would you like us to add or change in our product/service?

During the interview, use your contact’s responses to guide the conversation.

Once the interview is complete, it’s time to write your case study.

How to Write a Case Study… Effortlessly

Case study writing is not nearly as difficult as many people make it out to be. And you don’t have to be Stephen King to do professional work. Here are a few tips:

• Use the case study structure that we outlined earlier, but write these sections first: company background, challenges, solutions, and results.
• Write the headline, executive summary, future plans, and call-to-action (CTA) last.
• In each section, include as much content from your interview as you can. Don’t worry about editing at this point
• Tell the story by discussing their trials and tribulations.
• Stay focused on the client and the results they achieved.
• Make their organization and employees shine.
• When including information about your company, frame your efforts in a supporting role.

Also, make sure to do the following:

Add Testimonials, Quotes, and Visuals

The more you can use your contact’s words to describe the engagement, the better. Weave direct quotes throughout your narrative.

Strive to be conversational when you’re writing case studies, as if you’re talking to a peer.

Include images in your case study that visually represent the content and break up the text. Photos of the company, your contact, and other employees are ideal.

If you need to incorporate stock photos, here are three resources:

• Deposit p hotos

And if you need more, check out Smart Blogger’s excellent resource: 17 Sites with High-Quality, Royalty-Free Stock Photos .

Proofread and Tighten Your Writing

Make sure there are no grammar, spelling, or punctuation errors. If you need help, consider using a grammar checker tool like Grammarly .

My high school English teacher’s mantra was “tighten your writing.” She taught that impactful writing is concise and free of weak, unnecessary words . This takes effort and discipline, but will make your writing stronger.

Also, keep in mind that we live in an attention-diverted society. Before your audience will dive in and read each paragraph, they’ll first scan your work.  Use subheadings  to summarize information, convey meaning quickly, and pull the reader in.

Be Sure to Use Best Practices

Consider applying the following best practices to your case study:

• Stay laser-focused on your client and the results they were able to achieve.
• Even if your audience is technical, minimize the use of industry jargon . If you use acronyms, explain them.
• Leave out the selling and advertising.
• Don’t write like a Shakespearean wannabe. Write how people speak. Write to be understood.
• Clear and concise writing is not only more understandable, it inspires trust. Don’t ramble.
• Weave your paragraphs together so that each sentence is dependent on the one before and after it.
• Include a specific case study call-to-action (CTA).
• A recommended case study length is 2-4 pages.
• Commit to building a library of case studies.

Get Client Approval

After you have a final draft, send it to the client for review and approval. Incorporate any edits they suggest.

Use or modify the following “Consent to Publish” form to get the client’s written sign-off:

Consent to Publish

Case Study  Title:

I hereby confirm that I have reviewed the case study listed above and on behalf of the [Company Name], I provide full permission for the work to be published, in whole or in part, for the life of the work, in all languages and all formats by [Company publishing the case study].

By signing this form, I affirm that I am authorized to grant full permission.

Company Name:

E-mail Address:

Common Case Study Questions (& Answers)

We’ll wrap things up with a quick Q&A. If you have a question I didn’t answer, be sure to leave it in a blog comment below.

Should I worry about print versions of my case studies?

Absolutely.

As we saw in the CurationSuite  and Brain Traffic  examples earlier, case studies get downloaded, printed, and shared. Prospects can and will judge your book by its cover.

So, make sure your printed case study is eye-catching and professionally designed. Hire a designer  if necessary.

Why are good case studies so effective?

Case studies work because people trust them.

They’re not ads, they’re not press releases, and they’re not about how stellar your company is.

Plus, everyone likes spellbinding stories with a hero [your client], a conflict [challenges], and a riveting resolution [best solution and results].

How do I promote my case study?

After you’ve written your case study and received the client’s approval to use it, you’ll want to get it in front of as many eyes as possible.

Try the following:

• Make sure your case studies can be easily found on your company’s homepage.
• Tweet and share the case study on your various social media accounts.
• Have your sales team use the case study as a reason to call on potential customers. For example: “Hi [prospect], we just published a case study on Company A. They were facing some of the same challenges I believe your firm is dealing with. I’m going to e-mail you a copy. Let me know what you think.”
• Distribute printed copies at trade shows, seminars, or during sales presentations.
• If you’re bidding on a job and have to submit a quote or a Request for Proposal (RFP), include relevant case studies as supporting documents.

Ready to Write a Case Study That Converts?

If you want to stand out and you want to win business, case studies should be an integral part of your sales and marketing efforts.

Hopefully, this guide answered some of your questions and laid out a path that will make it faster and easier for your team to create professional, sales-generating content.

Now it’s time to take action and get started. Gather your staff, select a client, and ask a contact to participate. Plan your interview and lead an engaging conversation. Write up your client’s story, make them shine, and then share it.

Get better at the case study process by doing it more frequently. Challenge yourself to write at least one case study every two months.

As you do, you’ll be building a valuable repository of meaningful, powerful content. These success stories will serve your business in countless ways, and for years to come.

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Written by Todd Brehe

6 thoughts on “how to write a case study: a step-by-step guide (+ examples)”.

Just the guide I needed for case studies! Great job with this one!

Hey Todd, great post here. I liked that you listed some prompting questions. Really demonstrates you know what you’re talking about. There are a bunch of Ultimate Guides out there who list the theories such as interview your customer, talk about results, etc. but really don’t help you much.

Thanks, Todd. I’ve planned a case study and this will really come in handy. Bookmarked.

Very good read. Thanks, Todd. Are there any differences between a case study and a use case, by the way?

Hi Todd, Very well-written article. This is the ultimate guide I have read till date. It has actionable points rather than some high-level gyan. Creating a new case study always works better when (1) you know the structure to follow and (2) you work in a group of 3-4 members rather than individually. Thanks for sharing this guide.

Hi Todd. Very useful guide. I learn step by step. Looking forward to continually learning from you and your team. Thanks

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Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Assignments

• Annotated Bibliography
• Analyzing a Scholarly Journal Article
• Group Presentations
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• Types of Structured Group Activities
• Group Project Survival Skills
• Leading a Class Discussion
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Works
• Writing a Case Analysis Paper
• Writing a Case Study
• About Informed Consent
• Writing Field Notes
• Writing a Policy Memo
• Writing a Reflective Paper
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Generative AI and Writing
• Acknowledgments

A case study research paper examines a person, place, event, condition, phenomenon, or other type of subject of analysis in order to extrapolate  key themes and results that help predict future trends, illuminate previously hidden issues that can be applied to practice, and/or provide a means for understanding an important research problem with greater clarity. A case study research paper usually examines a single subject of analysis, but case study papers can also be designed as a comparative investigation that shows relationships between two or more subjects. The methods used to study a case can rest within a quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-method investigative paradigm.

Case Studies. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010 ; “What is a Case Study?” In Swanborn, Peter G. Case Study Research: What, Why and How? London: SAGE, 2010.

How to Approach Writing a Case Study Research Paper

General information about how to choose a topic to investigate can be found under the " Choosing a Research Problem " tab in the Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper writing guide. Review this page because it may help you identify a subject of analysis that can be investigated using a case study design.

However, identifying a case to investigate involves more than choosing the research problem . A case study encompasses a problem contextualized around the application of in-depth analysis, interpretation, and discussion, often resulting in specific recommendations for action or for improving existing conditions. As Seawright and Gerring note, practical considerations such as time and access to information can influence case selection, but these issues should not be the sole factors used in describing the methodological justification for identifying a particular case to study. Given this, selecting a case includes considering the following:

• The case represents an unusual or atypical example of a research problem that requires more in-depth analysis? Cases often represent a topic that rests on the fringes of prior investigations because the case may provide new ways of understanding the research problem. For example, if the research problem is to identify strategies to improve policies that support girl's access to secondary education in predominantly Muslim nations, you could consider using Azerbaijan as a case study rather than selecting a more obvious nation in the Middle East. Doing so may reveal important new insights into recommending how governments in other predominantly Muslim nations can formulate policies that support improved access to education for girls.
• The case provides important insight or illuminate a previously hidden problem? In-depth analysis of a case can be based on the hypothesis that the case study will reveal trends or issues that have not been exposed in prior research or will reveal new and important implications for practice. For example, anecdotal evidence may suggest drug use among homeless veterans is related to their patterns of travel throughout the day. Assuming prior studies have not looked at individual travel choices as a way to study access to illicit drug use, a case study that observes a homeless veteran could reveal how issues of personal mobility choices facilitate regular access to illicit drugs. Note that it is important to conduct a thorough literature review to ensure that your assumption about the need to reveal new insights or previously hidden problems is valid and evidence-based.
• The case challenges and offers a counter-point to prevailing assumptions? Over time, research on any given topic can fall into a trap of developing assumptions based on outdated studies that are still applied to new or changing conditions or the idea that something should simply be accepted as "common sense," even though the issue has not been thoroughly tested in current practice. A case study analysis may offer an opportunity to gather evidence that challenges prevailing assumptions about a research problem and provide a new set of recommendations applied to practice that have not been tested previously. For example, perhaps there has been a long practice among scholars to apply a particular theory in explaining the relationship between two subjects of analysis. Your case could challenge this assumption by applying an innovative theoretical framework [perhaps borrowed from another discipline] to explore whether this approach offers new ways of understanding the research problem. Taking a contrarian stance is one of the most important ways that new knowledge and understanding develops from existing literature.
• The case provides an opportunity to pursue action leading to the resolution of a problem? Another way to think about choosing a case to study is to consider how the results from investigating a particular case may result in findings that reveal ways in which to resolve an existing or emerging problem. For example, studying the case of an unforeseen incident, such as a fatal accident at a railroad crossing, can reveal hidden issues that could be applied to preventative measures that contribute to reducing the chance of accidents in the future. In this example, a case study investigating the accident could lead to a better understanding of where to strategically locate additional signals at other railroad crossings so as to better warn drivers of an approaching train, particularly when visibility is hindered by heavy rain, fog, or at night.
• The case offers a new direction in future research? A case study can be used as a tool for an exploratory investigation that highlights the need for further research about the problem. A case can be used when there are few studies that help predict an outcome or that establish a clear understanding about how best to proceed in addressing a problem. For example, after conducting a thorough literature review [very important!], you discover that little research exists showing the ways in which women contribute to promoting water conservation in rural communities of east central Africa. A case study of how women contribute to saving water in a rural village of Uganda can lay the foundation for understanding the need for more thorough research that documents how women in their roles as cooks and family caregivers think about water as a valuable resource within their community. This example of a case study could also point to the need for scholars to build new theoretical frameworks around the topic [e.g., applying feminist theories of work and family to the issue of water conservation].

Eisenhardt, Kathleen M. “Building Theories from Case Study Research.” Academy of Management Review 14 (October 1989): 532-550; Emmel, Nick. Sampling and Choosing Cases in Qualitative Research: A Realist Approach . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2013; Gerring, John. “What Is a Case Study and What Is It Good for?” American Political Science Review 98 (May 2004): 341-354; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Seawright, Jason and John Gerring. "Case Selection Techniques in Case Study Research." Political Research Quarterly 61 (June 2008): 294-308.

Structure and Writing Style

The purpose of a paper in the social sciences designed around a case study is to thoroughly investigate a subject of analysis in order to reveal a new understanding about the research problem and, in so doing, contributing new knowledge to what is already known from previous studies. In applied social sciences disciplines [e.g., education, social work, public administration, etc.], case studies may also be used to reveal best practices, highlight key programs, or investigate interesting aspects of professional work.

In general, the structure of a case study research paper is not all that different from a standard college-level research paper. However, there are subtle differences you should be aware of. Here are the key elements to organizing and writing a case study research paper.

I.  Introduction

As with any research paper, your introduction should serve as a roadmap for your readers to ascertain the scope and purpose of your study . The introduction to a case study research paper, however, should not only describe the research problem and its significance, but you should also succinctly describe why the case is being used and how it relates to addressing the problem. The two elements should be linked. With this in mind, a good introduction answers these four questions:

• What is being studied? Describe the research problem and describe the subject of analysis [the case] you have chosen to address the problem. Explain how they are linked and what elements of the case will help to expand knowledge and understanding about the problem.
• Why is this topic important to investigate? Describe the significance of the research problem and state why a case study design and the subject of analysis that the paper is designed around is appropriate in addressing the problem.
• What did we know about this topic before I did this study? Provide background that helps lead the reader into the more in-depth literature review to follow. If applicable, summarize prior case study research applied to the research problem and why it fails to adequately address the problem. Describe why your case will be useful. If no prior case studies have been used to address the research problem, explain why you have selected this subject of analysis.
• How will this study advance new knowledge or new ways of understanding? Explain why your case study will be suitable in helping to expand knowledge and understanding about the research problem.

Each of these questions should be addressed in no more than a few paragraphs. Exceptions to this can be when you are addressing a complex research problem or subject of analysis that requires more in-depth background information.

II.  Literature Review

The literature review for a case study research paper is generally structured the same as it is for any college-level research paper. The difference, however, is that the literature review is focused on providing background information and  enabling historical interpretation of the subject of analysis in relation to the research problem the case is intended to address . This includes synthesizing studies that help to:

• Place relevant works in the context of their contribution to understanding the case study being investigated . This would involve summarizing studies that have used a similar subject of analysis to investigate the research problem. If there is literature using the same or a very similar case to study, you need to explain why duplicating past research is important [e.g., conditions have changed; prior studies were conducted long ago, etc.].
• Describe the relationship each work has to the others under consideration that informs the reader why this case is applicable . Your literature review should include a description of any works that support using the case to investigate the research problem and the underlying research questions.
• Identify new ways to interpret prior research using the case study . If applicable, review any research that has examined the research problem using a different research design. Explain how your use of a case study design may reveal new knowledge or a new perspective or that can redirect research in an important new direction.
• Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies . This refers to synthesizing any literature that points to unresolved issues of concern about the research problem and describing how the subject of analysis that forms the case study can help resolve these existing contradictions.
• Point the way in fulfilling a need for additional research . Your review should examine any literature that lays a foundation for understanding why your case study design and the subject of analysis around which you have designed your study may reveal a new way of approaching the research problem or offer a perspective that points to the need for additional research.
• Expose any gaps that exist in the literature that the case study could help to fill . Summarize any literature that not only shows how your subject of analysis contributes to understanding the research problem, but how your case contributes to a new way of understanding the problem that prior research has failed to do.
• Locate your own research within the context of existing literature [very important!] . Collectively, your literature review should always place your case study within the larger domain of prior research about the problem. The overarching purpose of reviewing pertinent literature in a case study paper is to demonstrate that you have thoroughly identified and synthesized prior studies in relation to explaining the relevance of the case in addressing the research problem.

III.  Method

In this section, you explain why you selected a particular case [i.e., subject of analysis] and the strategy you used to identify and ultimately decide that your case was appropriate in addressing the research problem. The way you describe the methods used varies depending on the type of subject of analysis that constitutes your case study.

If your subject of analysis is an incident or event . In the social and behavioral sciences, the event or incident that represents the case to be studied is usually bounded by time and place, with a clear beginning and end and with an identifiable location or position relative to its surroundings. The subject of analysis can be a rare or critical event or it can focus on a typical or regular event. The purpose of studying a rare event is to illuminate new ways of thinking about the broader research problem or to test a hypothesis. Critical incident case studies must describe the method by which you identified the event and explain the process by which you determined the validity of this case to inform broader perspectives about the research problem or to reveal new findings. However, the event does not have to be a rare or uniquely significant to support new thinking about the research problem or to challenge an existing hypothesis. For example, Walo, Bull, and Breen conducted a case study to identify and evaluate the direct and indirect economic benefits and costs of a local sports event in the City of Lismore, New South Wales, Australia. The purpose of their study was to provide new insights from measuring the impact of a typical local sports event that prior studies could not measure well because they focused on large "mega-events." Whether the event is rare or not, the methods section should include an explanation of the following characteristics of the event: a) when did it take place; b) what were the underlying circumstances leading to the event; and, c) what were the consequences of the event in relation to the research problem.

If your subject of analysis is a person. Explain why you selected this particular individual to be studied and describe what experiences they have had that provide an opportunity to advance new understandings about the research problem. Mention any background about this person which might help the reader understand the significance of their experiences that make them worthy of study. This includes describing the relationships this person has had with other people, institutions, and/or events that support using them as the subject for a case study research paper. It is particularly important to differentiate the person as the subject of analysis from others and to succinctly explain how the person relates to examining the research problem [e.g., why is one politician in a particular local election used to show an increase in voter turnout from any other candidate running in the election]. Note that these issues apply to a specific group of people used as a case study unit of analysis [e.g., a classroom of students].

If your subject of analysis is a place. In general, a case study that investigates a place suggests a subject of analysis that is unique or special in some way and that this uniqueness can be used to build new understanding or knowledge about the research problem. A case study of a place must not only describe its various attributes relevant to the research problem [e.g., physical, social, historical, cultural, economic, political], but you must state the method by which you determined that this place will illuminate new understandings about the research problem. It is also important to articulate why a particular place as the case for study is being used if similar places also exist [i.e., if you are studying patterns of homeless encampments of veterans in open spaces, explain why you are studying Echo Park in Los Angeles rather than Griffith Park?]. If applicable, describe what type of human activity involving this place makes it a good choice to study [e.g., prior research suggests Echo Park has more homeless veterans].

If your subject of analysis is a phenomenon. A phenomenon refers to a fact, occurrence, or circumstance that can be studied or observed but with the cause or explanation to be in question. In this sense, a phenomenon that forms your subject of analysis can encompass anything that can be observed or presumed to exist but is not fully understood. In the social and behavioral sciences, the case usually focuses on human interaction within a complex physical, social, economic, cultural, or political system. For example, the phenomenon could be the observation that many vehicles used by ISIS fighters are small trucks with English language advertisements on them. The research problem could be that ISIS fighters are difficult to combat because they are highly mobile. The research questions could be how and by what means are these vehicles used by ISIS being supplied to the militants and how might supply lines to these vehicles be cut off? How might knowing the suppliers of these trucks reveal larger networks of collaborators and financial support? A case study of a phenomenon most often encompasses an in-depth analysis of a cause and effect that is grounded in an interactive relationship between people and their environment in some way.

NOTE:   The choice of the case or set of cases to study cannot appear random. Evidence that supports the method by which you identified and chose your subject of analysis should clearly support investigation of the research problem and linked to key findings from your literature review. Be sure to cite any studies that helped you determine that the case you chose was appropriate for examining the problem.

IV.  Discussion

The main elements of your discussion section are generally the same as any research paper, but centered around interpreting and drawing conclusions about the key findings from your analysis of the case study. Note that a general social sciences research paper may contain a separate section to report findings. However, in a paper designed around a case study, it is common to combine a description of the results with the discussion about their implications. The objectives of your discussion section should include the following:

Reiterate the Research Problem/State the Major Findings Briefly reiterate the research problem you are investigating and explain why the subject of analysis around which you designed the case study were used. You should then describe the findings revealed from your study of the case using direct, declarative, and succinct proclamation of the study results. Highlight any findings that were unexpected or especially profound.

Explain the Meaning of the Findings and Why They are Important Systematically explain the meaning of your case study findings and why you believe they are important. Begin this part of the section by repeating what you consider to be your most important or surprising finding first, then systematically review each finding. Be sure to thoroughly extrapolate what your analysis of the case can tell the reader about situations or conditions beyond the actual case that was studied while, at the same time, being careful not to misconstrue or conflate a finding that undermines the external validity of your conclusions.

Relate the Findings to Similar Studies No study in the social sciences is so novel or possesses such a restricted focus that it has absolutely no relation to previously published research. The discussion section should relate your case study results to those found in other studies, particularly if questions raised from prior studies served as the motivation for choosing your subject of analysis. This is important because comparing and contrasting the findings of other studies helps support the overall importance of your results and it highlights how and in what ways your case study design and the subject of analysis differs from prior research about the topic.

Consider Alternative Explanations of the Findings Remember that the purpose of social science research is to discover and not to prove. When writing the discussion section, you should carefully consider all possible explanations revealed by the case study results, rather than just those that fit your hypothesis or prior assumptions and biases. Be alert to what the in-depth analysis of the case may reveal about the research problem, including offering a contrarian perspective to what scholars have stated in prior research if that is how the findings can be interpreted from your case.

Acknowledge the Study's Limitations You can state the study's limitations in the conclusion section of your paper but describing the limitations of your subject of analysis in the discussion section provides an opportunity to identify the limitations and explain why they are not significant. This part of the discussion section should also note any unanswered questions or issues your case study could not address. More detailed information about how to document any limitations to your research can be found here .

Suggest Areas for Further Research Although your case study may offer important insights about the research problem, there are likely additional questions related to the problem that remain unanswered or findings that unexpectedly revealed themselves as a result of your in-depth analysis of the case. Be sure that the recommendations for further research are linked to the research problem and that you explain why your recommendations are valid in other contexts and based on the original assumptions of your study.

V.  Conclusion

As with any research paper, you should summarize your conclusion in clear, simple language; emphasize how the findings from your case study differs from or supports prior research and why. Do not simply reiterate the discussion section. Provide a synthesis of key findings presented in the paper to show how these converge to address the research problem. If you haven't already done so in the discussion section, be sure to document the limitations of your case study and any need for further research.

The function of your paper's conclusion is to: 1) reiterate the main argument supported by the findings from your case study; 2) state clearly the context, background, and necessity of pursuing the research problem using a case study design in relation to an issue, controversy, or a gap found from reviewing the literature; and, 3) provide a place to persuasively and succinctly restate the significance of your research problem, given that the reader has now been presented with in-depth information about the topic.

Consider the following points to help ensure your conclusion is appropriate:

• If the argument or purpose of your paper is complex, you may need to summarize these points for your reader.
• If prior to your conclusion, you have not yet explained the significance of your findings or if you are proceeding inductively, use the conclusion of your paper to describe your main points and explain their significance.
• Move from a detailed to a general level of consideration of the case study's findings that returns the topic to the context provided by the introduction or within a new context that emerges from your case study findings.

Note that, depending on the discipline you are writing in or the preferences of your professor, the concluding paragraph may contain your final reflections on the evidence presented as it applies to practice or on the essay's central research problem. However, the nature of being introspective about the subject of analysis you have investigated will depend on whether you are explicitly asked to express your observations in this way.

Problems to Avoid

Overgeneralization One of the goals of a case study is to lay a foundation for understanding broader trends and issues applied to similar circumstances. However, be careful when drawing conclusions from your case study. They must be evidence-based and grounded in the results of the study; otherwise, it is merely speculation. Looking at a prior example, it would be incorrect to state that a factor in improving girls access to education in Azerbaijan and the policy implications this may have for improving access in other Muslim nations is due to girls access to social media if there is no documentary evidence from your case study to indicate this. There may be anecdotal evidence that retention rates were better for girls who were engaged with social media, but this observation would only point to the need for further research and would not be a definitive finding if this was not a part of your original research agenda.

Failure to Document Limitations No case is going to reveal all that needs to be understood about a research problem. Therefore, just as you have to clearly state the limitations of a general research study , you must describe the specific limitations inherent in the subject of analysis. For example, the case of studying how women conceptualize the need for water conservation in a village in Uganda could have limited application in other cultural contexts or in areas where fresh water from rivers or lakes is plentiful and, therefore, conservation is understood more in terms of managing access rather than preserving access to a scarce resource.

Failure to Extrapolate All Possible Implications Just as you don't want to over-generalize from your case study findings, you also have to be thorough in the consideration of all possible outcomes or recommendations derived from your findings. If you do not, your reader may question the validity of your analysis, particularly if you failed to document an obvious outcome from your case study research. For example, in the case of studying the accident at the railroad crossing to evaluate where and what types of warning signals should be located, you failed to take into consideration speed limit signage as well as warning signals. When designing your case study, be sure you have thoroughly addressed all aspects of the problem and do not leave gaps in your analysis that leave the reader questioning the results.

Case Studies. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Gerring, John. Case Study Research: Principles and Practices . New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007; Merriam, Sharan B. Qualitative Research and Case Study Applications in Education . Rev. ed. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1998; Miller, Lisa L. “The Use of Case Studies in Law and Social Science Research.” Annual Review of Law and Social Science 14 (2018): TBD; Mills, Albert J., Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Putney, LeAnn Grogan. "Case Study." In Encyclopedia of Research Design , Neil J. Salkind, editor. (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010), pp. 116-120; Simons, Helen. Case Study Research in Practice . London: SAGE Publications, 2009;  Kratochwill,  Thomas R. and Joel R. Levin, editors. Single-Case Research Design and Analysis: New Development for Psychology and Education .  Hilldsale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1992; Swanborn, Peter G. Case Study Research: What, Why and How? London : SAGE, 2010; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research: Design and Methods . 6th edition. Los Angeles, CA, SAGE Publications, 2014; Walo, Maree, Adrian Bull, and Helen Breen. “Achieving Economic Benefits at Local Events: A Case Study of a Local Sports Event.” Festival Management and Event Tourism 4 (1996): 95-106.

Writing Tip

At Least Five Misconceptions about Case Study Research

Social science case studies are often perceived as limited in their ability to create new knowledge because they are not randomly selected and findings cannot be generalized to larger populations. Flyvbjerg examines five misunderstandings about case study research and systematically "corrects" each one. To quote, these are:

Misunderstanding 1 :  General, theoretical [context-independent] knowledge is more valuable than concrete, practical [context-dependent] knowledge. Misunderstanding 2 :  One cannot generalize on the basis of an individual case; therefore, the case study cannot contribute to scientific development. Misunderstanding 3 :  The case study is most useful for generating hypotheses; that is, in the first stage of a total research process, whereas other methods are more suitable for hypotheses testing and theory building. Misunderstanding 4 :  The case study contains a bias toward verification, that is, a tendency to confirm the researcher’s preconceived notions. Misunderstanding 5 :  It is often difficult to summarize and develop general propositions and theories on the basis of specific case studies [p. 221].

While writing your paper, think introspectively about how you addressed these misconceptions because to do so can help you strengthen the validity and reliability of your research by clarifying issues of case selection, the testing and challenging of existing assumptions, the interpretation of key findings, and the summation of case outcomes. Think of a case study research paper as a complete, in-depth narrative about the specific properties and key characteristics of your subject of analysis applied to the research problem.

Flyvbjerg, Bent. “Five Misunderstandings About Case-Study Research.” Qualitative Inquiry 12 (April 2006): 219-245.

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How To Outline a Case Study: 15 Examples & Templates

Written by: Christopher Jan Benitez

They allow you to make your business more appealing to your target audience, resulting in more leads and customers moving forward.

By definition, you should create more of these studies to show your business’s effectiveness to people, right?

But before you do, you must learn how to outline them first.

This post discusses how you can develop a case study outline, which templates to use, and best practices to follow.

Here’s a short selection of 8 easy-to-edit case study templates you can edit, share and download with Visme. View more templates below:

Table of Contents

What is a case study, what is a case study outline, how do you write a case study outline, 15 case study outline examples, design tips for your case study outline, create your case study with visme.

A case study is a real-life success story of a customer who faced challenges and managed to overcome them by using your products or services. It's like a narrative that tells the tale of how someone benefited from what you have to offer. It's a way to showcase the practical application of your solutions in a specific situation and demonstrate the value they bring. So, it's not just a theoretical explanation but an engaging story that highlights the positive outcomes achieved by your customer.

Beyond business, case studies are commonly used in other settings, like academics, social sciences, medicine, psychology, and education. A case study is an in-depth examination and analysis of a specific individual, group, organization, event, or situation. It involves gathering detailed information and data to gain an extensive understanding of the subject being studied.

A case study outline is a roadmap for creating a solid case study report. It helps you organize and present all the important elements in a structured way. Think of it as a blueprint that guides you through the process. Of course, the specific outline can vary depending on why you're doing the case study and the specific situation you're studying. So, it's adaptable to fit your needs and make sure you cover everything necessary.

Made with Visme Infographic Maker

Below are the main parts of a typical case study outline:

• Introduction: Describe the customer or client who is the focus of the case study.
• Problem: Identify the client's issue, which is why they sought your help in the first place.
• Goals/Solutions: Enumerate the goals you wish to achieve with the strategy you developed for this client. Then, discuss the tactics you used in the hopes of achieving these objectives.
• Results/Achievements: Talk about the positive results of your campaign using data and figures. This section should emphasize the effectiveness of your business in solving the problem through your products and services.

If you want a head start with your case studies, use any of Visme's templates below.

Most of these templates contain the main parts mentioned above. Once you’ve chosen a case study template , simply edit it to best explain your case to prospects.

Choose from built-in graphics ranging from video backgrounds to fonts and place them in the presentation using Visme's drag-and-drop builder.

You can also collaborate with team members when editing the case study online template to finish the presentation ahead of time.

1. Medical Case Study

This blue-themed outline template is for you if you're in the medical field and doing a case study on a patient. It contains a table of laboratory findings and clinical manifestations, which lead to your diagnosis and conclusions.

2. Intel Case Study

This simple light-red template is perfect for tech companies looking to quickly present their case study with an overview of its background, goals, and strategy. It ends the presentation by going through the study’s figures and data.

3. UX Case Study

This zesty template tackles how a change in a site or app's user interface generated massive results in conversions. It lays down the site's problem and approach to solving it before dealing with the results.

4. Bit.ly Case Study

For marketers looking to track campaign results launched across various marketing channels, this template is for them. It briefly explains the background and goal of the case in the first place and the obstacles and results in the next.

5. Adobe Case Study

This orange and blue magenta template is heavy on text as it explains how your brand achieved positive results for a client campaign. Show this to similar prospects whom you're looking to turn into clients.

6. Fuji Xerox Australia Business Equipment Case Study

Marketing agencies looking for print businesses or similar to turn into clients won't go wrong with this blue three-page template. It details the case study background, goals, and achievements before concluding with its key results.

7. College For Adult Learning Training Organization Case Study

Marketers with a great track record of helping educational institutions will have great use for this red and blue-magenta template. From here, they can convert similar prospects into clients by showing your case study’s achievements and goals.

8. NVISIONCenters Case Study

A marketing strategy that works is what turns business owners into your clients. With this pink and medium blue template, your agency can showcase your expertise by featuring the results of your strategy with a previous client.

9. Neutrogena Case Study

This blue-themed template shows how a marketing agency could integrate mobile technology to generate sales in a client’s retail stores. It uses a fair share of images and text to communicate its solution and results.

10. Social Media Case Study

This red-on-blue template features the transformative power of social media when used correctly in a marketing campaign. Companies that offer social media marketing can use this to showcase their own successful campaigns.

11. Weebly Case Study

This template uses waves in the layout to add texture to your case study presentation . It's also short enough to help you share your marketing achievements with prospects looking to grow their ROI.

12. Small Business Accounting Case Study

Accounting firms looking to leverage case studies to bolster their leads will find this cyan-themed template useful. This text-heavy template shows prospects how they helped clients manage their receipts and expenditures.

13. Real Estate Development During COVID 19 Case Study

Lots of businesses were hit hard during COVID-19, but not all. If you find yourself in the latter and wish to share with potential clients the progress your clients during this period have made with your help, this theme template is for you.

14. Digital Marketing in Consumer Goods Case Study

This dynamic case study template benefits from its healthy balance of text and image and orange and cyan-blue theme. It allows marketing companies to make their case to prospects looking to promote their new line of products.

15. Automobile Company Case Study

B2B companies benefit the most from case studies due to their complex pricing structure. Therefore, this template is the best for such companies, as it breaks down the entire process to help justify their costs and enable prospects to make informed decisions.

Below are design tips you must keep in mind when outlining your case study:

Use White Space

Great attention to detail in a case study allows you to show off your initiative or campaign to your audience.

However, information becomes detrimental if you overload your audience with too much exposition page after page.

The best way to design your case study or any presentation is to utilize white space as much as possible.

It may sound counterintuitive to leave certain sections of your case study blank as if you’re wasting valuable real estate.

On the contrary, white space is simply a good design principle that enables information on your case study to breathe, giving your audience ample time to digest the information before hopping onto the next section properly.

To help create white space in your case study, limit your paragraphs to two s hort sentences each. Using graphics also enables you to create more white space due to their size.

Maximize Visuals

Case studies require lots of words so you can adequately present your exposition and explain how you achieved the positive results with your process.

But when designing your case study online, you should consider using visuals to explain things much easier for your audience.

Since a picture is worth a thousand words, as the saying goes, using images correctly allows you to use fewer words in your case study.

And because people process images much faster than words, they can comprehend the details in your presentation much easier.

The most common example of visuals in case studies is graphs and charts when presenting figures.

From Visme’s editor, click on the Data button from the side menu on the left to see templates of charts, tables, and radials you can drag and drop onto your presentation.

But using icons and graphics helps you communicate your message more effectively than just plain text.

From the editor again, click on Graphics to choose from over 500,000 stock photos and icons.

You can also upload your images to make your case study even more unique.

Incorporate Branding

Throughout the case study, you want people to know the role your company played for the positive results your clients experienced with their business.

And it’s just not slapping your logo on the cover of the case study. You must also use the color , font , and other elements that are part of your brand guidelines in your case study outline.

Doing so enables you to remain consistent with your visual identity , which makes associating your company with the case study much easier for people.

If you’re constantly designing visual content for presentations and reports, Visme’s Brand Wizard lets you build your brand kit on the platform by importing your website URL.

To do this, log in to your dashboard and click the “My Brand” button on the left.

Once the page loads, you’ll find the Brand Wizard link. Click on it so you can enter the URL of your domain.

From here, Visme will take the logo, colors, and fonts you used on your site and include them in your brand kit.

Aside from your visual brand, you should maintain your brand’s tone and voice in the case study’s copy. For example, how you write the background, solutions, and achievements should reflect how your website’s copy reads like.

Make It Interactive

Most case studies are factual presentations of work done for a specific client. Unfortunately, this lends to a certain dullness in which the audience has nothing to do but sit down and listen to them.

But there’s a way to make your case study engaging so that your audience can be part of it instead of just bystanders.

For example, you can have your highlighted customer share a screen recording or audio file about how your company helped this person improve their business. From here, you can embed the files into your case study, which your audience can play anytime they want.

With Visme, you can make these interactive content show as popups in your presentation.

Select the element that people will click on to trigger the popup. Then, choose Actions > Hotspot from the floating bar before linking the video uploaded onto the cloud to the case study.

Here’s a video on how to create popups with your interactive content:

You can also add a voiceover in your presentation to help people with reading disabilities understand the contents of your case study.

If you want to close your audience to clients or customers of your brand, you must present your case study in the best way possible.

Following the design tips above is a great place to start. But you probably won’t be able to implement them properly unless you possess the necessary design skills.

With Visme, however, you don’t have to be a professional designer to produce professional-looking case studies that will wow your audience.

Just choose from our case study outline templates and edit each using the platform’s built-in features.

Easily put together professional case studies in Visme

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About the Author

Christopher Jan Benitez is a freelance writer who specializes in digital marketing. His work has been published on SEO and affiliate marketing-specific niches like Monitor Backlinks, Niche Pursuits, Nichehacks, Web Hosting Secret Revealed, and others.

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How To Write A Case Study [Template plus 20+ Examples]

In an era where every niche seems completely saturated, learning how to write a case study is one of the most important time investments you can make in your business.

That’s because case studies help you present a compelling story of success to bottom-of–funnel decision makers. Do it right, and a solid case study can greatly increase your chances of closing new deals.

A 2023 study from the Content Marketing Institute found that 36% of B2B marketers consider case studies to be effective tools for converting prospects into customers.

In this article, I’ll show you step-by-step exactly how to write a case study that makes an impact. Along the way, I’ll highlight several stellar case studies that illustrate how to do it right.

What you will learn

• What a case study is and what it's not.
• How an effective case study can help establish you as an expert and land more clients.
• How to choose the right topic for your case study, taking into account client successes and broad appeal in your customer's industry.
• The essential parts of a good case study and how to write each one.
• Style and formatting points that will make your case study stand out for readers to understand.
• 4 tips for conducting an effective client interview.
• 6 real-life case studies that you can use as examples for creating your own customer stories.

What is a case study?

A case study is a detailed story about how your products or services helped a client overcome a challenge or meet a goal. Its main purpose is to prove to potential customers that you understand their problems and have the experience and expertise to help solve them.

But, even though a case study can help you attract and win customers, it's not just an advertisement for your offerings.

In truth, your company shouldn’t even be the main focus of a good case study.

Instead, a winning case study follows a successful business transformation from beginning to end and shows how you made it all possible for your client.

An example of a case study that conveys a strong customer story is the deep dive we did into how ClickUp used SurferSEO to boost their blog traffic by 85% in a year.

Why you should write a case study

The most obvious reason why you should write a case study is that it's a great way to show potential customers how others in their position have benefited from your product or service.

Here are a few of the key benefits of writing a case study, all of which can help you turn readers into customers.

Demonstrates expertise 

A well-written case study shows clearly how your company solved a complex problem or helped a particular customer make improvements using your solution.

This is the sort of expertise other potential clients will look for when they run into the same sort of issues.

For instance, one of CrowdStrike's case studies shows how they helped Vijilan scale its logging capacity so they could stop turning away business.

This positions CrowdStrike as experts in helping deal with log management issues.

Other companies dealing with their own logging problems will definitely find this to be a compelling story. And you can bet CrowdStrike will be on their short list of potential solution providers after reading this case study.

Educates potential customers 

You might have the best product on the market, but it won't do you any good if potential clients don't understand how it might help them.

A case study breaks down those barriers by showing real-life examples of your product in action, helping other customers solve their problems.

A good example is the Trello case study library .

Each story gives detailed examples showing how the customer uses Trello and includes actual screenshots from their workflows.

Here is an interesting snapshot from the BurgerFi example.

Here, you get a glimpse of a live Trello board that BurgerFi uses to manage their marketing assets.

By showing how existing clients use your product, you make it a lot easier for future customers to imagine how it might work for their needs, too.

Generates leads 

A strong case study is a valuable piece of content that provides insights and can help companies make decisions.

Many of them would be happy to give you their contact information in exchange for the chance to read about potential solutions to their problems.

That combination of valuable content and a hungry market makes case studies great tools for lead generation.

You can either gate part of your case study and leave the rest of it public, or require an email address and other contact information in order to download the full study.

That's the approach Pulsara took in detailing how their telehealth communication platform helped EvergreenHealth improve efficiency:

The names and addresses you collect with this approach will be about as warm as you could ever hope for since they probably have the same sort of problems you solved in your case study.

Along the same lines, case studies can be extremely effective in upselling or cross-selling other products to the decision-makers who read them.

And they are great tools for persuading a client to make a purchase with you.

Indeed, a great case study can often be the "final straw" that lands you a client considering your services.

A 2023 survey by Uplift Content , for example, found that 39% of SaaS marketers ranked case studies as being very effective for increasing sales.

That made it their #1 tactic for the second year in a row.

Builds trust 

Potential clients want to know that they can trust you to handle their business with care and to deliver on your promises.

A case study is the perfect vehicle to show that you can do just that.

Take advantage of that opportunity to present statistics, client testimonials, graphics, and any other proof that you can get results.

For example, in their case study about helping a law firm uncover critical data for a tricky case, Kroll shows us just how much they were able to cut through the noise:

Any law firm staring at its own pile of documents to search through would love to have that haystack reduced by a factor of 32.5x, too.

And Sodexo makes good use of customer testimonials in their case studies, like this quote from the procurement lead for a Montana mining company.

Having existing customers tell the world that they count on you is powerful free advertising and builds trust with your readers. That can help transform them into customers down the road.

Provides social proof 

You can also use your case study to show that your product or service works in a specific industry.

Real-world examples of customer success stories position you as someone their peers and competitors can turn to, too.

For instance, Stericycle details how they helped seven children's hospitals get a handle on their "sharps" management:

They also include glowing quotes from hospital leaders in the same study.

Other hospitals looking for help in disposing of their hazardous waste will know right away after reading this study that Stericycle understands their needs.

This is the type of social proof that can really help establish you as a go-to solution for the industries you serve.

How to choose a subject for your case study

In order to get the most bang for your buck from your case study, you need to make sure you pick a topic that resonates with your target audience. And one that can make your solution look its best.

Below are 4 ways to select the best subject for your case study.

1. Choose a popular topic

Make sure the topic you tackle in your case study is one that most of your potential clients are searching for.

You may be tempted to highlight an unusual project that you find especially interesting. But that usually won't have the same sort of selling power as a topic with more broad appeal.

For instance, Aruba Networks has helped colleges and universities with all sorts of networking projects. Some of those involve really fascinating edge cases like research labs, esports arenas, and other innovative solutions.

But what most schools are looking for in a network upgrade is improving connectivity across campus while enhancing security and saving money.

Those are exactly the outcomes Aruba focuses on in its Doane University case study .

Remember that your case study is likely to be read by decision-makers at the bottom of the sales funnel who are ready to buy.

Your content needs to resonate with them and address the questions they want answered in order to make their decision.

Aruba tackles their customers' concerns head-on throughout the Doane study, as you can see from their section headings:

• "Realizing a hyper-connected vision"
• "10X throughput eliminates academic barriers"
• "More secure with less effort"
• "Greener and more resilient at better insurance rates"

College administrators can see at a glance that Aruba understands their needs and has helped other institutions with similar problems.

2. Consider relevance and attractiveness

Although you want to choose a popular subject for your case study (as discussed above), it's also important to make sure it's relevant to your target audience.

For instance, if you provide design services, a one-off project you did to help a local company set up its website might have taught you a lot. But most of your potential readers will be much more interested in reading about how your designs helped that client improve brand perception.

It’s also best to choose a situation where your product or service is used in a way that you expect most potential users to adopt. 

For example, Allegion's Mount Holyoke case study (PDF) details how one campus used their products to move to contactless and mobile entry systems.

Students today demand more control over their physical security than ever before. And the administrative overhead of managing thousands of doors and physical keys on a college campus is enormous.

As a result, most schools are interested in using technology to enable their students and reduce staffing costs.

Allegion hits those points dead-on with this case study.

An added benefit of choosing a topic with broad appeal among your target client base is that you can use the content in your normal distribution channels.

For example, you can publish all or part of it as a blog post, include it in your newsletter, or use it as the basis for a YouTube video. Wherever your audience is, that's probably a good place to promote your case study.

3. Identify a 5 star use case

A case study is like a sales executive for your company.

It needs to show your product or service in the best possible light and highlight its features and benefits while distinguishing it from other products.

Choose a client example that really makes your solution look like a superstar and showcases its most outstanding attributes.

You should also avoid showing your product or service being used in a novel or completely innovative way. While that can provide some solid insight, you risk alienating your typical client who needs to know that you can solve their specific problem.

Instead, your case study should demonstrate how your solution took on a common industry problem and delivered stellar results.

A great example is Beckman Coulter's case study that details their work with Alverno Labs.

The objective was to reduce the time it took Alverno to deliver lab test results while reducing operating costs, which are common goals for many testing labs.

The case study presents a detailed description of how Beckman Coulter implemented a continuous improvement process for Alverno. They enhance the discussion with several meaty visuals like this project roadmap:

They also include plenty of tangible data to prove their success.

And of course, include direct client testimonials:

From top to bottom, this case study proves that Beckman Coulter understands their customers business needs and can offer top-notch solutions.

4. Find a satisfied customer

You're going to need input from your client in order to build the most complete and accurate case study that you can.

So when you're trying to choose a customer story to use, look for a client who is happy to share their positive experience working with you.

Try to find one who seems genuinely eager to talk so that they will be timely with their responses to your questions.

If you have a customer who is willing to sit down for an actual interview with you, they're a great candidate. You'll get answers quickly, and the client is obviously comfortable enough with your relationship to talk with you directly.

A good example that focuses on a satisfied client comes from Aerofloat, an Australian wastewater treatment company.

In their Norco Food Case Study , Aerofloat reports that Norco hired them for additional projects as a result of their successful prior engagement:

It's always good to show prospective clients that your existing customers stick with you.

So try to pick a case study done in collaboration with a current client, not one from the past.

Aerofloat also highlights their ongoing relationship with Norco by also including them in the customer list on their About page:

How to write a case study

Now that we’ve covered the benefits of writing a case study and figured out how to pick the best topic for your situation, it’s time to get down to the business of writing.

Below is a rundown of the sections that make up the structure of a typical case study. For each piece, I’ll show you what types of content you should include and give you an example of a study that does it right.

Here are 8 tips to writing a case study.

1. Attention grabbing title

The title of your case study needs to grab potential readers attention and convince them that this is a valuable piece of content.

Make your title catchy, concise, and descriptive, just like you would for a good blog post. But you also need to make sure you give your readers a clear idea of what the case study is about.

Offer them at least a hint of the type of results you were able to deliver, too.

It’s a good idea to use numbers here – the higher, the better. It's especially effective if you can show how quickly you got results and how much money your client saved or made as a result of working with you.

Our ClickUp case study that I mentioned earlier is a good example. The full title is

SurferSEO Helps ClickUp Publish 150+ Articles And Achieve Blog Traffic Growth of 85% in 12 Months.

Here are some other case studies that make effective use of numbers in their titles:

• Healthcare Administrative Partners Increases Online Patient Payments by 20% in Two Months
• Case Study: Taylor Kotwa, Sprinter, Increases FTP 7% in 4 months
• Case Study: Lakeview Farms Reduced Downtime by 36% in 6 Months
• CASELY case study: Improved first response time by 10x while experiencing 16,954% growth

This type of headline gives potential clients a sense that you will work with urgency to improve their bottom-line results.

2. Hook readers in your introduction

The introduction of your case study should set the stage for the comprehensive narrative that follows.

Give a brief description of the problem for context and quickly introduce the customer's story. Touch on the results you helped them achieve, but don't go overboard on details.

Overall, the introduction should give your reader just enough information to keep them engaged and ready to move into the heart of the case study.

It should also establish that they're in the right place and that you are the right person to be telling this story.

This case study about the cybersecurity program at Investors Bank includes a solid example of an effective introduction:

3. Highlight the challenge

This section should clearly outline the problem or challenge that your customer is facing.

Help your readers understand why a solution was necessary, and why that specific pain point was bothering the client. 

And, since this is the entire motivation for the project in the first place, don't skimp on details.

For instance, one of Verkada's case studies explains why maintaining security cameras is a huge challenge for Crystal Mountain Resort in Washington state. They start off with a direct quote from the resort's IT director:

The elevation tops out at a little over 7,000 feet, so the weather conditions can get extreme. We needed durable cameras capable of handling everything from snowstorms to 100 MPH winds.

That makes it crystal clear what sort of problem Crystal Mountain was facing.

The case study then adds more detail with separate subsections about hardware durability, image quality, and cumbersome footage retrieval.

By the time they finish reading this section, your readers should have no doubt about what the problem is and why a solution is needed.

4. Solve their problem

The solution section is one of the most important parts of a case study.

This is your chance to describe how your product or service provided a solution to the problem or challenge your client was having.

It's where you can really start to make a connection with potential new clients by showing them that you understand the issue at hand.

First, provide some details about how you analyzed the situation. The Kroll case study on handling critical legal data mentioned earlier does a great job of this with bullet points describing their research process.

This type of analysis helps build confidence that you take a thorough approach to your engagements and are looking out for your clients best interests.

Now you can move on to describe the solution you and your client chose based on your investigation.

In their legal case study, Kroll determined that the best solution involved digitizing thousands of paper documents and using AI to analyze more than a million documents.

Kroll describes in detail how they used their RelativityOne system to achieve those goals:

This level of detail helps prospective customers better understand the root cause of their problems and positions you as the right company to solve them.

5. Showcase your results

The results section is all about proving that you can actually deliver on the promise of your proposed solution. Go heavy on the details here, too, and make sure your readers understand the results you achieved.

Wherever possible, use specific numbers and data points to show exactly how effective your solution was for your client.

A good example is this BetterBricks case study showing how they helped an aerospace company slash energy costs.

They distilled their bottom line results into a simple table:

The text of the study then goes into more detail about what these numbers mean, but this quick graphic lets readers know right away the scope of the results achieved.

Here is a sampling of BetterBrick’s more detailed explanation of their results in this case:

This is your place to really crow about the success you achieved with your client, so make it as obvious as possible just how impactful you were.

6. Use multimedia well

One way to make a lasting impression on potential clients is to include relevant visuals throughout your case study.

Graphs, screenshots, and product photos help break up the text and make your study more engaging overall.

But they can also add details to your story and make a memorable visual impact beyond what mere words can accomplish.

We got a taste of that with the table of results in the BetterBricks example above, but that's just the start.

Inrix is a good example of a company that loads up its case studies with insightful and engaging media to tell a better story.

For instance, in their breakdown of a collaboration with the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation (DOT), Inrix uses charts, tables, and graphs throughout.

One innovative example is this diagram about crash distances:

This really brings the idea to life in a way that words alone can't, and it's likely to stick with readers long after they've clicked off the case study.

Other types of media that companies use to good effect in their case studies include pictures of key client stakeholders, interactive charts, tables, and simple graphs.

You can see in this high-level overview that Inrix includes most of these in their Pennsylvania DOT case study:

You can even use video to demonstrate your solution or to share a client testimonial.

If possible, include direct quotes from your client to add authenticity to the case study.

This will show potential customers that you and your existing client have a good relationship and that they value your work.

It’s pretty compelling stuff to have a ringing endorsement like this one from an EnergyCAP case study , to show your readers:

You can place customer quotes throughout the case study to highlight important points, and you should definitely try to include at least one that shows overall customer satisfaction.

Chances are you have some of these quotes already in the form of testimonials or as part of the customer interview you conducted in preparing for your case study (more on that later).

You can use those quotes here if they fit the context of your case study.

That will save time and red tape for both you and your client since they'll be reviewing your final case study before it goes live anyway.

8. Conclusion

The conclusion should summarize the key points of the case study and reinforce the success of the solution. It could also include a call to action, encouraging readers to try your product or service or to get in touch for more information.

You might also include information about future plans with the client to reinforce the idea that your relationship is strong and ongoing.

That's the approach that Gravitate Design used in their case study about helping GoBeyond with their bounce rates and time on page:

Like the introduction, the conclusion section of a case study should be short and sweet, giving just enough detail to make the reader want to hear more from you.

Checklist for case studies

Beyond the story that you want to tell in your case study, you also need to pay attention to several other factors. Indeed, the layout and format of your study can have a big impact on how effective it is at keeping your readers engaged and delivering your message.

Here is a quick checklist for creating case studies.

Break up the text with headings and subheadings

Big blocks of text can be intimidating and make it tough for your audience to stay on track.

In contrast, a case study with clear headings and subheadings throughout breaks up the story and gives readers visual clues about what's coming.

This also makes the case study easier for readers to scan and helps you keep each section focused on a single idea.

Use bullet points for lists or key points

Along the same lines, bullet points let you present important information in small bits that are easy for readers to digest.

Some of the best uses of bullet points include:

• A series of facts or tips
• A list of product features or benefits
• A quick summary of results
• Steps in a how-to procedure
• A rundown of multiple statistics

For these bite-sized hunks of detail, bullets often make for a much cleaner and readable list than jamming all the information into a single paragraph. 

Bullet point lists also make great quick references for readers to come back to later.

Highlight key points with bold or italic text

Bold and italic text draws the reader’s eyes to the words you highlight, which lets you really drive home key ideas in your case study.

You can use this technique to introduce new terms, place emphasis on a sentence, and showcase important parts of your approach or results.

Like bullet points, bold and italic text also give readers a visual anchor for reference as they’re working through your document.

Make paragraphs short and to-the-point

Aim for 3-4 sentences per paragraph to keep the text readable and engaging. Each paragraph should focus on one main idea to support the subject of the section it’s in.

Using short paragraphs tells readers at a glance that there are break points throughout your case study and helps keep them engaged.

Keep consistent length across the case study 

Throughout all parts of your case study, try to cover your main points in detail without overwhelming the reader.

Your potential clients are there to find a possible solution to their problems, not to read a novel.

Give them an inviting document structure and then lead them through each section with clear explanations and no fluff.

Adjust the length based on the complexity of the subject 

The flip side of the tip above about keeping your case study tight and focused is that you need to make sure you cover your topic in detail.

Very complex topics will require more explanation and longer overall case studies than simpler subjects.

For example, a case study about paving a church parking lot might be pretty short.

But a story about implementing a comprehensive information security program for a state government will likely be much longer and more detailed.

Include a summary with some takeaways 

At the end of your case study, summarize the key takeaways and results to reinforce the message you’re trying to get across.

Briefly recap the problem your client was facing, the solution you came up with, and the results you achieved. Think of this as an executive summary that gives business leaders the TL;DR version of your customer’s success story.

Content Snare includes an eye-catching summary in the case study detailing their efforts to grow their email list:

The overall goal is to leave potential clients with a good last impression and invite them to contact you with questions.

Use visuals to break up text and illustrate points

As we saw in the "How to write a case study" section above, graphs, charts, or images can make your case study more engaging and help illustrate key ideas or results. They also add visual variety and help break up the monotony of text-heavy studies.

Use these types of visuals to help keep your readers interested and make your story more complete.

Below is a high-level view of a portion of Advanced HPC’s Philips case study , which does a great job of incorporating the points in this section. It pulls together all the visual elements to create a very appealing reader experience.

4 tips to create an effective case study

You’re going to need your customer’s input in order to craft the most effective case study possible. It’s their story, after all, and they’re the ones who know what it was like to work with you throughout the process.

They also hold key details that you probably don’t know.

So, once you have their permission to write about the project, you’ll need to talk to them about the specifics. But you also want to respect their time.

Here are 4 tips on how to conduct an interview for your case study.

Prepare questions in advance

Know what information you need and prepare questions to pull that information from your client.

Doing this in advance will help you formulate the questions and sequence them properly to avoid bias and wasting time.

Have a few follow-up or emergency questions ready, too, in case you run into a dead end. 

Record the interview

With your client’s permission, record the interview to ensure accuracy and so you can come back to listen to important points again.

This helps you avoid bothering your clients with follow-up questions and also gives you more freedom to let the interview evolve in a natural conversational manner. 

Make the interviewee comfortable

Explain the interview process to your client, why you're asking them to talk, and how the information will be used. Remember that you are the one who “needs” the case study, not them. 

So you go the extra mile to ensure that your guest is as comfortable as possible.

That also means being flexible with the format of your interview.

If your client doesn’t have time for calls, offer to trade voice notes. Or give them a shared Google document for trading questions and answers.

And if you do end up conducting a live interview, agree to meet at a time that’s best for them.

No matter how you end up conducting your interview, make it clear that your client will be able to review the final version before you make it live.

Give them veto power over any of the information you put together.

Ask open-ended questions

Even though you’ll start out with a series of questions you need answered, don’t limit yourself to those. Instead, encourage your interviewee to share their story in their own words. 

Leave some room to ask open-ended questions and let the conversation evolve naturally.

Here are a few examples of the types of questions for discussion:

• What would you do differently if you were starting this project again?
• What do you think about XYZ emerging technology in relation to your industry's challenges?
• What sorts of other projects do you think Acme's solution might help with?
• How do your company's day-to-day operations and needs from how the relevant theories describe the industry?

Especially if you’re recording the interview, as suggested above, you can go back later and put things in a logical order.

Once you have all of the raw material, then you can curate the information and edit it to come up with your final product.

6 case study examples to follow

Now that you know what makes a great case study and how to write one, let's finish up with a few more top-notch business case study examples.

Each of the case studies below hits many of the points in this article, but they all take a different approach. Use them for inspiration or when you need a little refresher on how to write a case study.

This case study provides a detailed account of how Monograph, a B2B SaaS company, improved its marketing projects and reporting using Databox.

It's a pretty straightforward example of the best practices we've discussed in this article, with an introduction followed by background information on the company (Monograph) and the challenges they faced with manual tracking of each data point.

It describes the solution that Databox helped put in place and then shows clear evidence of the results their customer achieved:

Case studies don't come much more textbook than this one, which makes it a great example to follow.

Growth Design on Airbnb

Growth Design takes a totally unique approach to case studies, each one is an online comic book!

Read through their case study about Airbnb , though, and you'll see that it meets all the criteria for a complete case study even if the setup is a little different than most.

Here is a look at the landing page for this beauty of a study.

The author starts out with a problem: the need to book a place to stay in a foreign country in a hurry. So he heads to Airbnb but ends up overwhelmed by choices and bounces to Google Maps to make his reservation.

He concludes that Airbnb was not the full solution for him in this case and suggests several places they could make improvements.

It's a pretty neat dive into a well-known user experience, and it's also a great lesson in how to use visuals to keep your readers engaged in your case study.

This case study about how Grubhub used Webflow to build a viral marketing campaign hits you with stunning results right off the bat.

From there, the study tells the full story of how they achieved these results. Even though the author doesn't explicitly break out the problem, solution, and results sections, she still takes the reader through that journey.

It's a concise but complete story broken up by a few choice graphics.

This case study dives into how Employment Hero uses Slack to keep their remote employees engaged and productive as the company grows.

It details how Employee Hero continuously reevaluates its app usage to identify possible solutions to issues that arise and how Slack consistently helps meet the challenges.

This case study is a great example of picking a use case that is relevant to most of Slack's user base -- improving communication and productivity among remote employees.

Slack also makes effective use of quotes from the decision makers at Employment Hero.

We already talked about our ClickUp case study a little earlier in this article, but it's worth a deeper look as an example to help guide your writing.

As you would expect, this case study hits main points we've covered here: problem statement, solution, and results.

But there are a couple of "extras" that make this one stand out.

For starters, it doesn't just present a single solution. It presents three , each one addressing a different aspect of ClickUp's objectives and each one showcasing a different Surfer feature set. 

For example, solution #1 describes how ClickUp improved their on-page SEO with the help of Surfer’s Content Editor . 

This case study also provides a high-level view of ClickUp’s project management processes and describes how they incorporated Surfer into their content workflows.

It’s a really instructive example of how you can use a case study to help prospective clients envision how your product might fit their situation.

Zoom’s library

This one isn't a single case study at all but a library full of case studies designed to help potential clients understand how Zoom can benefit them.

Here you'll find stories about how very recognizable organizations like Capital One, Vox Media, and the University of Miami are using Zoom to boost connectivity and productivity among remote workers.

There are plenty of good examples here that you can consult when you get stuck writing your own case study.

And the entire library is a great example of using case studies to demonstrate expertise with the help of social proof:

The Zoom case study library also makes liberal use of video, which might give you some good ideas about how you can, too.

Key takeaways

• Case studies are one of the best ways to generate leads and convert readers into customers.
• By showcasing the success you've had helping previous customers, case studies position you as an expert in your field.
• Good case studies can be the final push businesses need in their decision making process to buy your products or services.
• Pick a use case for your study that has broad appeal in your industry and that showcases your products and services in the best light possible.
• Effective case studies follow a predictable format: introduction, problem statement, solution, results, and conclusion.
• Make your case studies as readable as possible by including visual elements like graphs and images, and by breaking up the text into smaller sections, subsections, and concise paragraphs.
• Be as thorough and accurate as possible by conducting client interviews to gather background information for your case studies.
• Follow top-notch case studies for inspiration and ideas about how to make your own case studies as good as possible.

A well-written case study shines a light on your products and services like nothing else and helps position you as an expert in your field.

By showing that you understand their problems and have helped others overcome similar issues, you can prove to prospective clients that you are well-suited to help them, too.

Use the step-by-step instructions in this article to craft a case study that helps you and your company stand out from the competition.

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Blog about Writing Case Study and Coursework

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How to Write an Introduction for a Case Study Report

If you’re looking for examples of how to write an introduction for a case-study report, you’ve come to the right place. Here you’ll find a sample, guidelines for writing a case-study introduction, and tips on how to make it clear. In five minutes or less, recruiters will read your case study and decide whether you’re a good fit for the job.

Example of a case study introduction

An example of a case study introduction should be written to provide a roadmap for the reader. It should briefly summarize the topic, identify the problem, and discuss its significance. It should include previous case studies and summarize the literature review. In addition, it should include the purpose of the study, and the issues that it addresses. Using this example as a guideline, writers can make their case study introductions. Here are some tips:

The first paragraph of the introduction should summarize the entire article, and should include the following sections: the case presentation, the examinations performed, and the working diagnosis, the management of the case, and the outcome. The final section, the discussion, should summarize the previous subsections, explain any apparent inconsistencies, and describe the lessons learned. The body of the paper should also summarize the introduction and include any notes for the instructor.

The last section of a case study introduction should summarize the findings and limitations of the study, as well as suggestions for further research. The conclusion section should restate the thesis and main findings of the case study. The conclusion should summarize previous case studies, summarize the findings, and highlight the possibilities for future study. It is important to note that not all educational institutions require the case study analysis format, so it is important to check ahead of time.

The introductory paragraph should outline the overall strategy for the study. It should also describe the short-term and long-term goals of the case study. Using this method will ensure clarity and reduce misunderstandings. However, it is important to consider the end goal. After all, the objective is to communicate the benefits of the product. And, the solution should be measurable. This can be done by highlighting the benefits and minimizing the negatives.

Structure of a case study introduction

The structure of a case study introduction is different from the general introduction of a research paper. The main purpose of the introduction is to set the stage for the rest of the case study. The problem statement must be short and precise to convey the main point of the study. Then, the introduction should summarize the literature review and present the previous case studies that have dealt with the topic. The introduction should end with a thesis statement.

The thesis statement should contain facts and evidence related to the topic. Include the method used, the findings, and discussion. The solution section should describe specific strategies for solving the problem. It should conclude with a call to action for the reader. When using quotations, be sure to cite them properly. The thesis statement must include the problem statement, the methods used, and the expected outcome of the study. The conclusion section should state the case study’s importance.

In the discussion section, state the limitations of the study and explain why they are not significant. In addition, mention any questions unanswered and issues that the study was unable to address. For more information, check out the APA, Harvard, Chicago, and MLA citation styles. Once you know how to structure a case study introduction, you’ll be ready to write it! And remember, there’s always a right and wrong way to write a case study introduction.

During the writing process, you’ll need to make notes on the problems and issues of the case. Write down any ideas and directions that come to mind. Avoid writing neatly. It may impede your creative process, so write down a rough draft first, and then draw it up for your educational instructor. The introduction is an overview of the case study. Include the thesis statement. If you’re writing a case study for an assignment, you’ll also need to provide an overview of the assignment.

Guidelines for writing a case study introduction

A case study is not a formal scientific research report, but it is written for a lay audience. It should be readable and follow the general narrative that was determined in the first step. The introduction should provide background information about the case and its main topic. It should be short, but should introduce the topic and explain its context in just one or two paragraphs. An ideal case study introduction is between three and five sentences.

The case study must be well-designed and logical. It cannot contain opinions or assumptions. The research question must be a logical conclusion based on the findings. This can be done through a spreadsheet program or by consulting a linguistics expert. Once you have identified the major issues, you need to revise the paper. Once you have revised it twice, it should be well-written, concise, and logical.

The conclusion should state the findings, explain their significance, and summarize the main points. The conclusion should move from the detailed to the general level of consideration. The conclusion should also briefly state the limitations of the case study and point out the need for further research in order to fully address the problem. This should be done in a manner that will keep the reader interested in reading the paper. It should be clear about what the case study found and what it means for the research community.

The case study begins with a cover page and an executive summary, depending on your professor’s instructions. It’s important to remember that this is not a mandatory element of the case study. Instead, the executive summary should be brief and include the key points of the study’s analysis. It should be written as if an executive would read it on the run. Ultimately, the executive summary should include all the key points of the case study.

Clarity in a case study introduction

Clarity in a case study introduction should be at the heart of the paper. This section should explain why the case was chosen and how you decided to use it. The case study introduction varies according to the type of subject you are studying and the goals of the study. Here are some examples of clear and effective case study introductions. Read on to find out how to write a successful one. Clarity in a case study introduction begins with a strong thesis statement and ends with a compelling conclusion.

The conclusion of the case study should restate the research question and emphasize its importance. Identify and restate the key findings and describe how they address the research question. If the case study has limitations, discuss the potential for further research. In addition, document the limitations of the case study. Include any limitations of the case study in the conclusion. This will allow readers to make informed decisions about whether or not the findings are relevant to their own practices.

A case study introduction should include a brief discussion of the topic and selected case. It should explain how the study fits into current knowledge. A reader may question the validity of the analysis if it fails to consider all possible outcomes. For example, a case study on railroad crossings may fail to document the obvious outcome of improving the signage at these intersections. Another example would be a study that failed to document the impact of warning signs and speed limits on railroad crossings.

As a conclusion, the case study should also contain a discussion of how the research was conducted. While it may be a case study, the results are not necessarily applicable to other situations. In addition to describing how a solution has solved the problem, a case study should also discuss the causes of the problem. A case study should be based on real data and information. If the case study is not valid, it will not be a good fit for the audience.

Sample of a case study introduction

A good case study introduction serves as a map for the reader to follow. It should identify the research problem and discuss its significance. It should be based on extensive research and should incorporate relevant issues and facts. For example, it may include a short but precise problem statement. The next section of the introduction should include a description of the solution. The final part of the introduction should conclude with the recommended action. Once the reader has a sense of the direction the study will take, they will feel confident in pursuing the study further.

In the case of social sciences, case studies cannot be purely empirical. The results of a case study can be compared with those of other studies, so that the case study’s findings can be assessed against previous research. A case study’s results can help support general conclusions and build theories, while their practical value lies in generating hypotheses. Despite their utility, case studies often contain a bias toward verification and tend to confirm the researcher’s preconceived notions.

In the case of case studies, the conclusions section should state the significance of the findings, stating how the findings of the study differ from other previous studies. Likewise, the conclusion section should summarize the key findings, and make the reader understand how they address the research problem. In the case of a case study, it is crucial to document any limitations that have been identified. After all, a case study is not complete without further research.

After the introduction, the main body of the paper is the case presentation. It should provide information about the case, such as the history, examination results, working diagnosis, management, and outcome. It should conclude with a discussion, explaining the correlations, apparent inconsistencies, and lessons learned. Finally, the conclusion should state whether the case study presented the results in the desired way. The findings should not be overgeneralized, and the conclusions must be derived from this information.

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How to Write a Case Study - All You Wanted to Know

What do you study in your college? If you are a psychology, sociology, or anthropology student, we bet you might be familiar with what a case study is. This research method is used to study a certain person, group, or situation. In this guide from our dissertation writing service , you will learn how to write a case study professionally, from researching to citing sources properly. Also, we will explore different types of case studies and show you examples — so that you won’t have any other questions left.

What Is a Case Study?

A case study is a subcategory of research design which investigates problems and offers solutions. Case studies can range from academic research studies to corporate promotional tools trying to sell an idea—their scope is quite vast.

What Is the Difference Between a Research Paper and a Case Study?

While research papers turn the reader’s attention to a certain problem, case studies go even further. Case study guidelines require students to pay attention to details, examining issues closely and in-depth using different research methods. For example, case studies may be used to examine court cases if you study Law, or a patient's health history if you study Medicine. Case studies are also used in Marketing, which are thorough, empirically supported analysis of a good or service's performance. Well-designed case studies can be valuable for prospective customers as they can identify and solve the potential customers pain point.

Case studies involve a lot of storytelling – they usually examine particular cases for a person or a group of people. This method of research is very helpful, as it is very practical and can give a lot of hands-on information. Most commonly, the length of the case study is about 500-900 words, which is much less than the length of an average research paper.

The structure of a case study is very similar to storytelling. It has a protagonist or main character, which in your case is actually a problem you are trying to solve. You can use the system of 3 Acts to make it a compelling story. It should have an introduction, rising action, a climax where transformation occurs, falling action, and a solution.

Here is a rough formula for you to use in your case study:

Problem (Act I): > Solution (Act II) > Result (Act III) > Conclusion.

Types of Case Studies

The purpose of a case study is to provide detailed reports on an event, an institution, a place, future customers, or pretty much anything. There are a few common types of case study, but the type depends on the topic. The following are the most common domains where case studies are needed:

• Historical case studies are great to learn from. Historical events have a multitude of source info offering different perspectives. There are always modern parallels where these perspectives can be applied, compared, and thoroughly analyzed.
• Problem-oriented case studies are usually used for solving problems. These are often assigned as theoretical situations where you need to immerse yourself in the situation to examine it. Imagine you’re working for a startup and you’ve just noticed a significant flaw in your product’s design. Before taking it to the senior manager, you want to do a comprehensive study on the issue and provide solutions. On a greater scale, problem-oriented case studies are a vital part of relevant socio-economic discussions.
• Cumulative case studies collect information and offer comparisons. In business, case studies are often used to tell people about the value of a product.
• Critical case studies explore the causes and effects of a certain case.
• Illustrative case studies describe certain events, investigating outcomes and lessons learned.

Need a compelling case study? EssayPro has got you covered. Our experts are ready to provide you with detailed, insightful case studies that capture the essence of real-world scenarios. Elevate your academic work with our professional assistance.

Case Study Format

The case study format is typically made up of eight parts:

• Executive Summary. Explain what you will examine in the case study. Write an overview of the field you’re researching. Make a thesis statement and sum up the results of your observation in a maximum of 2 sentences.
• Background. Provide background information and the most relevant facts. Isolate the issues.
• Case Evaluation. Isolate the sections of the study you want to focus on. In it, explain why something is working or is not working.
• Proposed Solutions. Offer realistic ways to solve what isn’t working or how to improve its current condition. Explain why these solutions work by offering testable evidence.
• Conclusion. Summarize the main points from the case evaluations and proposed solutions. 6. Recommendations. Talk about the strategy that you should choose. Explain why this choice is the most appropriate.
• Implementation. Explain how to put the specific strategies into action.
• References. Provide all the citations.

How to Write a Case Study

Let's discover how to write a case study.

Setting Up the Research

When writing a case study, remember that research should always come first. Reading many different sources and analyzing other points of view will help you come up with more creative solutions. You can also conduct an actual interview to thoroughly investigate the customer story that you'll need for your case study. Including all of the necessary research, writing a case study may take some time. The research process involves doing the following:

• Define your objective. Explain the reason why you’re presenting your subject. Figure out where you will feature your case study; whether it is written, on video, shown as an infographic, streamed as a podcast, etc.
• Determine who will be the right candidate for your case study. Get permission, quotes, and other features that will make your case study effective. Get in touch with your candidate to see if they approve of being part of your work. Study that candidate’s situation and note down what caused it.
• Identify which various consequences could result from the situation. Follow these guidelines on how to start a case study: surf the net to find some general information you might find useful.
• Make a list of credible sources and examine them. Seek out important facts and highlight problems. Always write down your ideas and make sure to brainstorm.
• Focus on several key issues – why they exist, and how they impact your research subject. Think of several unique solutions. Draw from class discussions, readings, and personal experience. When writing a case study, focus on the best solution and explore it in depth. After having all your research in place, writing a case study will be easy. You may first want to check the rubric and criteria of your assignment for the correct case study structure.

Read Also: ' WHAT IS A CREDIBLE SOURCES ?'

Although your instructor might be looking at slightly different criteria, every case study rubric essentially has the same standards. Your professor will want you to exhibit 8 different outcomes:

• Correctly identify the concepts, theories, and practices in the discipline.
• Identify the relevant theories and principles associated with the particular study.
• Evaluate legal and ethical principles and apply them to your decision-making.
• Recognize the global importance and contribution of your case.
• Construct a coherent summary and explanation of the study.
• Demonstrate analytical and critical-thinking skills.
• Explain the interrelationships between the environment and nature.
• Integrate theory and practice of the discipline within the analysis.

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Case Study Outline

Let's look at the structure of an outline based on the issue of the alcoholic addiction of 30 people.

Introduction

• Statement of the issue: Alcoholism is a disease rather than a weakness of character.
• Presentation of the problem: Alcoholism is affecting more than 14 million people in the USA, which makes it the third most common mental illness there.
• Explanation of the terms: In the past, alcoholism was commonly referred to as alcohol dependence or alcohol addiction. Alcoholism is now the more severe stage of this addiction in the disorder spectrum.
• Hypotheses: Drinking in excess can lead to the use of other drugs.
• Importance of your story: How the information you present can help people with their addictions.
• Background of the story: Include an explanation of why you chose this topic.
• Presentation of analysis and data: Describe the criteria for choosing 30 candidates, the structure of the interview, and the outcomes.
• Strong argument 1: ex. X% of candidates dealing with anxiety and depression...
• Strong argument 2: ex. X amount of people started drinking by their mid-teens.
• Strong argument 3: ex. X% of respondents’ parents had issues with alcohol.
• Concluding statement: I have researched if alcoholism is a disease and found out that…
• Recommendations: Ways and actions for preventing alcohol use.

Writing a Case Study Draft

After you’ve done your case study research and written the outline, it’s time to focus on the draft. In a draft, you have to develop and write your case study by using: the data which you collected throughout the research, interviews, and the analysis processes that were undertaken. Follow these rules for the draft:

Use Data to Illustrate Key Points in Your Case Study

Even though your case study is a story, it should be based on evidence. Use as much data as possible to illustrate your point. Without the right data, your case study may appear weak and the readers may not be able to relate to your issue as much as they should. Let's see the examples from essay writing service :

‍ With data: Alcoholism is affecting more than 14 million people in the USA, which makes it the third most common mental illness there. Without data: A lot of people suffer from alcoholism in the United States.

Try to include as many credible sources as possible. You may have terms or sources that could be hard for other cultures to understand. If this is the case, you should include them in the appendix or Notes for the Instructor or Professor.

Finalizing the Draft: Checklist

After you finish drafting your case study, polish it up by answering these ‘ask yourself’ questions and think about how to end your case study:

• Check that you follow the correct case study format, also in regards to text formatting.
• Check that your work is consistent with its referencing and citation style.
• Micro-editing — check for grammar and spelling issues.
• Macro-editing — does ‘the big picture’ come across to the reader? Is there enough raw data, such as real-life examples or personal experiences? Have you made your data collection process completely transparent? Does your analysis provide a clear conclusion, allowing for further research and practice?

Problems to avoid:

• Overgeneralization – Do not go into further research that deviates from the main problem.
• Failure to Document Limitations – Just as you have to clearly state the limitations of a general research study, you must describe the specific limitations inherent in the subject of analysis.
• Failure to Extrapolate All Possible Implications – Just as you don't want to over-generalize from your case study findings, you also have to be thorough in the consideration of all possible outcomes or recommendations derived from your findings.

How to Create a Title Page and Cite a Case Study

Let's see how to create an awesome title page.

Your title page depends on the prescribed citation format. The title page should include:

• A title that attracts some attention and describes your study
• The title should have the words “case study” in it
• The title should range between 5-9 words in length
• Your name and contact information
• Your finished paper should be only 500 to 1,500 words in length.With this type of assignment, write effectively and avoid fluff

Here is a template for the APA and MLA format title page:

There are some cases when you need to cite someone else's study in your own one – therefore, you need to master how to cite a case study. A case study is like a research paper when it comes to citations. You can cite it like you cite a book, depending on what style you need.

Citation Example in MLA ‍ Hill, Linda, Tarun Khanna, and Emily A. Stecker. HCL Technologies. Boston: Harvard Business Publishing, 2008. Print.

Citation Example in APA ‍ Hill, L., Khanna, T., & Stecker, E. A. (2008). HCL Technologies. Boston: Harvard Business Publishing.

Citation Example in Chicago Hill, Linda, Tarun Khanna, and Emily A. Stecker. HCL Technologies.

Case Study Examples

To give you an idea of a professional case study example, we gathered and linked some below.

Eastman Kodak Case Study

Case Study Example: Audi Trains Mexican Autoworkers in Germany

To conclude, a case study is one of the best methods of getting an overview of what happened to a person, a group, or a situation in practice. It allows you to have an in-depth glance at the real-life problems that businesses, healthcare industry, criminal justice, etc. may face. This insight helps us look at such situations in a different light. This is because we see scenarios that we otherwise would not, without necessarily being there. If you need custom essays , try our research paper writing services .

Get Help Form Qualified Writers

Crafting a case study is not easy. You might want to write one of high quality, but you don’t have the time or expertise. If you’re having trouble with your case study, help with essay request - we'll help. EssayPro writers have read and written countless case studies and are experts in endless disciplines. Request essay writing, editing, or proofreading assistance from our custom case study writing service , and all of your worries will be gone.

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What Is A Case Study?

How to cite a case study in apa, how to write a case study.

Daniel Parker

is a seasoned educational writer focusing on scholarship guidance, research papers, and various forms of academic essays including reflective and narrative essays. His expertise also extends to detailed case studies. A scholar with a background in English Literature and Education, Daniel’s work on EssayPro blog aims to support students in achieving academic excellence and securing scholarships. His hobbies include reading classic literature and participating in academic forums.

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How to Write a Case Study: Definition, Outline, Steps & Examples

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A case study is a research method that involves an in-depth examination of a particular subject, often a person, group, event, or organization. It's used to explore complex issues in real-world contexts. A case study can provide insights that might not be achieved with other research methods.

Are you struggling with writing a case study and don't know where to begin? You are not alone. Most students involved in the Psychology or Sociology field often find this task challenging. Especially if they are new to this research method. However, with the right structure and preparation, creating a case study paper will be a piece of cake. 

After reading this article, you will be armed with all essential details including:

• Definition 
• Case study types
• Basic structure
• Steps on how to write a case study
• Examples that worked.

Let’s dive right in!

What Is a Case Study: Definition

A case study is a research method that involves examining a specific instance to let researchers learn more about an individual, event, organization or concept. It is like a magnifying glass for studying real-life situations. By looking at a single example, we can learn more about complex issues and understand patterns. 

Case studies are used in the fields like Psychology, Business, Statistics or Nursing. As a rule, students apply this research method when writing a dissertation or thesis . 

Depending on the research question and the data needed to address a problem, case studies can involve various research methods.

Research Methods Applied in Case Studies

Case Study Example

A researcher is interested in studying the effects of a newly implemented teaching method on student performance. To find out, they observe a class of 30 students over one semester. The researcher compares the test scores from before and after the method was used, documenting its effectiveness.  The study results showed that academic performance had improved by 11.5% since the new teaching method was implemented. The researcher concluded that this approach works well and can be generalized to a broader population.

Let's recap the main points. 

What Is the Purpose of a Case Study?

The primary purpose of a case study is to gain insight into the real-world situations through the investigation and analysis of a single instance. This research design is often applied to meet such goals: 

• Develop a better understanding of complex issues or phenomena 
• Identify patterns and relationships
• Test hypotheses and theories in natural settings
• Provide practical solutions
• Illustrate best practices or successful strategies.

Every case study writer can customize their work to fit the needs of a specific discipline, as shown below.

Use of Case Studies 

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Types of Case Studies

There are different types of case studies that scholars or students can bring into play. Each approach has its own focus and is chosen based on research objectives. 

• Descriptive case studies This approach involves a detailed examination of a particular situation or phenomenon to understand it better. Here, researchers see the context, events, and processes that led to a particular outcome, and get a comprehensive picture of the situation.
• Explanatory case studies Explanatory method allows us to understand the "why" and “how” behind a particular event or phenomenon. As the name suggests, this type of case study seeks to test and explain the causal relationship between independent and dependent variables . 
• Exploratory case studies Imagine being a detective and investigating a mystery or problem in its early stages. This is the main idea of an exploratory investigation. It helps to recognize key questions, potential patterns, and areas for further research. It's like peeling back the layers of an onion, revealing new insights and uncovering possible solutions. 
• Intrinsic case studies  Unlike other case study methods, an intrinsic approach is used to explore a unique instance. Here, researchers focus on a particular scenario in its own right, rather than trying to apply the outcomes to a broader population.  
• Instrumental case studies This type of study examines one instance to shed light on a larger group or phenomenon. Instrumental technique is a good choice if you want to develop theoretical frameworks and obtain generalizable findings.
• Cumulative case studies  While conducting cumulative research, students compile and synthesize information from multiple similar instances. Here, you combine the results of multiple studies to draw more generalized conclusions.
• Collective case reports Think of several individual instances being studied together to provide a broader understanding of a specific phenomenon. These instances are often connected by a common theme. This enables researchers to compare and contrast cases and uncover tendencies. 
• Critical case studies Researchers use this method to explore exceptional instances that are particularly interesting or thought-provoking. Critical approach helps to analyze why a specific situation occurred and what could have been done differently.

Case Study Structure: Main Parts

When investigating any phenomenon, it’s important to organize your sections in a logical manner. A structure of a case study usually includes such components:

• Introduction This section is a place to present a case. Provide a brief overview of your instance, introduce your key research objectives and prepare the readers for further analysis.
• Problem identification By laying out a problem, you will be able to show the scope and significance of your topic. Identify the main issue that will be examined and build a clear statement of the problem.
• Background A properly established context sets the stage for research and lays a foundation for case evaluation. Offer relevant background information on the instance. This can be a historical, geographical or cultural context.
• Methodology Describe your  methodology in research  – approach, data collection methods and analysis techniques used in your investigation.
• Solution  Now is the time to determine potential solutions to address the problem, and evaluate the pros and cons of each resolution. Make sure solutions are realistic.
• Results  Once a case study is conducted, you should share your key findings. Mention any data or evidence that was collected and analyzed.
• Discussion This part of a case study is a perfect opportunity for analysis. Discuss the implications of your outcomes and draw conclusions
• Conclusion Summarize your main points, restate a problem and solutions, and offer final recommendations or next steps.

Case Study Outline

Before you create a case study, it’s a good idea to prepare an outline. It serves as a skeleton of your project. A well-structured outline of a case study helps organize your thoughts in a logical manner.

Below you can see an example of a basic template. Feel free to use it for inspiration. 

General Outline  

• Brief subject introduction
• Research purpose and objectives
• Necessary context
• Problem/issue
• Problem significance
• Subject/idea history
• Setting or environment description
• Key challenges, opportunities, or turning points
• Research methods used to gather information
• Data analysis methods
• Possible strategies
• Assessment of solutions
• Recommended solvents
• Major discoveries from the data analysis
• Implications
• Limitations/challenges
• Summary of key points
• Restatement of the problem and solution
• Final suggestions or next steps

Based on the sample template shown above, arrange your key ideas and highlight critical information. You may change the blocks to meet your assignment’s unique requirements.

Before You Start Writing a Case Study

Preparation  is the key to success. To make your case study flawless, you need to establish your goal and plan. This will lay the foundation of the whole process before you begin writing.

Ensure you follow these 3 crucial steps before moving further. 

1. Carefully Read the Instructions 

Your professor may provide you with special requirements, case study rubric or exemplary works. The instructions may include details on preferred format, structure, word count, writing style or analysis techniques. Read given material attentively and make sure you fully understand the guidelines. 

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2. Conduct Research

Researching is the most time-consuming part of writing a case study. Review relevant studies on the research topic to gain a deeper understanding of your subject. You may want to go through different sources and identify their strengths and limitations. Strive to build a bridge between your case study report and existing gaps. 

Make sure to jot down all your ideas, opinions, notes or questions related to your research. This approach will help you build an outline and write a case study accordingly.  

3. Gather Data

Now you are all set for the data collection process. Identify the most relevant type of information pertinent to your research question.

Consider using primary sources such as interviews, surveys or questionnaires. Secondary resources may include books, articles, case studies and public documents. 

Your data must be accurate and reliable so double-check your research results before integrating them into your project.

How to Write a Case Study in 7 Steps?

Now that you are familiar with the preparation stages, it's time to dive into the writing process. Writing case studies can be challenging. But by following a structured approach, you can produce a clear and engaging work. 

To create a strong project, it's important to carefully plan and execute each step of your flow, from identifying the research question to presenting your conclusions. Below we have prepared detailed guidelines on how to write a case study paper. 

1. Introduce a Case Study

Start your case study introduction by presenting your subject and providing a brief overview of the research objectives. It's important to highlight the significance of your case and explain why it warrants examination. One way to do this is to focus on innovative aspects, such as a novel approach to a problem or a new technology. You can also emphasize the broader implications. 

You should also preview a structure. This will give readers an idea of what to expect. Briefly describe your main points or provide a rough outline. 

Case Study Introduction Example

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a debilitating condition that can arise in individuals who have experienced a traumatic event. In this case study, we examine the experiences of a patient who was diagnosed with PTSD following a car accident. Our analysis focuses on the patient's symptoms, including intrusive thoughts, hyperarousal, and avoidance behaviors. We also explore the treatments employed to manage these symptoms. By analyzing this case, we aim to provide insights into the challenges of treating PTSD and offer recommendations for improving therapeutic interventions for individuals suffering from this condition.

2. Describe a Problem

Before you get to the problem, provide context that explains the issue at hand. Identify the scope and impact of this problem. One efficient strategy of creating case studies that trigger attention is integrating examples or statistics. This helps to understand how severe this situation is. 

Additionally, you may want to highlight any challenges or obstacles that have prevented a problem from being solved. 

Example of Problem Description in a Case Study

John is a 28-year-old man who was involved in a serious car accident three months ago. Since then, he has been experiencing PTSD symptoms, including recurring nightmares, flashbacks, and feelings of anxiety. These symptoms have affected his work performance and relationships with family and friends. Despite seeking help from his primary care physician and attending therapy sessions, John has not experienced significant improvement. The challenge is to identify effective treatments that can help John manage his PTSD and improve his quality of life.

>> Read more: How to Write a Problem Statement

3. Discuss Research Methods 

Research methods you apply will define how to make a case study. There are multiple ways to collect data. So your primary task here is to figure out what kind of information you want to obtain. 

Your research strategy should align with your objectives. For instance, interviews can help capture detailed information from a small sample of people. On the other hand, surveys involve large groups of individuals. If you are using interviews or surveys, provide a list of questions participants were asked. 

You can also do experiments to test out different theories or conduct document analysis to identify trends. 

>> Learn more: What Is Experimental Design  

Example of How to Describe Research Methods 

In this research, both quantitative and qualitative data were utilized. 10 semi-structured interviews were conducted with participants who had experienced PTSD symptoms following a traumatic event. Additionally, data was collected from a survey of 253 individuals who had not been diagnosed with PTSD. We inquired about their experiences with trauma and the types of coping strategies they used to manage stress. Medical records from John's primary care physician were analyzed to track his progress over time. The combination of quantitative and qualitative data allowed for a comprehensive understanding of John's unique experiences with PTSD.

4. Offer Solutions to the Problem 

The next stage involves coming up with potential solutions. Explain what strategies could be used to address the problem.

For example, if you write a case study on a business-related problem, solutions may involve implementing procedures to improve efficiency. Alternatively, in a healthcare niche, you will offer a new medication or therapy.

Be sure to provide evidence from your research or expert opinions to support your suggestions.

Here’s how to do a case study solutions section. 

Example of Solution

One potential solution for addressing John's PTSD symptoms is cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT). According to a study by Bisson and colleagues (2013), CBT has been found to be effective in reducing symptoms of PTSD in individuals who have experienced traumatic events. The therapist can work with John to identify and challenge negative thought patterns related to his traumatic experience and teach him coping skills to manage his anxiety and stress.

5. Present Your Key Results

Most scholars judge case study reports by research outcomes. You need to show that your solution works. Analyze collected data and share your most significant findings in your results section . This can be an increase in profits or a patient's health improvement. 

When you write your case study outcomes, it is important to organize the information in a clear and concise manner. Use tables, graphs and charts to illustrate your data visually. 

Provide a short summary of your results and their implications. But don’t just tell. You need to back up your research with evidence. If you used interviews, be sure to include any statistical analysis done for those results. 

Example of Case Study Research Results

Our analysis showed that participants who received cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) reported a significant decrease in symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), as compared to those who received no therapy. Specifically, the group who received CBT experienced a 35% reduction in symptoms. Meanwhile, the control group experienced no significant change. These findings suggest that CBT may be an effective treatment option for individuals with PTSD.

6. Conclude with Recommendations

A conclusion of a case study is where you wrap everything up and provide recommendations for further research. Sum up your key points and explain how they could be used to solve similar problems. You can also highlight any unexpected findings or insights that emerged during the study. Don’t forget to discuss any ethical considerations or limitations. 

You need to create a lasting impression. For this, end a case study with a thought-provoking statement or call to action. 

Case Study Conclusion Example

Our research highlighted the significant impact of PTSD on individuals who have experienced a traumatic event. The results suggested that cognitive-behavioral therapy and reprocessing therapy are effective treatments for PTSD. However, more research is needed to determine the long-term effects of these treatments. Additionally, the stigma surrounding mental health and seeking treatment remains a significant barrier to access to care. It is crucial for healthcare professionals and policymakers to address this issue and increase access to mental health services.

7. Proofread Your Case Study

Once you are done with writing a case study, you need to carefully review it. Keep an eye on these things when checking your work: 

• Grammar mistakes Proofread your writing for typos and grammar errors. Feel free to use our  Grammar Checker  to make sure you got everything right.
• Clarity Check whether your work is readable and concise. Avoid long sentences and complex structures.
• Sources accuracy Make sure to check all sources for accuracy. It is also important to ensure that all reported data is up-to-date.
• Citations Ascertain whether all sources are properly cited and the same style is used consistently throughout your paper.

Case Study Format

Besides the content, it is also important to stick to a specific case study paper format. The layout of your paper should follow guidelines of the chosen citation style.

There are different ways to format a case study. Commonly used styles include APA, MLA, Chicago and Harvard. Each format  presents specific requirements for formatting your text and references. 

Check out our detailed guides listed below to learn more about each style. 

>>  How to Write a Paper in APA Format?

>>  How to Do MLA Format?  

>>  How to Write a Chicago Style Paper?

Case Study Examples

Getting actual examples of case studies can be a great way to learn and understand how to write one. To help you out, we have collected several sample case study paper examples for different disciplines. Feel free to use these samples as inspiration when writing your own paper.

Case Study Writing Tips

With the right approach, your effort will reward you with an A+. In this section, we will list some actionable tips on how to write a good case study: 

• Planning your work ahead Planning your work ahead Make sure to create an outline before you start writing and stick to it throughout the entire process.
• Arranging your data logically Break down complex information into chunks and use visual elements (tables, graphs, diagrams) to present it.
• Structuring your writing Use headings and subheadings to organize your content and make key points easy to access.
• Keeping your text simple Write your case study in an easy-to-read language and refrain from complex sentence structures.
• Remaining impartial Be objective in your analysis and avoid personal biases.

Mistakes to Avoid When Writing a Case Study

Even a small mistake can undermine your whole work. Here are some common pitfalls students fail to account for in their case studies:

• Focusing too much on the background Provide enough space for analysis of your problem and solution.
• Stuffing with direct quotes Quotes can be used as evidence in your paper. But relying on them too much will make it sound overly repetitive.
• Not referring to all sources Always cite your sources correctly and use only reliable data in your paper.
• Being vague Avoid general statements and be more specific while discussing your results and solutions.
• Failing to mention possible gaps Always consider ethical considerations or limitations.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Case Study

Using a case study approach as your research method has its own pros and cons. On one hand, it is an effective way to explore a particular issue in detail. On the other, there are certain limitations that come with this approach. Below we will cover both strengths and limitations of case studies.

Benefits of Case Study

A case study is like a seed that can grow into a fruitful tree, providing resolutions to intricate problems. Here are the biggest case study benefits you can use to your advantage:

• In-depth analysis Researchers can gather a lot of information on a specific topic or issue.
• Insights into elaborate issues Allows researchers to examine complex issues in a controlled manner.
• Real-life situations You are able to test theories or hypotheses in real-world settings.
• Comprehensive approach Researchers can collect both quantitative and qualitative data.
• Unique revelations This method can enlight on previously unexplored or understudied areas.

Limitations of Case Study

As with any research method, case studies have their fair share of drawbacks. Let's take a closer look at some of the most prevalent issues that can arise when using this approach.

• Limited generalizability Due to the small sample size and unique nature of each case, it can be difficult to generalize findings to a larger population.
• Observer bias Researchers may bring their own biases and perspectives, which can influence their results and interpretations.
• Time-consuming and expensive This approach requires significant time and resources to conduct, making it less feasible for some research questions.
• Lack of control In contrast to experimental research, case studies lack control over extraneous variables. This can make it difficult to establish cause-and-effect relationships.
• Subjectivity Collected data is often subjective and open to interpretation, which can introduce potential errors.

Case Study Paper Writing Checklist

Before you write a case study assignment, make sure to recap all the information you have learnt today. Refer to this checklist to ensure you are on the right track. 

Bottom Line on How to Write a Case Study

Writing a case study can be an incredibly challenging task for any student. However, with the right approach and tips, you can easily turn this daunting task into a pleasant experience. 

We hope this article helped you understand how to write a case study. Remember to focus on the practical part and avoid overgeneralizing or cherry-picking data.

Our paper writing service is your best choice. We have helped thousands of students with their projects and would be glad to assist you, too. Our team of skilled writers is ready to help you complete your work upon ‘ write my case study ’ request.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. what is a case study in research.

A case study is a research method that involves an in-depth analysis of a particular subject. This approach most often focuses on a single event, person or group. It provides insight into the context of a problem and can be used to explore solutions to intricate issues.

2. What is the difference between a case study and a research paper?

The main difference between a case study and a research paper is in their scope. A case study explores a limited number of subjects, while research papers investigate multiple variables and/or draw conclusions from larger data sets. While both works contain evidence-based information, the focus and approach taken are quite different. Research papers are more general in nature, while case studies focus on narrow problems.

3. How long should a case study be?

The length of a case study varies depending on the type of assignment. Case studies intended for scholarly articles range from 3,000 to 4,0000 words or more. Meanwhile, if it’s a separate chapter in your MA or PhD dissertation, you will need to keep it between 8,000-15,000 words. Follow specific guidelines provided by your professor or institution. 

4. Why is a case study important?

Case studies are an important research tool, as they provide detailed information on a particular issue. By exploring a single instance from multiple angles, researchers can uncover solutions to complicated problems that may not be immediately apparent. Using this method, scientists also test hypotheses and generate new theories.

5. What makes a good case study?

A good case study should be organized, well-researched, and contain evidence. Some characteristics of a case study include:

• Precise subject overview
• Thorough analysis that goes beyond surface-level information
• Examination of a single scenario from various perspectives
• Fact-based arguments
• Validated findings.

6. How to start a case study?

To start a case study, begin by carefully reading requirements and identifying the main problem to be addressed. Don't jump to conclusions or make assumptions – take it one step at a time. Once you have a clear understanding of your goal, gather relevant data. This includes doing research, interviewing people, and analyzing relevant documents.

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• checkbox I thoroughly researched my topic and gathered relevant information.
• checkbox A problem/issue is clearly defined. 
• checkbox My case study structure is well-organized. 
• checkbox I used appropriate research methods to gather data.
• checkbox My findings are well-supported by analysis and evidence. 
• checkbox I discussed possible limitations and ethical considerations. 
• checkbox The work offers recommendations for further research.
• checkbox My paper adheres to formatting guidelines required by my instructor.

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Writing A Case Study

A Complete Case Study Writing Guide With Examples

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Simple Case Study Format for Students to Follow

Understand the Types of Case Study Here

Brilliant Case Study Examples and Templates For Your Help

Many writers find themselves grappling with the challenge of crafting persuasive and engaging case studies. 

The process can be overwhelming, leaving them unsure where to begin or how to structure their study effectively. And, without a clear plan, it's tough to show the value and impact in a convincing way.

But don’t worry!

In this blog, we'll guide you through a systematic process, offering step-by-step instructions on crafting a compelling case study. 

Along the way, we'll share valuable tips and illustrative examples to enhance your understanding. So, let’s get started.

• 1. What is a Case Study? 
• 2. Types of Case Studies
• 3. How To Write a Case Study - 9 Steps
• 4. Case Study Methods
• 5. Case Study Format
• 6. Case Study Examples
• 7. Benefits and Limitations of Case Studies

What is a Case Study? 

A case study is a detailed analysis and examination of a particular subject, situation, or phenomenon. It involves comprehensive research to gain a deep understanding of the context and variables involved. 

Typically used in academic, business, and marketing settings, case studies aim to explore real-life scenarios, providing insights into challenges, solutions, and outcomes. They serve as valuable tools for learning, decision-making, and showcasing success stories.

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Types of Case Studies

Case studies come in various forms, each tailored to address specific objectives and areas of interest. Here are some of the main types of case studies :

• Illustrative Case Studies: These focus on describing a particular situation or event, providing a detailed account to enhance understanding.
• Exploratory Case Studies: Aimed at investigating an issue and generating initial insights, these studies are particularly useful when exploring new or complex topics.
• Explanatory Case Studies: These delve into the cause-and-effect relationships within a given scenario, aiming to explain why certain outcomes occurred.
• Intrinsic Case Studies: Concentrating on a specific case that holds intrinsic value, these studies explore the unique qualities of the subject itself.
• Instrumental Case Studies: These are conducted to understand a broader issue and use the specific case as a means to gain insights into the larger context.
• Collective Case Studies: Involving the study of multiple cases, this type allows for comparisons and contrasts, offering a more comprehensive view of a phenomenon or problem.

How To Write a Case Study - 9 Steps

Crafting an effective case study involves a structured approach to ensure clarity, engagement, and relevance. 

Here's a step-by-step guide on how to write a compelling case study:

Step 1: Define Your Objective

Before diving into the writing process, clearly define the purpose of your case study. Identify the key questions you want to answer and the specific goals you aim to achieve. 

Whether it's to showcase a successful project, analyze a problem, or demonstrate the effectiveness of a solution, a well-defined objective sets the foundation for a focused and impactful case study.

Step 2: Conduct Thorough Research

Gather all relevant information and data related to your chosen case. This may include interviews, surveys, documentation, and statistical data. 

Ensure that your research is comprehensive, covering all aspects of the case to provide a well-rounded and accurate portrayal. 

The more thorough your research, the stronger your case study's foundation will be.

Step 3: Introduction: Set the Stage

Begin your case study with a compelling introduction that grabs the reader's attention. Clearly state the subject and the primary issue or challenge faced. 

Engage your audience by setting the stage for the narrative, creating intrigue, and highlighting the significance of the case.

Step 4: Present the Background Information

Provide context by presenting the background information of the case. Explore relevant history, industry trends, and any other factors that contribute to a deeper understanding of the situation. 

This section sets the stage for readers, allowing them to comprehend the broader context before delving into the specifics of the case.

Step 5: Outline the Challenges Faced

Identify and articulate the challenges or problems encountered in the case. Clearly define the obstacles that needed to be overcome, emphasizing their significance. 

This section sets the stakes for your audience and prepares them for the subsequent exploration of solutions.

Step 6: Detail the Solutions Implemented

Describe the strategies, actions, or solutions applied to address the challenges outlined. Be specific about the decision-making process, the rationale behind the chosen solutions, and any alternatives considered. 

This part of the case study demonstrates problem-solving skills and showcases the effectiveness of the implemented measures.

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Step 7: Showcase Measurable Results

Present tangible outcomes and results achieved as a direct consequence of the implemented solutions. Use data, metrics, and success stories to quantify the impact. 

Whether it's increased revenue, improved efficiency, or positive customer feedback, measurable results add credibility and validation to your case study.

Step 8: Include Engaging Visuals

Enhance the readability and visual appeal of your case study by incorporating relevant visuals such as charts, graphs, images, and infographics. 

Visual elements not only break up the text but also provide a clearer representation of data and key points, making your case study more engaging and accessible.

Step 9: Provide a Compelling Conclusion

Wrap up your case study with a strong and conclusive summary. Revisit the initial objectives, recap key findings, and emphasize the overall success or significance of the case. 

This section should leave a lasting impression on your readers, reinforcing the value of the presented information.

Case Study Methods

The methods employed in case study writing are diverse and flexible, catering to the unique characteristics of each case. Here are common methods used in case study writing:

Conducting one-on-one or group interviews with individuals involved in the case to gather firsthand information, perspectives, and insights.

• Observation

Directly observing the subject or situation to collect data on behaviors, interactions, and contextual details.

• Document Analysis

Examining existing documents, records, reports, and other written materials relevant to the case to gather information and insights.

• Surveys and Questionnaires

Distributing structured surveys or questionnaires to relevant stakeholders to collect quantitative data on specific aspects of the case.

• Participant Observation

Combining direct observation with active participation in the activities or events related to the case to gain an insider's perspective.

• Triangulation

Using multiple methods (e.g., interviews, observation, and document analysis) to cross-verify and validate the findings, enhancing the study's reliability.

• Ethnography

Immersing the researcher in the subject's environment over an extended period, focusing on understanding the cultural context and social dynamics.

Case Study Format

Effectively presenting your case study is as crucial as the content itself. Follow these formatting guidelines to ensure clarity and engagement:

• Opt for fonts that are easy to read, such as Arial, Calibri, or Times New Roman.
• Maintain a consistent font size, typically 12 points for the body text.
• Aim for double-line spacing to maintain clarity and prevent overwhelming the reader with too much text.
• Utilize bullet points to present information in a concise and easily scannable format.
• Use numbered lists when presenting a sequence of steps or a chronological order of events.
• Bold or italicize key phrases or important terms to draw attention to critical points.
• Use underline sparingly, as it can sometimes be distracting in digital formats.
• Choose the left alignment style.
• Use hierarchy to distinguish between different levels of headings, making it easy for readers to navigate.

If you're still having trouble organizing your case study, check out this blog on case study format for helpful insights.

Case Study Examples

If you want to understand how to write a case study, examples are a fantastic way to learn. That's why we've gathered a collection of intriguing case study examples for you to review before you begin writing.

Case Study Research Example

Case Study Template

Case Study Introduction Example

Amazon Case Study Example

Business Case Study Example

APA Format Case Study Example

Psychology Case Study Example

Medical Case Study Example

UX Case Study Example

Looking for more examples? Check out our blog on case study examples for your inspiration!

Benefits and Limitations of Case Studies

Case studies are a versatile and in-depth research method, providing a nuanced understanding of complex phenomena. 

However, like any research approach, case studies come with their set of benefits and limitations. Some of them are given below:

Tips for Writing an Effective Case Study

Here are some important tips for writing a good case study:

• Clearly articulate specific, measurable research questions aligned with your objectives.
• Identify whether your case study is exploratory, explanatory, intrinsic, or instrumental.
• Choose a case that aligns with your research questions, whether it involves an individual case or a group of people through multiple case studies.
• Explore the option of conducting multiple case studies to enhance the breadth and depth of your findings.
• Present a structured format with clear sections, ensuring readability and alignment with the type of research.
• Clearly define the significance of the problem or challenge addressed in your case study, tying it back to your research questions.
• Collect and include quantitative and qualitative data to support your analysis and address the identified research questions.
• Provide sufficient detail without overwhelming your audience, ensuring a comprehensive yet concise presentation.
• Emphasize how your findings can be practically applied to real-world situations, linking back to your research objectives.
• Acknowledge and transparently address any limitations in your study, ensuring a comprehensive and unbiased approach.

To sum it up, creating a good case study involves careful thinking to share valuable insights and keep your audience interested. 

Stick to basics like having clear questions and understanding your research type. Choose the right case and keep things organized and balanced.

Remember, your case study should tackle a problem, use relevant data, and show how it can be applied in real life. Be honest about any limitations, and finish with a clear call-to-action to encourage further exploration.

However, if you are having issues understanding how to write a case study, it is best to hire MyPerfectWords.com 's Professional service.  Hiring our custom essay service will ensure that you will get the best grades on your essay without any stress of a deadline. 

So be sure to check out case study writing service online and stay up to the mark with your grades. 

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the purpose of a case study.

The objective of a case study is to do intensive research on a specific matter, such as individuals or communities. It's often used for academic purposes where you want the reader to know all factors involved in your subject while also understanding the processes at play.

What are the sources of a case study?

Some common sources of a case study include:

• Archival records
• Direct observations and encounters
• Participant observation
• Facts and statistics
• Physical artifacts

What is the sample size of a case study?

A normally acceptable size of a case study is 30-50. However, the final number depends on the scope of your study and the on-ground demographic realities.

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What Is a Case Study?

Weighing the pros and cons of this method of research

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Cara Lustik is a fact-checker and copywriter.

Verywell / Colleen Tighe

• Pros and Cons

What Types of Case Studies Are Out There?

Where do you find data for a case study, how do i write a psychology case study.

A case study is an in-depth study of one person, group, or event. In a case study, nearly every aspect of the subject's life and history is analyzed to seek patterns and causes of behavior. Case studies can be used in many different fields, including psychology, medicine, education, anthropology, political science, and social work.

The point of a case study is to learn as much as possible about an individual or group so that the information can be generalized to many others. Unfortunately, case studies tend to be highly subjective, and it is sometimes difficult to generalize results to a larger population.

While case studies focus on a single individual or group, they follow a format similar to other types of psychology writing. If you are writing a case study, we got you—here are some rules of APA format to reference.  

At a Glance

A case study, or an in-depth study of a person, group, or event, can be a useful research tool when used wisely. In many cases, case studies are best used in situations where it would be difficult or impossible for you to conduct an experiment. They are helpful for looking at unique situations and allow researchers to gather a lot of˜ information about a specific individual or group of people. However, it's important to be cautious of any bias we draw from them as they are highly subjective.

What Are the Benefits and Limitations of Case Studies?

A case study can have its strengths and weaknesses. Researchers must consider these pros and cons before deciding if this type of study is appropriate for their needs.

One of the greatest advantages of a case study is that it allows researchers to investigate things that are often difficult or impossible to replicate in a lab. Some other benefits of a case study:

• Allows researchers to capture information on the 'how,' 'what,' and 'why,' of something that's implemented
• Gives researchers the chance to collect information on why one strategy might be chosen over another
• Permits researchers to develop hypotheses that can be explored in experimental research

On the other hand, a case study can have some drawbacks:

• It cannot necessarily be generalized to the larger population
• Cannot demonstrate cause and effect
• It may not be scientifically rigorous
• It can lead to bias

Researchers may choose to perform a case study if they want to explore a unique or recently discovered phenomenon. Through their insights, researchers develop additional ideas and study questions that might be explored in future studies.

It's important to remember that the insights from case studies cannot be used to determine cause-and-effect relationships between variables. However, case studies may be used to develop hypotheses that can then be addressed in experimental research.

Case Study Examples

There have been a number of notable case studies in the history of psychology. Much of  Freud's work and theories were developed through individual case studies. Some great examples of case studies in psychology include:

• Anna O : Anna O. was a pseudonym of a woman named Bertha Pappenheim, a patient of a physician named Josef Breuer. While she was never a patient of Freud's, Freud and Breuer discussed her case extensively. The woman was experiencing symptoms of a condition that was then known as hysteria and found that talking about her problems helped relieve her symptoms. Her case played an important part in the development of talk therapy as an approach to mental health treatment.
• Phineas Gage : Phineas Gage was a railroad employee who experienced a terrible accident in which an explosion sent a metal rod through his skull, damaging important portions of his brain. Gage recovered from his accident but was left with serious changes in both personality and behavior.
• Genie : Genie was a young girl subjected to horrific abuse and isolation. The case study of Genie allowed researchers to study whether language learning was possible, even after missing critical periods for language development. Her case also served as an example of how scientific research may interfere with treatment and lead to further abuse of vulnerable individuals.

Such cases demonstrate how case research can be used to study things that researchers could not replicate in experimental settings. In Genie's case, her horrific abuse denied her the opportunity to learn a language at critical points in her development.

This is clearly not something researchers could ethically replicate, but conducting a case study on Genie allowed researchers to study phenomena that are otherwise impossible to reproduce.

There are a few different types of case studies that psychologists and other researchers might use:

• Collective case studies : These involve studying a group of individuals. Researchers might study a group of people in a certain setting or look at an entire community. For example, psychologists might explore how access to resources in a community has affected the collective mental well-being of those who live there.
• Descriptive case studies : These involve starting with a descriptive theory. The subjects are then observed, and the information gathered is compared to the pre-existing theory.
• Explanatory case studies : These   are often used to do causal investigations. In other words, researchers are interested in looking at factors that may have caused certain things to occur.
• Exploratory case studies : These are sometimes used as a prelude to further, more in-depth research. This allows researchers to gather more information before developing their research questions and hypotheses .
• Instrumental case studies : These occur when the individual or group allows researchers to understand more than what is initially obvious to observers.
• Intrinsic case studies : This type of case study is when the researcher has a personal interest in the case. Jean Piaget's observations of his own children are good examples of how an intrinsic case study can contribute to the development of a psychological theory.

The three main case study types often used are intrinsic, instrumental, and collective. Intrinsic case studies are useful for learning about unique cases. Instrumental case studies help look at an individual to learn more about a broader issue. A collective case study can be useful for looking at several cases simultaneously.

The type of case study that psychology researchers use depends on the unique characteristics of the situation and the case itself.

There are a number of different sources and methods that researchers can use to gather information about an individual or group. Six major sources that have been identified by researchers are:

• Archival records : Census records, survey records, and name lists are examples of archival records.
• Direct observation : This strategy involves observing the subject, often in a natural setting . While an individual observer is sometimes used, it is more common to utilize a group of observers.
• Documents : Letters, newspaper articles, administrative records, etc., are the types of documents often used as sources.
• Interviews : Interviews are one of the most important methods for gathering information in case studies. An interview can involve structured survey questions or more open-ended questions.
• Participant observation : When the researcher serves as a participant in events and observes the actions and outcomes, it is called participant observation.
• Physical artifacts : Tools, objects, instruments, and other artifacts are often observed during a direct observation of the subject.

If you have been directed to write a case study for a psychology course, be sure to check with your instructor for any specific guidelines you need to follow. If you are writing your case study for a professional publication, check with the publisher for their specific guidelines for submitting a case study.

Here is a general outline of what should be included in a case study.

Section 1: A Case History

This section will have the following structure and content:

Background information : The first section of your paper will present your client's background. Include factors such as age, gender, work, health status, family mental health history, family and social relationships, drug and alcohol history, life difficulties, goals, and coping skills and weaknesses.

Description of the presenting problem : In the next section of your case study, you will describe the problem or symptoms that the client presented with.

Describe any physical, emotional, or sensory symptoms reported by the client. Thoughts, feelings, and perceptions related to the symptoms should also be noted. Any screening or diagnostic assessments that are used should also be described in detail and all scores reported.

Your diagnosis : Provide your diagnosis and give the appropriate Diagnostic and Statistical Manual code. Explain how you reached your diagnosis, how the client's symptoms fit the diagnostic criteria for the disorder(s), or any possible difficulties in reaching a diagnosis.

Section 2: Treatment Plan

This portion of the paper will address the chosen treatment for the condition. This might also include the theoretical basis for the chosen treatment or any other evidence that might exist to support why this approach was chosen.

• Cognitive behavioral approach : Explain how a cognitive behavioral therapist would approach treatment. Offer background information on cognitive behavioral therapy and describe the treatment sessions, client response, and outcome of this type of treatment. Make note of any difficulties or successes encountered by your client during treatment.
• Humanistic approach : Describe a humanistic approach that could be used to treat your client, such as client-centered therapy . Provide information on the type of treatment you chose, the client's reaction to the treatment, and the end result of this approach. Explain why the treatment was successful or unsuccessful.
• Psychoanalytic approach : Describe how a psychoanalytic therapist would view the client's problem. Provide some background on the psychoanalytic approach and cite relevant references. Explain how psychoanalytic therapy would be used to treat the client, how the client would respond to therapy, and the effectiveness of this treatment approach.
• Pharmacological approach : If treatment primarily involves the use of medications, explain which medications were used and why. Provide background on the effectiveness of these medications and how monotherapy may compare with an approach that combines medications with therapy or other treatments.

This section of a case study should also include information about the treatment goals, process, and outcomes.

When you are writing a case study, you should also include a section where you discuss the case study itself, including the strengths and limitiations of the study. You should note how the findings of your case study might support previous research. 

In your discussion section, you should also describe some of the implications of your case study. What ideas or findings might require further exploration? How might researchers go about exploring some of these questions in additional studies?

Need More Tips?

Here are a few additional pointers to keep in mind when formatting your case study:

• Never refer to the subject of your case study as "the client." Instead, use their name or a pseudonym.
• Read examples of case studies to gain an idea about the style and format.
• Remember to use APA format when citing references .

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach .  BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011;11:100.

Crowe S, Cresswell K, Robertson A, Huby G, Avery A, Sheikh A. The case study approach . BMC Med Res Methodol . 2011 Jun 27;11:100. doi:10.1186/1471-2288-11-100

Gagnon, Yves-Chantal.  The Case Study as Research Method: A Practical Handbook . Canada, Chicago Review Press Incorporated DBA Independent Pub Group, 2010.

Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods . United States, SAGE Publications, 2017.

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

February 9, 2024

Can't find what you're looking for?

Case Study Mastery: Examples & Step-by-Step Templates

Master case study: Uncover key strategies to conduct & present findings that influence decisions charachters.

What's Inside?

Understanding and sharing success stories in the business management world is crucial for grasping the growth journey of a business.

In this article, we will delve into the concept of a business management case study, exploring its definition, benefits, limitations, step-by-step process, types, and essential elements.

What is a Case Study?

A case study research is a detailed analysis of a particular subject, often a real-world situation or scenario, to draw insights and conclusions. It serves as a valuable tool for learning from successful strategies, identifying challenges, and making informed decisions.

Key Characteristics of a Case Study:

Specific Focus: Case studies concentrate on a particular subject, narrowing down the scope to delve deeply into specific aspects.

Real-world Context: Unlike theoretical studies, case studies are grounded in the real world. They often involve the examination of actual events, circumstances, or challenges.

Comprehensive Exploration: Case studies involve a thorough investigation of multiple facets of the chosen subject. This may include collecting and analyzing data, conducting interviews, and reviewing relevant documents.

Contextualization: Each case study is set within a context, providing background information to help readers or viewers understand the circumstances surrounding the case.

Problem-Solving Orientation: While exploring the intricacies of a case, case studies often aim to identify problems, challenges, or opportunities. They can be used as tools for problem-solving and decision-making.

In-depth Analysis: The analysis in a case study goes beyond surface-level observations. It involves a detailed examination of factors contributing to the situation, allowing for a nuanced understanding.

Presentation of Findings: A case study concludes with the presentation of findings, insights, and conclusions. Leveraging a visually compelling presentation plays a vital role for a case study to speak out.

Why You Should Write a Case Study?

Writing a case study offers several compelling reasons for individuals and businesses alike:

Demonstrate Success: A case study allows you to showcase your achievements and successes. It provides tangible evidence of your capabilities, helping build trust and credibility with potential clients, customers, or collaborators.

Educate and Inform: Use case studies to share valuable insights, lessons learned, and best practices. By documenting your experiences, you contribute to the collective knowledge within your industry, positioning yourself as an authority and resource.

Problem-Solving Showcase: If your case study revolves around overcoming challenges, it highlights your problem-solving abilities. This can be particularly impactful in industries where complex issues require innovative solutions.

Engage Your Audience: Well-crafted case studies are engaging and resonate with your audience. They tell a story, making information more relatable and memorable. This storytelling aspect can captivate readers and enhance their understanding of your work.

Build Brand Awareness: Case studies provide an opportunity to promote your brand in a context that goes beyond traditional marketing. Through real-world examples, you can reinforce your brand message and values.

Attract New Opportunities: A compelling case study can attract new opportunities, whether it be clients, partnerships , or collaborations. It serves as a powerful marketing tool, showcasing your expertise and capabilities to a wider audience.

Validate Your Methods: For businesses, case studies serve as a validation of their methods and strategies. Employing a robust case study methodology is a way to demonstrate the effectiveness of your products, services, or approaches to potential clients or customers through a thorough research process.

Internal Learning: Writing a case study requires reflection on your processes and approach case outcomes. This internal learning process can contribute to continuous improvement within your organization , fostering a culture of innovation and adaptability.

SEO Benefits: Case studies can be optimized for search engines, contributing to your online visibility. Including relevant keywords and internal links in your case studies can improve your website's SEO , attracting more organic traffic.

Differentiation: In competitive industries, a well crafted case study sets you apart from the competition. It allows you to highlight what makes your approach unique and why clients or customers should choose your products or services.

Benefits and Limitations of Case Studies

Benefits of Case Studies:

• Evident Success Stories: Case studies serve as tangible evidence of a business's success, allowing them to showcase real-world achievements and build credibility with potential clients or customers.
• Effective Marketing Tool: They function as powerful marketing tools by providing in depth insights into a business's capabilities , differentiating it from competitors, and influencing the decision making process of potential clients.
• Client Relationship Building: Through detailed case studies, businesses can strengthen relationships with existing clients by demonstrating their commitment, problem solving abilities, and delivering measurable results.
• Versatile Content: Case studies offer versatile content that can be repurposed across various marketing channels, including websites, social media, presentations, and promotional materials.
• Educational Value: Businesses can use case studies to educate their target audience about their industry, innovative solutions, and best practices, positioning themselves as thought leaders.

Limitations of Case Studies:

• Resource Intensive: Creating comprehensive case studies demands significant resources, including time, effort, and potential costs, making them resource-intensive for businesses.
• Limited Generalization: Findings from a specific case study may not be universally applicable, limiting their generalizability to other scenarios or industries.
• Potential Bias: There is a risk of bias in the selection and presentation of information, as businesses may be inclined to emphasize positive outcomes and downplay challenges.
• Confidentiality Concerns: Businesses may face challenges in sharing detailed information, especially if it involves sensitive data or strategies, raising concerns about confidentiality.
• Difficulty in Replication: The unique circumstances of a case study may make it challenging to replicate the same success in different contexts, limiting the broader applicability of the insights gained.

How to Conduct a Case Analysis: Step-by-step

1. define the objective:.

• Clearly outline the purpose of the case study. What do you aim to achieve or understand through this analysis?

2. Select the Case:

• Identify a relevant and specific case that aligns with your objective. For an important case study this could be a real-world situation, event, or phenomenon.

3. Background Research:

• Gather background information about the case. This may include historical context, key players involved, and any existing literature on the subject.

4. Identify Key Issues or Questions:

• Formulate specific research questions or highlight key issues you want to address through the case study.

5. Choose the Research Method:

• Decide on the case study method or approach for data collection. A case study research method could involve qualitative methods such as interviews, observations, or document analysis.

6. Develop Data Collection Plan:

• Outline a detailed plan for collecting data. Specify sources, methods, and tools you will use to gather relevant information.

7. Data Collection:

• Execute the data collection plan. Conduct interviews , observe events, and analyze documents to accumulate necessary data.

8. Data Analysis:

• Apply appropriate analytical techniques to interpret the gathered data. This may involve coding, categorizing, and identifying patterns or themes.

9. Construct the Case Study Narrative:

• Organize the findings into a coherent and structured narrative. Develop sections that cover the introduction, background, analysis, and conclusion.

10. Draw Conclusions:

• Based on your analysis, after you conduct case study , draw conclusions that address the research questions or objectives. Consider the implications of your findings.

11. Peer Review or Feedback:

• Seek feedback from colleagues, mentors, or peers to ensure the validity and reliability of your case study.

12. Finalize the Case Study:

• Incorporate feedback and make necessary revisions. Finalize the case study, ensuring clarity, coherence, and adherence to ethical guidelines.

13. Document and Share:

• Prepare the case study for publication or presentation and take advantage of Decktopus AI, a user-friendly and efficient presentation generator powered by AI. Easily convert your case study insights into a visually compelling deck.

• Decktopus ensures your case studies are presented in a format that engages your audience, making your narratives more impactful and memorable. Explore the benefits of Decktopus AI to elevate your case study presentations effortlessly.

What are the Components of a Case Study

The format of a case study typically comprises several key components to present information in a structured and comprehensive manner. While variations may exist based on the context and purpose, a standard case study format often includes the following elements:

1. Introduction:

Provide a brief overview of the case and set the stage for the reader. Outline the main objectives and establish the context of the study.

2. Background:

Present relevant background information about the subject of the case. This may include the history, industry context, or any pertinent details necessary for understanding the situation.

3. Problem Statement or Objectives:

Clearly state the problem or the main objectives of the case study. Define the issues or challenges that the study aims to address.

4. Analysis:

Dive into the analysis of the case. This section often comprises multiple sub-sections, each exploring different aspects such as market conditions, internal factors, external influences, etc.

5. Solution or Action:

Propose solutions or actions to address the identified problems. Detail the steps taken or recommended strategies based on the analysis.

6. Results:

Present the outcomes of the solutions or actions taken. Include any measurable results, impacts, or changes observed.

7. Conclusion:

Summarize the key points, outcomes, and lessons learned. Revisit the problem statement and emphasize the significance of the study, highlighting how the research design shaped the results.

Types of Case Studies

Case Study Examples

1. marketing case study template.

The Marketing Case Study Template is tailored for marketers, highlighting successful marketing strategies . Uncover the methods employed, target audience engagement, and measurable outcomes.

Ideal for marketing professionals seeking insights into effective campaign executions. With Decktopus AI , spending your precious time perpetually recreating your product's presentation has become an ancient practice.

Along with our collection of case-study templates, with our one-click platform, you can easily create beautiful presentations for yourself or your clients.

Also check out: creative marketing case study template .

2. Sales Case Study Template

The Sales Case Study Template is designed for salespeople to present and discuss case studies in sales meetings. With its professional look and engaging layout, your clients will be impressed with the level of detail you put into your analysis.

This professionally designed template is easy to use and easy to customize, making it the perfect way to show off your small business expertise.

So whether you're looking to wow potential clients or just need a little more confidence in your sales meetings, our client case study template will help you make an impact.

Also check-out: case study template for sales teams .

3. Design Case Study Example: UI Case Study Template

The UI Case Study Template is specifically designed for UI designers, making it easy to discuss your design process and findings. Present your design case studies like a pro with our target-spesific case study templates. With our design case study template , you'll be able to showcase your work in a clear, professional manner.

Looking to create a stunning case study presentation for your next client meeting? Look no further than our case study templates! Our professional and easy-to-use templates are perfect for designers of all experience levels, and will help you showcase your work in a clear and concise way.

Also check out: Art Case Study Template .

Explore More Case Study Templates

Discover a vast collection of case study templates from various fields, including marketing, sales, and design, in our dedicated Case Study Examples Blog. Gain insights into diverse business scenarios and find inspiration for your own projects.

Case Study Presentation Creation with Decktopus AI

Streamlining the creation of engaging visual case studies has never been easier than with Decktopus AI . This innovative platform offers a seamless experiencensimply write your input, and Decktopus takes care of the rest, ensuring that your templates not only boast a polished visual appeal but also integrate relevant and impactful content effortlessly.

Discover how easy it is to create engaging case study templates using Decktopus AI . Our platform ensures your templates look great and contain relevant content. With the help of our AI assistant, you not only get support during presentations but also receive tips, facilitate Q&A, and increase overall engagement.

Explore the unique storytelling format that Decktopus offers, making your case studies more relatable. For a step-by-guide on how to easily create a visually stunning case study with Decktopus, see our case study examples blog.

This approach allows you to present information in a narrative style, connecting better with your audience. Find practical tips for smoother case study presentations, from effective storytelling to engaging your audience. Improve your presentation experience with Decktopus AI , where simplicity meets interactivity and storytelling for effective communication.

It features, practical design, mobilizing easy principles of marketing ecosystem platform design. Making it by far the easiest thing to use in your daily practice of mobilizing marketing ecosystems through platform strategies.

Frequently Asked Questions

1) what is a marketing case study.

A marketing case study is a concise analysis of a business's marketing strategy, showcasing its objectives, challenges, tactics, and outcomes. It offers practical insights into real-world marketing applications, serving as a valuable learning tool for understanding successful practices and lessons learned in achieving specific marketing goals.

2) What is a case study?

A case study, or case report, is a concise examination of a specific subject, often real-world situations or problems, providing detailed insights and analysis for learning or decision-making purposes.

3) How should you write a case study?

To create an impactful case study, define objectives, choose a relevant case, gather key information, and use Decktopus for a polished presentation. Employ data analysis, construct a clear narrative, and offer actionable recommendations.

Validate findings and consider broader implications. Decktopus streamlines this process, providing a user-friendly platform for creating compelling case study presentations effortlessly.

Don't waste your time designing your presentations by yourself!

Type your content and let our platform design your presentations automatically. No more wasting time for your presentations. Use hundreds of presentation templates to impress your audience. This is the only tool you need to prepare presentations. Try our Presentation Builder today >>

Don’t waste your time by trying to make a website for all your content

Place your content links and let our platform design your bio link automatically. No more wasting time for your social content distribution. Use hundreds of presentation biolink to impress your audience. This is the only tool you need to prepare good-looking bio links. Try our Bio Link Builder today >>

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Bringing Stories to Your Essay: Introducing a Case Study the Right Way!

Table of contents

Ever found yourself immersed in a story, hanging onto every detail, eager to know what happens next? That, my friend, is the magic of a case study when sprinkled into an essay.

Just as a dash of spice can elevate a dish, a well-placed case study can take your essay from 'meh' to 'marvelous'. It's not just about showcasing real-world examples; it's about making your arguments relatable, tangible, and above all, memorable.

But hold on, before you dive headfirst into weaving in that intriguing case study you found, let’s chat about the art of introducing it. You see, dropping it in without context is like telling a joke without a punchline.

In this post, we'll guide you through the craft of smoothly and effectively introducing a case study into your essay, ensuring it's not just a detour but a meaningful journey for your readers. So, are you ready to give your essay that extra oomph?

Why Use Case Studies in Essays

You know those moments when you're explaining a theory or a concept, and you see those blank stares? Yup, we’ve all been there. That’s where real-world examples come into play. By weaving a case study into your essay, you're essentially turning on a light in a dim room. Suddenly, that complex theory has color, depth, and context. It's no longer just words on paper; it's a story, a lesson, a real-world incident that breathes life into your arguments.

And let's talk about the brownie points. When you toss a well-researched case study into the mix, it's like handing your readers proof that you've rolled up your sleeves and delved deep into your subject. It's a signal: you're not just skimming the surface; you're diving into the depths, bringing out treasures of knowledge.

Lastly, an apt case study is like the secret sauce to winning trust. Readers lean in, believing in your words, connecting with your narrative. It’s not just about flashing your research chops; it’s about creating a bond, engaging them, making them think, "Hey, this writer really knows their stuff!"

In a nutshell? Case studies? They're your essay's best friend.

Choosing the Right Case Study

Before you jump onto the Internet's vast ocean and fish out the first case study that sorta-kinda fits, let’s have a quick heart-to-heart. Not all case studies are created equal. And while it might be tempting to pick that dramatic, headline-grabbing one, it's essential to remember a few golden rules.

Firstly, it's all about alignment. Think of your essay as a puzzle. Every piece, every argument, every citation should fit just right. Your chosen case study? It's that central piece, setting the tone, connecting dots. So, make sure it's directly related to your topic. No square pegs in round holes, okay?

Next, reputation is everything. Dive into journals, accredited institutions, and renowned publications. Trustworthy sources not only boost your essay's credibility but save you from those cringe-worthy moments when someone points out a glaring error or bias in your chosen study.

Quick tip from the pros : Some case studies are like that popular song on the radio - overplayed and heard by everyone. Unless you’re bringing a fresh, unheard angle or a unique perspective to the table, steer clear of the overly popular ones. It's always more impressive to introduce your readers to a gem they haven't encountered before.

Introducing a Case Study: The Art of the Hook

Picture this : You're at a party, and someone starts a story with, "You won't believe what happened to me yesterday!" Chances are, you're all ears. That's the power of a good essay hook . Now, let's bring that energy to your essay!

Starting with a compelling fact or statement is your ticket to gripping your readers. Imagine leading with, "In a village where electricity was once a dream, solar panels changed everything." Instantly, your readers are curious. They want to know more about this village, the change, the story behind it all.

Once you've got their attention, lay down the problem. Paint a picture of the challenges, the obstacles, the scenario before the solution came into play. This sets the stage for your case study. By presenting the problem, you're essentially saying, "Hey, here's a situation. Stick around to see how it unraveled."

Quick Checklist: Crafting That Perfect Hook

• Relevance : Ensure it ties back to your main essay topic.
• Emotion : Strike a chord, whether it's curiosity, empathy, or even surprise.
• Simplicity : Keep it straightforward. No need for jargon or over-the-top language.
• Authenticity : Stay true to the essence of your case study. No embellishing facts!

Remember, the aim is to draw readers in, making them eager to delve into the heart of your case study. With a killer hook, you're not just starting an essay; you're beginning a journey they'll want to join.

MLA Citation: Giving Credit Where It's Due

Alright, let's chat about something we often overlook in our writing excitement: citation. I get it; it may not be the most thrilling part of essay writing, but think of it as the unsung hero, quietly ensuring your work stands tall with authenticity and respect.

First off, why the fuss about proper citation ? Well, citing your sources isn't just about avoiding the scary plagiarism monster. It's about acknowledging the hard work of others. It's a nod to fellow researchers, saying, "Hey, I see your efforts, and they've helped shape mine."

How to cite a case study in MLA format

Author's Last Name, First Name . "Title of the Case Study." Title of the Journal or Publication , vol. number, no. issue number, Year of Publication, page range.

For example: Smith, John. "Solar Power in Remote Villages." Energy Research Journal , vol. 5, no. 2, 2020, pp. 45-59.

If found online: Add the website name, the URL, and the access date at the end.

Smith, John. "Solar Power in Remote Villages." Energy Research Journal , vol. 5, no. 2, 2020, pp. 45-59. ERJ Online, www.erjonline123.com , Accessed 5 June 2022.

Avoid these mistakes

• Forgetting the access date: Especially for online sources, this one's crucial!
• Overlooking the punctuation: Note the periods, commas, and italics. They're all essential in MLA.

Quick Tip : If this feels a tad overwhelming, online citation tools are here to rescue! Platforms like EasyBib or Citation Machine can churn out MLA citations in a snap. Just feed in your source details, and voila!

In the end, think of citations as your essay's backstage crew, working behind the scenes to ensure your masterpiece gets a standing ovation.

Weaving the Case Study into Your Essay Narrative

Alright, so you've got this shiny case study and you’re all set to embed it into your essay. But here's the catch – it's not about just dropping it in; it's about stitching it seamlessly into your narrative fabric.

Make It Relevant : Think of your essay and case study as dance partners. They need to move in harmony. Ensure that your case study doesn't just stand alone; it should back up your arguments, add depth to them, or even offer a contrasting perspective. It’s about making the dance memorable.

Build a Logical Flow : Your readers are on a journey with you. Introduce your case study at a point where it feels natural, leading them from one idea to the next. It’s like following breadcrumbs; one leading to another, ensuring they never get lost in the woods.

Pacing is Key : Imagine watching a movie where the climax is revealed in the first ten minutes. Boring, right? Similarly, don’t spill all the beans about your case study right away. Tease a little, build intrigue, let it unfold gradually, keeping your readers hooked.

In essence, introducing a case study is an art. It’s not about making it fit, but about ensuring it belongs, enriching your essay's narrative and making it truly unforgettable.

Concluding Your Case Study Introduction

As you wrap up the intro to your case study, think of it as putting a bow on a gift. First, make a promise to your readers: assure them that venturing deeper into this case study will shed light, offer insights, or challenge perspectives. Maybe it's a promise of a lesson learned or an innovative solution unveiled. Then, seamlessly pave the way for what's next: your main arguments. Like a skilled guide, hint at the journey ahead, ensuring your readers are not only invested but also eager to embark on the exploration with you.

Final Thoughts & Wrap-up

Introducing a case study in an essay is much like mastering a dance step; at first, it might feel a tad awkward, maybe even a little forced. But with practice? Ah, that’s when the magic happens. Just as dancers become one with the music, with time, you'll find that blending case studies into your essays becomes second nature. The beauty lies in the richness they add, turning plain text into tapestries of real-life stories, insights, and revelations.

But what if you're pressed for time or feeling a tad overwhelmed? Here's a lifesaver: Writers Per Hour offers impeccable custom case study writing services tailored to your needs. They're the backstage crew ensuring your essay shines under the spotlight.

Now, with or without help, here's a challenge for you, dear readers: In your next essay, venture out, find that perfect case study, and weave it in. Experience the transformation it brings. And when you do, remember that every story you tell, every example you cite, adds depth and dimension to your narrative. Ready to give it a whirl?

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Blog Graphic Design 15+ Case Study Examples for Business, Marketing & Sales

15+ Case Study Examples for Business, Marketing & Sales

Written by: Alice Corner Jan 12, 2023

Have you ever bought something — within the last 10 years or so — without reading its reviews or without a recommendation or prior experience of using it?

If the answer is no — or at least, rarely — you get my point.

Positive reviews matter for selling to regular customers, and for B2B or SaaS businesses, detailed case studies are important too.

Wondering how to craft a compelling case study ? No worries—I’ve got you covered with 15 marketing case study templates , helpful tips, and examples to ensure your case study converts effectively.

Click to jump ahead:

What is a case study?

What to include in a professional case study, business case study examples, simple case study examples, marketing case study examples, sales case study examples.

• Case study FAQs

A case study is an in-depth, detailed analysis of a specific real-world situation. For example, a case study can be about an individual, group, event, organization, or phenomenon. The purpose of a case study is to understand its complexities and gain insights into a particular instance or situation.

In the context of a business, however, case studies take customer success stories and explore how they use your product to help them achieve their business goals.

As well as being valuable marketing tools , case studies are a good way to evaluate your product as it allows you to objectively examine how others are using it.

It’s also a good way to interview your customers about why they work with you.

Related: What is a Case Study? [+6 Types of Case Studies]

A professional case study showcases how your product or services helped potential clients achieve their business goals. You can also create case studies of internal, successful marketing projects. A professional case study typically includes:

• Company background and history
• The challenge
• How you helped
• Specific actions taken
• Visuals or Data
• Client testimonials

Here’s an example of a case study template:

Whether you’re a B2B or B2C company, business case studies can be a powerful resource to help with your sales, marketing, and even internal departmental awareness.

Business and business management case studies should encompass strategic insights alongside anecdotal and qualitative findings, like in the business case study examples below.

Conduct a B2B case study by researching the company holistically

When it comes to writing a case study, make sure you approach the company holistically and analyze everything from their social media to their sales.

Think about every avenue your product or service has been of use to your case study company, and ask them about the impact this has had on their wider company goals.

In business case study examples like the one above, we can see that the company has been thought about holistically simply by the use of icons.

By combining social media icons with icons that show in-person communication we know that this is a well-researched and thorough case study.

This case study report example could also be used within an annual or end-of-year report.

Highlight the key takeaway from your marketing case study

To create a compelling case study, identify the key takeaways from your research. Use catchy language to sum up this information in a sentence, and present this sentence at the top of your page.

This is “at a glance” information and it allows people to gain a top-level understanding of the content immediately. 

You can use a large, bold, contrasting font to help this information stand out from the page and provide interest.

Learn  how to choose fonts  effectively with our Venngage guide and once you’ve done that.

Upload your fonts and  brand colors  to Venngage using the  My Brand Kit  tool and see them automatically applied to your designs.

The heading is the ideal place to put the most impactful information, as this is the first thing that people will read.

In this example, the stat of “Increase[d] lead quality by 90%” is used as the header. It makes customers want to read more to find out how exactly lead quality was increased by such a massive amount.

If you’re conducting an in-person interview, you could highlight a direct quote or insight provided by your interview subject.

Pick out a catchy sentence or phrase, or the key piece of information your interview subject provided and use that as a way to draw a potential customer in.

Use charts to visualize data in your business case studies

Charts are an excellent way to visualize data and to bring statistics and information to life. Charts make information easier to understand and to illustrate trends or patterns.

Making charts is even easier with Venngage.

In this consulting case study example, we can see that a chart has been used to demonstrate the difference in lead value within the Lead Elves case study.

Adding a chart here helps break up the information and add visual value to the case study. 

Using charts in your case study can also be useful if you’re creating a project management case study.

You could use a Gantt chart or a project timeline to show how you have managed the project successfully.

Use direct quotes to build trust in your marketing case study

To add an extra layer of authenticity you can include a direct quote from your customer within your case study.

According to research from Nielsen , 92% of people will trust a recommendation from a peer and 70% trust recommendations even if they’re from somebody they don’t know.

So if you have a customer or client who can’t stop singing your praises, make sure you get a direct quote from them and include it in your case study.

You can either lift part of the conversation or interview, or you can specifically request a quote. Make sure to ask for permission before using the quote.

This design uses a bright contrasting speech bubble to show that it includes a direct quote, and helps the quote stand out from the rest of the text.

This will help draw the customer’s attention directly to the quote, in turn influencing them to use your product or service.

Less is often more, and this is especially true when it comes to creating designs. Whilst you want to create a professional-looking, well-written and design case study – there’s no need to overcomplicate things.

These simple case study examples show that smart clean designs and informative content can be an effective way to showcase your successes.

Use colors and fonts to create a professional-looking case study

Business case studies shouldn’t be boring. In fact, they should be beautifully and professionally designed.

This means the normal rules of design apply. Use fonts, colors, and icons to create an interesting and visually appealing case study.

In this case study example, we can see how multiple fonts have been used to help differentiate between the headers and content, as well as complementary colors and eye-catching icons.

Marketing case studies are incredibly useful for showing your marketing successes. Every successful marketing campaign relies on influencing a consumer’s behavior, and a great case study can be a great way to spotlight your biggest wins.

In the marketing case study examples below, a variety of designs and techniques to create impactful and effective case studies.

Show off impressive results with a bold marketing case study

Case studies are meant to show off your successes, so make sure you feature your positive results prominently. Using bold and bright colors as well as contrasting shapes, large bold fonts, and simple icons is a great way to highlight your wins.

In well-written case study examples like the one below, the big wins are highlighted on the second page with a bright orange color and are highlighted in circles.

Making the important data stand out is especially important when attracting a prospective customer with marketing case studies.

Use a simple but clear layout in your case study

Using a simple layout in your case study can be incredibly effective, like in the example of a case study below.

Keeping a clean white background, and using slim lines to help separate the sections is an easy way to format your case study.

Making the information clear helps draw attention to the important results, and it helps improve the  accessibility of the design .

Business case study examples like this would sit nicely within a larger report, with a consistent layout throughout.

Use visuals and icons to create an engaging and branded business case study

Nobody wants to read pages and pages of text — and that’s why Venngage wants to help you communicate your ideas visually.

Using icons, graphics, photos, or patterns helps create a much more engaging design. 

With this Blue Cap case study icons, colors, and impactful pattern designs have been used to create an engaging design that catches your eye.

Use a monochromatic color palette to create a professional and clean case study

Let your research shine by using a monochromatic and minimalistic color palette.

By sticking to one color, and leaving lots of blank space you can ensure your design doesn’t distract a potential customer from your case study content.

In this case study on Polygon Media, the design is simple and professional, and the layout allows the prospective customer to follow the flow of information.

The gradient effect on the left-hand column helps break up the white background and adds an interesting visual effect.

Did you know you can generate an accessible color palette with Venngage? Try our free accessible color palette generator today and create a case study that delivers and looks pleasant to the eye:

Add long term goals in your case study

When creating a case study it’s a great idea to look at both the short term and the long term goals of the company to gain the best understanding possible of the insights they provide.

Short-term goals will be what the company or person hopes to achieve in the next few months, and long-term goals are what the company hopes to achieve in the next few years.

Check out this modern pattern design example of a case study below:

In this case study example, the short and long-term goals are clearly distinguished by light blue boxes and placed side by side so that they are easy to compare.

Use a strong introductory paragraph to outline the overall strategy and goals before outlining the specific short-term and long-term goals to help with clarity.

This strategy can also be handy when creating a consulting case study.

Use data to make concrete points about your sales and successes

When conducting any sort of research stats, facts, and figures are like gold dust (aka, really valuable).

Being able to quantify your findings is important to help understand the information fully. Saying sales increased 10% is much more effective than saying sales increased.

While sales dashboards generally tend it make it all about the numbers and charts, in sales case study examples, like this one, the key data and findings can be presented with icons. This contributes to the potential customer’s better understanding of the report.

They can clearly comprehend the information and it shows that the case study has been well researched.

Use emotive, persuasive, or action based language in your marketing case study

Create a compelling case study by using emotive, persuasive and action-based language when customizing your case study template.

In this well-written case study example, we can see that phrases such as “Results that Speak Volumes” and “Drive Sales” have been used.

Using persuasive language like you would in a blog post. It helps inspire potential customers to take action now.

Keep your potential customers in mind when creating a customer case study for marketing

82% of marketers use case studies in their marketing  because it’s such an effective tool to help quickly gain customers’ trust and to showcase the potential of your product.

Why are case studies such an important tool in content marketing?

By writing a case study you’re telling potential customers that they can trust you because you’re showing them that other people do.

Not only that, but if you have a SaaS product, business case studies are a great way to show how other people are effectively using your product in their company.

In this case study, Network is demonstrating how their product has been used by Vortex Co. with great success; instantly showing other potential customers that their tool works and is worth using.

Related: 10+ Case Study Infographic Templates That Convert

Case studies are particularly effective as a sales technique.

A sales case study is like an extended customer testimonial, not only sharing opinions of your product – but showcasing the results you helped your customer achieve.

Make impactful statistics pop in your sales case study

Writing a case study doesn’t mean using text as the only medium for sharing results.

You should use icons to highlight areas of your research that are particularly interesting or relevant, like in this example of a case study:

Icons are a great way to help summarize information quickly and can act as visual cues to help draw the customer’s attention to certain areas of the page.

In some of the business case study examples above, icons are used to represent the impressive areas of growth and are presented in a way that grabs your attention.

Use high contrast shapes and colors to draw attention to key information in your sales case study

Help the key information stand out within your case study by using high contrast shapes and colors.

Use a complementary or contrasting color, or use a shape such as a rectangle or a circle for maximum impact.

This design has used dark blue rectangles to help separate the information and make it easier to read.

Coupled with icons and strong statistics, this information stands out on the page and is easily digestible and retainable for a potential customer.

Case study examples summary

Once you have created your case study, it’s best practice to update your examples on a regular basis to include up-to-date statistics, data, and information.

You should update your business case study examples often if you are sharing them on your website .

It’s also important that your case study sits within your brand guidelines – find out how Venngage’s My Brand Kit tool can help you create consistently branded case study templates.

Case studies are important marketing tools – but they shouldn’t be the only tool in your toolbox. Content marketing is also a valuable way to earn consumer trust.

Case study FAQ s

Why should you write a case study.

Case studies are an effective marketing technique to engage potential customers and help build trust.

By producing case studies featuring your current clients or customers, you are showcasing how your tool or product can be used. You’re also showing that other people endorse your product.

In addition to being a good way to gather positive testimonials from existing customers , business case studies are good educational resources and can be shared amongst your company or team, and used as a reference for future projects.

How should you write a case study?

To create a great case study, you should think strategically. The first step, before starting your case study research, is to think about what you aim to learn or what you aim to prove.

You might be aiming to learn how a company makes sales or develops a new product. If this is the case, base your questions around this.

You can learn more about writing a case study  from our extensive guide.

Related: How to Present a Case Study like a Pro (With Examples)

Some good questions you could ask would be:

• Why do you use our tool or service?
• How often do you use our tool or service?
• What does the process of using our product look like to you?
• If our product didn’t exist, what would you be doing instead?
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Good Introduction

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In the realm of effective writing , a good introduction is the compass that guides readers through the vast landscape of your content. It’s the gateway to your ideas, the spark that ignites curiosity, and the cornerstone upon which the rest of your work stands. In this article , we will explore the art of crafting captivating introductions, understand what makes them effective, and provide you with a step-by-step guide to master this essential skill.

What is a Good Introduction?

A good introduction is more than just a few lines of text; it’s an invitation, a promise, and an initial impression. This crucial element sets the context for your piece and establishes the theme you intend to explore. It’s the bridge that connects your readers to the heart of your content, using a combination of proper nouns , simple sentences , and carefully chosen verbs to engage them from the very beginning. By avoiding clichés and embracing literary devices like metaphors , you can infuse your introduction with a unique flair that captures attention and sustains interest.

Good Introduction Examples for Essays

Crafting a strong introduction for an essay is essential to engage the reader and set the tone for the rest of the paper. Here are several examples of effective introductions for different types of essays:

1. Narrative Essay

Title: “The Day That Changed Everything” Introduction: It was a crisp autumn morning, and the air was filled with the promise of something extraordinary. As I walked to school, the crunch of leaves underfoot mirrored the swirling thoughts in my mind. Little did I know that this day would mark the beginning of a journey that would shape my future in unimaginable ways. The events that unfolded not only altered the course of my life but also taught me invaluable lessons about resilience and the power of a positive mindset.

2. Argumentative Essay

Title: “The Importance of Renewable Energy” Introduction: In the face of escalating climate change, the need for renewable energy sources has never been more critical. Fossil fuels, the backbone of our current energy infrastructure, are depleting rapidly while contributing significantly to global warming. By transitioning to renewable energy, such as solar and wind power, we can reduce our carbon footprint and create a sustainable future. This essay will argue that the benefits of renewable energy far outweigh the costs and that immediate action is necessary to combat environmental degradation.

3. Expository Essay

Title: “The Evolution of Technology in Education” Introduction: Technology has revolutionized every aspect of our lives, and education is no exception. From the advent of the internet to the proliferation of smartphones, digital tools have transformed how we learn and teach. This essay will explore the evolution of technology in education, examining its impact on teaching methodologies, student engagement, and access to information. By understanding these changes, we can better appreciate the role of technology in shaping the future of education.

4. Descriptive Essay

Title: “A Day at the Beach” Introduction: The sun was just beginning to rise, casting a golden hue across the tranquil waters of the ocean. The gentle sound of waves lapping against the shore created a soothing symphony, while the salty breeze invigorated my senses. As I stepped onto the soft, warm sand, I felt a sense of peace wash over me. This essay will paint a vivid picture of a perfect day at the beach, capturing the sights, sounds, and sensations that make it an unforgettable experience.

5. Compare and Contrast Essay

Title: “Public vs. Private Schools: Which is Better?” Introduction: Choosing the right school for a child is a crucial decision that parents face, often torn between public and private education. Public schools, funded by the government, offer a diverse environment and standardized curriculum, while private schools boast smaller class sizes and specialized programs. This essay will compare and contrast the advantages and disadvantages of public and private schools, helping parents make an informed choice based on their child’s needs and aspirations.

Good Introduction Examples for Interview

Making a strong first impression is crucial in interviews. Below are the examples tailored for different types of interviews, each demonstrating how to effectively introduce yourself and set a positive tone for the conversation.

1. Job Interview

“Good morning, Mr. Smith. My name is Jane Doe, and I am thrilled to be here today. With a background in digital marketing and five years of experience at ABC Corporation, I have developed a strong skill set in SEO, content strategy, and social media management. I am particularly excited about this opportunity at XYZ Company because of your innovative approach to digital marketing and commitment to sustainable practices. I am eager to bring my expertise and passion to your team.”

2. College Admission Interview

“Hello, Dr. Johnson. My name is John Doe, and I am a high school senior at Greenfield High School. I have always been passionate about environmental science, which is why I am excited about the possibility of joining the Environmental Studies program at your university. Over the past few years, I have participated in various science fairs, won awards for my research on renewable energy, and volunteered with local environmental organizations. I believe that your program’s emphasis on hands-on learning and community involvement will be the perfect environment for me to grow academically and personally.”

3. Media/Press Interview

“Good afternoon, Ms. Brown. Thank you for having me. My name is Sarah Lee, and I am the author of ‘The Modern Entrepreneur.’ I have spent the last decade building and advising startups in the tech industry, and my book aims to provide practical advice and insights to aspiring entrepreneurs. I am excited to share my journey and the lessons I have learned along the way with your audience today.”

4. Panel Interview

“Good morning, everyone. My name is Michael Harris, and I am honored to be here today. I bring over ten years of experience in project management, specializing in large-scale IT implementations. In my previous role at Tech Solutions Inc., I successfully led a team that delivered a multi-million-dollar project on time and under budget. I am particularly impressed by your company’s innovative projects and am eager to discuss how my background and skills can contribute to your ongoing success.”

5. Informational Interview

“Hi, Ms. Taylor. Thank you so much for taking the time to meet with me today. My name is Emily Clark, and I am currently a junior at State University majoring in Business Administration. I am very interested in learning more about career paths in human resources, especially in talent acquisition and development. I have completed internships at two companies where I assisted with recruitment and training, and I am eager to hear about your experiences and any advice you might have for someone starting out in this field.”

Good Introduction Examples for Research Papers

A compelling introduction for a research paper is essential to engage your readers and clearly state the purpose and significance of your research. Here are some effective introduction examples for different types of research papers:

1. Scientific Research Paper

Title: “The Effects of Climate Change on Marine Biodiversity” Introduction: Climate change is rapidly altering the world’s ecosystems, with profound implications for marine biodiversity. Rising temperatures, ocean acidification, and altered circulation patterns are impacting species distribution, reproductive cycles, and ecosystem stability. This research aims to analyze the specific effects of these changes on marine life, focusing on coral reefs, fish populations, and plankton communities. By understanding these impacts, we can better inform conservation strategies and policy decisions to protect our oceans.

2. Social Sciences Research Paper

Title: “The Impact of Social Media on Teen Mental Health” Introduction: In recent years, social media has become an integral part of teenagers’ lives, raising concerns about its impact on their mental health. Studies suggest a correlation between excessive social media use and increased rates of anxiety, depression, and loneliness among teens. This research seeks to explore these relationships further, examining how social media influences self-esteem, peer relationships, and emotional well-being. Through surveys and interviews, we aim to identify both the positive and negative effects of social media on adolescent mental health.

3. Literature Review Research Paper

Title: “The Evolution of Feminist Themes in 20th Century Literature” Introduction: Feminist literature has undergone significant transformations throughout the 20th century, reflecting broader social and political changes. From the early suffragette movement to contemporary discussions of gender equality, feminist writers have continually challenged traditional norms and advocated for women’s rights. This literature review examines key works and authors that have shaped feminist discourse, analyzing how themes of empowerment, identity, and resistance have evolved over time. By tracing these developments, we gain insight into the ongoing struggle for gender equality and its representation in literature.

4. Historical Research Paper

Title: “The Causes and Consequences of the Industrial Revolution” Introduction: The Industrial Revolution marked a turning point in human history, profoundly transforming economies, societies, and daily life. Originating in Britain in the late 18th century, it brought about unprecedented technological advancements and industrial growth. This research investigates the underlying causes of the Industrial Revolution, including innovations in agriculture, transportation, and manufacturing. Additionally, it explores the social and economic consequences, such as urbanization, labor conditions, and the rise of capitalism. Understanding these factors provides valuable lessons for contemporary economic development and technological change.

5. Medical Research Paper

Title: “Advancements in Gene Therapy for Genetic Disorders” Introduction: Gene therapy represents a groundbreaking approach to treating genetic disorders, offering hope for conditions previously considered incurable. By directly targeting and correcting defective genes, this technology has the potential to revolutionize medicine. This research paper explores recent advancements in gene therapy, focusing on techniques such as CRISPR-Cas9 and viral vector delivery systems. We will examine clinical trials and case studies to assess the efficacy and safety of these treatments, and discuss the ethical considerations and future directions of gene therapy in medical practice.

Good Introduction Examples for Paragraphs

Crafting a strong introductory sentence for a paragraph is essential to engage the reader and clearly introduce the main idea. Here are some effective introduction examples for different types of paragraphs:

1. Descriptive Paragraph

Introduction: The sunset over the mountains was a breathtaking spectacle. As the sun dipped below the horizon, it painted the sky with brilliant shades of orange, pink, and purple, casting a warm glow over the serene landscape.

2. Narrative Paragraph

Introduction: On my first day of high school, I felt a mix of excitement and nervousness. As I walked through the bustling hallways, the unfamiliar faces and towering lockers made me realize that this was the beginning of a new chapter in my life.

3. Expository Paragraph

Introduction: Photosynthesis is a vital process that sustains life on Earth. Through this process, plants convert sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water into glucose and oxygen, providing energy for themselves and oxygen for other living organisms.

4. Persuasive Paragraph

Introduction: Implementing a four-day workweek can significantly improve employee productivity and well-being. Studies have shown that reducing the number of working days leads to higher job satisfaction, lower stress levels, and increased efficiency.

5. Analytical Paragraph

Introduction: The symbolism in George Orwell’s ‘Animal Farm’ serves as a powerful critique of totalitarian regimes. By using farm animals to represent historical figures and events, Orwell effectively illustrates the corruption and hypocrisy inherent in such systems.

Good Introduction Examples for Informative Essays

An effective introduction for an informative essay engages the reader and clearly presents the topic and purpose of the essay. Here are some examples for different informative essay topics:

1. Health and Wellness

Title: “The Benefits of Regular Exercise” Introduction: Regular exercise is essential for maintaining a healthy lifestyle and improving overall well-being. From reducing the risk of chronic diseases to enhancing mental health, the positive impacts of physical activity are well-documented. This essay will explore the numerous benefits of regular exercise, providing insights into how different types of physical activities can contribute to a healthier and happier life.

2. Technology

Title: “The Rise of Artificial Intelligence” Introduction: Artificial Intelligence (AI) is transforming industries and reshaping the future of work. From healthcare and finance to transportation and entertainment, AI technologies are revolutionizing the way we live and operate. This essay will provide an overview of AI, including its history, current applications, and potential future developments, highlighting the profound impact it has on our society.

3. Environmental Science

Title: “The Importance of Biodiversity Conservation” Introduction: Biodiversity, the variety of life on Earth, is crucial for the stability and resilience of ecosystems. It supports ecosystem services that are vital for human survival, such as food, clean water, and disease regulation. This essay will discuss the importance of biodiversity conservation, the threats to biodiversity, and the strategies that can be employed to protect and preserve our planet’s natural heritage.

4. Education

Title: “The Role of Technology in Modern Education” Introduction: Technology has become an integral part of modern education, enhancing the learning experience in numerous ways. From interactive digital tools to online resources, technological advancements are making education more accessible and engaging for students worldwide. This essay will examine the role of technology in education, exploring its benefits, challenges, and the future potential of tech-enhanced learning environments.

Title: “The Impact of the Industrial Revolution” Introduction: The Industrial Revolution was a pivotal period in history that dramatically changed the way people lived and worked. Originating in Britain in the late 18th century, it led to significant advancements in technology, manufacturing, and transportation. This essay will delve into the causes and effects of the Industrial Revolution, exploring how it shaped modern society and set the stage for future technological progress.

Good Introduction Examples for Speech

Creating a captivating introduction for a speech is crucial to grab the audience’s attention and set the tone for your message. Here are some effective introduction examples for different types of speeches:

1. Motivational Speech

Title: “Overcoming Adversity” Introduction: Good morning, everyone. Imagine standing at the base of a mountain, looking up at the peak shrouded in clouds. The journey seems daunting, almost impossible. Yet, with each step, you grow stronger, more determined. Today, I want to share with you the incredible power of resilience and how we can overcome any adversity by taking one step at a time, no matter how insurmountable it may seem.

2. Informative Speech

Title: “The Future of Renewable Energy” Introduction: Hello and thank you for joining me today. As we stand on the brink of a climate crisis, the need for sustainable energy solutions has never been more urgent. Renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind power, offer a promising path forward. In this speech, we will explore the latest advancements in renewable energy, the benefits they bring, and how they can help us build a more sustainable future.

3. Persuasive Speech

Title: “The Case for Universal Healthcare” Introduction: Good afternoon, ladies and gentlemen. Imagine a world where no one has to choose between paying for food or life-saving medication, where everyone has access to quality healthcare regardless of their financial situation. Universal healthcare can make this vision a reality. Today, I will present compelling reasons why our country should adopt a universal healthcare system, highlighting the moral, economic, and social benefits it offers.

4. Commemorative Speech

Title: “Honoring Our Veterans” Introduction: Ladies and gentlemen, today we gather to honor the brave men and women who have served our country. Their courage, sacrifice, and dedication have preserved our freedoms and protected our way of life. As we reflect on their contributions, let us remember the profound impact they have had on our nation. Join me in paying tribute to our veterans and expressing our deepest gratitude for their service.

5. Entertaining Speech

Title: “The Joys and Challenges of Parenting” Introduction: Hello everyone, and thank you for being here today. Parenting is an incredible journey filled with laughter, love, and, let’s be honest, a fair share of chaos. Whether it’s the hilarious moments of toddler antics or the heartwarming milestones, being a parent is an adventure like no other. In this speech, I’ll share some amusing anecdotes and insights into the joys and challenges of raising children, celebrating the unique experiences that come with being a parent.

Good Introduction Examples for a Presentation

Creating a strong introduction for a presentation is essential for engaging your audience and setting the tone for your topic. Here are some effective introduction examples for various types of presentations:

1. Business Presentation

Topic: Innovative Marketing Strategies “Good morning, everyone. Thank you for being here today. My name is John Smith, and I am the Marketing Director at XYZ Company. Today, I am excited to share with you some innovative marketing strategies that have been driving our recent success. By leveraging data analytics, social media trends, and creative content, we have developed a comprehensive approach to reach and engage our target audience more effectively. Let’s dive in and explore how these strategies can transform your marketing efforts.”

2. Educational Presentation

Topic: The Impact of Technology on Education “Hello, and welcome to today’s session on the impact of technology on education. My name is Jane Doe, and I am a professor of Educational Technology at ABC University. Over the past decade, technology has revolutionized the way we teach and learn, offering new opportunities and challenges. Today, we will explore how digital tools, online learning platforms, and innovative teaching methods are shaping the future of education. I look forward to discussing these exciting developments with you.”

3. Scientific Presentation

Topic: Advances in Renewable Energy “Good afternoon, everyone. My name is Dr. Emily Green, and I am a researcher at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory. Today, I am thrilled to present recent advances in renewable energy technologies that are paving the way for a sustainable future. From solar and wind power to innovative storage solutions, these breakthroughs have the potential to drastically reduce our dependence on fossil fuels. Let’s explore the latest research and its implications for our planet.”

4. Motivational Presentation

Topic: Overcoming Adversity “Hello, everyone. My name is Michael Johnson, and I am honored to be here with you today to talk about overcoming adversity. Life is full of challenges, but it’s how we respond to these obstacles that defines our success. Drawing from my own experiences and the stories of remarkable individuals, I will share strategies and mindsets that can help you navigate difficult times and emerge stronger. Let’s embark on this journey together.”

5. Product Launch Presentation

Topic: Introducing the New XYZ Smartphone “Good evening, ladies and gentlemen. My name is Sarah Lee, and I am the Chief Product Officer at XYZ Tech. It is with great excitement that I introduce to you our latest innovation, the XYZ Smartphone. This cutting-edge device is designed to revolutionize your mobile experience with its advanced features, sleek design, and unparalleled performance. Join me as we unveil the key features and benefits that make the XYZ Smartphone a game-changer in the tech world.”

More Examples & Samples of Good Introduction

1. self introduction essay example.

2. Self Introduction For College Students  Example

3. Simple Self Introduction For Job  Example

4. Self Introduction for an Interview Example

5. Professional Self Introduction Example

6. Student Self Introduction Example

How to Write a Good Introduction?

Writing a good introduction is essential for grabbing the reader’s attention and setting the tone for your entire piece. Whether you’re writing an essay, article, or any other type of content, a strong introduction can make a significant impact. Here’s a step-by-step guide to crafting a compelling introduction:

1. Start with a Hook

A hook is a sentence or two that grabs the reader’s attention and makes them want to keep reading. Some effective hooks include:

• A startling fact or statistic: Present an intriguing fact that relates to your topic.
• A relevant quote: Use a quote from a famous person or an expert in your field.
• A question: Pose a thought-provoking question that encourages the reader to think about the topic.
• A brief anecdote or story: Share a short, interesting story that introduces the topic.

2. Provide Background Information

After hooking your reader, provide some context or background information. This helps the reader understand the topic and sets the stage for the main points of your content. Be concise and relevant, avoiding unnecessary details.

3. State Your Thesis or Main Idea

Clearly state your thesis or the main idea of your piece. This is the central point you will be making in your writing. Ensure that your thesis is specific and concise, giving the reader a clear understanding of what to expect.

4. Outline the Structure

Briefly outline the structure of your content. Mention the main points you will cover in the order they will appear. This gives the reader a roadmap of your piece and helps them follow your argument or narrative.

How do I start a good introduction?

Begin with a hook to grab attention, provide relevant background information, and clearly state your thesis or main point.

What makes an effective hook in an introduction?

An effective hook can be a surprising fact, a relevant quote, a question, or a brief anecdote related to your topic.

How long should an introduction be?

Typically, an introduction should be around 10% of the total length of your essay or presentation.

Why is background information important in an introduction?

Background information sets the context, helping the reader understand the topic and why it is important.

What is a thesis statement?

A thesis statement is a concise summary of the main point or claim of your essay, usually one or two sentences.

How can I make my introduction engaging?

Use clear and vivid language, connect with your audience’s interests, and present a compelling thesis.

What should be avoided in an introduction?

Avoid vague statements, overly broad generalizations, and detailed explanations that belong in the body of your text.

Can an introduction include questions?

Yes, posing a question can engage the reader and encourage them to think about the topic from the beginning.

How do I transition from the introduction to the body?

Use a smooth transition sentence that links your introduction to the first main point of your body text.

What are common mistakes in writing introductions?

Common mistakes include being too verbose, lacking a clear thesis, and failing to engage the reader’s interest.

Text prompt

• Instructive
• Professional

10 Examples of Public speaking

20 Examples of Gas lighting

Calculation of the minimum clinically important difference (MCID) using different methodologies: case study and practical guide

• Original Article
• Open access
• Published: 28 June 2024

Cite this article

You have full access to this open access article

• Anita M. Klukowska 1 , 2 ,
• W. Peter Vandertop 1 ,
• Marc L. Schröder 3 &
• Victor E. Staartjes   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1039-2098 4  

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Introduction

Establishing thresholds of change that are actually meaningful for the patient in an outcome measurement instrument is paramount. This concept is called the minimum clinically important difference (MCID). We summarize available MCID calculation methods relevant to spine surgery, and outline key considerations, followed by a step-by-step working example of how MCID can be calculated, using publicly available data, to enable the readers to follow the calculations themselves.

Thirteen MCID calculations methods were summarized, including anchor-based methods, distribution-based methods, Reliable Change Index, 30% Reduction from Baseline, Social Comparison Approach and the Delphi method. All methods, except the latter two, were used to calculate MCID for improvement of Zurich Claudication Questionnaire (ZCQ) Symptom Severity of patients with lumbar spinal stenosis. Numeric Rating Scale for Leg Pain and Japanese Orthopaedic Association Back Pain Evaluation Questionnaire Walking Ability domain were used as anchors.

The MCID for improvement of ZCQ Symptom Severity ranged from 0.8 to 5.1. On average, distribution-based methods yielded lower MCID values, than anchor-based methods. The percentage of patients who achieved the calculated MCID threshold ranged from 9.5% to 61.9%.

Conclusions

MCID calculations are encouraged in spinal research to evaluate treatment success. Anchor-based methods, relying on scales assessing patient preferences, continue to be the “gold-standard” with receiver operating characteristic curve approach being optimal. In their absence, the minimum detectable change approach is acceptable. The provided explanation and step-by-step example of MCID calculations with statistical code and publicly available data can act as guidance in planning future MCID calculation studies.

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Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

The notion of minimum clinically important difference (MCID) was introduced to establish thresholds of change in an outcome measurement instrument that are actually meaningful for the patient. Jaeschke et al . originally defined it “as the smallest difference in score in the domain of interest which the patient perceives as beneficial and which would mandate, in the absence of troublesome side-effects and excessive cost, a change in the patient’s management” [ 1 ].

In many clinical trials statistical analyses only focuses on intergroup comparisons of raw outcome scores using parametric/non-parametric tests and deriving conclusions based on the p -value. Using the classical threshold of p- value < 0.05 only suggests that the observed effect is unlikely to have occurred by chance, but it does not equate to a change that is clinically meaningful for the patient [ 2 ]. Calculating MCID scores, and using them as thresholds for “treatment success”, ensures that patients’ needs and preferences are considered and allows for comparison of proportion of patients experiencing a clinically relevant improvement among different groups [ 3 ]. Through MCID, clinicians can better understand the impact of an intervention on their patients’ lives, sample size calculations can become more robust and health policy makers may decide which treatments deserve reimbursement [ 4 , 5 , 6 ].

The MCID can be determined from the patient’s perspective, where it is the patient who decides whether a change in their health was meaningful [ 4 , 7 , 8 , 9 ]. This is the most common “gold-standard” approach and one that we will focus on. Occasionally, the clinician’s perspective can also be used to determine MCID. However, MCID for a clinician may not necessarily mean an increase in a patient’s functionality, but rather a change in disease survival or treatment planning [ 10 ]. MCID can also be defined at a societal level, as e.g. improvement in a patient’s functionality significant enough to aid their return to work [ 11 ].

MCID thresholds are intended to assess an individual’s clinical improvement and ought not to be applied to mean scores of entire groups post-intervention, as doing so may falsely over-estimate treatment effectiveness. It is also noteworthy to mention that obtained MCID values are not treatment-specific but broadly disease category-specific. They rely on a patient’s perception of clinical benefit, which is influenced by their diagnosis and subsequent symptoms, not just treatment modality.

In this study, we summarize available MCID calculation methods and outline key considerations when designing a MCID study, followed by a step-by-step working example of how MCID can be calculated.

Navigating the case study

To illustrate the MCID methods and to enable the reader to follow the practical calculation guide of different MCID values, based on the described methods along the way, a previously published data set of 84 patients, as described in Minetama et al ., was used based on CC0.10 license [ 12 ]. Data can be downloaded at https://data.mendeley.com/datasets/vm8rg6rvsw/1 . The statistical R code can be found in Supplementry content  1 including instructions on formatting the data set for MCID calculations The title of different MCID methods in the paper (listed below) and their number correspond to the same title and respective number in the R code. All analyses in this case study were carried out using R version 2023.12 + 402 (The R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna Austria) [ 13 ].

The aim of Minetama et al . was to assess the effectiveness of supervised physical therapy (PT) with unsupervised at-home-exercises (HE) in patients with lumbar spinal stenosis (LSS). The main inclusion criteria were presence of neurogenic intermittent claudication and pain/or numbness in the lower extremities with or without back pain and > 50 years of age; diagnosis of LSS confirmed on MRI and a history of ineffective response to therapy for ≥ 3 months. Patients were then randomized into a 6-week PT or HE programme [ 12 ]. All data was pooled, as a clinically significant benefit for patients is independent of group allocation and because MCID is disease-specific. Therefore, the derived MCID will be applicable to most patients with lumbar spinal stenosis, irrespective of treatment modality. Change scores were calculated by subtracting baseline scores from follow-up scores.

MCID calculation methods

There are multiple approaches to calculate MCID, mainly divided into anchor-based and distribution-based methods (Fig.  1 ) [ 4 , 10 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 ]. Before deciding on the method, it needs to be defined whether the calculated MCID will be for improvement or deterioration [ 18 ]. Most commonly, MCID is used to measure improvement (as per Jaeschke et al . definition) [ 1 , 4 , 7 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 19 , 20 ]. The value of MCID for improvement should not be directly applied in reverse to determine whether a decrease in patients' scores signifies a clinically meaningful deterioration – those are two separate concepts [ 18 ]. In addition, the actual MCID value ought to be applied to post-intervention score of an individual patient (not the overall score for the whole group), to determine whether, at follow-up, he or she experienced a change equating to MCID or more, compared to their baseline score. Such patient is then classified as “responders”.

Flow diagram presenting range of Minimum clinically important difference calculation methods stratified into anchor, distribution-based and “other” described in the study. MCID, Minimum Clinically Important Difference; MIC, Minimal Important Change

According to the Consensus-based Standards for the selection of health measurement instruments (COSMIN) guidelines, the “anchor-based” approach is regarded as the “gold-standard” [ 21 , 22 , 23 ]. In this approach, we determine the MCID of a chosen outcome measurement, based on whether a pre-defined MCID (usually derived from another published study) was achieved by an external criterion, known as the anchor, usually another patient-reported outcome measure (PROM) or an objective test of functionality [ 4 , 7 , 8 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 20 ]. It is best to use scales which allow the patient to rate the specific aspect of their health related to the disease of interest post-intervention compared to baseline on a Likert-type scale. This scale may range, for example, from “much worse”, “somewhat worse”, “about the same”, “somewhat better”, to “much better”, such as the established Global Assessment Rating tool [ 7 , 8 , 24 , 25 ]. Depending on the scale, some studies determine MCID by calculating change scores for patients who only ranked themselves as “somewhat better”, and some only consider patients who ranked themselves as “much better” [ 7 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 ]. This discrepancy is likely an explanation for a range of MCID for a single outcome measure dependent on the methodology. There appears to be no singular “correct” approach. One of the alternatives to the Global assessment rating is the use of the health transition item (HTI) from the SF-36 questionnaire, where patients are asked about their overall health compared to one year ago [ 7 , 30 , 31 ]. Although quick and easy to conduct, the patient’s response may be influenced by comorbid health issues other than those targeted by intervention. Nevertheless, any anchor where the patient is the one to decide what change is clinically meaningful, captures the true essence of the MCID. One should however, be mindful of the not easily addressed recall bias with such anchors – patients at times do not reliably remember their baseline health status [ 32 ]. Moreover, what the above anchors do not consider is, whether the patient would still choose the intervention for the same condition despite experiencing side-effects or cost. That can be addressed through implementing anchors such as the Satisfaction with Results scale described in Copay et al ., who found that MCID values based on the Satisfaction with Results scale were slightly higher than those derived from HTI-SF-36 [ 7 , 33 ].

Other commonly used outcome scales, such as Oswestry Disability Index (ODI), Roland–Morris Disability Questionnaire (RMDQ), Visual Analogue Scale (VAS), or EQ5D-3L Health-Related Quality of Life, can also act as anchors [ 7 , 14 , 16 , 34 , 35 ]. In such instances, patients complete the “anchor” questionnaire at baseline and post-intervention and the MCID of that anchor is derived from a previous publication [ 12 , 16 , 35 ]. Before deciding on the MCID, full understanding of how it was derived in that previous publication is crucial. Ideally, this should be done for a population similar to our study cohort, with comparable follow-up periods [ 18 , 20 ]. Correlations between the anchor instrument and the investigated outcome measurement instrument must be recorded, and ought to be at least moderate (> 0.05), as that is the best indicator of construct validity (whether both the anchor instrument and outcome instrument represent a similar construct of patient health) [ 18 , 36 ]. If such correlation is not available, the anchor-based MCID credibility instrument is available to aid in assessing construct proximity between the two [ 36 , 37 ].

Once the process for selecting an anchor and classifying “responders” and “non-responders” is established, the MCID can be calculated. The outcome instrument of interest will be defined as an outcome for which we want to calculate the MCID. The first anchor-based method (within-patient change) focuses on the average improvement seen among clear responders in the anchor. The between-patient change anchor-based method additionally subtracts the average improvement seen among non-responders (unchanged and/or worsened) and consequently ends up with a smaller MCID value. Finally, an anchor-based method based on Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) curve analysis–that can be considered the current “gold standard”- also exists, which effectively looks at the MCID calculation as a sort of diagnostic instrument and aims to improve the discriminatory performance of our MCID threshold. In the following paragraphs, the three anchor-based methods are described in more detail. The R code (Supplementry Content  1 ) enables the reader to follow the text and to calculate MCID for the Zurich Claudication Questionnaire (ZCQ) Symptom Severity domain, based on a publicly available dataset [ 12 ].

Choice of outcome measurement instruments for MCID calculation case study

The chosen outcome measurement instrument in this case study for which MCID for improvement will be calculated is ZCQ Symptom Severity domain [ 12 ]. The ZCQ is composed of three subscales: symptom severity (7 questions, score per question ranging from 1 to 5 points); physical function (5 questions, score per question ranging from 1 to 4 points) and patient satisfaction with treatment scale (6 questions, score per question ranging from to 4 points). Higher scores indicate greater disability/worse satisfaction [ 38 ]. To visualize different MCID values, Numeric Rating Scale (NRS) for Leg Pain (score from 0 “no pain” to 10 “worse possible pain) and Japanese Orthopaedic Association Back Pain Evaluation Questionnaire (JOABPEQ) Walking Ability domain are chosen, as they showed high responsiveness in patients with LSS post-operatively [ 39 ].Through 25 questions, the JOABPEQ assesses five distinctive domains: pain-related symptoms, lumbar spine dysfunction, walking ability, impairment in social functioning and psychological disturbances. The score for each domain ranges from 0 to 100 points (higher score indicating better health status) [ 40 ]. The correlation of ZCQ symptom severity with NRS Leg Pain and JOABPEQ Walking Ability domain, is 0.56 and − 0.51, respectively [ 39 ]. For a patient to be classified as a “responder”, using the NRS for Leg pain or JOABPEQ walking ability, the score at 6-week follow-up must have improved by 1.6 points or 20 points, respectively [ 7 , 40 , 41 ].

This publicly available dataset does not report patient satisfaction or any kind of global assessment rating.

To enable calculation of global assessment rating-based MCID methods for educational purposes, despite very limited availability of studies providing MCID for deterioration of JOABPEQ, we decided to stratify patients in this dataset into the three following groups, based on the JOABPEQ Walking Ability as an anchor: likely improved (change score above 20 points according to Kasai et al . ), no significant change (− 20– + 20 points change score), and likely deteriorated (lower than − 20 points change score) [ 41 ]. As obtained MCID values were expected to be negative, all values, for clarity of presentation, were multiplied by − 1, except in Method (IX), where graphical data distribution was shown.

The different methods in detail

Method (i) calculating mcid using “within-patient” score change.

The first method focuses on calculating the change between baseline and post-intervention score of our outcome instrument, for each patient classified as a “responder”. A “responder” is a patient who, at follow-up, has achieved the pre-defined MCID of the anchor (or ranks themselves high enough on Global assessment rating type scale based on our methodology). The MCID is then defined as the mean change in the outcome instrument of interest of those classified as “responders” [ 4 , 7 , 16 , 31 ].

The corresponding R-Code formula is described in Step 5a of Supplementry Content  1 . Calculated within-patient MCID of ZCQ Symptom Severity based on NRS Leg Pain and JOABPEQ Walking Ability domain was 4.4 and 4.2, respectively.

Method (II) calculating MCID using “between-patient” score change

In this approach, the mean change in our outcome instrument is calculated for not only “responders” but also for “non-responders”. “Non-responders” are patients who did not achieve the pre-defined MCID of our anchor or who did not rank themselves high enough (unchanged, or sometimes: unchanged + worsened) on Global Assessment Rating type scale according to our methodology. The minimum clinically important difference of our outcome instrument is then defined as the difference between the mean change scores of “responders” and “non-responders” [ 4 , 7 , 16 , 19 ].

The corresponding R-Code formula is described in Step 5b of Supplementry content  1 . Calculated between-patient MCID of ZCQ Symptom Severity based on NRS Leg Pain and JOABPEQ Walking Ability domain was 3.5 and 2.8, respectively.

Method (III) calculating MCID using the ROC analysis

Here the MCID is derived through ROC analysis to identify the “threshold” score of our outcome instrument that best discriminates between “responders” and “non-responders” of the anchor [ 4 , 7 , 16 , 19 , 27 ]. To understand ROC, one must familiarize oneself with the concept of sensitivity and specificity. In ROC analysis, sensitivity is defined as the ability of the test to correctly detect “true positives”, which in this context refers to patients who have achieved a clinically meaningful change.

“False negative” would be a patient, who was classified as “non-responder” but is really a “responder”. Specificity is defined as the ability of a test to correctly detect a “true negative” result- a patient who did not achieve a clinically meaningful change – a “non-responder” [ 25 ].

A “false positive” would be a patient, who was classified as a “responder” but who was a “non-responder”. Values for sensitivity and specificity range from 0 to 1. Sensitivity of 1 means that the test can detect 100% of “true positives”’ (“responders”), while specificity of 1 reflects the ability to detect 100% of “true negatives” (“non-responders”). It is unclear what the minimum sensitivity and specificity should be for a “gold-standard” MCID, which is why the most established approach is to opt for a MCID threshold that maximizes both sensitivity and specificity at the same time, which can be done using ROC analysis [ 4 , 7 , 25 , 31 , 42 ]. During ROC analysis, the “closest-to-(0,1)-criterion” (the top left most point of the curve) or the Youden index are the two methods to automatically determine the optimal threshold point [ 43 ].

When conducting the ROC analysis, the Area under the curve (AUC) is also determined–a measure of how well the MCID threshold discriminates responders and non-responders in general. Values in AUC can range 0–1. An AUC of 0.5 signifies that the score discriminates no better than random chance, whereas a value of 1 means that the score perfectly discriminates between responders and non-responders. In the literature, an AUC of 0.7 and 0.8 is deemed fair (acceptable), while ≥ 0.8 to < 0.9 is considered good and values ≥ 0.9 are considered excellent [ 44 ]. Calculating the AUC provides a rough estimate of how well the chosen MCID threshold performs. The corresponding R-Code formula is described in Step 5c of Supplementry content  1 . Statistical package pROC was used. The calculated MCID of ZCQ symptom severity based on NRS Leg Pain and JOABPEQ Walking Ability domain was for both 1.5.

Calculation of MCID through distribution-based methods

Calculation of MCID using the distribution-based approach focuses on statistical properties of the dataset [ 7 , 14 , 16 , 27 , 45 ]. Those methods are objective, easy to calculate, and in some cases, yield values close to anchor-based MCID. The advantage of this approach is that it does not rely on any external criterion or require additional studies on previously established MCIDs or other validated “gold standard” questionnaires for the specific disease in each clinical setting. However, it fails to include the patient’s perspective of a clinically meaningful change, which will be discussed later in this study. In this sense, distribution-based methods focus on finding MCID thresholds that enable mathematical distinction of what is considered a changed vs. unchanged score, whereas anchor-based methods focus on finding MCID thresholds which represent a patient-centered, meaningful improvement.

Method (IV) calculating MCID through Standard Error of Measurement (SEM)

The standard error of measurement conceptualizes the reliability of the outcome measure, by determining how repeated measurements of an outcome may differ from the “true score”. Greater SEM equates to lower reliability, which is suggestive of meaningful inconsistencies in the values produced by the outcome instrument despite similar measuring conditions. Hence, it has been theorized that 1 SEM is equal to MCID, because a change score ≥ 1 SEM, is unlikely to be due to measurement error and therefore is also more likely to be clinically meaningful [ 46 , 47 ]. The following formula is used: [ 1 , 7 , 35 , 46 , 48 ].

The ICC, also called reliability coefficient, signifies level of agreement or consistency between measurements taken on different occasions or by different raters [ 49 ]. There are various ways of calculating the ICC depending on the used model with values < 0.5, 0.5– 0.75, 0.75–0.9 and > 0.90 indicating poor, moderate, good and excellent reliability, respectively [ 49 ]. While a value of 1 × SEM is probably the most established way to calculate MCID, in the literature, a range of multiplication factors for SEM-based MCID have been used, including 1.96 SEM or even 2.77 SEM to identify a more specific threshold for improvement [ 48 , 50 ]. The corresponding R-Code formula is described in Step 6a of Supplementry Content  1 . The chosen ZCQ Symptom Severity ICC was 0.81 [ 51 ]. The SEM-based MCID was 1.9.

Method (V) calculating MCID through Effect Size (ES)

Effect size (ES) is a standardized measure of the strength of the relationship or difference between two variables [ 52 ]. It is described by Cohen et al . as “degree to which the null hypothesis (there is no difference between the two groups) is false”. It allows for direct comparison of different instruments with different units between studies. There are multiple forms to calculate ES, but for the purpose of MCID calculations, the ES represents the number of SDs by which the post-intervention score has changed from baseline score. It is calculated based on the following formula incorporating the average change score divided by the SD of the baseline score: [ 52 ].

According to Cohen et al . 0.2 is considered small ES, 0.5 is moderate ES and 0.8 or more is large ES [ 53 ]. Most commonly, a change score with an ES of 0.2 is considered equivalent to MCID [ 7 , 16 , 31 , 54 , 55 , 56 ]. Using this method, we are basically identifying the mean change score (in this case reflecting the MCID) that equates to an ES of 0.2: [ 7 , 55 ].

Practically, if a patient experienced small improvement in an outcome measure post intervention, the ES will be smaller than for a patient who experienced a large improvement in outcomes measure. The corresponding R-Code formula is described in Step 6b of Supplementry Content  1 . The ES-based MCID was 0.9.

Method (VI) calculating MCID through Standardized Response Mean (SRM)

The Standardized Response Mean (SRM) aims to gauge the responsiveness of an outcome similarly to ES. Initially described by Cohen et al . as a derivative of ES assessing differences of paired observations in a single sample, later renamed as SRM, it is also considered an “index of responsiveness” [ 38 , 53 ]. However, the denominator is SD of the change scores–not the SD of the baseline scores–while the numerator remains the average change score from baseline to follow-up: [ 10 , 45 , 57 , 58 , 59 ].

Similarly, to Cohen’s rule of interpreting ES, it has been theorized that responsiveness can be considered low if SRM is 0.2–0.5, moderate if > 0.5–0.8 and large if > 0.8 [ 58 , 59 , 60 ]. Again, a change score equating to SRM of 0.2 (although SRM of 1/3 or 0.5 were also proposed) can be considered MCID, although studies have used the overall SRM as MCID as well [ 45 , 54 , 56 , 61 ]. However, since SRM is a standardized index, similarly to ES, the aim of the SRM-based method ought to be to identify a change score that indicates responsiveness of 0.2: [ 61 ].

Similar to the ES-based method, the SRM-based approach for calculating the MCID is not commonly used in in spine surgery studies [ 14 ]. It is a measure of responsiveness, which is the ability to detect change over time in a construct to be measured by the instrument, and ought to be therefore calculated for the study-specific change score rather than extrapolated as a “universal” MCID threshold to other studies. The corresponding R-Code formula is described in Step 6c of Supplementry Content  1 . The SRM-based MCID was 0.8.

The limitation of using Method (V) and (VI) in MCID calculations will be later described in Discussion.

Method (VII) calculating MCID through SD

Standard Deviation represents the average spread of individual data points around the mean value of the outcome measure. Norman et al . found in their review of studies using MCID in health-related quality of life instruments that most studies had an average ES of 0.5, which equated to clinically meaningful change score of 0.5 × SD of baseline score [ 7 , 16 ,  30 ].

The corresponding R-Code formula is described in Step 6d of Supplementry content  1 . The SD-based MCID was 2.1.

Method (VIII) calculating MCID through 95% Minimum Detectable Change (MDC)

The MDC is defined as the minimal change below which there is a 95% chance that it is due to measurement error of the outcome measurement instrument: [ 7 , 61 ].

Usually, value corresponding to z is the desired level of confidence, which for 95% confidence level is 1.96. Although MDC–like all distribution-based methods–does not consider whether a change is clinically meaningful, the calculated MCID should be at least the same or greater than MDC to enable distinguishing true mathematical change from measurement noise. The 95% MDC calculation, is the most common distribution-based approach in spinal surgery, and it appears to most closely resemble anchor-derived MCID values, as demonstrated by Copay et al . [ 7 , 14 , 62 ]. The corresponding R-Code formula is described in Step 6e of Supplementry Content  1 . The 95% MDC was 5.1.

Method (IX) calculating MCID through Reliable Change Index

Another less frequently applied method through which “responders and “non-responders” can be classified but which does not rely on an external criterion is the Reliable Change Index (RCI), also called the Jacobson–Truax index [ 63 , 64 ]. It indicates whether an individual change score is statistically significantly greater than a change in score that could have occurred due to random measurement error alone [ 63 ].

In theory, a patient can be considered to experience a statistically reliably identifiable improvement ( p  < 0.05), if the individual RCI is > 1.96. Again, it does not reflect whether the change is clinically meaningful for the patient but rather that the change should not be attributed to measurement error alone and likely has a component of true score change. Therefore, this method is discouraged in MCID calculations as it relies on statistical properties of the sample and not patient preferences–as all distribution-based methods do [ 65 ]. In the example of Bolton et al . who focused on the Bournemouth Questionnaire in patients with neck pain, RCI was subsequently used to discriminate between “responders” and “non-responders”. The ROC analysis approach was then used to determine the MCID [ 64 ]. The corresponding R-Code formula is described in Step 6f of Supplementry Content  1 . Again, pROC package was used. The ROC-derived MCID was 2.5.

Other methods

Method (x) calculating mcid through anchor-based minimal important change (mic) distribution model.

In theory, combining anchor- and distribution-based methods could yield superior results. Some suggestions include averaging the values of various methods, simply combining two different methods (i.e. both an anchor-based criterion such as ROC-based MCID from patient satisfaction and 95% MDC-based MCID have to both be met to consider a patient as having achieved MCID) [ 25 ]. In 2007, de Vet et al . introduced a new visual method of MCID calculations that does not only combine but also integrates both anchor- and distribution-based calculations [ 25 ]. In addition, their method allows the calculation of both MCID for improvement and for deterioration, as these can differ.

In short form, using an anchor, patients were divided into three “importantly improved”, “not importantly changed” and “importantly deteriorated” groups (Fig.  2 ) . Then distribution expressed in percentiles of patients who “importantly improved”, “importantly deteriorated” and “not importantly changed” were plotted on a graph. This is the anchor-based part of the approach, ensuring that MCID thresholds chosen have clinical value.

Distribution of the Zurich Claudication Questionnaire Symptom Severity change scores for patients categorized as experiencing “important improvement”, “no important change” or “important deterioration” in JOABPEQ walking ability as an anchor (Method (X)). For ZCQ Symptom Severity score to improve, the actual value must decrease explaining the negative values in the model. ROC , Receiver Operating Characteristic; ZCQ , Zurich Claudication Questionnaire; JOABPEQ , Japanese Orthopaedic Association Back Pain Evaluation Questionnaire

The second part of the approach is then entirely focused on the group of patients determined by the anchor to be “unchanged”, and can be either distribution- or anchor-based:

In the first and more anchor-based method, the ROC-based method described in Method (III) is applied to find the threshold for improvement (by finding the ROC-based threshold point that optimizes sensitivity and specificity of identifying improved vs unchanged patients) or for deterioration (by finding the ROC-based threshold point that optimizes sensitivity and specificity of identifying deteriorated vs unchanged patients). For example, the threshold for improvement is found by combining the improved and unchanged groups, and then testing out different thresholds for discriminating those two groups from each other. The optimal point on the resulting ROC curve based on the closest-to-(0,1)-criterion is then found.

In the second method, which is distribution-based, the upper 95% (for improvement) and lower 95% (for deterioration) limits are found based solely on the group of patients determined to be unchanged. The following formula is used (instead, subtracting instead of adding the 1.645 × SD for deterioration or improvement, respectively): [ 25 ]

The corresponding R-Code formula can be found under Step 7a in Supplementry Content  1 . The model is presented in Fig.  2 . The 95% upper limit and 95% lower limit was 4.1 and − 7.2 respectively. The ROC-derived MCID using RCI was − 2.5 (important improvement vs unchanged) and − 0.5 (important deterioration vs unchanged). For the purpose of the model, MCID values were not multiplied by − 1 but remained in original form.

Method (XI) calculating MCID as 30% Reduction from Baseline

In recent years, a simple 30% reduction from baseline values has been introduced as an alternative to MCID calculations [ 66 ]. It has been speculated that absolute-point changes are difficult to interpret and have limited value in context of “ceiling” and “floor” effects (i.e. values that are on the extreme spectra of the measurement scale) [ 4 ]. To overcome this, Khan et al . found that 30% reduction in PROMs has similar effectiveness as traditional anchored or distribution-based methods in detecting patients with clinically meaningful differences post lumbar spine surgery [ 15 ]. The corresponding R-Code formula can be found under Step 7b in Supplementry Content  1 .

Method (XII) Calculating MCID through Delphi method

The Delphi Method is a systemic approach using the collective opinion of experts to establish a consensus regarding a medical issue [ 67 ]. It has mostly been used to develop best practice guidelines [ 68 ]. However, it can also be used to aid MCID determination [ 69 ]. The method focuses on distributing questionnaires or surveys to panel of members. The anonymized answers are grouped together and shared again with the expert panel in subsequent rounds. This allows the experts to reflect on their opinions and consider strengths and weaknesses of the others response. The process is repeated until consensus is reached. Ensuring anonymity, this prevents any potential bias linked to a specific participant’s concern about their own opinion being viewed or influenced by other personal factors [ 67 ].

Method (XIII) calculating MCID through Social Comparison Approach

The final approach is asking patients to compare themselves to other patients, which requires time and resources [ 70 ]. In a study by Redelmeier et al . patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in a rehabilitation program were organized into small groups and observed each other at multiple occasions [ 70 ]. Additionally, each patient was paired with another participant and had a one-to-one interview with them discussing different aspects of their health. Finally, each patient anonymously rated themselves against their partner on a scale “much better”, “somewhat better”, “a little bit better”, “about the same”, “a little bit worse” “somewhat worse” and “much worse”. MCID was then calculated based on the mean change score of patients who graded themselves as “a little bit better” (MCID for improvement) or a “little bit worse” (MCID for deterioration), like in the within-patient change and between-patient change method described in Method (I) and (II) [ 70 ].

Substantial Clinical Benefit

Over the years, it has been noted that MCID calculations based either purely on distribution-based method or only group of patients rating themselves as “somewhat better” or “slightly better” does not necessarily constitute a change that patients would consider beneficial enough “to mandate, in the absence of troublesome side effects and excessive cost, to undergo the treatment again” [ 3 , 24 ]. Therefore, the concept of substantial clinical benefit (SCB) has been introduced as a way of identifying a threshold of clinical success of intervention rather than a “floor” value for improvement- that is MCID [ 24 ]. For example, in Carreon et al ., ROC derived SCB “thresholds” were defined as a change score with equal sensitivity and specificity to distinguish “much better” from “somewhat better” patients post cervical spinal fusion [ 71 ]. Glassman et al . on the other hand used ROC derived SCB thresholds to discriminate between “much better” and “about the same” patients following lumbar spinal fusion. The authors stress that SCB and MCID are indeed separate entities, and one should not be used to derive the other [ 24 ]. Thus, while the methods to derive SCB and MCID thresholds can be carried out similarly based on anchors, the ultimate goal of applying SCB versus MCID is different.

Using the various methods explained above, overall, MCID for improvement for ZCQ Symptoms Severity domain ranged from 0.8 to 5.1 (Table  1 ). Here, the readers obtained results can be checked for correctness. On average distribution-based MCID values were lower than anchor-based MCID values. Within distribution-based approach, method (VIII) “Minimum detectable change” resulted in MCID of 5.1, which exceeded the MCID’s derived using the “gold-standard” anchor-based approaches. The average MCID based on anchor of NRS Leg pain and JOABPEQ walking ability was 3.1 and 2.8, respectively. Dependent on methods used, percentage of responders to HE and PT intervention fell within range of 9.5% for “30% Reduction from Baseline” method to 61.9% using ES- and SRM-based method (Table  2 ). Method (X) is graphically presented in Fig.  2 .

As demonstrated above, the MCID is dependent upon the methodology and the chosen anchor, highlighting the necessity for careful preparation in MCID calculations. The lowest MCID of 0.8 was calculated for Method (VI) being SRM. Logically, if a patient on average had a baseline ZCQ Symptom Severity score of 23.2, an improvement of 0.8 is unlikely to be clinically meaningful, even if rounded up. It rather informs on the measurement error property of our instrument as explained by COSMIN. Additionally, the distribution-based methods rely on statistical properties of the sample, which varies from cohort to cohort making it only generalizable to patient groups with similar SD but not applicable to others with a different spread of data [ 52 ]. Not surprisingly, anchor-based methods considering patient preferences yielded on average higher MCID values than distribution-based methods, which again varied from anchor to anchor. The mean MCID for improvement calculated for NPRS Leg Pain was 3.1, while for JOABPEQ Walking Ability it was 2.8—such similar values prove the importance of selecting responsive anchors with at least moderate correlations. Despite assessing different aspects of LSS disease, the MCID remained comparable in this specific case.

Interestingly, Method (VIII) MDC yielded the highest value of 5.1, exceeding the “gold-standard” ROC-derived MCID. This suggests that, in this example, using this ROC-derived MCID in clinical practice would be illogical, as the value falls within the measurement error determined by MDC. Here it would be appropriate to choose MDC approach as the MCID. Interestingly, ROC-derived MCID values based on Global Assessment Rating like stratification of patients based on their JOABPEQ Walking Ability (Method X) yielded higher MCID, than in Method (III). This may be attributed to a more a balanced distribution of “responders” and “non-responders” (only unchanged patients) in Method (X), unlike in the latter (Method III) where patients were strictly categorized into “responders” and “non-responders” (including both deteriorated and unchanged). This further highlights the importance of using global assessment rating type scales in determining the extent of clinical benefit.

Although ES-based (Method (V)) and SRM-based (Method (VI)) MCID calculations have been described in the literature, ES and SRM were originally created to quantify the strength of relationship between scores of two samples (in case of ES) and change score of paired observations in one sample (in case of SRM) [ 53 , 58 , 59 ]. They do offer an alternative to MCID calculations. However, verification with other MCID calculation methods, ideally anchor-based, is strongly recommended. As seen in this case study and other MCID’s derived similarly, they often result small estimates [ 7 , 55 ]. There is also no consensus regarding the choice of SD of Change Score vs. SD of Baseline Score as denominator. Additionally, whether the calculated MCID (mean change score) should represent value, such as the ES is 0.2 indicating small effect, or value should be 0.5 suggesting moderate effect is currently arbitrary and often relies on the researcher’s preference [ 53 , 55 , 59 ]. Both ES and SRM can be used to assess whether the overall change score observed in single study is suggestive of a clinically meaningful benefit in that specific cohort or in case of SRM, whether the outcome measure is responsive. However, it is our perspective that extending such value as “MCID” from one study to another is not recommended.

One can argue whether there is even a place for distribution-based methods in MCID calculations. They ultimately fail to provide an MCID value that meets the original definition of Jaeschke et al . “of smallest change in the outcome that the patient would identify as important”. At no point are patients asked about what constitutes a meaningful change for them, and the value is derived from statistical properties of the sample solely [ 1 ]. Nevertheless, conduction of studies on MCID implementing scales such as Global Assessment Rating is time-consuming and performing studies for each patient outcome and each disease is likely not feasible. Distribution-based methods still have some merit in that they–like the 95% MDC method—can help distinguish measurement noise and inaccuracy from true change. Even if anchor-based methods should probably be used to define MCID thresholds, they ought to be supported by a calculation of MDC so that it can be decided whether the chosen threshold makes sense mathematically (i.e., can reliably be distinguished from measurement inaccuracies) as seen in our case study.

Calculating MCID for different diagnoses

Previously, MCID thresholds for outcome measurement instruments were calculated for generic populations, such as patients suffering from low back pain. More recently, MCID values for commonly used PROMs in spine surgery, such as ODI, RMDQ or NRS have been calculated for more narrowly defined diagnoses, such as lumbar disc herniation (LDH) or LSS. The question arises as to whether a separate MCID is needed for all the different spinal conditions. In general, establishing an MCID specific to these patient groups is only recommended if these patient’s perception of meaningful change is different from that of low back pain in general. Importantly, again, the MCID should not be treatment-specific, but rather broadly disease specific. Therefore, it is advisable to use MCID based on patients who had the most similar disease characteristics to our cohort. For example, an MCID for NRS Back Pain based on study group composed of different types of lumbar degenerative disease, may in some cases, be applied to study cohort composed solely of patients with LDH. However, no such extrapolation should be performed for populations with back pain secondary to malignancy, due to a totally different pathogenesis and associated symptoms that may influence the ability to detect a clinically meaningful change in the above NRS Back Pain such as fatigue or anorexia.

Study cohort characteristics that influence MCID

Regardless of robust methodology, it can be expected that it is impossible to obtain the same MCID on different occasions even in the same population due to the inherent subjectivity of what is perceived as “clinically beneficial” and day-to-day symptom fluctuation. However, it was found that patients who have worse baseline scores, reflecting e.g., more advanced disease, require greater overall change at follow-up to report it as clinically meaningful [ 72 ]. One should also be mindful of “regression to the mean” where extremely high or low-scoring patients then subsequently score closer to baseline at second measurement [ 73 ]. Therefore, adequate cohort characteristics need to be presented, for the readers to judge how generalizable the MCID may be to their study cohort. If a patient pre-operatively experiences NRS Leg Pain of 1, and the MCID is 1.6, they cannot achieve MCID at all, as the maximum possible change score is smaller than the MCID threshold (“floor effect”). A similar situation can occur with patients closer to the higher end of the scale (“ceiling effect”). The general rule is, that if at least 15% of the study cohort has the highest or lowest possible score for a given outcome instrument, one can expect significant “ceiling/floor effects” [ 50 ]. One way to overcome this, is through transferring absolute MCID scores to percentage change scores [ 4 , 45 ]. However, percentage change scores only account for high baseline scores, if high baseline scores indicate larger disability (as seen with ODI) and have a possibility of larger change. If a high score in an instruments reflects better health status (as seen in in SF-36), than percentage change scores will increase the association with baseline score [ 4 ]. In general, it is important to consider which patient to exclude from certain analyses when applying MCID: For example, patients without relevant disease preoperatively (for example, those exhibiting so-called “patient-accepted symptom states”, PASS) should probably be excluded altogether when reporting the percentage of patients achieving MCID [ 74 ].

Establishing reliable thresholds for MCID is key in clinical research and forms the basis of patient-centered treatment evaluations when using patient-reported outcome measures or objective functional tests. Calculation of MCID thresholds can be achieved using a variety of different methods, each yielding completely different results, as is demonstrated in this practical guide. Generally, anchor-based methods relying on scales assessing patient preferences/satisfaction or global assessment ratings continue to be the “gold-standard” approach- the most common being ROC analysis. In the absence of appropriate anchors, the distribution-based MCID based on the 95% MDC approach is acceptable, as it appears to yield the most similar results compared to anchor-based approaches. Moreover, we recommend using it as a supplement to any anchor-based MCID thresholds to check if they can reliably distinguish true change from measurement inaccuracies. The explanation provided in this practical guide with step-by-step examples along with public data and statistical code can add as guidance for future studies calculating MCID thresholds.

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Klukowska, A.M., Vandertop, W.P., Schröder, M.L. et al. Calculation of the minimum clinically important difference (MCID) using different methodologies: case study and practical guide. Eur Spine J (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00586-024-08369-5

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The Epistemological Consequences of Artificial Intelligence, Precision Medicine, and Implantable Brain-Computer Interfaces

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I argue that this examination and appreciation for the shift to abductive reasoning should be extended to the intersection of neuroscience and novel brain-computer interfaces too. This paper highlights the implications of applying abductive reasoning to personalized implantable neurotechnologies. Then, it explores whether abductive reasoning is sufficient to justify insurance coverage for devices absent widespread clinical trials, which are better applied to one-size-fits-all treatments. 

INTRODUCTION

In contrast to the classic model of randomized-control trials, often with a large number of subjects enrolled, precision medicine attempts to optimize therapeutic outcomes by focusing on the individual. [i] A recent publication highlights the strengths and weakness of both traditional evidence-based medicine and precision medicine. [ii] Plus, it outlines a tension in the shift from evidence-based medicine’s inductive reasoning style (the collection of data to postulate general theories) to precision medicine’s abductive reasoning style (the generation of an idea from the limited data available). [iii] The paper’s main example is the application of precision medicine for the treatment of cancer. [iv] I argue that this examination and appreciation for the shift to abductive reasoning should be extended to the intersection of neuroscience and novel brain-computer interfaces too.

As the name suggests, brain-computer interfaces are a significant advancement in neurotechnology that directly connects someone’s brain to external or implanted devices. [v] Among the various kinds of brain-computer interfaces, adaptive deep brain stimulation devices require numerous personalized adjustments to their settings during the implantation and computation stages in order to provide adequate relief to patients with treatment-resistant disorders. What makes these devices unique is how adaptive deep brain stimulation integrates a sensory component to initiate the stimulation. While not commonly at the level of sophistication as self-supervising or generative large language models, [vi] they currently allow for a semi-autonomous form of neuromodulation. This paper highlights the implications of applying abductive reasoning to personalized implantable neurotechnologies. Then, it explores whether abductive reasoning is sufficient to justify insurance coverage for devices absent widespread clinical trials, which are better applied to one-size-fits-all treatments. [vii]

I.     The State of Precision Medicine in Oncology and the Epistemological Shift

While a thorough overview of precision medicine for the treatment of cancer is beyond the scope of this article, its practice can be roughly summarized as identifying clinically significant characteristics a patient possesses (e.g., genetic traits) to land on a specialized treatment option that, theoretically, should benefit the patient the most. [viii] However, in such a practice of stratification patients fall into smaller and smaller populations and the quality of evidence that can be applied to anyone outside these decreases in turn. [ix] As inductive logic helps to articulate, the greater the number of patients that respond to a particular therapy the higher the probability of its efficacy. By straying from this logical framework, precision medicine opens the treatment of cancer to more uncertainty about the validity of these approaches to the resulting disease subcategories. [x] Thus, while contemporary medical practices explicitly describe some treatments as “personalized”, they ought not be viewed as inherently better founded than other therapies. [xi]

A relevant contemporary case of precision medicine out of Norway focuses on the care of a patient with cancer between the ventricles of the heart and esophagus, which had failed to respond to the standard regimen of therapies over four years. [xii] In a last-ditch effort, the patient elected to pay out-of-pocket for an experimental immunotherapy (nivolumab) at a private hospital. He experienced marked improvements and a reduction in the size of the tumor. Understandably, the patient tried to pursue further rounds of nivolumab at a public hospital. However, the hospital initially declined to pay for it given the “lack of evidence from randomised clinical trials for this drug relating to this [patient’s] condition.” [xiii] In rebuttal to this claim, the patient countered that he was actually similar to a subpopulation of patients who responded in “open‐label, single arm, phase 2 studies on another immune therapy drug” (pembrolizumab). [xiv] Given this interpretation of the prior studies and the patient’s response, further rounds of nivolumab were approved. Had the patient not had improvements in the tumor’s size following a round of nivolumab, then pembrolizumab’s prior empirical evidence in isolation would have been insufficient, inductively speaking, to justify his continued use of nivolumab. [xv]

The case demonstrates a shift in reasoning from the traditional induction to abduction . The phenomenon of ‘cancer improvement’ is considered causally linked to nivolumab and its underlying physiological mechanisms. [xvi] However, “the weakness of abductions is that there may always be some other better, unknown explanation for an effect. The patient may for example belong to a special subgroup that spontaneously improves, or the change may be a placebo effect. This does not mean, however, that abductive inferences cannot be strong or reasonable, in the sense that they can make a conclusion probable .” [xvii] To demonstrate the limitations of relying on the abductive standard in isolation, commentators have pointed out that side effects in precision medicine are hard to rule out as being related to the initial intervention itself unless trends from a group of patients are taken into consideration. [xviii]

As artificial intelligence (AI) assists the development of precision medicine for oncology, this uncertainty ought to be taken into consideration. The implementation of AI has been crucial to the development of precision medicine by providing a way to combine large patient datasets or a single patient with a large number of unique variables with machine learning to recommend matches based on statistics and probability of success upon which practitioners can base medical recommendations. [xix] The AI is usually not establishing a causal relationship [xx] – it is predicting. So, as AI bleeds into medical devices, like brain-computer interfaces, the same cautions about using abductive reasoning alone should be carried over.

II.     Responsive Neurostimulation, AI, and Personalized Medicine

Like precision medicine in cancer treatment, computer-brain interface technology similarly focuses on the individual patient through personalized settings. In order to properly expose the intersection of AI, precision medicine, abductive reasoning, and implantable neurotechnologies, the descriptions of adaptive deep brain stimulation systems need to deepen. [xxi] As a broad summary of adaptive deep brain stimulation, to provide a patient with the therapeutic stimulation, a neural signal, typically referred to as a local field potential, [xxii] must first be detected and then interpreted by the device. The main adaptive deep brain stimulation device with premarket approval, the NeuroPace Responsive Neurostimulation system, is used to treat epilepsy by detecting and storing “programmer-defined phenomena.” [xxiii] Providers can optimize the detection settings of the device to align with the patient’s unique electrographic seizures as well as personalize the reacting stimulation’s parameters. [xxiv] The provider adjusts the technology based on trial and error. One day machine learning algorithms will be able to regularly aid this process in myriad ways, such as by identifying the specific stimulation settings a patient may respond to ahead of time based on their electrophysiological signatures. [xxv] Either way, with AI or programmers, adaptive neurostimulation technologies are individualized and therefore operate in line with precision medicine rather than standard treatments based on large clinical trials.

Contemporary neurostimulation devices are not usually sophisticated enough to be prominent in AI discussions where the topics of neural networks, deep learning, generative models, and self-attention dominate the conversation. However, implantable high-density electrocorticography arrays (a much more sensitive version than adaptive deep brain stimulation systems use) have been used in combination with neural networks to help patients with neurologic deficits from a prior stroke “speak” through a virtual avatar. [xxvi] In some experimental situations, algorithms are optimizing stimulation parameters with increasing levels of independence. [xxvii] An example of neurostimulation that is analogous to the use of nivolumab in Norway surrounds a patient in the United States who was experiencing both treatment-resistant OCD and temporal lobe epilepsy. [xxviii] Given the refractory nature of her epilepsy, implantation of an adaptive deep brain stimulation system was indicated. As a form of experimental therapy, her treatment-resistant OCD was also indicated for the off-label use of an adaptive deep brain stimulation set-up. Another deep brain stimulation lead, other than the one implanted for epilepsy, was placed in the patient’s right nucleus accumbens and ventral pallidum region given the correlation these nuclei had with OCD symptoms in prior research. Following this, the patient underwent “1) ambulatory, patient-initiated magnet-swipe storage of data during moments of obsessive thoughts; (2) lab-based, naturalistic provocation of OCD-related distress (naturalistic provocation task); and (3) lab-based, VR [virtual reality] provocation of OCD-related distress (VR provocation task).” [xxix] Such signals were used to identify when to deliver the therapeutic stimulation in order to counter the OCD symptoms. Thankfully, following the procedure and calibration the patient exhibited marked improvements in their OCD symptoms and recently shared her results publicly. [xxx]

In both cases, there is a similar level of abductive justification for the efficacy of the delivered therapy. In the case study in which the patient was treated with adaptive deep brain stimulation, they at least had their neural activity tested in various settings to determine the optimum parameters for treatment to avoid them being based on guesswork. Additionally, the adaptive deep brain stimulation lead was already placed before the calibration trials were conducted, meaning that the patient had already taken on the bulk of the procedural risk before the efficacy could be determined. Such an efficacy test could have been replicated in the first patient’s cancer treatment, had it been biopsied and tested against the remaining immunotherapies in vitro . Yet, in the case of cancer with few options, one previous dose of a drug that appeared to work on the patient may justify further doses. However, as the Norwegian case presents, corroboration with known responses to a similar drug (from a clinical trial) could be helpful to validate the treatment strategy. (It should be noted that both patients were resigned to these last resort options regardless of the efficacy of treatment.)

There are some elements of inductive logic seen with adaptive deep brain stimulation research in general. For example, abductively the focus could be that patient X’s stimulation parameters are different from patient Y’s and patient Z’s. In contrast, when grouped as subjects who obtained personalized stimulation, patients X, Y, and Z demonstrate an inductive aspect to this approach’s safety and/or efficacy. The OCD case holds plenty of abductive characteristics in line with precision medicine’s approach to treating cancer and as more individuals try the method, there will be additional data. With the gradual integration of AI into brain-computer interfaces in the name of efficacy, this reliance on abduction will continue, if not grow, over time. Moving forward, if a responsive deep brain stimulation treatment is novel and individualized (like the dose of nivolumab) and there is some other suggestion of efficacy (like clinical similarities to other patients in the literature), then it may justify insurance coverage for the investigative intervention, absent other unrelated reasons to deny it.

III.     Ethical Implications and Next Steps

While AI’s use in oncology and neurology is not yet as prominent as its use in other fields (e.g., radiology), it appears to be on the horizon for both. [xxxi] AI can be found in both the functioning of the neurotechnologies as well as the implementation of precision medicine. The increasing use of AI may serve to further individualize both oncologic and neurological therapies. Given these implications and the handful of publications cited in this article, it is important to have a nuanced evaluation of how these treatments, which heavily rely on abductive justification, ought to be managed.

The just use an abductive approach may be difficult as AI infused precision medicine is further pursued. At baseline, such technology relies on a level of advanced technology literacy among the general public and could exclude populations who lack access to basic technological infrastructure or know-how from participation. [xxxii] Even among nations with adequate infrastructure, as more patients seek out implantable neurotechnologies, which require robust healthcare resources, the market will favor patient populations that can afford this complex care. [xxxiii]

If patients already have the means to pay for an initial dose/use of a precision medicine product out of pocket, should insurance providers be required to cover subsequent treatments? [xxxiv] That is, if a first dose of a cancer drug or a deep brain stimulator over its initial battery life is successful, patients may feel justified in having the costs of further treatments covered. The Norwegian patient’s experience implies there is a precedent for the idea that some public insurance companies ought to cover successful cancer therapies, however, insurance companies may not all see themselves as obligated to cover neurotechnologies that rely on personalized settings or that are based on precision/abductive research more than on clinical trials.

The fact that the cases outlined above rely on abductive style of reasoning implies that there may not be as strong a justification for coverage by insurance, as they are both experimental and individualized, when compared to the more traditional large clinical trials in which groups have the same or a standardized protocol (settings/doses). If a study is examining the efficacy of a treatment with a large cohort of patients or with different experimental groups/phases, insurance companies may conclude that the resulting symptom improvements are more likely to be coming from the devices themselves. A preference for inductive justification may take priority when ruling in favor of funding someone’s continued use of an implantable neurostimulator. There are further nuances to this discussion surrounding the classifications of these interventions as research versus clinical care that warrant future exploration, since such a distinction is more of a scale [xxxv] than binary and could have significant impacts on the “right-to-try” approach to experimental therapies in the United States. [xxxvi] Namely, given the inherent limitations of conducting large cohort trials for deep brain stimulation interventions on patients with neuropsychiatric disorders, surgically innovative frameworks that blend abductive and inductive methodologies, like with sham stimulation phases, have traditionally been used. [xxxvii] Similarly, for adaptive brain-computer interface systems, if there are no large clinical trials and instead only publications that demonstrate that something similar worked for someone else, then, in addition to the evidence that the first treatment/dose worked for the patient in question, the balance of reasoning would be valid and arguably justify insurance coverage. As precision approaches to neurotechnology become more common, frameworks for evaluating efficacy will be crucial both for insurance coverage and for clinical decision making.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This article was originally written as an assignment for Dr. Francis Shen’s “Bioethics & AI” course at Harvard’s Center for Bioethics. I would like to thank Dr. Shen for his comments as well as my colleagues in the Lázaro-Muñoz Lab for their feedback.

[i] Jonathan Kimmelman and Ian Tannock, “The Paradox of Precision Medicine,” Nature Reviews. Clinical Oncology 15, no. 6 (June 2018): 341–42, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41571-018-0016-0.

[ii] Henrik Vogt and Bjørn Hofmann, “How Precision Medicine Changes Medical Epistemology: A Formative Case from Norway,” Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice 28, no. 6 (December 2022): 1205–12, https://doi.org/10.1111/jep.13649.

[iii] David Barrett and Ahtisham Younas, “Induction, Deduction and Abduction,” Evidence-Based Nursing 27, no. 1 (January 1, 2024): 6–7, https://doi.org/10.1136/ebnurs-2023-103873.

[iv] Vogt and Hofmann, “How Precision Medicine Changes Medical Epistemology,” 1208.

[v] Wireko Andrew Awuah et al., “Bridging Minds and Machines: The Recent Advances of Brain-Computer Interfaces in Neurological and Neurosurgical Applications,” World Neurosurgery , May 22, 2024, S1878-8750(24)00867-2, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wneu.2024.05.104.

[vi] Mark Riedl, “A Very Gentle Introduction to Large Language Models without the Hype,” Medium (blog), May 25, 2023, https://mark-riedl.medium.com/a-very-gentle-introduction-to-large-language-models-without-the-hype-5f67941fa59e.

[vii] David E. Burdette and Barbara E. Swartz, “Chapter 4 - Responsive Neurostimulation,” in Neurostimulation for Epilepsy , ed. Vikram R. Rao (Academic Press, 2023), 97–132, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-91702-5.00002-5.

[viii] Kimmelman and Tannock, 2018.

[ix] Kimmelman and Tannock, 2018.

[x] Simon Lohse, “Mapping Uncertainty in Precision Medicine: A Systematic Scoping Review,” Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice 29, no. 3 (April 2023): 554–64, https://doi.org/10.1111/jep.13789.

[xi] Kimmelman and Tannock, “The Paradox of Precision Medicine.”

[xii] Vogt and Hofmann, 1206.

[xiii] Vogt and Hofmann, 1206.

[xiv] Vogt and Hofmann, 1206.

[xv] Vogt and Hofmann, 1207.

[xvi] Vogt and Hofmann, 1207.

[xvii] Vogt and Hofmann, 1207.

[xviii] Vogt and Hofmann, 1210.

[xix] Mehar Sahu et al., “Chapter Three - Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning in Precision Medicine: A Paradigm Shift in Big Data Analysis,” in Progress in Molecular Biology and Translational Science , ed. David B. Teplow, vol. 190, 1 vols., Precision Medicine (Academic Press, 2022), 57–100, https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.pmbts.2022.03.002.

[xx] Stefan Feuerriegel et al., “Causal Machine Learning for Predicting Treatment Outcomes,” Nature Medicine 30, no. 4 (April 2024): 958–68, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-024-02902-1.

[xxi] Sunderland Baker et al., “Ethical Considerations in Closed Loop Deep Brain Stimulation,” Deep Brain Stimulation 3 (October 1, 2023): 8–15, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdbs.2023.11.001.

[xxii] David Haslacher et al., “AI for Brain-Computer Interfaces,” 2024, 7, https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.dnb.2024.02.003.

[xxiii] Burdette and Swartz, “Chapter 4 - Responsive Neurostimulation,” 103–4; “Premarket Approval (PMA),” https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfpma/pma.cfm?id=P100026.

[xxiv] Burdette and Swartz, “Chapter 4 - Responsive Neurostimulation,” 104.

[xxv] Burdette and Swartz, 126.

[xxvi] Sean L. Metzger et al., “A High-Performance Neuroprosthesis for Speech Decoding and Avatar Control,” Nature 620, no. 7976 (August 2023): 1037–46, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-06443-4.

[xxvii] Hao Fang and Yuxiao Yang, “Predictive Neuromodulation of Cingulo-Frontal Neural Dynamics in Major Depressive Disorder Using a Brain-Computer Interface System: A Simulation Study,” Frontiers in Computational Neuroscience 17 (March 6, 2023), https://doi.org/10.3389/fncom.2023.1119685; Mahsa Malekmohammadi et al., “Kinematic Adaptive Deep Brain Stimulation for Resting Tremor in Parkinson’s Disease,” Movement Disorders 31, no. 3 (2016): 426–28, https://doi.org/10.1002/mds.26482.

[xxviii] Young-Hoon Nho et al., “Responsive Deep Brain Stimulation Guided by Ventral Striatal Electrophysiology of Obsession Durably Ameliorates Compulsion,” Neuron 0, no. 0 (October 20, 2023), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2023.09.034.

[xxix] Nho et al.

[xxx] Nho et al.; Erik Robinson, “Brain Implant at OHSU Successfully Controls Both Seizures and OCD,” OHSU News, accessed March 3, 2024, https://news.ohsu.edu/2023/10/25/brain-implant-at-ohsu-successfully-controls-both-seizures-and-ocd.

[xxxi] Awuah et al., “Bridging Minds and Machines”; Haslacher et al., “AI for Brain-Computer Interfaces.”

[xxxii] Awuah et al., “Bridging Minds and Machines.”

[xxxiii] Sara Green, Barbara Prainsack, and Maya Sabatello, “The Roots of (in)Equity in Precision Medicine: Gaps in the Discourse,” Personalized Medicine 21, no. 1 (January 2024): 5–9, https://doi.org/10.2217/pme-2023-0097.

[xxxiv] Green, Prainsack, and Sabatello, 7.

[xxxv] Robyn Bluhm and Kirstin Borgerson, “An Epistemic Argument for Research-Practice Integration in Medicine,” The Journal of Medicine and Philosophy: A Forum for Bioethics and Philosophy of Medicine 43, no. 4 (July 9, 2018): 469–84, https://doi.org/10.1093/jmp/jhy009.

[xxxvi] Vijay Mahant, “‘Right-to-Try’ Experimental Drugs: An Overview,” Journal of Translational Medicine 18 (June 23, 2020): 253, https://doi.org/10.1186/s12967-020-02427-4.

[xxxvii] Michael S. Okun et al., “Deep Brain Stimulation in the Internal Capsule and Nucleus Accumbens Region: Responses Observed during Active and Sham Programming,” Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry 78, no. 3 (March 1, 2007): 310–14, https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp.2006.095315.

Ian Stevens

MA Philosophy University of Tasmania in Australia, MS Bioethics Harvard Medical School Center for Bioethics

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da Silva, G.M.G.; Faia, P.M.; Mendes, S.R.; Araújo, E.S. A Review of Impedance Spectroscopy Technique: Applications, Modelling, and Case Study of Relative Humidity Sensors Development. Appl. Sci. 2024 , 14 , 5754. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14135754

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da Silva, Georgenes M. G., Pedro M. Faia, Sofia R. Mendes, and Evando S. Araújo. 2024. "A Review of Impedance Spectroscopy Technique: Applications, Modelling, and Case Study of Relative Humidity Sensors Development" Applied Sciences 14, no. 13: 5754. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14135754

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