cause and effect of coronavirus essay

The Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic

The year 2019 will forever be engraved in many people’s hearts and minds as the time when a deadly virus known as the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) invaded almost all the sectors, thereby disrupting daily activities. It is described as a communicable respiratory illness which is triggered by a new strain of coronavirus which leads to various ailments in human beings. There is currently no known cure or vaccine for the virus as scientists worldwide are still trying to learn about the illness to respond appropriately through research (Goodell, 2020). This paper aims at exploring the effects that the pandemic has had on society regarding the economy, social life, education, religion, and family.

The emergence of the pandemic, which began in China-2019, quickly spread to other nations across the world with devastating effects on their economies As a way of containing the disease, many countries instituted strict measures, such as curfews, the mandatory wearing of masks, and social distancing of 1 meter apart (Goodell, 2020). Covid-19 has significantly changed the way these preventive methods relate with each concerning trade matters. The majority of the states affected opted to close their borders as fear among the citizens increased. The implementation of the strict rules interfered with the business operations of many nations. It became difficult for international trade to continue as a result of the closed borders. Most businesses have also had to close due to financial constraints.

When it comes to socialization, people have been forced to use other means to meet their friends and families across the world. Social media platforms have seen an increased usage during this difficult time as people try to find new ways of socializing. It has happened especially in such countries as Australia, where the restrictions were extreme as it enforced a lockdown for close to a hundred days (Goodell, 2020). The use of masks is also quickly becoming the new norm across numerous states. Unlike in developed countries where the governments have offered their citizens some aid mostly in terms of cash transfers, developing countries have struggled to balance between the people’s livelihood and the containment of the Covid-19. As such, most people have turned to social media platforms as a medium of communication and socialization due to lockdowns.

Learning institutions have also not been spared by the Covid-19 pandemic. Most countries affected by the spread of the virus were forced to suspend their educational curriculum calendar to allow children and university students to stay home until the time when the disease is finally neutralized (Goodell, 2020). However, students and parents have been pushing the governments to resume schools with clear protocols which ensure that both the students and the teachers follow the rules, including the mandatory wearing of masks. Religion has also been significantly affected as it has become difficult for people to seek for spiritual nourishment (Goodell, 2020). Many religious leaders have had to devise other ways of reaching out to the congregates. For example, many churches now have to move their services online by using such platforms as YouTube, Facebook, Zoom, among others to convey essential teachings.

Covid-19 has also directly affected many families across the world, as the majority have succumbed to the disease. The United States of America and Italy are some of the pandemic’s worst casualties, where many people were killed by the lethal virus (Goodell, 2020). Some people have in the end lost more than one member of the family because of the disease, and in some worse case scenarios, the illness has claimed a whole family.

In conclusion, this paper has highlighted the impacts of the Covid-19 pandemic on the economy, social life, education, religion, and family units. Many countries and businesses had underestimated the disease’s impact before they later suffered from the consequences. Therefore, international bodies, such as the World Health Organization, need to help developing countries establish critical management healthcare systems, which can help to deal with the future pandemics.

Goodell, J. W. (2020). COVID-19 and finance: Agendas for future research. Finance Research Letters , 35 , 101512. Web.

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OpenSAFELY: Effectiveness of COVID-19 vaccination in children and adolescents

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Background Children and adolescents in England were offered BNT162b2 as part of the national COVID-19 vaccine roll out from September 2021. We assessed the safety and effectiveness of first and second dose BNT162b2 COVID-19 vaccination in children and adolescents in England.

Methods With the approval of NHS England, we conducted an observational study in the OpenSAFELY-TPP database, including a) adolescents aged 12-15 years, and b) children aged 5-11 years and comparing individuals receiving i) first vaccination with unvaccinated controls and ii) second vaccination to single-vaccinated controls. We matched vaccinated individuals with controls on age, sex, region, and other important characteristics. Outcomes were positive SARS-CoV-2 test (adolescents only); COVID-19 A&E attendance; COVID-19 hospitalisation; COVID-19 critical care admission; COVID-19 death, with non-COVID-19 death and fractures as negative control outcomes and A&E attendance, unplanned hospitalisation, pericarditis, and myocarditis as safety outcomes.

Results Amongst 820,926 previously unvaccinated adolescents, the incidence rate ratio (IRR) for positive SARS-CoV-2 test comparing vaccination with no vaccination was 0.74 (95% CI 0.72-0.75), although the 20-week risks were similar. The IRRs were 0.60 (0.37-0.97) for COVID-19 A&E attendance, 0.58 (0.38-0.89) for COVID-19 hospitalisation, 0.99 (0.93-1.06) for fractures, 0.89 (0.87-0.91) for A&E attendances and 0.88 (0.81-0.95) for unplanned hospitalisation. Amongst 441,858 adolescents who had received first vaccination IRRs comparing second dose with first dose only were 0.67 (0.65-0.69) for positive SARS-CoV-2 test, 1.00 (0.20-4.96) for COVID-19 A&E attendance, 0.60 (0.26-1.37) for COVID-19 hospitalisation, 0.94 (0.84-1.05) for fractures, 0.93 (0.89-0.98) for A&E attendance and 0.99 (0.86-1.13) for unplanned hospitalisation. Amongst 283,422 previously unvaccinated children and 132,462 children who had received a first vaccine dose, COVID-19-related outcomes were too rare to allow IRRs to be estimated precisely. A&E attendance and unplanned hospitalisation were slightly higher after first vaccination (IRRs versus no vaccination 1.05 (1.01-1.10) and 1.10 (0.95-1.26) respectively) but slightly lower after second vaccination (IRRs versus first dose 0.95 (0.86-1.05) and 0.78 (0.56-1.08) respectively). There were no COVID-19-related deaths in any group. Fewer than seven (exact number redacted) COVID-19-related critical care admissions occurred in the adolescent first dose vs unvaccinated cohort. Among both adolescents and children, myocarditis and pericarditis were documented only in the vaccinated groups, with rates of 27 and 10 cases/million after first and second doses respectively.

Conclusion BNT162b2 vaccination in adolescents reduced COVID-19 A&E attendance and hospitalisation, although these outcomes were rare. Protection against positive SARS-CoV-2 tests was transient.

Competing Interest Statement

BG has received research funding from the Laura and John Arnold Foundation, the NHS National Institute for Health Research (NIHR), the NIHR School of Primary Care Research, NHS England, the NIHR Oxford Biomedical Research Centre, the Mohn-Westlake Foundation, NIHR Applied Research Collaboration Oxford and Thames Valley, the Wellcome Trust, the Good Thinking Foundation, Health Data Research UK, the Health Foundation, the World Health Organisation, UKRI MRC, Asthma UK, the British Lung Foundation, and the Longitudinal Health and Wellbeing strand of the National Core Studies programme; he is a Non-Executive Director at NHS Digital; he also receives personal income from speaking and writing for lay audiences on the misuse of science. BMK is also employed by NHS England working on medicines policy and clinical lead for primary care medicines data. IJD has received unrestricted research grants and holds shares in GlaxoSmithKline (GSK).

Funding Statement

The OpenSAFELY Platform is supported by grants from the Wellcome Trust (222097/Z/20/Z); MRC (MR/V015757/1, MC_PC-20059, MR/W016729/1); NIHR (NIHR135559, COV-LT2-0073), and Health Data Research UK (HDRUK2021.000, 2021.0157). In addition, this research used data assets made available as part of the Data and Connectivity National Core Study, led by Health Data Research UK in partnership with the Office for National Statistics and funded by UK Research and Innovation (grant ref MC_PC_20058). BG has also received funding from: the Bennett Foundation, the Wellcome Trust, NIHR Oxford Biomedical Research Centre, NIHR Applied Research Collaboration Oxford and Thames Valley, the Mohn-Westlake Foundation; all Bennett Institute staff are supported by BG's grants on this work. The views expressed are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the NIHR, NHS England, UK Health Security Agency (UKHSA) or the Department of Health and Social Care.

Funders had no role in the study design, collection, analysis, and interpretation of data; in the writing of the report; and in the decision to submit the article for publication.

Author Declarations

I confirm all relevant ethical guidelines have been followed, and any necessary IRB and/or ethics committee approvals have been obtained.

The details of the IRB/oversight body that provided approval or exemption for the research described are given below:

This study was approved by the Health Research Authority (REC reference 20/LO/0651) and by the London School of Hygeine and Tropical Medicine Ethics Board (reference 21863).

I confirm that all necessary patient/participant consent has been obtained and the appropriate institutional forms have been archived, and that any patient/participant/sample identifiers included were not known to anyone (e.g., hospital staff, patients or participants themselves) outside the research group so cannot be used to identify individuals.

I understand that all clinical trials and any other prospective interventional studies must be registered with an ICMJE-approved registry, such as ClinicalTrials.gov. I confirm that any such study reported in the manuscript has been registered and the trial registration ID is provided (note: if posting a prospective study registered retrospectively, please provide a statement in the trial ID field explaining why the study was not registered in advance).

I have followed all appropriate research reporting guidelines, such as any relevant EQUATOR Network research reporting checklist(s) and other pertinent material, if applicable.

Data Availability

All data were linked, stored and analysed securely using the OpenSAFELY platform, https://www.opensafely.org/ , as part of the NHS England OpenSAFELY COVID-19 service. Data include pseudonymised data such as coded diagnoses, medications and physiological parameters. No free text data was included. All code is shared openly for review and re-use under MIT open license [ https://github.com/opensafely/vaccine-effectiveness-in-kids ]. Detailed pseudonymised patient data is potentially re-identifiable and therefore not shared. Primary care records managed by the GP software provider, TPP were linked to ONS death data and the Index of Multiple Deprivation through OpenSAFELY.

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Red Toes: Are They Just Cold or From a Condition?

• Description and Feeling
• Warming Red Toes
• Medications
• When It's Serious
• Seeing a Provider

Redness in your toes might be concerning at first, but this type of color change is not always serious. Many different things, including cold weather or an infected toenail, can cause your foot to appear flush or inflamed.

Whether it's one red toe or more diffuse color changes, paying attention to the accompanying symptoms can help clue you in on whether your issue is serious.

This article will detail the most common causes of red toes and the typical treatments for them.

AndreyPopov / Getty Images

Conditions With Red Toes as a Symptom

The most common conditions that cause toe redness include:

• Cold weather
• Ingrown toenails
• Raynaud’s disease

Cold Weather (Chilblains)

In some people, redness or color changes in the toes may simply be a reaction to cold temperatures. Also known as chilblains or pernio, this condition causes localized redness and swelling to develop in the toes and fingers.  Less commonly, these color changes may also impact a person’s nose, ears, or heels.

This reaction typically occurs 12 to 24 hours after a person is exposed to cool or damp weather, making it more likely to develop during the winter months. In addition to color changes, chilblains may cause skin bumps, itching, burning, or lesions to develop.

Chilblains and COVID-19

Chilblains and the associated skin lesions have been reported as a relatively common side-effect of COVID-19.

Fractures in the foot are fairly common and can cause redness or other discoloration in the toes. They usually occur when a heavy item is dropped on the foot or after accidentally stubbing your toes into a hard object.

Stress fractures can also develop gradually if the foot or toes are subjected to repetitive forces, like those associated with distance running or basketball. People with this condition may also experience bruising in the affected area and or difficulty walking due to pain.

Ingrown Toenail

Ingrown toenails occur when a nail's side or corner portion begins to irritate and cut into the surrounding skin. This issue, which usually develops because of restrictive footwear or improperly trimmed nails, can cause localized redness, swelling, or pain to develop in the affected toe. While ingrown toenails most commonly occur in the big toe, they can develop in any of the foot’s digits.

Gout is an extremely painful condition that can cause redness, warmth, and sensitivity in the big toe. It occurs when high levels of uric acid in the body cause microscopic crystals to form in a joint.

These jagged structures irritate the lining of the joint, causing inflammation and redness to develop. Gout-associated color changes in a toe typically come on quickly and frequently develop in the middle of the night.

Raynaud’s Syndrome

Raynaud’s syndrome is a circulatory condition that makes the blood vessels in the hands and feet more reactive to cold temperatures. People with this disease frequently experience finger or toe redness after coming into contact with even mildly cool objects, like a glass of cold water.

Other stimuli, like stress, may also cause the color changes to occur. Raynaud’s can also cause the fingers and hands to throb, tingle, or turn blue or white.

Circulatory Concerns

Red toes may indicate an issue with your circulatory health. While Raynaud’s disease is frequently to blame, less common causes like a blood clot , venous insufficiency , or peripheral artery disease should also be considered.

Uncontrolled diabetes commonly leads to sensory issues and poor circulation in the feet. This makes it more likely that you’ll develop a cut or sore on your foot without knowing it. It can also slow down your body’s ability to heal a toe or foot wound.

Because of this, the risk of toe and foot infections increases in people with diabetes. These infections can cause redness, pain, and warmth in the wounded area and the regions that surround it. In severe cases, gangrene may eventually develop in the foot or toe, and the region may become black and have a bad odor.

Describing Red Toe Discoloration and Feeling

The feeling of a red, swollen toe may vary, depending on which condition causes it. Discoloration caused by gout is often sudden and sharply painful. Raynaud’s or chilblains-associated redness is also frequently quick to develop, though these color changes may be accompanied by feelings of itchiness, throbbing, or burning.

The discoloration from a fractured toe may take a few hours or even a day to develop, though the pain typically starts almost immediately after the trauma.

With an ingrown toenail, pain and redness typically occur around the nail itself and are often alleviated by trimming the affected area. Because of the sensory changes associated with diabetes, the redness from this condition may not be felt at all. This inability to sense a problem makes this condition so dangerous.

How to Warm Cold, Red Toes

Cold, red toes are best treated by slowly elevating their temperature in warm water. Your feet can be soaked in water heated to approximately 100 to 105 degrees F and kept there until the digits warm up again. Once a comfortable temperature has been restored, it is important to completely dry the feet off to prevent coldness from redeveloping.

Warming the toes in hot water should be avoided as it can cause color changes to reoccur and may also lead to intense itching or stinging.

Medications to Treat Red Toes

Depending on the cause of your red toes, several different medications may be used for treatment. These include:

• Pentoxifylline: Treats chilblains-associated redness by reducing the viscosity of your blood.
• Colchicine: Helps reduce gout pain and redness immediately after an attack.
• Allopurinol: Decreases the likelihood of future gout attacks by lowering uric acid levels in the body.
• Alpha receptor blocker: Treats Raynaud’s associated toe redness by opening or dilating blood vessels.
• Oral diabetes medications: Diabetes medications help your body use the insulin it produces or break down excess glucose to keep the disease under control.

When Could Red Toes Be Serious

While some types of toe redness are common and relatively harmless, others could indicate a serious issue. Gout or fracture-associated redness can lead to significant pain, difficulty walking, or bone and joint damage if left untreated.

Chronic Raynaud’s or chilblains can cause damage to the surrounding skin tissue in the toe and even lead to ulceration or gangrene.

Uncontrolled diabetes can have several significant long-term consequences for feet , including:

• Foot deformity (Charcot foot)
• Significant infection
• Toe or foot amputation

Bringing Up Symptoms to a Provider

Because redness in the toe may be caused by several serious conditions, it is important to have your symptoms evaluated. This is especially true if your redness is new, worsening, or accompanied by pain.

Be sure to tell your medical provider when you first noticed the color changes and detail any other symptoms you’re experiencing. While you may be tempted to ignore redness in your toes, getting your foot evaluated is the easiest way to determine the cause and treatments.  

Exposure to cold temperatures may cause redness or discoloration in the toes, especially in people with Chilblains or Raynaud’s disease. Redness can also be the result of an ingrown toenail or a fracture of the toe after a trauma. Gout may be to blame if the toe color changes are sudden and excruciating. In uncontrolled diabetics, toe redness may indicate a wound or infection due to sensory deficits.  

National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. Diabetes and foot problems. January 2017.

Kaiser Permanente. Chilblains (perniosis) . November 16, 2023.

Dubey S, Joshi N, Stevenson O, Gordon C, Reynolds JA. Chilblains in immune-mediated inflammatory diseases: a review . Rheumatology .2022;61(12):4631-4642. doi:10.1093/rheumatology/keac231

American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons. Toe and forefoot fractures . November 2021.

American Academy of Family Physicians. Ingrown toenails . March 2021.

Johns Hopkins Medicine. Gout . 2023.

Arthritis Foundation. Raynaud’s disease . 2024.

By Tim Petrie, DPT, OCS Petrie is a board-certified orthopedic specialist who has practiced as a physical therapist for more than a decade.