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Essay Examples on Eating Disorders

What makes a good eating disorders essay topic.

When it comes to selecting a topic for your eating disorders essay, it's crucial to consider a multitude of factors that can elevate your writing to new heights. Below are some innovative suggestions on how to brainstorm and choose an essay topic that will captivate your readers:

- Brainstorm: Begin by unleashing a storm of ideas related to eating disorders. Delve into the various facets, such as causes, effects, treatment options, societal influences, and personal narratives. Ponder upon what intrigues you and what will engage your audience.

- Research: Embark on a comprehensive research journey to accumulate information and gain a profound understanding of the subject matter. This exploration will enable you to identify distinctive angles and perspectives to explore in your essay. Seek out scholarly sources such as academic journals, books, and reputable websites.

- Cater to your audience: Reflect upon your readers and their interests to tailor your topic accordingly. Adapting your subject matter to captivate your audience will undoubtedly make your essay more engaging. Consider the age, background, and knowledge level of your readers.

- Unveil controversies: Unearth the controversies and debates within the realm of eating disorders. Opting for a topic that ignites discussion will infuse your essay with thought-provoking and impactful qualities. Delve into various viewpoints and critically analyze arguments for and against different ideas.

- Personal connection: If you possess a personal connection or experience with eating disorders, contemplate sharing your story or delving into it within your essay. This will add a unique and personal touch to your writing. However, ensure that your personal anecdotes remain relevant to the topic and effectively support your main points.

Overall, a remarkable eating disorders essay topic should be meticulously researched, thought-provoking, and relevant to your audience's interests and needs.

Best Eating Disorders Essay Topics

Below, you will find a compilation of the finest eating disorders essay topics to consider:

1. The captivating influence of social media on promoting unhealthy body image. 2. Breaking free from stereotypes: Exploring eating disorders among male athletes. 3. The profound impact of diet culture on body image and self-esteem. 4. Unraveling the intricate link between eating disorders and the pursuit of perfection. 5. The portrayal of eating disorders in popular media: Dissecting the battle between glamorization and reality.

Best Eating Disorders Essay Questions

Below, you will find an array of stellar eating disorders essay questions to explore:

1. How does social media contribute to the development and perpetuation of eating disorders? 2. What challenges do males with eating disorders face, and how can these challenges be addressed? 3. To what extent does the family environment contribute to the development of eating disorders? 4. What role does diet culture play in fostering unhealthy relationships with food? 5. How can different treatment approaches be tailored to address the unique needs of individuals grappling with eating disorders?

Eating Disorders Essay Prompts

Below, you will find a collection of eating disorders essay prompts that will kindle your creative fire:

1. Craft a personal essay that intricately details your voyage towards recovery from an eating disorder, elucidating the lessons you learned along the way. 2. Picture yourself as a parent of a teenager burdened with an eating disorder. Pen a heartfelt letter to other parents, sharing your experiences and providing valuable advice. 3. Fabricate a fictional character entangled in the clutches of binge-eating disorder. Concoct a short story that explores their odyssey towards self-acceptance and recovery. 4. Construct a persuasive essay that fervently argues for the integration of comprehensive education on eating disorders into school curricula. 5. Immerse yourself in the role of a therapist specializing in eating disorders. Compose a reflective essay that delves into the challenges and rewards of working with individuals grappling with eating disorders.

Writing Eating Disorders Essays: Frequently Asked Questions

Below, you will find answers to some frequently asked questions about writing eating disorders essays:

Q: How can I effectively commence my eating disorders essay? A: Commence your essay with a captivating introduction that ensnares the reader's attention and provides an overview of the topic. Consider starting with an intriguing statistic, a powerful quote, or a personal anecdote.

Q: Can I incorporate personal experiences into my eating disorders essay? A: Absolutely! Infusing your essay with personal experiences adds depth and authenticity. However, ensure that your personal anecdotes remain relevant to the topic and effectively support your main points.

Q: How can I make my eating disorders essay engaging? A: Utilize a variety of rhetorical devices such as metaphors, similes, and vivid descriptions to transform your essay into an engaging masterpiece. Additionally, consider incorporating real-life examples, case studies, or interviews to provide concrete evidence and make your essay relatable.

Q: Should my essay focus solely on one specific type of eating disorder? A: While focusing on a specific type of eating disorder can provide a narrower scope for your essay, exploring the broader theme of eating disorders as a whole can also be valuable. Strive to strike a balance between depth and breadth in your writing.

Q: How can I conclude my eating disorders essay effectively? A: In your conclusion, summarize the main points of your essay and restate your thesis statement. Additionally, consider leaving the reader with a thought-provoking question or a call to action, encouraging further reflection or research on the topic.

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Eating disorders refer to a complex set of mental health conditions characterized by disturbances in one's eating behaviors and attitudes towards food, leading to severe consequences on an individual's physical and psychological well-being.

Anorexia Nervosa: Anorexia nervosa is a psychological disorder characterized by an intense fear of gaining weight and a distorted perception of one's body image. People with this disorder exhibit extreme food restriction, leading to significant weight loss and the possibility of reaching dangerously low levels of body weight. Anorexia nervosa is often accompanied by obsessive thoughts about food, excessive exercise routines, and a constant preoccupation with body shape and size. Bulimia Nervosa: Bulimia nervosa involves a cyclic pattern of binge eating followed by compensatory behaviors aimed at preventing weight gain. During binge episodes, individuals consume large quantities of food in a short period and experience a loss of control over their eating. To counteract the caloric intake, these individuals may resort to self-induced vomiting, excessive exercising, or the misuse of laxatives. It is important to note that unlike anorexia nervosa, individuals with bulimia nervosa typically maintain a body weight within the normal range or slightly above. Binge Eating Disorder: Binge eating disorder is characterized by recurrent episodes of consuming a significant amount of food in a short period, accompanied by a feeling of loss of control. Unlike other eating disorders, individuals with binge eating disorder do not engage in compensatory behaviors such as purging or excessive exercise.

Distorted Body Image: Individuals with eating disorders often have a distorted perception of their body, seeing themselves as overweight or unattractive, even when they are underweight or at a healthy weight. Obsession with Food and Weight: People with eating disorders may constantly think about food, calories, and their weight. They may develop strict rules and rituals around eating, such as avoiding certain food groups, restricting their intake, or engaging in excessive exercise. Emotional and Psychological Factors: Eating disorders are often associated with underlying emotional and psychological issues, such as low self-esteem, perfectionism, anxiety, depression, or a need for control. Physical Health: Eating disorders can have severe physical health consequences, including malnutrition, electrolyte imbalances, hormonal disruptions, gastrointestinal problems, and organ damage. These complications can be life-threatening and require medical intervention. Social Isolation and Withdrawal: Individuals struggling with eating disorders may experience a withdrawal from social activities, distancing themselves from others due to feelings of shame, guilt, and embarrassment related to their eating behaviors or body image. This social isolation can intensify the challenges they face and contribute to a sense of loneliness and emotional distress. Co-occurring Disorders: Eating disorders frequently co-occur with other mental health conditions, creating complex challenges for those affected. It is common for individuals with eating disorders to also experience anxiety disorders, depression, substance abuse issues, or engage in self-harming behaviors. The coexistence of these disorders can exacerbate the severity of symptoms and necessitate comprehensive and integrated treatment approaches.

Genetic and Biological Factors: Research suggests that there is a genetic predisposition to eating disorders. Individuals with a family history of eating disorders or other mental health conditions may be at a higher risk. Biological factors, such as imbalances in brain chemicals or hormones, can also contribute to the development of eating disorders. Psychological Factors: Psychological factors play a significant role in the development of eating disorders. Factors such as diminished self-worth, a relentless pursuit of perfection, dissatisfaction with one's body, and distorted perceptions of body image can play a significant role in the onset and perpetuation of disordered eating patterns. Sociocultural Influences: Societal pressures and cultural norms surrounding body image and beauty standards can contribute to the development of eating disorders. Media portrayal of unrealistic body ideals, peer influence, and societal emphasis on thinness can impact individuals' self-perception and increase the risk of developing an eating disorder. Traumatic Experiences: The impact of traumatic events, be it physical, emotional, or sexual abuse, can heighten the vulnerability to developing eating disorders. Such distressing experiences have the potential to instigate feelings of diminished self-worth, profound body shame, and a compelling desire to exert control over one's body and eating behaviors. Dieting and Weight-related Practices: Restrictive dieting, excessive exercise, and weight-focused behaviors can serve as triggers for the development of eating disorders. These behaviors may start innocently as an attempt to improve one's health or appearance but can spiral into disordered eating patterns.

Psychotherapy: Various forms of psychotherapy, such as cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), dialectical behavior therapy (DBT), and family-based therapy (FBT), are employed to address the underlying psychological factors contributing to eating disorders. These therapies aim to challenge distorted thoughts and beliefs about body image, develop healthier coping mechanisms, and improve self-esteem. Nutritional Counseling: Working with registered dietitians, individuals receive personalized guidance on developing a balanced and healthy relationship with food. Nutritional counseling focuses on establishing regular eating patterns, promoting mindful eating practices, and debunking harmful dietary myths. Medical Monitoring: This involves regular check-ups to assess physical health, monitor vital signs, and address any medical complications arising from the disorder. Medication: In some cases, medication may be prescribed to manage associated symptoms like depression, anxiety, or obsessive-compulsive disorder. Medications can complement therapy and help stabilize mood, regulate eating patterns, or address co-occurring mental health conditions. Support Groups and Peer Support: Joining support groups or engaging in peer support programs can provide individuals with a sense of community and understanding. Interacting with others who have faced similar challenges can offer valuable insights, encouragement, and empathy.

Films: Movies like "To the Bone" (2017) and "Feed" (2017) shed light on the struggles individuals with eating disorders face. These films delve into the psychological and emotional aspects of the disorders, emphasizing the importance of seeking help and promoting recovery. Books: Novels such as "Wintergirls" by Laurie Halse Anderson and "Paperweight" by Meg Haston offer intimate perspectives on the experiences of characters grappling with eating disorders. These books provide insights into the complexities of these conditions, including the internal battles, societal pressures, and the journey towards healing. Documentaries: Documentaries like "Thin" (2006) and "Eating Disorders: Surviving the Silence" (2019) offer real-life accounts of individuals living with eating disorders. These documentaries provide a raw and authentic portrayal of the challenges faced by those affected, raising awareness and encouraging empathy.

1. As per the data provided by the National Eating Disorders Association (NEDA), it is estimated that around 30 million individuals residing in the United States will experience an eating disorder during their lifetime. 2. Research suggests that eating disorders have the highest mortality rate of any mental illness. Anorexia nervosa, in particular, has a mortality rate of around 10%, emphasizing the seriousness and potential life-threatening nature of these disorders. 3. Eating disorders can affect individuals of all genders and ages, contrary to the common misconception that they only affect young women. While young women are more commonly affected, studies indicate that eating disorders are increasingly prevalent among men and can also occur in older adults and children.

The topic of eating disorders is of significant importance when it comes to raising awareness, promoting understanding, and addressing the challenges faced by individuals who experience these disorders. Writing an essay on this topic allows for a deeper exploration of the complexities surrounding eating disorders and their impact on individuals, families, and society. First and foremost, studying eating disorders is crucial for shedding light on the psychological, emotional, and physical aspects of these conditions. By delving into the underlying causes, risk factors, and symptoms, we can gain a better understanding of the complex interplay between biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors that contribute to the development and maintenance of eating disorders. Furthermore, discussing eating disorders helps to challenge societal misconceptions and stereotypes. It allows us to debunk harmful beliefs, such as the notion that eating disorders only affect a specific gender or age group, and instead emphasizes the reality that anyone can be susceptible to these disorders. Writing an essay on eating disorders also provides an opportunity to explore the impact of media, societal pressures, and body image ideals on the development of disordered eating behaviors. By analyzing these influences, we can advocate for more inclusive and body-positive narratives that promote self-acceptance and well-being. Moreover, addressing the topic of eating disorders is crucial for raising awareness about the available treatment options and support systems. It highlights the importance of early intervention, comprehensive treatment approaches, and access to mental health resources for those affected by these disorders.

1. American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). American Psychiatric Publishing. 2. Arcelus, J., Mitchell, A. J., Wales, J., & Nielsen, S. (2011). Mortality rates in patients with anorexia nervosa and other eating disorders: A meta-analysis of 36 studies. Archives of General Psychiatry, 68(7), 724-731. 3. Brown, T. A., Keel, P. K., & Curren, A. M. (2020). Eating disorders. In D. H. Barlow (Ed.), Clinical handbook of psychological disorders: A step-by-step treatment manual (6th ed., pp. 305-357). Guilford Press. 4. Fairburn, C. G., & Harrison, P. J. (2003). Eating disorders. The Lancet, 361(9355), 407-416. 5. Herpertz-Dahlmann, B., & Zeeck, A. (2020). Eating disorders in childhood and adolescence: Epidemiology, course, comorbidity, and outcome. In M. Maj, W. Gaebel, J. J. López-Ibor, & N. Sartorius (Eds.), Eating Disorders (Vol. 11, pp. 68-82). Wiley-Blackwell. 6. Hudson, J. I., Hiripi, E., Pope, H. G., & Kessler, R. C. (2007). The prevalence and correlates of eating disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Biological Psychiatry, 61(3), 348-358. 7. Jacobi, C., Hayward, C., de Zwaan, M., Kraemer, H. C., & Agras, W. S. (2004). Coming to terms with risk factors for eating disorders: Application of risk terminology and suggestions for a general taxonomy. Psychological Bulletin, 130(1), 19-65. 8. Keski-Rahkonen, A., & Mustelin, L. (2016). Epidemiology of eating disorders in Europe: Prevalence, incidence, comorbidity, course, consequences, and risk factors. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 29(6), 340-345. 9. Smink, F. R. E., van Hoeken, D., & Hoek, H. W. (2012). Epidemiology of eating disorders: Incidence, prevalence and mortality rates. Current Psychiatry Reports, 14(4), 406-414. 10. Stice, E., Marti, C. N., & Rohde, P. (2013). Prevalence, incidence, impairment, and course of the proposed DSM-5 eating disorder diagnoses in an 8-year prospective community study of young women. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 122(2), 445-457.

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Eating Disorders, Essay Example

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Introduction

Eating disorders affect men and women of all ages, although adolescents tend to be the age group that is more susceptible. This is because, as their bodies are changing, they may feel more pressure by society as well as peer groups to look attractive and fit in (Segal et al). Types of eating disorders include Anorexia, Bulimia and Compulsive Overeating, which can also be related to the first two. The reasons behind Eating Disorder usually stem from a reaction to low self-esteem and a negative means of coping with life and stress (Something Fishy).  Eating disorders are also often associated with an underlying psychological disorder, which may be the reason behind the eating disorder or which may develop from the Eating Disorder itself. Mental health disorders that are often associated with Eating Disorder include Anxiety, Depression, Multiple Personality Disorder, Obsessive Compulsive Disorder, Post Traumatic Stress Disorder, BiPolar, BiPolar II, Borderline Personality Disorder, Panic Disorder and Dissociative Disorder. The longer a person suffers from ED, the more probable that they will be dealing with another mental illness, most likely Anxiety or Depression (Something Fishy). The eventual outcome of Eating Disorder can be deadly. “Some eating disorders are associated with a 10-15% mortality rate and a 20-25% suicide rate. Sometimes, anorexia, bulimia and compulsive eating may be perceived as slow suicide (Carruthers).” In order to prevent the deadly consequences of Eating Disorder and to prevent it from becoming more pervasive in society, it is necessary to recognize the correct treatment method for this disease.  Traditional treatments have focused on providing risk information to raise awareness of the consequences of Eating Disorder (Lobera et al 263). However, since Eating Disorder is a mental illness, a more effective treatment is one that offers psychological evaluation, counseling and treatment. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy is emerging as a more robust and effective method that can be used not only to treat Eating Disorder but the associated mental illnesses that may accompany it.

The Problem

Eating disorder is pervasive in society and can have deadly consequences on those that suffer from it. Many time Eating Disorder goes undetected by family members and friends because those suffering will go to great lengths to hide their problem. However, there are some signs and symptoms that can be clues that a person is suffering from some sort of eating disorder. According to Segal, these signs can include:

• Restricting Food or Dieting: A change in eating habits that includes restricting food or excessive dieting. The person my frequently miss meals or not eat, complaining of an upset stomach or that they are not hungry. A use of diet pills or illegal drugs may also be noticed.
• Bingeing: Sufferers may binge eat in secret, which can be hard to detect since they will usually do it late at night or in a private place. Signs of potential bingeing are empty food packages and wrappers and hidden stashes of high calorie junk food or desserts.
• Purging: Those who suffer from bulimia will force themselves to throw up after meals to rid their body of added calories. A sign that this is occurring is when a person makes a trip to the bathroom right after eating on a regular basis, possible running water or a fan to hide the sound of their vomiting. They may also use perfume, mouthwash or breath mints regularly to disguise the smell. In addition to vomiting, laxatives or diuretics may also be used to flush unwanted calories from the body.
• Distorted body image and altered appearance: People suffering from Eating Disorder often have a very distorted image of their own body. While they may appear thin to others, they may view themselves as fat and attempt to hide their body under loose clothing. They will also have an obsessive preoccupation with their weight, and complain of being fat even when it is obvious to others that this is not the case.

There are several possible side effects from Eating Disorders, both physical and psychological. Physical damage can be temporary or permanent, depending on the severity of the eating disorder and the length of time the person has been suffering from it.  Psychological consequences can be the development of a mental illness, especially depression and anxiety. Some sufferers of Eating Disorder will also develop a coping mechanism such as harming themselves, through cutting, self-mutilation or self-inflicted violence, or SIV (Something Fishy).

Physical consequences of Eating Disorders depend on the type of eating disorder that the person has. Anorexia nervosa can lead to a slow heart rate and low blood pressure, putting the sufferer at risk for heart failure and permanent heart damage. Malnutrition can lead to osteoporosis and dry, brittle bones. Other common complications include kidney damage due to dehydration, overall weakness, hair loss and dry skin. Bulimia nervosa, where the person constantly purges through vomiting, can have similar consequences as Anorexia but with added complications and damage to the esophagus and gastric cavity due to the frequent vomiting. In addition, tooth decay can occur because of damage caused by gastric juices. If the person also uses laxatives to purge, irregular bowel movements and constipation can occur. Peptic ulcers and pancreatitis can also common negative heath effects (National Eating Disorders Association).  If the Eating Disorder goes on for a prolonged time period, death is also a possible affect, which is why it is important to seek treatment for the individual as soon as it is determined that they are suffering from an Eating Disorder.

Once it is recognized that a loved one may be suffering from an Eating Disorder, the next step is coming up with an effective intervention in time to prevent any lasting physical damage or death. The most effective treatment to date is Cognitive-behavioral therapy, an active form of counseling that can be done in either a group or private setting (Curtis). Cognitive-behavioral therapy is used to help correct poor eating habits and prevent relapse as well as change the way the individual thinks about food, eating and their body image (Curtis).

Cognitive-behavioral therapy is considered to be one of the most effective treatments for eating disorders, but of course this depends on both the counselor administrating the therapy and the attitude of the person receiving it.  According to Fairburn (3), while patients with eating disorders “have a reputation for being difficult to treat, the great majority can be helped and many, if not most, can make a full and lasting recovery.” In the study conducted by Lobera et al, it was determined that students that took part in group cognitive-behavioral therapy sessions showed a reduced dissatisfaction with their body and a reduction in their drive to thinness. Self esteem was also improved during the group therapy sessions and eating habits were significantly improved.

“The overall effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy can depend on the duration of the sessions. Cognitive-behavioral therapy is considered effective for the treatment of eating disorders. But because eating disorder behaviors can endure for a long period of time, ongoing psychological treatment is usually required for at least a year and may be needed for several years (Curtis).”

  Alternative solutions

Traditional treatments for Eating Disorders rely on educating potential sufferers, especially school aged children, of the potential damage, both psychological and physical, that can be caused by the various eating disorders .

“ Research conducted to date into the primary prevention of eating disorders (ED) has mainly considered the provision of information regarding risk factors. Consequently, there is a need to develop new methods that go a step further, promoting a change in attitudes and behavior in the  target population (Lobera et al).”

The current research has not shown that passive techniques, such as providing information, reduces the prevalence of eating disorders or improves the condition in existing patients. While education about eating disorders, the signs and symptoms and the potential health affects, is an important part of providing information to both the those that may know someone who is suffering from an eating disorder and those that are suffering from one, it is not an effective treatment by itself. It must be integrated with a deeper level of therapy that helps to improve the self-esteem and psychological issues from which the eating disorder stems.

Hospitalization has also been a treatment for those suffering from an eating disorder, especially when a complication, such as kidney failure or extreme weakness, occurs. However, treating the symptom of the eating disorder will not treat the underlying problem. Hospitalization can effectively treat the symptom only when it is combined with a psychological therapy that treats the underlying psychological problem that is causing the physical health problem.

Effectively treating eating disorders is possible using cognitive-behavioral therapy. However, the sooner a person who is suffering from an eating disorder begins treatment the more effective the treatment is likely to be. The longer a person suffers from an eating disorder, the more problems that may arise because of it, both physically and psychologically. While the deeper underlying issue may differ from patient to patient, it must be addressed in order for an eating disorder treatment to be effective. If not, the eating disorder is likely to continue. By becoming better educated about the underlying mental health issues that are typically the cause of eating disorder, both family members and friends of loved ones suffering from eating disorders and the sufferers themselves can take the steps necessary to overcome Eating Disorder and begin the road to recovery.

Works Cited

“Associated Mental Health Conditions and Addictions.” Something Fishy, 2010. Web. 19 November2010.

Carruthers, Martyn. Who Has Eating Disorders?   Soulwork Solutions, 2010. Web. 19 November 2010.

Curtis, Jeanette. “Cognitive-behavioral Therapy for Eating Disorders.” WebMD (September 16, 2009). Web. 19 November 2010.

Fairburn, Christopher G. Cognitive Behavior Therapy and Eating Disorders. New York: The Guilford Press, 2008. Print.  

“Health Consequences of Eating Disorders” National Eating Disorders Association (2005). Web. 21 November 2010.

Lobera, I.J., Lozano, P.L., Rios, P.B., Candau, J.R., Villar y Lebreros, Gregorio Sanchez, Millan, M.T.M., Gonzalez, M.T.M., Martin, L.A., Villalobos, I.J. and Sanchez, N.V. “Traditional and New Strategies in the Primary Prevention of Eating Disorders: A Comparative Study in Spanish Adolescents.” International Journal of General Medicine 3  (October 5, 2010): 263-272. Dovepress.Web. 19 November 2010.

Segal, Jeanne, Smith, Melinda, Barston, Suzanne. Helping Someone with an Eating Disorder: Advice for Parents, Family Members and Friends , 2010. Web. 19 November 2010.

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Eating Disorders

What are eating disorders.

There is a commonly held misconception that eating disorders are a lifestyle choice. Eating disorders are actually serious and often fatal illnesses that are associated with severe disturbances in people’s eating behaviors and related thoughts and emotions. Preoccupation with food, body weight, and shape may also signal an eating disorder. Common eating disorders include anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge-eating disorder.

What are the signs and symptoms of eating disorders?

Anorexia nervosa.

Anorexia nervosa is a condition where people avoid food, severely restrict food, or eat very small quantities of only certain foods. They also may weigh themselves repeatedly. Even when dangerously underweight, they may see themselves as overweight.

There are two subtypes of anorexia nervosa: a "restrictive "  subtype and a "binge-purge " subtype.

• In the restrictive subtype of anorexia nervosa, people severely limit the amount and type of food they consume.
• In the binge-purge  subtype of anorexia nervosa, people also greatly restrict the amount and type of food they consume. In addition, they may have binge-eating and purging episodes—eating large amounts of food in a short time followed by vomiting or using laxatives or diuretics to get rid of what was consumed.

Anorexia nervosa can be fatal. It has an extremely high death (mortality) rate compared with other mental disorders. People with anorexia are at risk of dying from medical complications associated with starvation. Suicide is the second leading cause of death for people diagnosed with anorexia nervosa.

If you or someone you know is struggling or having thoughts of suicide, call or text the 988 Suicide & Crisis Lifeline   at 988 or chat at 988lifeline.org   . In life-threatening situations, call 911.

Symptoms include:

• Extremely restricted eating
• Extreme thinness (emaciation)
• A relentless pursuit of thinness and unwillingness to maintain a normal or healthy weight
• Intense fear of gaining weight
• Distorted body image, a self-esteem that is heavily influenced by perceptions of body weight and shape, or a denial of the seriousness of low body weight

Other symptoms may develop over time, including:

• Thinning of the bones (osteopenia or osteoporosis)
• Mild anemia and muscle wasting and weakness
• Brittle hair and nails
• Dry and yellowish skin
• Growth of fine hair all over the body (lanugo)
• Severe constipation
• Low blood pressure
• Slowed breathing and pulse
• Damage to the structure and function of the heart
• Brain damage
• Multiorgan failure
• Drop in internal body temperature, causing a person to feel cold all the time
• Lethargy, sluggishness, or feeling tired all the time
• Infertility

Bulimia nervosa

Bulimia nervosa is a condition where people have recurrent and frequent episodes of eating unusually large amounts of food and feeling a lack of control over these episodes. This binge-eating is followed by behavior that compensates for the overeating such as forced vomiting, excessive use of laxatives or diuretics, fasting, excessive exercise, or a combination of these behaviors. People with bulimia nervosa may be slightly underweight, normal weight, or over overweight.

• Chronically inflamed and sore throat
• Swollen salivary glands in the neck and jaw area
• Worn tooth enamel and increasingly sensitive and decaying teeth as a result of exposure to stomach acid
• Acid reflux disorder and other gastrointestinal problems
• Intestinal distress and irritation from laxative abuse
• Severe dehydration from purging of fluids
• Electrolyte imbalance (too low or too high levels of sodium, calcium, potassium, and other minerals) which can lead to stroke or heart attack

Binge-eating disorder

Binge-eating disorder is a condition where people lose control over their eating and have reoccurring episodes of eating unusually large amounts of food. Unlike bulimia nervosa, periods of binge-eating are not followed by purging, excessive exercise, or fasting. As a result, people with binge-eating disorder often are overweight or obese. Binge-eating disorder is the most common eating disorder in the U.S.

• Eating unusually large amounts of food in a specific amount of time, such as a 2-hour period
• Eating even when you're full or not hungry
• Eating fast during binge episodes
• Eating until you're uncomfortably full
• Eating alone or in secret to avoid embarrassment
• Feeling distressed, ashamed, or guilty about your eating
• Frequently dieting, possibly without weight loss

Avoidant restrictive food intake disorder

Avoidant restrictive food intake disorder (ARFID), previously known as selective eating disorder, is a condition where people limit the amount or type of food eaten. Unlike anorexia nervosa, people with ARFID do not have a distorted body image or extreme fear of gaining weight. ARFID is most common in middle childhood and usually has an earlier onset than other eating disorders. Many children go through phases of picky eating, but a child with ARFID does not eat enough calories to grow and develop properly, and an adult with ARFID does not eat enough calories to maintain basic body function.

• Dramatic restriction of types or amount of food eaten
• Lack of appetite or interest in food
• Dramatic weight loss
• Upset stomach, abdominal pain, or other gastrointestinal issues with no other known cause
• Limited range of preferred foods that becomes even more limited (“picky eating” that gets progressively worse)

What are the risk factors for eating disorders?

Eating disorders can affect people of all ages, racial/ethnic backgrounds, body weights, and genders. Eating disorders frequently appear during the teen years or young adulthood but may also develop during childhood or later in life.

Researchers are finding that eating disorders are caused by a complex interaction of genetic, biological, behavioral, psychological, and social factors. Researchers are using the latest technology and science to better understand eating disorders.

One approach involves the study of human genes. Eating disorders run in families. Researchers are working to identify DNA variations that are linked to the increased risk of developing eating disorders.

Brain imaging studies are also providing a better understanding of eating disorders. For example, researchers have found differences in patterns of brain activity in women with eating disorders in comparison with healthy women. This kind of research can help guide the development of new means of diagnosis and treatment of eating disorders.

How are eating disorders treated?

It is important to seek treatment early for eating disorders. People with eating disorders are at higher risk for suicide and medical complications. People with eating disorders can often have other mental disorders (such as depression or anxiety) or problems with substance use. Complete recovery is possible.

Treatment plans are tailored to individual needs and may include one or more of the following:

• Individual, group, and/or family psychotherapy
• Medical care and monitoring
• Nutritional counseling
• Medications

Psychotherapies

Family-based therapy, a type of psychotherapy where parents of adolescents with anorexia nervosa assume responsibility for feeding their child, appears to be very effective in helping people gain weight and improve eating habits and moods.

To reduce or eliminate binge-eating and purging behaviors, people may undergo cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), which is another type of psychotherapy that helps a person learn how to identify distorted or unhelpful thinking patterns and recognize and change inaccurate beliefs.

Evidence also suggests that medications such as antidepressants, antipsychotics, or mood stabilizers may also be helpful for treating eating disorders and other co-occurring illnesses such as anxiety or depression. The Food and Drug Administration’s (FDA) website  has the latest information on medication approvals, warnings, and patient information guides.

How can I find a clinical trial for an eating disorder?

Clinical trials are research studies that look at new ways to prevent, detect, or treat diseases and conditions. The goal of clinical trials is to determine if a new test or treatment works and is safe. Although individuals may benefit from being part of a clinical trial, participants should be aware that the primary purpose of a clinical trial is to gain new scientific knowledge so that others may be better helped in the future.

Researchers at NIMH and around the country conduct many studies with patients and healthy volunteers. We have new and better treatment options today because of what clinical trials uncovered years ago. Be part of tomorrow’s medical breakthroughs. Talk to your health care provider about clinical trials, their benefits and risks, and whether one is right for you.

To learn more or find a study, visit:

• NIMH’s Clinical Trials webpage : Information about participating in clinical trials
• Clinicaltrials.gov: Current Studies on Eating Disorders  : List of clinical trials funded by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) being conducted across the country

Where can I learn more about eating disorders?

Free brochures and shareable resources.

• Eating Disorders: About More Than Food : A brochure about the common eating disorders anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge-eating disorder, and various approaches to treatment. Also available en español .
• Let’s Talk About Eating Disorders : An infographic with facts that can help shape conversations around eating disorders. Also available in en español .
• Shareable Resources on Eating Disorders : Help support eating disorders awareness and education in your community. Use these digital resources, including graphics and messages, to spread the word about eating disorders.
• Mental Health Minute: Eating Disorders : Take a mental health minute to watch this video on eating disorders.
• Let’s Talk About Eating Disorders with NIMH Grantee Dr. Cynthia Bulik : Learn about the signs, symptoms, treatments, and the latest research on eating disorders.

Research and statistics

• NIMH Eating Disorders Research Program : This program supports research on the etiology, core features, longitudinal course, and assessment of eating disorders.
• Journal Articles   : References and abstracts from MEDLINE/PubMed (National Library of Medicine).
• Statistics: Eating Disorders

Last Reviewed: January 2024

Unless otherwise specified, the information on our website and in our publications is in the public domain and may be reused or copied without permission. However, you may not reuse or copy images. Please cite the National Institute of Mental Health as the source. Read our copyright policy to learn more about our guidelines for reusing NIMH content.

Eating Disorder - Free Essay Examples And Topic Ideas

Eating disorders, severe conditions related to persistent eating behaviors negatively impacting health, emotions, and the ability to function, encompass various types including anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge-eating disorder. Essays on eating disorders could explore the psychological, biological, and societal factors contributing to these conditions, and delve into the experiences of those affected. Discussions might also focus on prevention strategies, treatment options, and the societal perception and stigma surrounding eating disorders. Through a comprehensive exploration of eating disorders, essays can shed light on the multifaceted aspects of these serious health conditions and the importance of awareness, understanding, and support. We have collected a large number of free essay examples about Eating Disorder you can find in Papersowl database. You can use our samples for inspiration to write your own essay, research paper, or just to explore a new topic for yourself.

Eating Disorder is a Growing Problem in Modern Society

There are many misconceptions about eating disorders. One that stuck out to me is that people believe that eating disorders are a choice. Eating disorders arise from part of a person's genetic makeup and due to environmental factors. ( 'Eating Disorder Myths.') Their are many studies out their that help prove that eating disorders are often influenced by a person’s genes. Twin studies are useful in proving that eating disorders can be a family affair. ('Understanding Eating Disorders, Anorexia, Bulimia, […]

Anorexia Nervosa is a very Serious Eating Disorder

Anorexia Nervosa is classified as an eating disorder and a disease where individuals go through extreme measures to lose weight such as excessive workouts or extreme food diets in hopes to change their perspective on themselves. Individuals that embody this disease have a distorted body image of oneself and will still feel fat even after taking drastic measures to lose weight. These individuals think poorly and see themselves as overweight even if the individual is underweight. This has a lot […]

Effects of Anorexia Nervosa

Anorexia nervosa is one of the most commonly known eating disorder. It can occur in women and men including adults, kids, and teenagers. Anorexia is a ""mental disorder that is caused by the unsound terror of gaining weight. Anorexia nervosa is an ""emotional disorder characterized by an obsessive desire to lose weight by refusing food, commonly known as anorexia. Experts believe anorexia is caused by ""personality, genetics, environment, biochemistry, and overall emotional health. There are many horrific effects of anorexia […]

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There are Two Types of Eating Disorder

After reviewing Carly’s case and comparing it to the criterion in the DSM-5 it was determined that she has Anorexia Nervosa. Anorexia is an eating disorder that is classified by extreme weight loss and difficulty in maintaining an appropriate weight (Anorexia Nervosa, 2018). There are two subtypes of anorexia. The subtypes are the restricting type and the binge eating/ purging type. The restricting type is characterized by episodes of weight loss through dieting, fasting, or excessive exercise. The binge eating/ […]

Eating Disorders Body Dissatisfaction and Self-Esteem Among South Korean Women

Abstract The Asian culture has be heavily influenced by Western Values, Asian women value thinness, which has led to a rise in eating disorders among them. Over the past 20 years eating disorders have increased. Body dissatisfaction is usually associated with body image (how you feel about the way your body looks). The dislikeness of one's body is more common with women than it is common with men. Today, Korean women have greater body dissatisfaction than the U.S. women have. […]

Thin Models: Fashion Forward

In every magazine you open, you will see skeletal models sprawled on almost every page. Dangerously thin fashion models posing in advertisements for clothing brands. While some people might see these models and think nothing of them, other people could see them and think they are hazardous to young women’s self esteem. Not only do these fashion models promote the idea that a healthy or bigger body is not desirable, the health risks that come with trying to achieve that […]

An Eating Disorder Doesn’t Come out of Nowhere

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Impact Media on Eating Disorders

With all of our current understanding so far we can see how much of an impact media has on triggering eating disorders. Research has only just begun to analyze the relationship between social media outlets such as facebook, body image and symptoms of eating disorders. Facebook is available at the fingertips of most adolescents today which allows them easy access to seek social comparison and negative feedback. Therefore it is an essential area to examine in relation to eating disordered […]

Is there too Much Pressure on Females to have Perfect Bodies?

Have you ever felt insecure? It is very common for women in this society to feel that way.  It’s like everywhere you look there is pressure to look better or be skinny. Everything you do is being judged. Women are portrayed as fragile and delicate, but that is not always the case. Women are thriving in this generation and breaking down barriers of the norm. A big problem in society today that makes women feel insecure is advertising. Certain clothin […]

Anorexia Nervosa: Serious Eating Disorder

Anorexia Nervosa is a very serious eating disorder that many people suffer from. People with Anorexia Nervosa go days without eating. People who suffer from Anorexia Nervosa have an intense fear of gaining weight. “The core psychological feature of anorexia nervosa is extreme overation of shape and weight”(“Anorexia”1). Even the people who suffer from Anorexia are very thin they still fear gaining weight. ¨The word ¨Anorexia¨ literally means ¨loss of appetite¨ (Watson, 7). Anorexia Nervosa is a coping mechanism for […]

Anorexia Nervosa: Common, Widespread Eating Disorder

Anorexia Nervosa is a very common, widespread eating disorder that affects individuals psychologically, emotionally, and physically. Those suffering from this eating disorder are commonly suffering from extremely low self-esteem and body weight. Individuals struggling with Anorexia typically fear to gain weight and are always conscious of what they are eating. They perceive their body as a distorted image, instead of viewing reality. Anorexia victims fear their body image as disproportional to their height and weight. An introduction to this disorder […]

Cause and Effect of Anorexia

The first time i ever heard about anorexia was from Degrassi: Next Generation. A character named Emma was trying to lose weight so she would barely eat and sometimes would make herself throw up. Being young I never really understood Anorexia, and the causes and how it can affect your body. According to experts, Anorexia Nervosa occurs in about 1 in 100 to 200 young women. Anorexia is an eating disorder that is also known as self starvation. It can […]

Eating Disorder Behaviors Among Adolescents

The purpose of this study was to examine the currency of eating disorder's behaviors among adolescents. The study chose to focus on gender, and ethnicity by classifying adolescents by their specific risk and protective factors. This study took place with a Minnesota Student Survey in 1998. The study was experimented to describe the issue throughout the population based off sample of adolescents for female and males with eating disorders. Also, to figure out both psychosocial and behavioral leads that could […]

Anorexia Nervosa Eating Disorder

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Eating Disorder: Specific Model of Interpersonal Psychotherapy

Going off of these findings, Rieger et al. (2010) came up with an eating disorder-specific model of interpersonal psychotherapy. Due to the significance of social relevance in eating disorders, Rieger et al. laid out factors that played an important role in the development and maintenance of eating disorders. For example, a 2010 study of 208 patients who were diagnosed with AN or bulimia were assessed for interpersonal issues pre- and post-hospitalization. Eating pathology, symptom severity, and interpersonal patterns were examined. […]

Eating Disorders Anorexia

"Abraham, Suzanne, and Derek Llewellyn-Jones. ""Bulimia Nervosa.""Palla, Barbara, and Iris F. Litt. ""Medical Complications Of Eating DisordersIn Adolescents."" Medical Complications occur with eating disorders take place inanyones life. Adolescents being at such a young age if medical complications occur can affect them when they are older as well. For example, bulimia nervosa can mess with a young women's menstrual cycle and when they get older, they might not be able to have kids. This article will help when informing adolescents […]

Body Image and Self Esteem

The impact of low self-esteem and negative body image is adversely affecting adolescents as they try to fit in in a never-ending society of expectations. The definition of body image according to Merriam-Webster's dictionary is "a subjective picture of one's own physical appearance established both by self-observation and by noting the reactions of others. Body image is not just decided by ourselves, it is also decided by others. This occurs when people have physical reactions and facial expressions. The definition […]

The Thin Documentary Analysis: Eating Disorder

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Types of Eating Disorders and Treatments

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Relationship between Depressive Disorder and Eating Disorder

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• Eating disorders

Eating disorders are serious health conditions that affect both your physical and mental health. These conditions include problems in how you think about food, eating, weight and shape, and in your eating behaviors. These symptoms can affect your health, your emotions and your ability to function in important areas of life.

If not treated effectively, eating disorders can become long-term problems and, in some cases, can cause death. The most common eating disorders are anorexia, bulimia and binge-eating disorder.

Most eating disorders involve focusing too much on weight, body shape and food. This can lead to dangerous eating behaviors. These behaviors can seriously affect the ability to get the nutrition your body needs. Eating disorders can harm the heart, digestive system, bones, teeth and mouth. They can lead to other diseases. They're also linked with depression, anxiety, self-harm, and suicidal thoughts and behaviors.

With proper treatment, you can return to healthier eating habits and learn healthier ways to think about food and your body. You also may be able to reverse or reduce serious problems caused by the eating disorder.

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• Newsletter: Mayo Clinic Health Letter — Digital Edition

Symptoms vary, depending on the type of eating disorder. Anorexia, bulimia and binge-eating disorder are the most common eating disorders. People with eating disorders can have all different body types and sizes.

Anorexia (an-o-REK-see-uh), also called anorexia nervosa, can be a life-threatening eating disorder. It includes an unhealthy low body weight, intense fear of gaining weight, and a view of weight and shape that is not realistic. Anorexia often involves using extreme efforts to control weight and shape, which often seriously interfere with health and daily life.

Anorexia may include severely limiting calories or cutting out certain kinds of foods or food groups. It may involve other methods to lose weight, such as exercising too much, using laxatives or diet aids, or vomiting after eating. Efforts to reduce weight can cause severe health problems, even for those who continue eating throughout the day or whose weight isn't extremely low.

Bulimia (buh-LEE-me-uh), also called bulimia nervosa, is a serious, sometimes life-threatening eating disorder. Bulimia includes episodes of bingeing, commonly followed by episodes of purging. Sometimes bulimia also includes severely limiting eating for periods of time. This often leads to stronger urges to binge eat and then purge.

Bingeing involves eating food — sometimes an extremely large amount — in a short period of time. During bingeing, people feel like they have no control over their eating and that they can't stop. After eating, due to guilt, shame or an intense fear of weight gain, purging is done to get rid of calories. Purging can include vomiting, exercising too much, not eating for a period of time, or using other methods, such as taking laxatives. Some people change medicine doses, such as changing insulin amounts, to try to lose weight.

Bulimia also involves being preoccupied with weight and body shape, with severe and harsh self-judgment of personal appearance.

Binge-eating disorder

Binge-eating disorder involves eating food in a short amount of time. When bingeing, it feels like there's no control over eating. But binge eating is not followed by purging. During a binge, people may eat food faster or eat more food than planned. Even when not hungry, eating may continue long past feeling uncomfortably full.

After a binge, people often feel a great deal of guilt, disgust or shame. They may fear gaining weight. They may try to severely limit eating for periods of time. This leads to increased urges to binge, setting up an unhealthy cycle. Embarrassment can lead to eating alone to hide bingeing. A new round of bingeing commonly occurs at least once a week.

Avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder

Avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder includes extremely limited eating or not eating certain foods. The pattern of eating often doesn't meet minimum daily nutrition needs. This may lead to problems with growth, development and functioning in daily life. But people with this disorder don't have fears about gaining weight or body size. Instead, they may not be interested in eating or may avoid food with a certain color, texture, smell or taste. Or they may worry about what can happen when eating. For example, they may have a fear of choking or vomiting, or they may worry about getting stomach problems.

Avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder can be diagnosed in all ages, but it's more common in younger children. The disorder can result in major weight loss or failure to gain weight in childhood. A lack of proper nutrition can lead to major health problems.

When to see a doctor

An eating disorder can be difficult to manage or overcome by yourself. The earlier you get treatment, the more likely you'll make a full recovery. Sometimes people can have problem eating behaviors that are similar to some symptoms of an eating disorder, but the symptoms don't meet the guidelines for a diagnosis of an eating disorder. But these problem eating behaviors can still seriously affect health and well-being.

If you have problem eating behaviors that cause you distress or affect your life or health, or if you think you have an eating disorder, seek medical help.

Urging a loved one to seek treatment

Many people with eating disorders may not think they need treatment. One of the main features of many eating disorders is not realizing how severe the symptoms are. Also, guilt and shame often prevent people from getting help.

If you're worried about a friend or family member, urge the person to talk to a health care provider. Even if that person isn't ready to admit to having an issue with food, you can start the discussion by expressing concern and a desire to listen.

Red flags that may suggest an eating disorder include:

• Skipping meals or snacks or making excuses for not eating.
• Having a very limited diet that hasn't been prescribed by a trained medical professional.
• Too much focus on food or healthy eating, especially if it means not participating in usual events, such as sports banquets, eating birthday cake or dining out.
• Making own meals rather than eating what the family eats.
• Withdrawing from usual social activities.
• Frequent and ongoing worry or complaints about being unhealthy or overweight and talk of losing weight.
• Frequent checking in the mirror for what are thought to be flaws.
• Repeatedly eating large amounts of foods.
• Using dietary supplements, laxatives or herbal products for weight loss.
• Exercising much more than the average person. This includes not taking rest days or days off for injury or illness or refusing to attend social events or other life events because of wanting to exercise.
• Calluses on the knuckles from reaching fingers into the mouth to cause vomiting.
• Problems with loss of tooth enamel that may be a sign of repeated vomiting.
• Leaving during meals or right after a meal to use the toilet.
• Talk of depression, disgust, shame or guilt about eating habits.
• Eating in secret.

If you're worried that you or your child may have an eating disorder, contact a health care provider to talk about your concerns. If needed, get a referral to a mental health provider with expertise in eating disorders. Or if your insurance permits it, contact an expert directly.

The exact cause of eating disorders is not known. As with other mental health conditions, there may be different causes, such as:

• Genetics. Some people may have genes that increase their risk of developing eating disorders.
• Biology. Biological factors, such as changes in brain chemicals, may play a role in eating disorders.

Risk factors

Anyone can develop an eating disorder. Eating disorders often start in the teen and young adult years. But they can occur at any age.

Certain factors may increase the risk of developing an eating disorder, including:

• Family history. Eating disorders are more likely to occur in people who have parents or siblings who've had an eating disorder.
• Other mental health issues. Trauma, anxiety, depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder and other mental health issues can increase the likelihood of an eating disorder.
• Dieting and starvation. Frequent dieting is a risk factor for an eating disorder, especially with weight that is constantly going up and down when getting on and off new diets. There is strong evidence that many of the symptoms of an eating disorder are symptoms of starvation. Starvation affects the brain and can lead to mood changes, rigid thinking, anxiety and reduced appetite. This may cause severely limited eating or problem eating behaviors to continue and make it difficult to return to healthy eating habits.
• A history of weight bullying. People who have been teased or bullied for their weight are more likely to develop problems with eating and eating disorders. This includes people who have been made to feel ashamed of their weight by peers, health care professionals, coaches, teachers or family members.
• Stress. Whether it's heading off to college, moving, landing a new job, or a family or relationship issue, change can bring stress. And stress may increase the risk of an eating disorder.

Complications

Eating disorders cause a wide variety of complications, some of them life-threatening. The more severe or long lasting the eating disorder, the more likely it is that serious complications may occur. These may include:

• Serious health problems.
• Depression and anxiety.
• Suicidal thoughts or behavior.
• Problems with growth and development.
• Social and relationship problems.
• Substance use disorders.
• Work and school issues.

There's no sure way to prevent eating disorders, but you can take steps to develop healthy eating habits. If you have a child, you can help your child lower the risk of developing eating disorders.

To develop healthy eating habits and lifestyle behaviors:

• Choose a healthy diet rich in whole grains, fruits and vegetables. Limit salt, sugar, alcohol, saturated fat and trans fats. Avoid extreme dieting. If you need to lose weight, talk to your health care provider or a dietitian to create a plan that meets your needs.
• Don't use dietary supplements, laxatives or herbal products for weight loss.
• Get enough physical activity. Each week, get at least 150 minutes of aerobic activity, such as brisk walking. Choose activities that you enjoy, so you're more likely to do them.
• Seek help for mental health issues, such as depression, anxiety, or issues with self-esteem and body image.

For more guidelines on food and nutrition, as well as physical activity, go to health.gov.

Talk to a health care provider if you have concerns about your eating behaviors. Getting treatment early can prevent the problem from getting worse.

Here are some ways to help your child develop healthy-eating behaviors:

• Avoid dieting around your child. Family dining habits may influence the relationships children develop with food. Eating meals together gives you an opportunity to teach your child about the pitfalls of dieting. It also allows you to see whether your child is eating enough food and enough variety.
• Talk to your child. There are many websites and other social media sites that promote dangerous ideas, such as viewing anorexia as a lifestyle choice rather than an eating disorder. Some sites encourage teens to start dieting. It's important to correct any wrong ideas like this. Talk to your child about the risks of making unhealthy eating choices.
• Encourage and reinforce a healthy body image in your child, whatever their shape or size. Talk to your child about self-image and offer reassurance that body shapes can vary. Don't criticize your own body in front of your child. Messages of acceptance and respect can help build healthy self-esteem. They also can build resilience ⸺ the ability to recover quickly from difficult events. These skills can help children get through the challenging times of the teen and young adult years.
• Ask your child's health care provider for help. At well-child visits, health care providers may be able to identify early signs of an eating disorder. They can ask children questions about their eating habits. These visits can include checks of height and weight percentiles and body mass index, which can alert you and your child's provider to any big changes.

Reach out to help

If you notice a family member or friend who seems to show signs of an eating disorder, consider talking to that person about your concern for their well-being. You may not be able to prevent an eating disorder from developing, but reaching out with compassion may encourage the person to seek treatment.

• Feeding and eating disorders. In: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders DSM-5-TR. 5th ed. American Psychiatric Association; 2022. https://dsm.psychiatryonline.org. Accessed Nov. 16, 2022.
• Hales RE, et al. Feeding and eating disorders. In: The American Psychiatric Publishing Textbook of Psychiatry. 7th ed. American Psychiatric Publishing; 2019. https://psychiatryonline.org. Accessed Nov. 10, 2022.
• Eating disorders: About more than food. National Institute of Mental Health. https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/eating-disorders. Accessed Nov. 16, 2022.
• Eating disorders. National Alliance on Mental Illness. https://www.nami.org/About-Mental-Illness/Mental-Health-Conditions/Eating-Disorders/Support. Accessed Nov. 16, 2022.
• What are eating disorders? American Psychiatric Association. https://www.psychiatry.org/patients-families/eating-disorders/what-are-eating-disorders. Accessed Nov. 16, 2022.
• Treasure J, et al. Eating disorders. The Lancet. 2020; doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30059-3.
• Hay P. Current approach to eating disorders: A clinical update. Internal Medicine Journal. 2020; doi:10.1111/imj.14691.
• Bhattacharya A, et al. Feeding and eating disorders. Handbook of Clinical Neurology. 2020; doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-64123-6.00026-6.
• Uniacke B, et al. Eating disorders. Annals of Internal Medicine. 2022; doi:10.7326/AITC202208160.
• Fogarty S, et al. The role of complementary and alternative medicine in the treatment of eating disorders: A systematic review. Eating Behaviors. 2016; doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2016.03.002.
• Some imported dietary supplements and nonprescription drug products may harm you. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. https://www.fda.gov/consumers/consumer-updates/some-imported-dietary-supplements-and-nonprescription-drug-products-may-harm-you. Accessed Nov. 16, 2022.
• Questions and answers about FDA's initiative against contaminated weight loss products. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. https://www.fda.gov/drugs/frequently-asked-questions-popular-topics/questions-and-answers-about-fdas-initiative-against-contaminated-weight-loss-products. Accessed Nov. 16, 2022.
• Mixing medications and dietary supplements can endanger your health. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. https://www.fda.gov/consumers/consumer-updates/mixing-medications-and-dietary-supplements-can-endanger-your-health. Accessed Nov. 16, 2022.
• Lebow JR (expert opinion). Mayo Clinic. Dec. 1, 2022.
• 2020-2025 Dietary Guidelines for Americans. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and U.S. Department of Agriculture. https://www.dietaryguidelines.gov. Accessed Feb. 3, 2023.
• Long MW, et al. Cost-effectiveness of 5 public health approaches to prevent eating disorders. American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 2022; doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2022.07.005.
• Health.gov. https://health.gov/. Accessed Feb. 7, 2023.
• Eating disorder treatment: Know your options

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Journal of Eating Disorders

Call for papers: moving the needle on eating disorder treatment: precision psychiatry and personalized treatment advances.

Phillipa Hay , Editor-in-Chief

Western Sydney University, Australia

Professor Phillipa Hay is a leading mental health researcher, educator, and practicing Psychiatrist. Her research has been translational, guided policy and practice, and award winning, e.g., in 2015 she received the Lifetime Leadership Award from the ANZ Academy for Eating Disorders, and in 2020 she was awarded the Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Psychiatrists (RANZCP) Senior Research Award. She laid the foundations for mental health programs in two new medical schools James Cook and Western Sydney. She has a DPhil in Psychiatry from the University of Oxford and MD (Medicine) from University of Otago, is a Fellow of the RANZCP, and Fellow of the Academy for Eating Disorders (AED).

Stephen Touyz , Editor-in-Chief

University of Sydney, Australia

Stephen Touyz is an Emeritus Professor at the University of Sydney and Director of the Inside Out Institute, a joint partnership between the Sydney Local Health District and the University of Sydney. He is Editor in Chief of the Journal of Eating Disorders which he co-founded a decade ago. He is a past president of the Eating Disorders Research Society. He is a member of the Commonwealth Government of Australia’s Technical Advisory Group for Eating Disorders and a member of the steering committee of the National Eating Disorders Collaboration. He was presented with a leadership award in research by the Academy of Eating Disorders in 2012, the first ever Lifetime Achievement Award by the Australian and New Zealand Academy of Eating Disorders in 2014 and the Ian M Campbell Prize in Clinical Psychology from the Australian Psychological Society in 2014. He has edited/co-edited 6 books and published over 480 scholarly papers/book chapters.

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Introduction to Eating Disorders

Eating disorders involve a persistent disturbance of eating or of behavior related to eating that

Alters consumption or absorption of food

Significantly impairs physical health and/or psychosocial functioning

Specific eating disorders include

Anorexia nervosa

Avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder

Binge eating disorder

Bulimia nervosa

Rumination disorder

Anorexia nervosa is characterized by a relentless pursuit of thinness, a morbid fear of obesity, a distorted body image, and restriction of intake relative to requirements, leading to a significantly low body weight to the point where health is harmed. This disorder may or may not include purging (eg, self-induced vomiting).

Avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder is characterized by avoidance of food or restriction of food intake that results in significant weight loss, nutritional deficiency, dependence on nutritional support, and/or marked disturbance of psychosocial functioning. But unlike anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa, this disorder does not include concern about body shape or weight.

Binge eating disorder is characterized by recurrent episodes in which people consume large amounts of food and feel as if they have lost control. Episodes are not followed by inappropriate compensatory behavior (eg, self-induced vomiting).

Bulimia nervosa is characterized by recurrent episodes of binge eating followed by some form of inappropriate compensatory behavior such as purging (self-induced vomiting, laxative or diuretic abuse), fasting, or driven exercise.

Pica is persistent eating of nonnutritive, nonfood material that is not developmentally appropriate (ie, pica is not diagnosed in children < 2 years) and not part of a cultural tradition.

Rumination disorder is repeated regurgitation of food after eating.

Eating disorders are more common among women, especially younger women, than among men.

See also the American Psychiatric Association’s Practice Guidelines: Treatment of Patients With Eating Disorders, 3rd Edition and guidelines from the National Institute for Clinical Excellence [NICE] , December, 2020.

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The Reality of an Eating Disorder

A medical student's award-winning piece on her battles with an eating disorder.

terovesalainen/Adobestock

Ms Cursor’s essay was honored as part of the 2023 Gerald F. Berlin Creative Writing Contest for its thoughtfulness. Psychiatric Times ’ resident poet of 26 years, Richard M. Berlin, MD, established the Gerald F. Berlin Creative Writing Award at the University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School in 2005 to honor the poetry, fiction, and reflective essays of medical students, physicians in training, graduate students, and nursing students from the medical school. Psychiatric Times is delighted to share her work and insights and hopes it serves as reminder of the importance of self-care for medical professionals, including students, as well as a better understanding of the struggles experienced by those with eating disorders.

I stare at the ceiling, having lost track of time. I roll over in the hospital gurney, entangled within a pair of cheap scrubs that are much too big for me. I’m trying hard to sleep but it’s impossible. I’m also hungry; I only had Jello and saltines for dinner because the vegetarian options are sparse here, at least according to the ER nurse whose empathy I am finding increasingly attractive. Inside my room is the gurney, a TV built into the wall, a blanket, and my snack wrappers neatly consolidated on the floor inside a Styrofoam cup. There is no light and nothing on the walls except the TV. The remote is even a keypad built into the wall outside of my room. I want to change the channel, but I am too scared to venture outside, into the common area clustered with other psych patients, all of us waiting for a bed to open in the hospital. I don’t want to be here, but I am not well enough for any alternative.

Sometime within the past twenty-four hours I was admitted to the hospital from McCallum Place Eating Disorder Center. I had been in eating disorder treatment for around a month, and, unable to use my eating disorder to cope for such an extended period of time, my suicidal thoughts grew too loud for me to handle on my own.

I have lived with anorexia nervosa for the past thirteen years. You might look at me and wonder how that’s possible.

I am not emaciated; I do not look sick. This is not to say that there weren’t periods of time when I did appear unwell; however my lowest weight did not correlate with my lowest point mentally. Anorexia—in fact, all eating disorders—are deadly, regardless of weight. The body and mind shrivel while the soul deflates as your sole focus in life becomes food. Eating disorders have the second highest mortality rate of any mental illness. One of the leading causes of death of people with anorexia nervosa is suicide.

While I do not look sick, I still battle daily urges to restrict my food, to run “x” number of miles to allow myself to eat “x” amount, to relish in the feeling of size zero pants slipping from my hips, to retreat back to behaviors like these that brought me so much comfort when inside I feel chaos. My eating disorder is deeply engrained, as are the years of depression, anxiety, and obsessive thoughts it has buried.

A year and a half ago, I started my first year of medical school. If you had asked me then to predict how the year were to unfold, I would not have forecasted any of it. I had taken three GAP years prior to medical school, in part to focus on recovering from my eating disorder. I wasn’t supposed to still be struggling with this, let alone need a leave of absence from medical school to admit myself to eating disorder treatment, nor end up in the hospital as a patient myself.

The first few weeks of medical school were the first time in my life I experienced panic attacks. At first I didn’t know what they were, and I judged myself for having them. How could everyone around me be so calm? Why was I so anxious that I was on the verge of passing out? Well, I wasn’t eating enough. My eating disorder hung on as a coping mechanism to manage all the change that was happening as I transitioned to medical school. It was a way to make me feel safe when I otherwise felt like an imposter. I felt insignificant among my classmates and colleagues, and controlling my body size somehow made me feel better. Restriction provided me with the bursts of serotonin I needed when I was otherwise lonely, overwhelmed, or feeling inadequate. But when you are starving, you become hypoglycemic, diaphoretic, light-headed, anxious.

Two months into medical school, my cousin died suddenly. My family still does not disclose the details, but I do know that his death was from some form of self-harm. I didn’t see my cousin very often, but when our paths did cross, I understood he was struggling. And I struggled, too. My cousin’s death overwhelmed me. I felt as though I could have prevented it somehow, and it precipitated a deep emptiness inside of me. I reached out to one of my mentors in medical school. Her response was to make sure that I was safe with myself. Safe with myself? It had never occurred to me that I could be unsafe with myself. Until that moment.

This became a very sticky thought, and throughout my first year of medical school, it grew more persistent. As its persistence grew, so did its ability to influence my emotions. For the first time, I experienced bouts of depression. And they were scary. I was grieving the loss of my cousin, while also juggling a significant injury to my femur that forced me to drop out of a marathon three days before the race, and still battling my eating disorder. Furthermore, I didn’t just have depression; these thoughts about harming myself were obsessive in nature, and I felt anxiety about having them, further perpetuating their power.

Fast forward to April 2022. My dietitian and therapist suspect that my anxiety is the result of not eating enough, so I try to eat more to alleviate it. But when I stop using my eating disorder to cope, the thoughts that remain are quite grim. I am sitting in my room, fighting back tears as I confess to my therapist over Zoom the thoughts I’ve been having. When I take my antidepressants, I think about taking the whole bottle. When I’m driving, I’m afraid I might drive my car off the road. Questioning my purpose in this world overwhelms me with sadness and confusion. My therapist reassures me: it’s okay, I can get help for this. I can? It doesn’t have to be this way? Later that day, I make the call to McCallum Place Eating Disorder Center and schedule an intake assessment. They can and will help me with my eating disorder, depression, OCD, and anxiety.

At the University of Massachusetts Chan Medical school, there is ongoing construction of a new research building. Excitement has been circulating about this project; as a student, I receive updates at least monthly on the building’s progress. I was even invited to sign the ultimate beam that was placed as part of the scaffolding. I chose not to sign it, as this project serves as a reminder to me of my good friend’s suicide involving a school construction site in college. He was just one of so many people whose life could have been saved if he knew it was okay to get help when he needed it. Each day, as I walk past the building, I make a promise to my friend to see its completion, and make sure that others do, too. Depression and suicide are common among medical providers, even more so in the last decade. It was important that I sought out treatment when I did, even if it meant taking a medical leave with only a month left in my first year of medical school. I am so grateful that my therapist recognized the signs that I needed more support and helped me take the steps to pause my school obligations and put my life first. Treatment helped me immensely to develop coping skills outside of my eating disorder to manage my depression, anxiety, and OCD. It also helped me pharmacologically to experiment with medications in a safe setting to begin to find what works best for me. I met so many people of all different backgrounds who struggled in similar ways that I did, and this helped me feel so much less alone.

I hope that by sharing my story, I can help others recognize when they themselves or their loved ones are struggling. And that no matter who you are, it is more than okay to ask for help. Getting help for mental health should be no different than seeing a doctor for a physical ailment. Let’s keep having these conversations, destigmatize mental illness, and start saving lives.

Ms Cursor is a pseudonym for the author, who chose to use such to prevent future prejudice. She is a medical student, anticipating graduation with the class of 2026.

A Forensic Psychiatrist Takes the Stand

From the Pages of Psychiatric Times: February 2024

Medical Euthanasia in Canada: Current Issues and Potential Future Expansion

Eating Disorders and OTC Weight-Loss Product Consumption in Adolescents

Eating Disorders in BIPOC Communities

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Your chance of acceptance, your chancing factors, extracurriculars, discussing my eating disorder in college essays – too personal or potentially impactful.

Hey guys, so here's the thing – I’ve battled with an eating disorder, and it’s been a significant part of my high school experience. Should I write about overcoming this challenge in my essays, or would it be better to choose a less sensitive subject?

Your courage in facing and overcoming such a personal challenge is commendable. When choosing an essay topic, the key is to focus on how the experience has shaped you and enabled personal growth. If you believe that your journey with an eating disorder has been a transformational part of your high school experience and has changed you in a significant way, it is worth considering as an essay topic.

However, ensure that your narrative is one of resilience and that it showcases how this experience has helped you build up your strengths, rather than solely focusing on the struggle itself. For example, avoid graphic descriptions of what you dealt with, as they may be uncomfortable for admissions officers to read, especially if they have struggled with eating disorders themselves—remember, you never know who is going to be reading your essay.

Rather, focus on how overcoming the hardship of this experience has taught you important life skills, by talking about accomplishments or formative experiences that were enabled by the abilities you developed as a result of your struggle with your eating disorder. This approach will give colleges what they are interested in in any personal statement, which is your ability to persevere and how your experiences have prepared you for the challenges of college life.

In summary, this topic is not too personal if framed correctly. If you're wondering if your approach is working, you can always check out CollegeVine's free peer essay review service, or submit it to an expert advisor for a paid review. Since they don't know you, they can provide an objective perspective that will hopefully give you a sense of how an actual admissions officer would read you essay. Good luck!

About CollegeVine’s Expert FAQ

CollegeVine’s Q&A seeks to offer informed perspectives on commonly asked admissions questions. Every answer is refined and validated by our team of admissions experts to ensure it resonates with trusted knowledge in the field.

• Eating Disorders

The Risks of Ozempic for People with Eating Disorders

Experts caution against off-label use of ozempic for those with eating disorders..

Posted May 12, 2024 | Reviewed by Devon Frye

• What Are Eating Disorders?
• Find a therapist to heal from an eating disorder

Co-authored by Taylor Alves and Robert T. Muller, Ph.D.

Eating disorders have the highest overall death rate of any mental illness. Globally, eating disorders affect at least 9 percent of the population. With the rise in attention surrounding weight loss drugs like Ozempic, what are the concerns for those living with eating disorders?

Ozempic has been widely covered in the media for its benefits as a weight loss drug. Originally intended to treat Type 2 diabetes, it belongs to a class of medications called GLP-1 agonists. Ozempic works by imitating hormones that make people feel full for longer, curb cravings, and stop overeating.

The drug has gained significant media attention as many celebrities including Chelsea Handler, Elon Musk, and Sharon Osbourne reported using the drug to lose weight. The topic has been featured in magazines and ads and has been widely discussed on social media . Hashtags such as #ozempic and #ozempicweightloss have upwards of 300 million views on TikTok.

During the 2023 Oscars, talk show host Jimmy Kimmel commented on the buzz created by Ozempic: “When I look around at this room, I can’t help but wonder: Is Ozempic right for me?” With increased attention on the drug, experts are concerned that its misuse might have negative implications for those living with eating disorders.

Lisa Hoffman , a social worker and registered dietician specialising in eating disorders, has expressed concern for the potential influences Ozempic has on those with eating disorders: “I think Ozempic has only strengthened the societal focus on weight loss, ideal body weights, and the associated weight stigma . It reinforces the ‘thin dream’ and that all people [should] strive for thinness, no matter what the cost or consequence. The prevalence of eating disorders increases with more repeated societal messages that everyone needs to be thinner.”

While Ozempic was intended to be used by people with Type 2 diabetes, due to the attention it's received for weight loss, it has gone through a worldwide market growth of 50 percent. It is often easily accessible to those who can afford it, with many nurses and medical spas willing to prescribe it.

The problem? Potential consequences for patients using the medication for diabetes as it may leave them unable to easily fill prescriptions. Some have reported needing to try several pharmacies or taking lower doses as their only option.

Another problem is research suggesting that the potential for regaining weight after stopping Ozempic can lead to disordered eating . Further, the rebound weight gain increases users’ health risks as it may have a negative impact on metabolism, cardiovascular health, and self-image . This may put people at increased risk for disordered eating.

Further, the popularity of Ozempic is touching on a much larger issue of the thin ideal , which describes society’s desire to push a thin body type as being the ideal despite this being naturally unattainable for many.

Samantha Brown, a social worker specialising in adolescent eating disorders, notes, “Using Ozempic as an off-label weight loss solution can worsen restrictive eating patterns that initiate and perpetuate eating disorder progression. The rapid reduction of appetite caused by Ozempic creates physiological changes that underpin these dangerous eating behaviours. Ozempic has known side effects of nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, and other undesirable consequences. In addition to being uncomfortable, this may mimic or exacerbate the symptoms of an eating disorder, such as bulimia nervosa.”

Yet to complicate matters further, the impact of Ozempic on people with eating disorders may not be one-size-fits-all. Some research suggests that the drug may in fact help those with binge eating disorder (BED) combat cravings for food and curb their appetite.

BED is characterised by recurrent uncontrollable episodes of eating large quantities of food. This can often lead to great distress for those struggling with BED, as many understand their behaviour is atypical but are unable to change it.

BED is the most common type of eating disorder, with 3.5 percent of women and 2 percent of men being diagnosed in their lifetime. Unfortunately, people with BED are highly stigmatised, which may lead to them not seeking out treatment. Research has shown only 40 percent of people with BED receive treatment.

In this case, how is Ozempic thought to help? The drug curbs appetite and cravings, so many people with BED are acknowledging that Ozempic has positive benefits for reducing binge eating episodes . People with Type 2 diabetes have a higher risk of also having eating disorders, including BED, with research suggesting that 20 percent of people with Type 2 diabetes have BED.

While the jury is still out on the myriad positive and negative effects of Ozempic on mental health in general, and eating disorders in particular, some experts wonder how they can keep recommending healthy eating to clients when so many messages tell people to do the opposite.

Robert T. Muller, Ph.D. , is a professor of psychology at York University, and the author of the book Trauma and the Avoidant Client .

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Social Media, Thin-Ideal, Body Dissatisfaction and Disordered Eating Attitudes: An Exploratory Analysis

Pilar aparicio-martinez.

1 Departamento de Enfermería, Universidad de Córdoba, Campus de Menéndez Pidal, 1470 Córdoba, Spain

2 Usher Institute of Population Health Sciences and Informatics, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH8 9YL, UK

3 Grupo Investigación epidemiológica en Atención primaria (GC-12) del Instituto Maimónides de Investigación Biomédica de Córdoba (IMIBIC), Hospital Universitario Reina Sofía, 14071 Córdoba, Spain; se.ocu@oreuqavm

Alberto-Jesus Perea-Moreno

4 Departamento de Física Aplicada, Universidad de Córdoba, ceiA3, Campus de Rabanales, 14071 Córdoba, Spain; se.ocu@aerepa (A.-J.P.-M.); se.ocu@pijam1af (M.P.M.-J.)

María Pilar Martinez-Jimenez

María dolores redel-macías.

5 Departamento Ingeniería Rural, Ed Leonardo da Vinci, Campus de Rabanales, Universidad de Córdoba, Campus de Excelencia Internacional Agroalimentario, ceiA3, 1470 Cordoba, Spain; se.ocu@lederdm

Claudia Pagliari

6 eHealth Research Group, Usher Institute of Population Health Sciences and Informatics, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH8 9YL, UK; [email protected]

Manuel Vaquero-Abellan

Disordered eating attitudes are rapidly increasing, especially among young women in their twenties. These disordered behaviours result from the interaction of several factors, including beauty ideals. A significant factor is social media, by which the unrealistic beauty ideals are popularized and may lead to these behaviours. The objectives of this study were, first, to determine the relationship between disordered eating behaviours among female university students and sociocultural factors, such as the use of social network sites, beauty ideals, body satisfaction, body image and the body image desired to achieve and, second, to determine whether there is a sensitive relationship between disordered eating attitudes, addiction to social networks, and testosterone levels as a biological factor. The data ( N = 168) was obtained using validated surveys (EAT-26, BSQ, CIPE-a, SNSA) and indirect measures of prenatal testosterone. The data was analysed using chi-square, Student’s t-test, correlation tests and logistic regression tests. The results showed that disordered eating attitudes were linked to self-esteem ( p < 0.001), body image ( p < 0.001), body desired to achieve ( p < 0.001), the use of social media ( p < 0.001) and prenatal testosterone ( p < 0.01). The findings presented in this study suggest a relationship between body image, body concerns, body dissatisfaction, and disordered eating attitudes among college women.

1. Introduction

Mental health problems have increased, especially among young people, over the last decade [ 1 ]. The most common mental problems are behavioural, emotional, and hyperkinetic disorders. Among these illnesses, disordered eating behaviours are rapidly increasing in a short time, especially among young women [ 2 , 3 ]. These disordered attitudes are defined as afflictions in which people suffer severe disruption in their eating behaviours, thoughts and emotions. The people who suffer from these complaints are usually preoccupied with food and weight. In this sense, disordered eating is used to describe a range of irregular eating behaviours that may or may not warrant a diagnosis of a specific disordered eating attitude [ 4 ].

These disorders usually occur in women in their twenties or during adolescence [ 3 ]. People who suffer these disorders usually present altered attitudes, behaviours, weight perception and physical appearance [ 5 ]. Moreover, disordered eating behaviours or attitudes are defined as unhealthy or maladaptive eating behaviours, such as restricting or binging and/or purging [ 6 ]. These behaviours are not categorized as an eating disorder, though they are considered a phase of diagnosed eating disorders [ 7 ].

The concern from health care systems is based on the fact that these severe mental disorders usually puts in danger the well-being and health of the people who suffer them [ 5 ]. One-third of the women in the world have suffered from these mental problems at some point in their life [ 6 ]. If they are inadequately treated, they may develop severe clinical disorders [ 8 ]. Moreover, around 1% of the people with these disordered eating attitudes struggle with unhealthy and emotional problems through all their lives [ 6 ].

Out of the population with disordered eating attitudes, 16% of them present overeating, 20% purged by vomiting, and 61% food restraining [ 9 ]. These frequencies changed as people aged, with food restriction being more common in older women and vomiting during adolescence [ 10 ]. Moreover, recent data have discussed the increase of how the minimum age of the people with disorders is around 12 years of age and decreasing. Meanwhile, the prevalence of disordered eating attitudes appears to increase as young adults or adolescents grow older [ 10 ].

Although these diseases have a crucial psychobiological component, social and cultural factors have a significant influence. Among these factors, advertising has been described as an internalizing or normalizing means to spread unrealistic beauty ideals. Therefore, a higher incidence of these diseases is presented in advanced and modern societies and people with the best living conditions, mostly caused by the popularization of thin and muscular ideals [ 11 , 12 , 13 ].

Several biological factors have been linked to disordered eating attitudes, with up to 50% of disordered eating being described as familiarly transmitted [ 5 , 14 ]. Researchers have also suggested that neurotransmitters in the brain are involved in disordered eating attitudes and, therefore, eating disorders [ 15 , 16 ]. Additionally, the hormones have been linked as factors to puberty, body perception and body concerns [ 17 , 18 ]. Testosterone is included among those hormones highly studied, with blood samples providing a more precise method of examination. Nevertheless, different researchers pointed out the possibility of using indirect markers to avoid taking biological samples and creating risks for the participants. In this sense, most studies have linked testosterone and estrogenic levels via the 2D:4D digital ratio as an indirect indicator [ 19 ], which heavily dictates attractiveness [ 17 ]. This ratio, which is based on the difference in length of the phalanges of the hands (2D:4D ratio) having a lower ratio as an indicator of the existence of a higher level of testosterone, is used for the determination of intrauterine testosterone levels during gestation [ 20 ]. This ratio has reflected the relationship with self-perception, body image, body dissatisfaction, and disordered eating behaviours [ 20 , 21 ]. Based on these studies, the hormone levels, and the indirect marker, might appear to have essential roles in disordered eating attitudes [ 22 ]. Nevertheless, other authors have described how biological or genetic factors are essential, but may not determine, these disordered eating attitudes [ 23 ].

Other factors, such as ethical or familiar factors, contribute to the development of this disordered eating behaviours [ 24 ]. In this sense, previous studies have established that the probability of developing a disordered eating attitude or a diagnosis of eating disorders is higher if the mother had a disordered eating or self-esteem problems [ 25 , 26 ]. Moreover, ethnicity has been linked to the perception of beauty ideals, self-esteem and body perception [ 27 , 28 ].

Another critical factor is the media by which beauty ideals have been promoted. The media plays a vital role in formulating what is attractive in society, increasing the thin beauty ideal among females being unattainable [ 29 , 30 ]. These ideals confirmed the way young people perceived themselves and, therefore, how they value themselves [ 10 , 31 ]. This contradiction between what society portrays as a role model and the real body that many young women have has resulted in body concerns. Body concerns usually maintain over time and increase body dissatisfaction. This body dissatisfaction emerges because of the distortion on the body image, its perception and, therefore, body concern [ 32 , 33 ]. This dissatisfaction also plays an essential role in disordered eating attitudes since it provokes emotional and psychological distress [ 34 ].

In this sense, the theory of social comparison and numerous studies have studied the relationship between body dissatisfaction and disordered eating attitudes to better understand the causes of these illnesses. These previous works showed that real comparisons with other people leads to a distortion of body image and may favour disorderly feeding [ 11 , 29 , 35 ]. Additionally, Fredrickson and Roberts (1997) suggested that sexualization and self-objectification promoted via media should be considered as a risk factor for disordered eating attitudes [ 36 , 37 , 38 ]. Based on previous and recent studies it seems that the role of the media in disordered eating attitudes is noteworthy [ 1 , 11 , 39 ].

This paper presents a research study in which these objectives have been pursued: first, to determine the relationship between disordered eating attitudes in female university students and sociocultural factors, such as the use of social network sites, beauty ideals, body satisfaction, the body image and the body image desired to achieve. Second, to determine whether there is a sensitive relationship between disordered eating attitudes, addiction to social networks, and other biological factors, such as testosterone levels.

2. Background

College-aged women may be at particular risk for body dissatisfaction and disordered eating practices due to the unhealthy weight gain that often occurs during this life stage [ 3 , 31 ]. The promotion of beauty ideals in the media disseminates disordered eating [ 40 , 41 ], drive for thinness and body dissatisfaction among female college students [ 42 ]. Furthermore, the growth of social networking sites (SNS), such as Facebook or Instagram, has also increased the exposure to thin and fit ideals [ 2 , 43 , 44 ]. The social media are more used than any other media as a mean of communication. These internet-based sites pulled the users to create personal profiles and share, view, comment and ‘like’ peer-generated content [ 20 ].

Importantly, young people, almost 90% of them (ages 18–29), reported being active users and being continuously exposed to different content and images in this medium [ 14 , 45 ]. Among the most active users of these media stands out the influencers. These new media role models have a significant impact in the last tendencies, the news and the trends that young people are following [ 46 ]. In this sense, researchers have also pointed out how social media and influencers may have the key to decrease body dissatisfaction and body concerns. Nevertheless, substantial studies have shown that economic interests are linked with the promotion of dieting in social media, or even surgery [ 47 ].

The last publications concluded that the most dangerous social media was Instagram, followed by Facebook and Twitter. These conclusions were based on the instant satisfaction of reviewing and having peer views in the images posted by the users [ 48 ]. Especially on Instagram, the message is accommodated according to the image uploaded [ 47 ].

These studies concluded that the influence of the advertising and the promotion of the thin and muscular ideals might more be connected with the perception that young people has regarding body, dieting and social media [ 49 ]. Additionally, the objectification suggests that the media’s sexual objectification of women modifies their body appearance. Due to this, it could be concluded that self-perception slowly shapes attractiveness resulting in a modification in the body-image, body dissatisfaction and disordered eating attitude. That being said, the proposed hypotheses are as follows:

Among young women, self-image will be linked to body dissatisfaction, the thin-ideal and the desire to change one’s body shape.

The level of body dissatisfaction among female college students will be high and be linked to self-esteem.

The young women’s eating behaviours will be linked to the degree of body dissatisfaction and the frequency of using social media.

The young women’s body image and body description will be slightly connected to prenatal testosterone levels.

3. Methodology

3.1. design and sample.

In the first phase, a cross-sectional study was carried out focused on female college students, aged from 18 to 25 years. The sample was recruited to participate in an in-person survey from April to May 2018 from the University of Cordoba. The selection of the sample was based on non-probability convenience sampling. This method of sampling was selected based on the accessibility of the students and previous scheduling with the professors.

The final sample was constituted by 168 subjects, from biological, education, informatics and nursing degrees who agreed to participate in the study voluntarily. The initial sample was 224, though the final sample was 168 after applying the exclusion terms. The mean age of the sample was 20 ± 0.76.

3.2. Measures

All the surveys used in the study are validated in different languages, including Spanish. Moreover, these surveys are used globally among health professionals and researchers in the health field [ 50 ].

The demographic and anthropometric data were not included in this study since the objective focused on the socio-cultural and individual factors. In this sense, the perception of young people was focused on social media, self-appearance, specific social network sites and distorted eating behaviours.

The EAT-26 with the reduced version of 26 items, was used to assess the frequency of disordered eating attitudes [ 51 , 52 ]. This test measures the low, medium and high risk of having a disordered eating attitude. Moreover, three different disordered eating behaviours can be reflected depending on the answers to each item. In this sense, these three subscales are dieting (focused on questions 1, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 14, 16, 17, 22, 23, 24, 26), bulimia and food preoccupation (focused on questions 3, 4, 9, 18, 21, 25) and food oral control (2, 5, 8, 13, 15, 8, 20). Total scores were calculated by taking the sum of the 26 items, based on the value from 0 to 3, where higher scores, over 20 points, indicated higher levels of disordered eating behaviours. This validated survey based on screening disorder eating attitudes when the score is over 20 points [ 52 ]. Nevertheless, this survey does not provide a definite diagnosis of eating disorders; therefore, a clinical evaluation is needed. This evaluation can be carried out via individual interviews.

The body satisfaction questionnaire (BSQ) [ 53 ], whose Spanish adaptation was completed by Raich [ 54 ], was used. The stereotypes perception survey from the University of Granada was also used [ 55 ].

The questions referring to body image included illustrations of women’s bodies. These illustrations comprise seven body images that vary from underweight to obese, numbered from 1 to 7. Additionally, a specific section focused on body satisfaction, examining their satisfaction on a scale from 1 to 7, with lower scores relating to higher levels of body dissatisfaction. In this section, one of the questions examined the steps each young person would take to attain a body type that corresponded to the ideal.

The body image concerns were observed by using the BSQ, a self-report instrument evaluating weight and shape preoccupations [ 54 ]. Sample items include: “Have you been so worried about your shape that you have felt you ought to diet?”; “Have you noticed the shape of others and felt that your shape compared unfavourably?” The questions were answered on a six-point Likert scale (1 = never, five = always).

The Appearance Evaluation (AE) subscale of the Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire-Appearance Scales (MBSRQ) was used to measure self-perception and stereotypes [ 56 ]. Participants rate the extent to which they agree with seven statements (e.g., “Most people would consider me good-looking”) on a five-point scale (1 = disagree, 5 = agree) with lower scores indicating lower self-perception and stereotypes.

Finally, self-esteem was evaluated by the Rosenberg survey (CIPE-a) composed of ten questions, which provided us with high, medium or low levels of self-esteem. The questions were given a scale on a four-point scale (1 = disagree, 4 = agree), with lower scores indicating lower self-esteem [ 57 ].

On the other hand, the survey that focused on social networks had preliminary yes/no items about having social network accounts on Twitter, Facebook, Instagram, YouTube or Snapchat. Participants indicated how often they access/check their respective accounts daily on a five-point scale: hardly ever, sometimes, usually, all most all the time and always. Additionally, the participants’ daily use (hours per day in social networks and highly visual social media, i.e., Instagram, Snapchat), number of accounts and importance given to these was rated on a 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) scale.

Meanwhile, addiction to social networks was evaluated by a validated survey called the Social Networks Addiction Questionnaire (SNSA) [ 50 ]. The survey is based on the DSM-IV-TR [ 27 ], a diagnostic instrument that does not recognize psychological addictions as disorders but as a prior stage that can lead to addiction. The survey is formed by 24 items applying a five-point rating system (from 0 to 4), taking into account the frequency from “never” to “always” [ 56 ].

The study has focused on the indirect determination of intrauterine testosterone levels during the gestation, determined experimentally from the difference in length of the phalanges of the hands (2D:4D ratio). This measure was selected to determine the possible relation with sociocultural factors indirectly. The selection of this method was based on reducing the risks, vulnerability and protecting biological or genetic material from the participants. When the ratio is higher, i.e., the difference between the second and fourth finger, lower levels of testosterone are implied [ 21 ]. 2D:4D is an indicator of testosterone and oestrogen levels [ 58 ], which heavily dictate attractiveness [ 17 ]. Therefore, this digit ratio may be related to self-perception, body image, body dissatisfaction and disordered eating attitudes.

3.3. Instruments

The instruments used to obtain the image of the hands were a Canon Camera EOS700D (produced by Canon Inc., which is a Japanese company founded in Ota, Tokyo) and a Manfrotto Compact Advance tripod (produced by Manfrotto, which is an Italian company founded in, produced and distributed form the USA). Additionally, free access software GeoGebra ( https://www.geogebra.org ), which is a free access software founded in Austria and later updated and mass produced in USA, was used to analyse the indirect marker of testosterone levels (2D:4D ratio).

3.4. Procedure

Participants approved a participant information statement, consent form and questionnaires, followed by the approval of the Research Ethics Committee of Public Health System in Cordoba (Ethical Approval number 273, reference 3773).

The participants were undergraduate students with health, education, life and engineering studies. The recruitment took place in different classrooms of the University, the objective of the study, ethical indications, risks for the participants and voluntary participation in the study being previously explained. During the recruitment a teacher and a researcher were present in the classroom the entire time.

The inclusion of the participants was based on an initial survey, which was provided previously in the same classroom. In this survey, the students were asked about the previous diagnosis of conduct or emotional disorders, addiction to technologies, abuse of substances and having a social network account. Those students that had a previous diagnosis of conduct, emotional disorders, or addiction were eliminated from the sample and were not given the survey of the study. Those students that did not have an account on any social network were also excluded from the study ( Figure 1 ).

Flow chart of the recruitment and selection of the sample.

3.5. Statistical Analysis

Mean and standard deviation (SD) were calculated for the quantitative variables and frequencies in the case of qualitative variables. Firstly, we studied the normalization of the data using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test ( p < 0.05). Moreover, Cronbach’s alpha test was used for determining the consistency among the scales and subscales and, especially, the SNS test showed acceptable value (0.77) and the EAT-26 (0.83) was excellent. In order to assess the first objective, the χ 2 test was used for the qualitative variables, such as gender and body image, and the Student’s t -test was applied to compare quantitative variables, such as the EAT-26 score and age. Additionally, correlational analyses were used to examine relations between all variables.

Moreover, the second set of analyses examined the impact of the relationship between disordered eating attitudes and the rest the factors measured. For this purpose, the crude and adjusted odds ratio (OR) values were calculated for the logistic regression. In the end, the ROC (receiver operating characteristic) curves and the validity indices were used for the diagnostic accuracy of disordered eating attitudes having body dissatisfaction and social networks addiction.

First Phase

The initial analysis of the data showed that women ( N = 168) had a range of age between 21 and 22, 96.7% of them being Caucasian ethnicity. Moreover, the body image that they had was in range between 3 and 4, which may imply a normal weight. The perception that they had of themselves was fatter (3.56 ± 1.2) when compared to the desired body image (2.99 ± 0.83) ( Table 1 ). Additionally, the most common description of body satisfaction showed low and medium-high levels of body satisfaction (48.7%). In this sense, the difference among the group with lower and higher levels of body satisfaction was related to the body image given by the women (χ 2 = 113.64, p < 0.001).

Mean, standard deviation and confidence intervals.

Moreover, the results from the data showed that almost 93% of the women desired to change at least three zones of their body using at least two different methods (1.98 ± 0.82). The methods most used were physical activity (92%), diet (48%), surgery (24%) and beauty or alimentary products (23%). Among the zones to be modified by a surgical procedure 68% of the women indicated breast implants.

The analysis of the results from the EAT-26 test showed that most of the women had a medium probability of having disordered eating attitudes (18.34 ± 10.7). Figure 2 reflects the frequency of the scores from the EAT-26 related to body satisfaction.

Results from the EAT-26 related to body satisfaction.

The figure displays a higher frequency of scores over 20 points in disordered eating behaviours in the lower points of the body satisfaction scale. This figure implies that there were more values over 20 points when women suffered higher levels of body dissatisfaction. Additionally, the analysis between the score in the disordered eating behaviour test and level of body satisfaction showed significant differences among individuals with low and high levels of body satisfaction and scores over 20 points in the EAT-26 (χ 2 = 375.34, p < 0.001). Moreover, a more in-depth analysis of the data, based on women with more than 20 points in the EAT-26, 48 out of 168 women showed that 40.81% had food oral control, 38.77% presented bulimia and food preoccupation and 20.5% dieting.

Further study of the data was carried out in order to address the possible correlations between the body image that women perceived of themselves and the other variables analysed. In Table 2 , the correlations between the body image and the different variables have shown significant value with numerous factors, including disordered eating attitudes, self-esteem, desired body image or number of methods. These correlations were positive for a fatter body image in higher scores in the EAT-26 and more methods used to modify the body image and the current body image. Moreover, negative correlations were found for a curvier description that the women gave about their body and higher desires for a thinner body image, higher body dissatisfaction and lower levels of self-esteem.

Correlations with body image that women perceived of themselves.

Another variable that determines a “fatter” body image is the level of prenatal testosterone, measured by the 2D:4D ratio. This result displayed a positive relationship implying that a higher 2D:4D ratio, lower levels of intrauterine testosterone, may lead to a fatter body image.

On the other hand, Table 3 exposed the analysis of correlations between the score obtained in EAT-26 for disordered eating attitudes and the other factors analysed. This test displayed a negative correlation between having a higher score in the test and having lower levels of body satisfaction, self-esteem, the desired of having a thinner body image and worse perception of their own body.

Correlations with having higher scores in the disordered eating attitudes test.

Moreover, the positive correlations were obtained for numerous factors studied. The most highlighting positive correlations were reflected for a higher score in the SNS addiction test, a fatter body image and a higher difference in the 2D:4D ratio. These results implied that a higher 2D:4D ratio or fatter body image may lead to a higher score in the EAT-26.

The logistic regression model was used to define a disordered eating behaviour related to having lower levels of body satisfaction, the desired to achieve a thinner body image, lower levels of self-esteem, higher score in the SNS addiction test, higher duration of connection to this media and higher difference between the second and fourth finger ( Table 4 ).

Logistic regression for disordered eating attitudes.

From the analysis based on levels of self-esteem and social networks, the results showed that most women have high levels of self-esteem (31.1 ± 4.7) and low levels of addictive behaviour to social network sites (14.69 ± 10.37). Furthermore, the results of the social network sites presented a high dispersion of the results. In this sense, the confidence intervals (95%) were focused on medium levels regarding addictive behaviour to SNS (13.11–16.26).

Based on this, the correlations for the score in the SNS addition test were studied. The results indicated positive significance for the number of methods used to change their body image (<0.001), higher desired of a thinner body ( p < 0.001), lower levels of self-esteem ( p < 0.001), greater number of social media accounts ( p < 0.001), longer duration of the connections ( p < 0.001) and the importance given to the social networks ( p < 0.001). Nevertheless, the difference between the second and fourth phalange (2D:4D ratio) showed no significance with scores in the social network addiction test.

Finally, based on the results from the logistic regression, a probabilistic model was obtained. This model could diagnose 42.9% of the population with disordered eating attitudes (R 2 Cox and Snell 0.429) by knowing if the person had scored high in the SNS addiction test, body image, body dissatisfaction and high desire of having a thinner body. The specificity (90.3), sensibility (68.9) and valid index (84.6) results were optimal. Finally, the curve of the model was analysed ( Figure 3 ) obtaining an acceptable probabilistic high risk of a disordered eating attitudes (area = 0.94, p < 0.001, CI 0.88–0.97).

ROC curve from the logistic model for disordered eating.

5. Discussion

This study has reflected how different factors, such as the level of self-esteem ( Table 1 ), might play a significant role in disordered eating behaviours. Among these factors the body image that women perceived over themselves stood out as a significant element. In this sense, according to previous researchers, body image is multidimensional, being made of perceptual, behavioural and cognitive-affective domains created by the individual [ 46 ]. This perception is dependent on a variety of elements, including social media and beauty ideals. In the case of social media, the results from this study showed a relationship between the body image, body ideals and the use of social media ( Table 2 and Table 3 ). Furthermore, previous publications explained that the desire to achieve the beauty ideal emerges as the internalization of the portrayed image exposed by the media [ 59 , 60 ]. Homan (2010) discussed how, among female college students, two principal beauty ideals coexist: the athletic-ideal and thin-ideal [ 61 ]. The internalization of the athletic-ideal predicts compulsive exercise [ 61 , 62 , 63 ]. Meanwhile, the thin-ideal internalization predicts food restriction and body dissatisfaction, both leading to disordered eating attitudes and possible origins for eating disorders [ 64 , 65 , 66 ]. These results confirm the association obtained between the desire of having a thinner body image and the use of the media since this media is the primary source to promote such ideals ( Table 3 ).

The issue resides on the fact that the thin-ideal produces a worse body image with a tendency toward frustration based on a fatter body image than desired. This concern among young women results in making different choices to obtain the desired image, such as surgery [ 67 , 68 ]. In this sense, the results from this paper also showed a high frequency of women determined to undergo plastic surgery to improve their image, being focused on breast surgery.

Notwithstanding, internalization of the fit-ideal has been studied as a predictor of the use of social media content related to health and fitness [ 69 , 70 ]. In this case, the fit ideal or athletic ideal may become a replacement for the other ideals, leading to healthier behaviour [ 71 ].

The results ( Table 2 ) have established that body dissatisfaction might be a potential agent in body image and desire to change this body image. These publications also accord with our earlier observations, which showed that levels of body dissatisfaction were associated with the desire of changing the body image in order to achieve a thinner body, especially using dieting [ 72 ]. Based on this, the results appear to match with previous works about how body dissatisfaction and body concerns in young women and teenagers may be related to disordered eating attitudes [ 27 , 73 ].

Another significant outcome was the link between body concerns, body dissatisfaction and levels of self-esteem ( Table 2 ). These data are in accord with recent investigations which connected body dissatisfaction and self-esteem to mental illness and the role of emotional distress in behavioural disorders [ 48 ].

Another study found that body dissatisfaction and disordered eating attitudes could be related to a high level of intrauterine testosterone, measured by the 2D:4D ratio. The prenatal masculinization has been established as a potential intermediate phenotype for the development of these disorders in their offspring [ 74 ]. Following these studies, the results obtained in this paper seem to initially match such conclusions ( Table 3 ) [ 75 ]. These results are partially consistent with the existing literature relating to dieting, alimentary products, such as supplements, negative affect, body dissatisfaction and the tendency to thinness [ 71 ]. Nevertheless, the results obtained regarding the hormonal levels may be related to the environmental conditions during the pregnancy more than the individual level of hormones [ 76 ].

The results of the study ( Table 4 ) have shown how social network sites might play an important role in disordered eating attitudes. In the study carried out by Cohen et al. (2018), the influence of the social networks was determined by the content and the selfies that the users upload to them more than by the assiduity of the connections [ 20 ]. This is partially contradictory to the present results in which the addiction to SNS and the duration of the connections were linked to weight loss and unhealthy dieting. These results match with previous studies in the sociocultural factors, not included among biological measures [ 77 , 78 ]. Withstanding, it is important to note that the regression model obtained in this study have shown the probable role of factors, such as the degree of body satisfaction, self-esteem, use of SNS and other measures, such as the 2D:4D ratio, related to disordered eating behaviours.

Additionally, SNS addiction, which has been related to other mental disorders [ 79 ], has shown correlation with stereotypes, self-esteem, method of change, thinner body image and the desired part of the body to change. In this sense, prior investigations proved the addiction to social media as cause–effect of disordered behaviours [ 80 , 81 ].

The present study raises the possibility that disordered eating attitudes in women might be conditioned by the influence of the ideals of beauty imposed by the social environment and to a lesser extent by the exposure to intrauterine levels of testosterone extracted from the 2D:4D ratio of the phalanges. It is possible, therefore, that disordered eating attitudes are multidimensional disorders produced by the media, hormones, and factors related to body concerns. Although this study has focused on Spanish college students, the results ( Table 2 and Figure 2 ) seem to match with previous works conducted in Caucasian women [ 82 , 83 ]. These studies seem to distant themselves from publications focused on Latina or African American young women or adolescents [ 84 , 85 ]. Nevertheless, it is possible, therefore, that because the study was carried out in Spanish college students, the results might not match university women from other countries.

Nevertheless, as with all research, the current findings need to be considered in light of possible limitations of the study. Therefore, biases and possibly incorrect data may have been included, and causal inferences cannot be drawn. Additionally, as with the majority of the body image literature, the current participants were university students, based on the sample and size of the sample caution is recommended in not generalizing these results to other samples or different samples. Nevertheless, these results seem to provide essential data regarding social media, disordered eating and the perception of the young people about themselves. Another limitation present in this study is the lack of inclusion of further cultural factors, such as the mother–child relationship, and anthropometric data, such as BMI.

All being said, the results from this manuscript and the comparison with previous works suggest how the initial hypothesis has been entirely or partially confirmed, showing how disordered eating behaviours are complex eating attitudes.

6. Conclusions

This paper has argued the relationship between body image, body concerns, body dissatisfaction, and disordered eating behaviours present in college women from the south of Spain. This study has identified that women reported moderate levels of body dissatisfaction and body concerns, which were consistently and strongly associated with disordered eating attitudes. In this sense, this work has established high levels of body dissatisfaction, and the link with the desire to achieve a thinner body image. Additionally, the study has shown how body dissatisfaction and desire to achieve the thin-ideal appear to be universal among college women.

Additionally, one of the more significant findings to emerge from this study was that the thin-ideal seems to be widespread in social media. This ideal can promote unhealthy measures, such as dieting, increase body dissatisfaction and disordered eating attitudes. In this sense, the desire to change the body image and taking unhealthy measures was common, given the proliferation of the use of the social network sites where images and content encourage women to aspire to unrealistic and unattainable body ideals. In this sense, the study associated body dissatisfaction, body concerns, and general mental well-being, demonstrating that interventions to improve body perception and satisfaction are essential. Additionally, this research found that higher levels of prenatal testosterone might decrease the probability of having a disordered eating attitude among women. That said, the current study suggests a connection between disordered eating attitudes, negative impacts of exposure to thin-ideal content, addiction to social media and intrauterine testosterone levels.

Concerning practical implications, researchers have asserted that increasing body appreciation may be easier than attempting to decrease body dissatisfaction and for those disordered eating attitudes. Furthermore, the findings regarding the negative impact of exposure to social media related to women’s body satisfaction and body appreciation are notable. Despite the limitations present in this manuscript, the findings may help us to understand body concerns focused on the impact of exposure to social media.

In the end, future investigations should continue exploring differences in the levels of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating, including the differences between various ethnic groups. Given the findings regarding differences between those with higher and lower score in EAT-26, the role of social media may be essential in levels of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating attitudes within specific gender/age groups. Longitudinal research is needed to determine the direction of the association between the frequency of connections to social media and body dissatisfaction/disordered eating behaviours. Researchers may also consider culturally-relevant factors that may differentially influence such behaviours.

Acknowledgments

We would also like to thank of UCO Social Innova Project Galileo IV from the institution of OTRI of the University of Cordoba, Spain and the funding provided from “IDEP/Escuela de Doctorado” of the University of Cordoba to one of the authors. The content is the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the OTRI.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization: P.A.-M. and M.V.A.; methodology: P.A.-M. and M.P.M.-J.; validation: A.-J.P.-M.; formal analysis: P.A.-M. and A.-J.P.-M.; investigation: P.A.-M. and A.-J.P.-M.; resources: M.P.M.-J. and A.-J.P.-M.; data curation: M.D.R.-M.; writing—original draft preparation: P.A.-M., M.P.M.-J. and A.-J.P.-M.; writing—review and editing: M.V.A. and C.P.; visualization: C.P.; supervision: M.D.R.-M., C.P. and M.V.A.; project administration: M.V.A. and M.P.M.-J.; funding acquisition: M.V.A.

UCO Social Innova Project Galileo IV from the institution of OTRI of the University of Cordoba, Spain and the funding provided from “IDEP/Escuela de Doctorado” of the University of Cordoba.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

"But the reality is it's happening": A qualitative study of eating disorder providers about psilocybin-assisted psychotherapy

Affiliations.

• 1 Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA.
• 2 Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA.
• 3 Department of Psychological Science, Loyola Marymount University, Los Angeles, California, USA.
• 4 San Francisco Veteran's Affairs Medical Center, San Francisco, California, USA.
• 5 Philip R. Lee Institute for Health Policy Studies, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA.
• PMID: 37551650
• DOI: 10.1002/eat.24041

Objective: This study invited providers who care for patients with eating disorders to inform engagement, communication, and collaboration with psilocybin-assisted psychotherapy interventions.

Method: Medical and mental health providers who treat patients with eating disorders were recruited via professional referral networks and participant driven sampling from across California to participate in one of five focus groups. Discussion topics included prior knowledge of psychedelic therapy, interest/concerns related to psilocybin therapy, and opportunities for collaboration. Study team members completed iterative rounds of coding with a grounded theory approach.

Results: A total of 32 participants reported a range of familiarity with psychedelics. Some raised concerns about the risks of administering psilocybin to malnourished patients and to those with psychological comorbidities. Despite these concerns, participants were hopeful to see psilocybin therapy as a treatment for patients with eating disorders. In anticipating challenges, providers had concerns about equity in access to care among publicly insured and non-English speaking patients. They requested opportunities for continuing education about psilocybin therapy.

Discussion: Our findings demonstrate provider interest in psilocybin therapy for the treatment of patients with eating disorders. As psilocybin therapy interventions are developed, providers caring for patients with eating disorders value collaboration to improve longitudinal patient outcomes.

Public significance: This study invited healthcare providers of patients with eating disorders to discuss their thoughts around the use of psilocybin-assisted psychotherapy in this population. Findings will help inform emerging psilocybin therapy clinical trials with the goal of successful translation and adoption in real world clinical settings.

Keywords: anorexia nervosa; eating disorders; psilocybin; psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy.

© 2023 The Authors. International Journal of Eating Disorders published by Wiley Periodicals LLC.

• Feeding and Eating Disorders* / drug therapy
• Focus Groups
• Psilocybin* / therapeutic use
• Psychotherapy
• Qualitative Research

Grants and funding

• IK4 CX002090/CX/CSRD VA/United States
• Mary Rita Crittenden Fund at the University of California San Francisco, Division of Adolescent and Young Adult Medicine

4 Things You Should Know About Disordered Eating

It’s New Year, New You time. And that means it’s New Year, New Eating Disorder time as well.

Eating disorders are an epidemic in this country, especially among young women. According to the National Association of Anorexia Nervosa and Associated Disorders (ANAD) , a reported 28.8 million Americans—or 9 percent of the population—will have an eating disorder in their lifetime. But the actual number is probably much higher, because so many people hide their eating disorder (ED).

The January onslaught of weight loss messaging isn’t helping. An International Journal of Eating Disorders study found that 35 percent of people who try to eat healthily end up developing unhealthy eating habits like skipping meals and restricting calories. Out of those, 20 to 25 percent may later develop eating disorders.

More than 10,000 people die each year as a direct result of an eating disorder. These are preventable deaths, which is why awareness and early intervention are so important. Disordered eating is highly misunderstood. Here are answers to common questions about the desire to lose weight—and how easily it can go wrong.

Don’t forget to follow MSN on Mental

Question #1: Is wanting to lose weight inherently bad for your mental health?

No, says Chantal Gil, Psy.D., a clinical psychologist and disordered eating specialist with Duke Health. And losing weight isn’t bad for mental health either if you do it in a way that’s both physically and mentally healthy.

Dr. Gil says to first think about why you want to lose weight. If it’s to ease joint pain or improve blood pressure, you’re doing it for the right reasons. But if it’s because of societal pressures or thinking you’ll be happier, your mental health can suffer. Dr. Gil suggests meeting with a therapist to explore these issues more.

The key to success mentally and physically is avoiding anything extreme—whether it’s restrictive dieting or excessive exercising—and focusing on balance, says Sarah-Ashley Robbins, M.D., a family medicine doctor at the Gaudiani Clinic, which gives medical care for people with eating disorders. Instead of thinking about what you can nix from your plate, think about what you can add instead. Can you boost the number of different veggies you’re eating per week? Experiment with new types of proteins? Cook with new combinations of spices?

READ MORE: New You, New Eating Disorder?

Question #2: Why is dieting a bust for most people?

You may have heard of the Set Point theory, which suggests that we all have a specific natural weight and that dieting increases that number over time.

Truth is, it’s not a specific number. “It’s a weight range in which our body feels most safe and comfortable,” says Katherine Metzelaar, R.D., cofounder and CEO of Brave Space Nutrition, which specializes in helping people struggling with disordered eating. Each person has a different range—for some, it might be 15 pounds. For others, it’s 50.

Food restriction increases our range over time, says Metzelaar. How so? The body can’t distinguish between existing in a famine environment and intentionally losing weight. As you consume fewer calories, the body responds by hoarding them and breaking down muscle and bone—and the loss of muscle can result in a slower metabolism.

RELATED: When Weight Loss Messaging Is Everywhere: How Not to Spiral

“The body is trying its best to survive,” Metzelaar says. “When we start eating regularly again, the body’s like, Okay, let’s make sure that doesn’t happen again .” You gain more weight back, and your range goes up. “This is partly why I say the best way to gain weight long-term is to go on a diet,” Metzelaar continues. “Losing weight becomes harder because the body is trying to resist famine.”

Question #3: Why does society seem to prefer thinner bodies, and can our minds be retrained?

Research has found that the more we’re exposed to different body types, the more we have a preference for them, says Metzelaar. So in the case of fat versus thin, we have a century of legacy mindset to shift.

“We all, everyone, have internalized fat stigma,” she says. “In my practice with my clients, we start by understanding their preference for a thinner body. What’s evoked when they see fat? How they view their body does change over time. They become more open to body diversity.”

One first step to take: Check that the people you’re following on social media have a variety of body sizes and shapes.

Question #4: I (or someone I care about) is in recovery for an eating disorder, but lapsed. What should I do?

Setbacks happen. If or when one does, reach out to a therapist to talk through the situation to better understand that this is normal, says Dr. Gil. Above all else: “Continue to eat!” she says.

“Sometimes when there is a setback, people feel tempted to engage with their eating disorder,” she says. “It’s important to learn how to be flexible and try to focus on recovery goals. Call a friend, family member, or a partner so you have support.” Or talk to a therapist. Here’s our guide to how to tell family or friends you want to try therapy.

The post 4 Top Questions About Eating Disorders, Answered appeared first on Mental .

Anorexia as Eating Disorder Essay

Introduction, prevalence of anorexia nervosa disorder, possible causes of anorexia nervosa, danger signs.

Significant amount of time has been dedicated by researchers in the study of anorexia, an eating disorder. Nonetheless, extensive data that is so far available has not been fully utilized towards combating this disorder. It is against this background that the number of anorexia patients across the world has continued to raise thereby negating available treatment methods.

Initially, the condition was restricted among western population but the very western standards of beauty have spread to other parts of the world leading to rapid spread of the disorder. This review will explore aspects of anorexia nervosa by tracing its historical background, possible causes, prevalence rate as well as treatment.

Types of eating disorders

As society continues to promote thin body mentality to be the ideal of beauty, Attia and Welsh observe that there is increasing number of people who are developing anorexia as they become more aware of their weight. [1] Most people are concerned about their body weight at some point in life. However, according to the above authors, those who develop eating disorders tend to take their concerns to the extreme.

Abnormal eating habits are a threat to a person’s well being and some extremities can cause death. Research over the past few years, has shown that there has been an increase in the number of people suffering from eating disorders especially anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. The above disorders are more prevalent in young women and adolescents. Among the general population, it is estimated that about five million people will show signs of at least one type of the above disorders.

Three major types of eating disorders have been identified. The first and the most common type is anorexia nervosa. Individuals who suffer from this disorder are have a distorted view of their body image. Despite some of them being extremely underweight, they will always have feelings of being overweight. These individuals will refuse to eat but will continue to exercise compulsively with some starving themselves to death.

The second type is bulimia nervosa which until recently has always been confused with anorexia nervosa. These individuals unlike the one suffering from anorexia nervosa will consume large quantity of food although they feel guilty about it. The affected person will perform the above acts because they feel ashamed and disgusted of the binging act. Once they get rid of their stomachs’ contents, tension and negative emotions dissipate. Many scholars have dedicated their time to study anorexia. However, due to limitation in scope, the rest of the chapter will explore anorexia nervosa by tracing the historical background of the condition, reviewing prevalence of the disorder in terms of gender, culture and geographical background as well as the causes and the current treatment methods.

Understanding anorexia nervosa

According to Dare, anorexia has been associated with loss of appetite and does not occur due to physical sickness but mostly triggered by perception of the mind. [2] An individual has a similar appetite with a normal healthy person but they tend to suppress it by either eating very little or avoiding eating for a prolonged period of time. It is against this reason that psychologists view this condition as life threatening if left untreated. [3]

The motivating factor that makes the patient to lose appetite at the sight of food is their obsession to lose weight. Such people are very conscious of their body image, and they always strive to achieve the ideal slim body. The above individuals will deliberately starve themselves to maintain the ideal thin body. In addition, they adopt a strict exercising schedule motivated by their intent fear to become fat.

Historical perspective of anorexia nervosa

Knowledge about the condition came into the lime light in the late 18 th century, when two separate physicians; Charles Lesegue and William Gull researched on anorexia nervosa. The two have been regarded as pioneer researchers in this particular filed. At the initial stages, several names were put forward but, anorexia nervosa came to be widely accepted eventually.

Many other researchers such as Hilde Bruch, Arthur Crisp among other have come forward, and their works have contributed into the research by coming up with treatment plans. Despite the numerous studies into the condition, there is lack of adequate technological innovation as far as treatment is concerned. Hence, it has become a concern among contemporary physician researchers.

The development of anorexia disorder can be traced back to several cultures from ancient times. During this particular time, prolonged fasting was observed but usually it was for religious reasons. The fast was common among the Greek and Egyptian cultures, but, no evidence has been found to show the fasting was as a result of the disorder.

A close resemblance of the disorder in ancient times was that which developed among people who practiced eastern religions. As Steiner documents, some Eastern religious beliefs led to self starvation as people sought spiritual fulfillment. [4] Self starvation is regarded as one of the symptoms of anorexia nervosa today.

Although a slight similarity of ancient times self starvation can be compared with modern day anorexia nervosa, the motivating factors are very different. The ancient people practiced self starvation mainly for religious reasons, but not because they feared getting fat as it evident today.

Lack of a direct link between ancient and modern day disorder has made development of deep research in this disorder to be limited in scope. [5] The disorder has always been viewed from a social perspective, and earlier researchers have ignored the medial aspect of it.

Initially, anorexia was viewed as a social condition, that affected young women and girls from the high-class circles, and it was viewed as their fashion trend. For this reason, scholars saw the disorder as a pass time activity, which did not have any medical effects. It was not until later when the disorder was given attention by the medial experts when serious medial implications started to be discovered.

The prevalence of the disorder affects people of both gender types. It can affect individuals of any age. However, women are more predisposed to the disorder as compared to men. Statistics have identified the ratio to be one out of ten men. Scholars say the incidences of the disorder are increasing day by day, and we might have new statistical out look in the future.

The numerous studies conducted show the disorder is more prevalent among the population from the industrialized nations. Despite the industrialized nations having abundant-food supply, the population especially the females shy away from eating to maintain the slim image, which is considered to be attractive.

The disorder has been found to be common in the western countries such as United Kingdom, USA, Canada and other highly industrialized nations. Studies in the US show that 0.5 to 1 % of females in the US are likely to develop the disorder. In United Kingdom, an estimated 0.7 % to 1.2% females are at high risk of developing anorexia.

However, research of the spread of the disorders in African countries is very limited; hence it may not be easy to hypothesize prevalence rate in those areas due to limited research conducted in the past.

The results of such studies are hard to generalize across African and other minority cultures. The results of the above studies showed very minimal cases of the anorexia nervosa. Indeed, Rumney expounds that the low level of prevalence rate is a clear indication that cultural factors contribute in the development of anorexia nervosa.

Previous studies have also indicated that the disorder is common among post -puberty adults. However, in recent years, isolated cases have been identified among children as young as 7 years. [6] In addition, more recent studies have noted that the disorder is gaining momentum among pre-puberty individuals.

This information has led scholars today to agree that the disorder begins in mid and late adolescence. When the disorder develops at this age, prognosis is always better as compared to those who develop it past the age of 40 years. The disorder at rare times can affect order adults as life stresses catches up with them.

Individuals who develop the disorder do so when they start perceiving in their mind that they are overweight. When such a person begins to diet, he/she does not notice when the weight falls. They will thus continue to diet and exercise intensively, and the habit turns into an obsession.

Such people will do anything to lose weight, and the reason they undertake self starvation measures is because they see weight gain as a sign that they have failed. Eventually, if left untreated the disorder can lead to fatality as the individuals continue to lose weight beyond the required healthy weight for their age and height. Anorexia disorder prognosis is good when diagnosed at early stages.

Researchers have been interested to know what causes the anorexia nervosa disorder. Further, they have been interested to know the contributing factors that lead to the development of the disorder. However, it is difficult to determine the specific causes of the disorder, and most of the causes put forward are hypothetical. Scholars believe that anorexia nervosa can be attributed to a combination of factors, ranging from environmental, cultural, biological and psychological.

Biological causes

Researchers of anorexia disorder through numerous experiments have come across evidence, that some people could be genetically predisposed than others to develop the disorder. The probability of a person whose close family member suffered from an eating disorder, to get anorexia nervosa is higher than for a person whose family has not history of eating disorder.

Statistics has shown that the probability is 10 times higher, and more than 50 % of anorexia nervosa cases can be linked to the hereditary factor. [7] Although numerous experiments have been conducted, the researchers have failed to provide a clear explanation of how biological factors are directly related to the eating disorder.

However, research has been success as researchers have discovered specific chromosomes, which are directly linked to the disorder. The specific chromosomes identified are known to increase susceptibility to the eating disorders; anorexia nervosa and others.

Another biological factor that can be linked with the increased risk to the disorder has to do with the brain abnormal biochemical make up. The abnormal biochemical make up is related with the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA) which regulates a person mood, stress and appetite.

The gland releases certain neurotransmitters such as serotonin, norepinephrine and dopamine, which are responsible for mood regulation. When the release of the above neurotransmitters is reduced, such a person is likely to develop the disorder. The above evidence shows that abnormal biochemical make up which is biological factor can be attributed to the eating disorder.

Cultural factors

Cultural beliefs and attitude factors can also be linked to the development of anorexia nervosa disorder, and other eating disorders. The rates of the disorders vary from one race or ethnic group to the other, and the dimension or extent changes with time as cultures evolve. So many studies have concentrated their researches among people within the western culture. [8] However, extensive research needs to be done all over the world to demonstrate the spread of the disorder across all cultures.

A cultural factor that has contributed to the development of the disorder originates from the western culture, where a thin body is viewed as the ideal. This idealization, which receives much attention through the numerous mass media, has been listed as a significant cultural factor that leads to the development of the disorder.

The media are powerful tool when it comes to influencing peoples’ attitudes towards a particular topic. The media are to blame for the widespread anorexia disorder as they portray slim body as the measure of attractiveness.

Although eating disorders can be traced back in history, the massive shift to the view that slim is ideal has emerged recently as promotions of slim body increases. The evidence that today men and women are not satisfied with a big body is evident from the numerous diet articles, diet medication and the like.

A further elaboration on the aspect of culture is that which explains the role of changing cultures to the change of development of anorexia nervosa, as well as the changing prevalence.

Several proposals have been put forward to classify anorexia as cultural-change syndrome rather than a cultural specific syndrome as many tend to believe. [9] This proposal cites studies done among the immigrants which show that though the disorder is rare, it is gaining momentum, as the immigrants culture change because of interaction with the host culture.

In addition, rare cases of the disorder are being reported in less developed world since the process of industrialization brings with it changes in culture. As the world become a global village, the interaction and transfer of cultural values is inevitable; hence anorexia will be a cultural-changing syndrome in the future.

The reason why anorexia disorder is being transferred from the western to other world cultures is because the western culture has always been viewed as ideal. The media have played a great role in communication the values of the western culture to other parts of the world and hence eroding traditional values especially among the young people.

Apart from the idealization of slim body among the western culture, another cultural force which has caused the widespread occurrence of the disorder is identified. [10] In the recent decades, the role of women in society has taken a great shift.

Several feminist theorists have associated the rapid development of eating disorder with the changing roles of women in society especially in western cultures. [11] Feminists theorists have hypothesized that the pressures placed on today’s woman will increase their vulnerability to eating disorders. A historical perceptive of eating disorders to support the hypothesis, is that which shows that eating disorders among women develop, when they are presented with many opportunities.

However, the available opportunity has to be combined with absolute freedom for such a woman to develop anorexia nervosa. Lack of freedom is what makes wealthy women in Muslim cultures to shy away from self starvation since they live restricted lifestyles.

Today woman is pushed to be a high achiever; at the same time, society expects her to maintain her femininity and attractiveness. The anorexia disorders among females come about as they try to balance the demand by society to be both successful and attractive.

Psychological causes

Studies to link the development of anorexia disorder and psychological factors received much attention in the 20 th century. The early theorists focused their attention on studying how person unconscious sexuality conflicts contributed to the development of the disorder.

They also wanted to find out the link between adolescent rebellion and regression to the oral stage of development to the anorexia nervosa. Similarly, earlier psychologists also associated the disorder with the advent of object relations theory. [12] The above theory focuses on how a parent relation with an infant affects the personality development of an individual.

The modern-day psychologists have developed a theory which shows anorexia disorder to be caused by emotional disturbances. The variables of emotional, logical and stimuli come into play in an attempt to classify anorexia as an emotional disorder. According to the anorexia nervosa theory, anorexia, which resides on the emotional side of the human brain, can occur whenever the emotional elements are disturbed.

The disorder is said to develop during mental growth where one of the key points is affected. The theory postulates that the adolescence stage of growth is the most likely point, when the disorder will develop. This is because during adolescence an individual is developing a sense of self, and most of the times adolescents are not able to handle any form of criticism positively. [13]

During this search of identity stage, criticism carries a lot of weight and the person will try to distance themselves from it by manipulating the external environment to avoid further criticism. This escapism behavior suppresses the internal being and the person expresses though unconsciously the preferred emotional image.

When prolonged, exposure of the internal self to suppression will eventually lead to mental segregation presented as anorexia nervosa. Dare expounds that it is a form of mental illness that originates from emotional. Hence, an individual is always concerned with peoples perception of his/her image. [14]

Family therapists have also contributed to debate on how psychological factors associated with family relations, lead to the development of anorexia nervosa disorder. [15] The said therapists have tried to demonstrate the relationship between dysfunctional family relationships and broken down family interaction bonds, with the development of anorexia nervosa.

Individuals whose mothers are intrusive, overprotective and exhibit perfectionists’ characteristics are likely to develop anorexia disorder. In addition, if ones’ father is passive, withdraw, moody or ineffective the probability for such an individual to develop anorexia nervosa is increased.

Personality traits have also been linked with the development of the anorexia nervosa disorder. The individuals have been cited to have low self esteem, extreme fear of becoming fat and feeling of helplessness in life. [16] The individuals are usually people who are high performers in whatever sector they are in life, but their tendency of perfectionism is what compels them to develop the disorder.

Such people are always concerned with peoples’ opinion about them, and always strive to portray a perfect picture. [17] The see the tendency to control their weight as advantageous in gaining peoples approval. It is very hard to know that individuals have a problem as they tend to keep their feelings to themselves, and rarely show rebellious behavior.

Individuals who are developing anorexia nervosa disorder are likely to use weight reduction drugs during the initial stages of the obsession. Other behavioral signs have been identified by researchers. The individuals will start by cutting back on the portion of food they are used to take previously. The individuals will also exhibit an obsessive interest in exercises, and will spend every opportunity exercising.

Those with the bulimia nervosa disorder will be seen going to the bathroom right after they take any meals. [18] Those who suffer from anorexia nervosa will also avoid gathering where food is likely to be served as they do not want to be forced to eat under the circumstances. The above behaviors affect the body negatively and the patients start showing signs of poor health. The most initial symptom associated with anorexia nervosa is gradual but constant weight loss.

Initially, the weight loss is not harmful to the body especially if the patient was overweight. [19] At the later stage as the patient increases weigh losing exercises, the individual will start complaining about stomach problems accompanied by constipation diarrhea. As days goes by, the patient becomes weaker and weaker as the energy reserves are dangerously utilized by the body.

Dizziness may also be a common complaint, and at times, the patient may experience fainting episodes. If left untreated, the symptoms continue to appear which might lead to death. [20]

Eating disorders are very common problem among the population. Anorexia nervosa, which is one type of eating disorders, has become so common and if not watched more health problems are likely to arrive in the future. Researchers should put more effort to innovate on preventive and treatment measures of the condition.

Attia Evelyn, Walsh B. Timothy, 2007. “ Anorexia Nervosa”. American Journal Psychiatry 164(2007): 1805-1810.

Bell, Rudolph M. Holy anorexia . Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press, 1987. Dare Chris, Isler Ivan, Russel Gerald, Treasure Janet & Dodge Liz .“Psychological

Therapies for Adults with Anorexia Nervosa.” British Journal of Psychiatry, 178 (2001): 216-221.

DeAngelis Tori, 2002. “ A Genetic Link to Anorexia”. Monitor on Psychology 33(2002), 34-37.

Halmi, Katherine A. “ The Multimodal Treatment of Eating Disorders”. World Psychiatry 4(2005): 69-73.

Kaye Walter H., Bulik Cynthia M., Thornton Laura, Barbarich Nicole, Masters Kim and the Price Foundation Collaborative Group. “Co-morbidity of Anxiety Disorders with Anorexia and Bulimia Nervosa ”. American Journal of Psychiatry 161 (2004): 2215-2221.

Mehler, Philip S. “Diagnosis and Care of Patients with Anorexia Nervosa in Primary Care Settings.” Annals of Internal Medicine 134(2001):1048-1059.

Naqvi, Syed. “Review of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry.” Focus 2 (2004):529-540. Palmer, B. “Come the Revolution. Revisiting the Management of Anorexia Nervosa.” Advances in Psychiatric Treatment 12 (2006):5-12.

• Papadopoulos Fotios C, Ekbom Aders, Eselius Lisa & Brandt Lena. “ Excess Mortality, Causes of Death and Prognostic Factors in Anorexia Nervosa.” British Journal of Psychiatry 194 (2009): 10-17.
• Ramsay Rosalind, Ward Anne, Treasure Janet & Russel Gerald F. M. “ Compulsary Treatment in Anorexia Nervosa. Short Term Benefits and Long Term Mortality.” British Journal of Psychiatry 175 (1999): 147-153.

Rumney, Avis. Dying to please: anorexia, treatment and recovery . Jefferson, N.C. : McFarland, 2009.

• Steiner Hans, Mazer Cliff & Litt Iris F. “Compliance and Outcome in Anorexia Nervosa”. West J Med 153 (1990): 133-139.
• Swain, Pamela I., Scaglius, Fernanda Baeza., Balfour, Louise., and Hany Bissada. Anorexia Nervosa And Bulimia Nervosa: New Research . New York: Nova Biomedical Books, 2006.

Wade Tracey D., Bulik Cynthia M., Neale Michael, and Kendler Keneth S. “Anorexia Nervosa and Major Depression: Shared Genetic and Environmental Risk Factors” . Am J Psychiatry 157 (2000):469-471.

• Attia Evelyn, Walsh B. Timothy. “ Anorexia Nervosa”. American Journal of Psychiatry 164 (2007), 1805-1810.
• Dare Chris, Isler Ivan, Russel Gerald, Treasure Janet & Dodge Liz. “PsychologicalTherapies for Adults with Anorexia Nervosa.” British Journal of Psychiatry 178 (2001): 216-221.
• DeAngelis, Tori. “ A Genetic Link to Anorexia.” Monitor on Psychology 33 (2002), 34-37.
• Wade Tracey D., Bulik Cynthia M., Neale Michael, and Kendler Keneth S. “Anorexia Nervosa and Major Depression: Shared Genetic and Environmental Risk Factors” . Am J Psychiatry 157 (2000), 469-471.
• Mehler, Philip S. “Diagnosis and Care of Patients with Anorexia Nervosa in Primary Care Settings’. Annals of Internal Medicine 134(2001):1048-1059.
• Mehler, Philip S., 2001. “Diagnosis and Care of Patients with Anorexia Nervosa in Primary Care Settings.” Annals of Internal Medicine 134(2001):1048-1059.
• Rumney, Avis. Dying to please: anorexia, treatment and recovery . Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 2009.
• Palmer, B. “Come the Revolution. Revisiting the Management of Anorexia Nervosa.” Advances in Psychiatric Treatment 12 (2006):5-12.
• Bell, Rudolph M. Holy anorexia . Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press, 1987.
• Naqvi, Syed. “Review of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry.” Focus 2 (2004):529-540.
• Halmi Katherine A. 2005. “ The Multimodal Treatment of Eating Disorders”. World Psychiatry 4, no. 2 (2005): 69-73.
• Dare Chris, Isler Ivan, Russel Gerald, Treasure Janet & Dodge Liz . “Psychological Therapies for Adults with Anorexia Nervosa.” British Journal of Psychiatry 178 (2001): 216-221.
• Attia Evelyn, Walsh B. Timothy, 2007. “ Anorexia Nervosa”. American Journal Psychiatry 164 (2007): 1805-1810.
• Kaye Walter H., Bulik Cynthia M., Thornton Laura, Barbarich Nicole, Masters Kim and the Price Foundation Collaborative Group. “Comorbidity of Anxiety Disorders with Anorexia and Bulimia Nervosa ”. American Journal of Psychiatry 161 (2004): 2215-2221.
• Chicago (A-D)
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IvyPanda . 2018. "Anorexia as Eating Disorder." June 6, 2018. https://ivypanda.com/essays/exploring-anorexia/.

1. IvyPanda . "Anorexia as Eating Disorder." June 6, 2018. https://ivypanda.com/essays/exploring-anorexia/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Anorexia as Eating Disorder." June 6, 2018. https://ivypanda.com/essays/exploring-anorexia/.

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