pilot interview questions in qualitative research

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Chapter 13: Interviews

Danielle Berkovic

Learning outcomes

Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

• Understand when to use interviews in qualitative research.
• Develop interview questions for an interview guide.
• Understand how to conduct an interview.

What are interviews?

An interviewing method is the most commonly used data collection technique in qualitative research. 1 The purpose of an interview is to explore the experiences, understandings, opinions and motivations of research participants. 2 Interviews are conducted one-on-one with the researcher and the participant. Interviews are most appropriate when seeking to understand a participant’s subjective view of an experience and are also considered suitable for the exploration of sensitive topics.

What are the different types of interviews?

There are four main types of interviews:

• Key stakeholder: A key stakeholder interview aims to explore one issue in detail with a person of interest or importance concerning the research topic. 3 Key stakeholder interviews seek the views of experts on some cultural, political or health aspects of the community, beyond their personal beliefs or actions. An example of a key stakeholder is the Chief Health Officer of Victoria (Australia’s second-most populous state) who oversaw the world’s longest lockdowns in response to the COVID-19 pandemic.
• Dyad: A dyad interview aims to explore one issue in a level of detail with a dyad (two people). This form of interviewing is used when one participant of the dyad may need some support or is not wholly able to articulate themselves (e.g. people with cognitive impairment, or children). Independence is acknowledged and the interview is analysed as a unit. 4
• Narrative: A narrative interview helps individuals tell their stories, and prioritises their own perspectives and experiences using the language that they prefer. 5 This type of interview has been widely used in social research but is gaining prominence in health research to better understand person-centred care, for example, negotiating exercise and food abstinence whilst living with Type 2 diabetes. 6,7
• Life history: A life history interview allows the researcher to explore a person’s individual and subjective experiences within a history of the time framework. 8 Life history interviews challenge the researcher to understand how people’s current attitudes, behaviours and choices are influenced by previous experiences or trauma. Life history interviews have been conducted with Holocaust survivors 9 and youth who have been forcibly recruited to war. 10

Table 13.4 provides a summary of four studies, each adopting one of these types of interviews.

Interviewing techniques

There are two main interview techniques:

• Semi-structured: Semi-structured interviewing aims to explore a few issues in moderate detail, to expand the researcher’s knowledge at some level. 11 Semi-structured interviews give the researcher the advantage of remaining reasonably objective while enabling participants to share their perspectives and opinions. The researcher should create an interview guide with targeted open questions to direct the interview. As examples, semi-structured interviews have been used to extend knowledge of why women might gain excess weight during pregnancy, 12 and to update guidelines for statin uptake. 13
• In-depth: In-depth interviewing aims to explore a person’s subjective experiences and feelings about a particular topic. 14 In-depth interviews are often used to explore emotive (e.g. end-of-life care) 15 and complex (e.g. adolescent pregnancy) topics. 16 The researcher should create an interview guide with selected open questions to ask of the participant, but the participant should guide the direction of the interview more than in a semi-structured setting. In-depth interviews value participants’ lived experiences and are frequently used in phenomenology studies (as described in Chapter 6) .

When to use the different types of interview s

The type of interview a researcher uses should be determined by the study design, the research aims and objectives, and participant demographics. For example, if conducting a descriptive study, semi-structured interviews may be the best method of data collection. As explained in Chapter 5 , descriptive studies seek to describe phenomena, rather than to explain or interpret the data. A semi-structured interview, which seeks to expand upon some level of existing knowledge, will likely best facilitate this.

Similarly, if conducting a phenomenological study, in-depth interviews may be the best method of data collection. As described in Chapter 6 , the key concept of phenomenology is the individual. The emphasis is on the lived experience of that individual and the person’s sense-making of those experiences. Therefore, an in-depth interview is likely best placed to elicit that rich data.

While some interview types are better suited to certain study designs, there are no restrictions on the type of interview that may be used. For example, semi-structured interviews provide an excellent accompaniment to trial participation (see Chapter 11 about mixed methods), and key stakeholder interviews, as part of an action research study, can be used to define priorities, barriers and enablers to implementation.

How do I write my interview questions?

An interview aims to explore the experiences, understandings, opinions and motivations of research participants. The general rule is that the interviewee should speak for 80 per cent of the interview, and the interviewer should only be asking questions and clarifying responses, for about 20 per cent of the interview. This percentage may differ depending on the interview type; for example, a semi-structured interview involves the researcher asking more questions than in an in-depth interview. Still, to facilitate free-flowing responses, it is important to use open-ended language to encourage participants to be expansive in their responses. Examples of open-ended terms include questions that start with ‘who’, ‘how’ and ‘where’.

The researcher should avoid closed-ended questions that can be answered with yes or no, and limit conversation. For example, asking a participant ‘Did you have this experience?’ can elicit a simple ‘yes’, whereas asking them to ‘Describe your experience’, will likely encourage a narrative response. Table 13.1 provides examples of terminology to include and avoid in developing interview questions.

Table 13.1. Interview question formats to use and avoid

How long should my interview be?

There is no rule about how long an interview should take. Different types of interviews will likely run for different periods of time, but this also depends on the research question/s and the type of participant. For example, given that a semi-structured interview is seeking to expand on some previous knowledge, the interview may need no longer than 30 minutes, or up to one hour. An in-depth interview seeks to explore a topic in a greater level of detail and therefore, at a minimum, would be expected to last an hour. A dyad interview may be as short as 15 minutes (e.g. if the dyad is a person with dementia and a family member or caregiver) or longer, depending on the pairing.

Designing your interview guide

To figure out what questions to ask in an interview guide, the researcher may consult the literature, speak to experts (including people with lived experience) about the research and draw on their current knowledge. The topics and questions should be mapped to the research question/s, and the interview guide should be developed well in advance of commencing data collection. This enables time and opportunity to pilot-test the interview guide. The pilot interview provides an opportunity to explore the language and clarity of questions, the order and flow of the guide and to determine whether the instructions are clear to participants both before and after the interview. It can be beneficial to pilot-test the interview guide with someone who is not familiar with the research topic, to make sure that the language used is easily understood (and will be by participants, too). The study design should be used to determine the number of questions asked and the duration of the interview should guide the extent of the interview guide. The participant type may also determine the extent of the interview guide; for example, clinicians tend to be time-poor and therefore shorter, focused interviews are optimal. An interview guide is also likely to be shorter for a descriptive study than a phenomenological or ethnographic study, given the level of detail required. Chapter 5 outlined a descriptive study in which participants who had undergone percutaneous coronary intervention were interviewed. The interview guide consisted of four main questions and subsequent probing questions, linked to the research questions (see Table 13.2). 17

Table 13.2. Interview guide for a descriptive study

Table 13.3 is an example of a larger and more detailed interview guide, designed for the qualitative component of a mixed-methods study aiming to examine the work and financial effects of living with arthritis as a younger person. The questions are mapped to the World Health Organization’s International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health, which measures health and disability at individual and population levels. 18

Table 13.3. Detailed interview guide

It is important to create an interview guide, for the following reasons:

• The researcher should be familiar with their research questions.
• Using an interview guide will enable the incorporation of feedback from the piloting process.
• It is difficult to predict how participants will respond to interview questions. They may answer in a way that is anticipated or they may provide unanticipated insights that warrant follow-up. An interview guide (a physical or digital copy) enables the researcher to note these answers and follow-up with appropriate inquiry.
• Participants will likely have provided heterogeneous answers to certain questions. The interview guide enables the researcher to note similarities and differences across various interviews, which may be important in data analysis.
• Even experienced qualitative researchers get nervous before an interview! The interview guide provides a safety net if the researcher forgets their questions or needs to anticipate the next question.

Setting up the interview

In the past, most interviews were conducted in person or by telephone. Emerging technologies promote easier access to research participation (e.g. by people living in rural or remote communities, or for people with mobility limitations). Even in metropolitan settings, many interviews are now conducted electronically (e.g. using videoconferencing platforms). Regardless of your interview setting, it is essential that the interview environment is comfortable for the participant. This process can begin as soon as potential participants express interest in your research. Following are some tips from the literature and our own experiences of leading interviews:

• Answer questions and set clear expectations . Participating in research is not an everyday task. People do not necessarily know what to expect during a research interview, and this can be daunting. Give people as much information as possible, answer their questions about the research and set clear expectations about what the interview will entail and how long it is expected to last. Let them know that the interview will be recorded for transcription and analysis purposes. Consider sending the interview questions a few days before the interview. This gives people time and space to reflect on their experiences, consider their responses to questions and to provide informed consent for their participation.
• Consider your setting . If conducting the interview in person, consider the location and room in which the interview will be held. For example, if in a participant’s home, be mindful of their private space. Ask if you should remove your shoes before entering their home. If they offer refreshments (which in our experience many participants do), accept it with gratitude if possible. These considerations apply beyond the participant’s home; if using a room in an office setting, consider privacy and confidentiality, accessibility and potential for disruption. Consider the temperature as well as the furniture in the room, who may be able to overhear conversations and who may walk past. Similarly, if interviewing by phone or online, take time to assess the space, and if in a house or office that is not quiet or private, use headphones as needed.
• Build rapport. The research topic may be important to participants from a professional perspective, or they may have deep emotional connections to the topic of interest. Regardless of the nature of the interview, it is important to remember that participants are being asked to open up to an interviewer who is likely to be a stranger. Spend some time with participants before the interview, to make sure that they are comfortable. Engage in some general conversation, and ask if they have any questions before you start. Remember that it is not a normal part of someone’s day to participate in research. Make it an enjoyable and/or meaningful experience for them, and it will enhance the data that you collect.
• Let participants guide you. Oftentimes, the ways in which researchers and participants describe the same phenomena are different. In the interview, reflect the participant’s language. Make sure they feel heard and that they are willing and comfortable to speak openly about their experiences. For example, our research involves talking to older adults about their experience of falls. We noticed early in this research that participants did not use the word ‘fall’ but would rather use terms such as ‘trip’, ‘went over’ and ‘stumbled’. As interviewers we adopted the participant’s language into our questions.
• Listen consistently and express interest. An interview is more complex than a simple question-and-answer format. The best interview data comes from participants feeling comfortable and confident to share their stories. By the time you are completing the 20th interview, it can be difficult to maintain the same level of concentration as with the first interview. Try to stay engaged: nod along with your participants, maintain eye contact, murmur in agreement and sympathise where warranted.
• The interviewer is both the data collector and the data collection instrument. The data received is only as good as the questions asked. In qualitative research, the researcher influences how participants answer questions. It is important to remain reflexive and aware of how your language, body language and attitude might influence the interview. Being rested and prepared will enhance the quality of the questions asked and hence the data collected.
• Avoid excessive use of ‘why’. It can be challenging for participants to recall why they felt a certain way or acted in a particular manner. Try to avoid asking ‘why’ questions too often, and instead adopt some of the open language described earlier in the chapter.

After your interview

When you have completed your interview, thank the participant and let them know they can contact you if they have any questions or follow-up information they would like to provide. If the interview has covered sensitive topics or the participant has become distressed throughout the interview, make sure that appropriate referrals and follow-up are provided (see section 6).

Download the recording from your device and make sure it is saved in a secure location that can only be accessed by people on the approved research team (see Chapters 35 and 36).

It is important to know what to do immediately after each interview is completed. Interviews should be transcribed – that is, reproduced verbatim for data analysis. Transcribing data is an important step in the process of analysis, but it is very time-consuming; transcribing a 60-minute interview can take up to 8 hours. Data analysis is discussed in Section 4.

Table 13.4. Examples of the four types of interviews

Interviews are the most common data collection technique in qualitative research. There are four main types of interviews; the one you choose will depend on your research question, aims and objectives. It is important to formulate open-ended interview questions that are understandable and easy for participants to answer. Key considerations in setting up the interview will enhance the quality of the data obtained and the experience of the interview for the participant and the researcher.

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Qualitative Research – a practical guide for health and social care researchers and practitioners Copyright © 2023 by Danielle Berkovic is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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• DOI: 10.6007/IJARBSS/V7-I4/2916
• Corpus ID: 56221885

Piloting for Interviews in Qualitative Research: Operationalization and Lessons Learnt

• M. Majid , Mohhidin Othman , +2 authors Azizah Yusof
• Published 31 May 2017
• The International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences

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Piloting for Interviews in Qualitative Research: Operationalization and Lessons Learnt

Qualitative interviews offer rich and detailed information in understanding people's experiences. However, qualitative inquiry might be difficult for inexperience researcher to adequately perform the interview. Piloting for interview is an integral aspect and useful in the process of conducting qualitative research as it highlights the improvisation to the major study. This article discusses the importance of pilot study, the methods undertaken and the lessons learnt throughout the process. The pilot interview was conducted with two offshore catering employees, as preparation for a dissertation in developing a job satisfaction instrument for offshore catering employees in Malaysia. The useful functions of pilot study are described and in highlighting the advantageous of pilot study, this paper describes the modification made for the major study as a result of the pilot work. These comprise (1) criteria for selecting potential participants, and (2) improving the interview guide, particularly the interview questions.

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The aim of this case study is to highlight the importance of piloting or pre-testing the research design (in this case, semi-structured interviews and narratives). Most textbooks offer minimal guidance about pre-testing the research design, and published reports rarely report whether the research was piloted and, if so, what were the results. Therefore, this case study argues that researchers need to report on their pilot study so that others embarking on the research can learn from it. In this case study, I explore the concept of piloting and pre-testing the research, explain the process of collecting the qualitative data using semi-structured interviews, and demonstrate the complexity of analyzing the data when using a narrative approach, especially when the data are unexpected. In addition, I discuss the pilot study process and the lessons I learned.

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Top 20 Qualitative Research Interview Questions & Answers

Master your responses to Qualitative Research related interview questions with our example questions and answers. Boost your chances of landing the job by learning how to effectively communicate your Qualitative Research capabilities.

Diving into the intricacies of human behavior, thoughts, and experiences is the lifeblood of qualitative research. As a professional in this nuanced field, you are well-versed in the art of gathering rich, descriptive data that can provide deep insights into complex issues. Now, as you prepare to take on new challenges in your career, it’s time to demonstrate not only your expertise in qualitative methodologies but also your ability to think critically and adapt to various research contexts.

Whether you’re interviewing for an academic position, a role within a market research firm, or any other setting where qualitative skills are prized, being prepared with thoughtful responses to potential interview questions can set you apart from other candidates. In this article, we will discuss some of the most common questions asked during interviews for qualitative research roles, offering guidance on how best to articulate your experience and approach to prospective employers.

Common Qualitative Research Interview Questions

1. how do you ensure the credibility of your data in qualitative research.

Ensuring credibility in qualitative research is crucial for the trustworthiness of the findings. By asking about methodological rigor, the interviewer is assessing a candidate’s understanding of strategies such as triangulation, member checking, and maintaining a detailed audit trail, which are essential for substantiating the integrity of qualitative data.

When responding to this question, you should articulate a multi-faceted approach to establishing credibility. Begin by highlighting your understanding of the importance of a well-defined research design and data collection strategy. Explain how you incorporate methods like triangulation, using multiple data sources or perspectives to confirm the consistency of the information obtained. Discuss your process for member checking—obtaining feedback on your findings from the participants themselves—to add another layer of validation. Mention your dedication to keeping a comprehensive audit trail, documenting all stages of the research process, which enables peer scrutiny and adds to the transparency of the study. Emphasize your ongoing commitment to reflexivity, where you continually examine your biases and influence on the research. Through this detailed explanation, you demonstrate a conscientious and systematic approach to safeguarding the credibility of your qualitative research.

Example: “ To ensure the credibility of data in qualitative research, I employ a rigorous research design that is both systematic and reflective. Initially, I establish clear protocols for data collection, which includes in-depth interviews, focus groups, and observations, ensuring that each method is well-suited to the research questions. To enhance the validity of the findings, I apply triangulation, drawing on various data sources, theoretical frameworks, and methodologies to cross-verify the information and interpretations.

During the analysis phase, member checking is a critical step, where I return to participants with a summary of the findings to validate the accuracy and resonance of the interpreted data with their experiences. This not only strengthens the credibility of the results but also enriches the data by incorporating participant insights. Furthermore, I maintain a comprehensive audit trail, meticulously documenting the research process, decisions made, and data transformations. This transparency allows for peer review and ensures that the research can be followed and critiqued by others in the field.

Lastly, reflexivity is integral to my practice. I continuously engage in self-reflection to understand and articulate my biases and assumptions and how they may influence the research process. By doing so, I can mitigate potential impacts on the data and interpretations, ensuring that the findings are a credible representation of the phenomenon under investigation.”

2. Describe a situation where you had to adapt your research methodology due to unforeseen challenges.

When unexpected variables arise, adaptability in research design is vital to maintain the integrity and validity of the study. This question seeks to assess a candidate’s problem-solving skills, flexibility, and resilience in the face of research challenges.

When responding, share a specific instance where you encountered a challenge that impacted your research methodology. Detail the nature of the challenge, the thought process behind your decision to adapt, the steps you took to revise your approach, and the outcome of those changes. Emphasize your critical thinking, your ability to consult relevant literature or peers if necessary, and how your adaptability contributed to the overall success or learning experience of the research project.

Example: “ In a recent qualitative study on community health practices, I encountered a significant challenge when the planned in-person interviews became unfeasible due to a sudden public health concern. The initial methodology was designed around face-to-face interactions to capture rich, detailed narratives. However, with participant safety as a priority, I quickly pivoted to remote data collection methods. After reviewing relevant literature on virtual qualitative research, I adapted the protocol to include video conferencing and phone interviews, ensuring I could still engage deeply with participants. This adaptation required a reevaluation of our ethical considerations, particularly around confidentiality and informed consent in digital formats.

The shift to remote interviews introduced concerns about potential biases, as the change might exclude individuals without access to the necessary technology. To mitigate this, I also offered the option of asynchronous voice recordings or email responses as a means to participate. This inclusive approach not only preserved the integrity of the study but also revealed an unexpected layer of data regarding digital literacy and access in the community. The study’s findings were robust, and the methodology adaptation was reflected upon in the final report, contributing to the discourse on the flexibility and resilience of qualitative research in dynamic contexts.”

3. What strategies do you employ for effective participant observation?

For effective participant observation, a balance between immersion and detachment is necessary to gather in-depth understanding without influencing the natural setting. This method allows the researcher to collect rich, contextual data that surveys or structured interviews might miss.

When responding to this question, highlight your ability to blend in with the participant group to minimize your impact on their behavior. Discuss your skills in active listening, detailed note-taking, and ethical considerations such as informed consent and maintaining confidentiality. Mention any techniques you use to reflect on your observations critically and how you ensure that your presence does not alter the dynamics of the group you are studying. It’s also effective to provide examples from past research where your participant observation led to valuable insights that informed your study’s findings.

Example: “ In participant observation, my primary strategy is to achieve a balance between immersion and detachment. I immerse myself in the environment to gain a deep understanding of the context and participants’ perspectives, while remaining sufficiently detached to observe and analyze behaviors and interactions objectively. To blend in, I adapt to the cultural norms and social cues of the group, which often involves a period of learning and adjustment to minimize my impact on their behavior.

Active listening is central to my approach, allowing me to capture the subtleties of communication beyond verbal exchanges. I complement this with meticulous note-taking, often employing a system of shorthand that enables me to record details without disrupting the flow of interaction. Ethically, I prioritize informed consent and confidentiality, ensuring participants are aware of my role and the study’s purpose. After observations, I engage in reflexive practice, critically examining my own biases and influence on the research setting. This reflexivity was instrumental in a past project where my awareness of my impact on group dynamics led to the discovery of underlying power structures that were not immediately apparent, significantly enriching the study’s findings.”

4. In what ways do you maintain ethical standards while conducting in-depth interviews?

Maintaining ethical standards during in-depth interviews involves respecting participant confidentiality, ensuring informed consent, and being sensitive to power dynamics. Ethical practice in this context is not only about adhering to institutional guidelines but also about fostering an environment where interviewees feel respected and understood.

When responding to this question, it’s vital to articulate a clear understanding of ethical frameworks such as confidentiality and informed consent. Describe specific strategies you employ, such as anonymizing data, obtaining consent through clear communication about the study’s purpose and the participant’s role, and ensuring the interviewee’s comfort and safety during the conversation. Highlight any training or certifications you’ve received in ethical research practices and give examples from past research experiences where you navigated ethical dilemmas successfully. This approach demonstrates your commitment to integrity in the research process and your ability to protect the well-being of your subjects.

Example: “ Maintaining ethical standards during in-depth interviews is paramount to the integrity of the research process. I ensure that all participants are fully aware of the study’s purpose, their role within it, and the ways in which their data will be used. This is achieved through a clear and comprehensive informed consent process. I always provide participants with the option to withdraw from the study at any point without penalty.

To safeguard confidentiality, I employ strategies such as anonymizing data and using secure storage methods. I am also attentive to the comfort and safety of interviewees, creating a respectful and non-threatening interview environment. In situations where sensitive topics may arise, I am trained to handle these with the necessary care and professionalism. For instance, in a past study involving vulnerable populations, I implemented additional privacy measures and worked closely with an ethics review board to navigate the complexities of the research context. My approach is always to prioritize the dignity and rights of the participants, adhering to ethical guidelines and best practices established in the field.”

5. How do you approach coding textual data without personal biases influencing outcomes?

When an interviewer poses a question about coding textual data free from personal biases, they are probing your ability to maintain objectivity and adhere to methodological rigor. This question tests your understanding of qualitative analysis techniques and your awareness of the researcher’s potential to skew data interpretation.

When responding, it’s essential to articulate your familiarity with established coding procedures such as open, axial, or thematic coding. Emphasize your systematic approach to data analysis, which might include multiple rounds of coding, peer debriefing, and maintaining a reflexive journal. Discuss the importance of bracketing your preconceptions during data analysis and how you would seek to validate your coding through methods such as triangulation or member checking. Your answer should convey a balance between a structured approach to coding and an openness to the data’s nuances, demonstrating your commitment to producing unbiased and trustworthy qualitative research findings.

Example: “ In approaching textual data coding, I adhere to a structured yet flexible methodology that mitigates personal bias. Initially, I engage in open coding to categorize data based on its manifest content, allowing patterns to emerge organically. This is followed by axial coding, where I explore connections between categories, and if applicable, thematic coding to identify overarching themes. Throughout this process, I maintain a reflexive journal to document my thought process and potential biases, ensuring transparency and self-awareness.

To ensure the reliability of my coding, I employ peer debriefing sessions, where colleagues scrutinize my coding decisions, challenging assumptions and offering alternative interpretations. This collaborative scrutiny helps to counteract any personal biases that might have crept into the analysis. Additionally, I utilize methods such as triangulation, comparing data across different sources, and member checking, soliciting feedback from participants on the accuracy of the coded data. These strategies collectively serve to validate the coding process and ensure that the findings are a credible representation of the data, rather than a reflection of my preconceptions.”

6. What is your experience with utilizing grounded theory in qualitative studies?

Grounded theory is a systematic methodology that operates almost in a reverse fashion from traditional research. Employers ask about your experience with grounded theory to assess your ability to conduct research that is flexible and adaptable to the data.

When responding, you should outline specific studies or projects where you’ve applied grounded theory. Discuss the nature of the data you worked with, the process of iterative data collection and analysis, and how you developed a theoretical framework as a result. Highlight any challenges you faced and how you overcame them, as well as the outcomes of your research. This will show your practical experience and your ability to engage deeply with qualitative data to extract meaningful theories and conclusions.

Example: “ In applying grounded theory to my qualitative studies, I have embraced its iterative approach to develop a theoretical framework grounded in empirical data. For instance, in a project exploring the coping mechanisms of individuals with chronic illnesses, I conducted in-depth interviews and focus groups, allowing the data to guide the research process. Through constant comparative analysis, I coded the data, identifying core categories and the relationships between them. This emergent coding process was central to refining and saturating the categories, ensuring the development of a robust theory that encapsulated the lived experiences of the participants.

Challenges such as data saturation and ensuring theoretical sensitivity were navigated by maintaining a balance between openness to the data and guiding research questions. The iterative nature of grounded theory facilitated the identification of nuanced coping strategies that were not initially apparent, leading to a theory that emphasized the dynamic interplay between personal agency and social support. The outcome was a substantive theory that not only provided a deeper understanding of the participants’ experiences but also had practical implications for designing support systems for individuals with chronic conditions.”

7. Outline the steps you take when conducting a thematic analysis.

Thematic analysis is a method used to identify, analyze, and report patterns within data, and it requires a systematic approach to ensure validity and reliability. This question assesses whether a candidate can articulate a clear, methodical process that will yield insightful findings from qualitative data.

When responding, you should outline a step-by-step process that begins with familiarization with the data, whereby you immerse yourself in the details, taking notes and highlighting initial ideas. Proceed to generating initial codes across the entire dataset, which involves organizing data into meaningful groups. Then, search for themes by collating codes into potential themes and gathering all data relevant to each potential theme. Review these themes to ensure they work in relation to the coded extracts and the entire dataset, refining them as necessary. Define and name themes, which entails developing a detailed analysis of each theme and determining the essence of what each theme is about. Finally, report the findings, weaving the analytic narrative with vivid examples, within the context of existing literature and the research questions. This methodical response not only showcases your technical knowledge but also demonstrates an organized thought process and the ability to communicate complex procedures clearly.

Example: “ In conducting a thematic analysis, I begin by thoroughly immersing myself in the data, which involves meticulously reading and re-reading the content to gain a deep understanding of its breadth and depth. During this stage, I make extensive notes and begin to mark initial ideas that strike me as potentially significant.

Following familiarization, I generate initial codes systematically across the entire dataset. This coding process is both reflective and interpretative, as it requires me to identify and categorize data segments that are pertinent to the research questions. These codes are then used to organize the data into meaningful groups.

Next, I search for themes by examining the codes and considering how they may combine to form overarching themes. This involves collating all the coded data relevant to each potential theme and considering the interrelationships between codes, themes, and different levels of themes, which may include sub-themes.

The subsequent step is to review these themes, checking them against the dataset to ensure they accurately represent the data. This may involve collapsing some themes into each other, splitting others, and refining the specifics of each theme. The essence of this iterative process is to refine the themes so that they tell a coherent story about the data.

Once the themes are satisfactorily developed, I define and name them. This involves a detailed analysis of each theme and determining what aspect of the data each theme captures. I aim to articulate the nuances within each theme, identifying the story that each tells about the data, and considering how this relates to the broader research questions and literature.

Lastly, I report the findings, weaving together the thematic analysis narrative. This includes selecting vivid examples that compellingly illustrate each theme, discussing how the themes interconnect, and situating them within the context of existing literature and the research questions. This final write-up is not merely about summarizing the data but about telling a story that provides insights into the research topic.”

8. When is it appropriate to use focus groups rather than individual interviews, and why?

Choosing between focus groups and individual interviews depends on the research goals and the nature of the information sought. Focus groups excel in exploring complex behaviors, attitudes, and experiences through the dynamic interaction of participants.

When responding to this question, articulate the strengths of both methods, matching them to specific research scenarios. For focus groups, emphasize your ability to facilitate lively, guided discussions that leverage group dynamics to elicit a breadth of perspectives. For individual interviews, highlight your skill in creating a safe, confidential space where participants can share detailed, personal experiences. Demonstrate strategic thinking by discussing how you would decide on the most suitable method based on the research question, participant characteristics, and the type of data needed to achieve your research objectives.

Example: “ Focus groups are particularly apt when the research question benefits from the interaction among participants, as the group dynamics can stimulate memories, ideas, and experiences that might not surface in one-on-one interviews. They are valuable for exploring the range of opinions or feelings about a topic, allowing researchers to observe consensus formation, the diversity of perspectives, and the reasoning behind attitudes. This method is also efficient for gathering a breadth of data in a limited timeframe. However, it’s crucial to ensure that the topic is suitable for discussion in a group setting and that participants are comfortable speaking in front of others.

Conversely, individual interviews are more appropriate when the subject matter is sensitive or requires deep exploration of personal experiences. They provide a private space for participants to share detailed and nuanced insights without the influence of others, which can be particularly important when discussing topics that may not be openly talked about in a group. The method allows for a tailored approach, where the interviewer can adapt questions based on the participant’s responses, facilitating a depth of understanding that is harder to achieve in a group setting. The decision between the two methods ultimately hinges on the specific needs of the research, the nature of the topic, and the goals of the study.”

9. Detail how you would validate findings from a case study research design.

In case study research, validation is paramount to ensure that interpretations and conclusions are credible. A well-validated case study reinforces the rigor of the research method and bolsters the transferability of its findings to other contexts.

When responding to this question, detail your process, which might include triangulation, where you corroborate findings with multiple data sources or perspectives; member checking, which involves sharing your interpretations with participants for their input; and seeking peer debriefing, where colleagues critique the process and findings. Explain how these methods contribute to the dependability and confirmability of your research, showing that you are not just collecting data but actively engaging with it to construct a solid, defensible narrative.

Example: “ In validating findings from a case study research design, I employ a multi-faceted approach to ensure the dependability and confirmability of the research. Triangulation is a cornerstone of my validation process, where I corroborate evidence from various data sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents. This method allows for cross-validation and helps in constructing a robust narrative by revealing consistencies and discrepancies in the data.

Member checking is another essential step in my process. By sharing my interpretations with participants, I not only honor their perspectives but also enhance the credibility of the findings. This iterative process ensures that the conclusions drawn are reflective of the participants’ experiences and not solely based on my own interpretations.

Lastly, peer debriefing serves as a critical checkpoint. By engaging colleagues who critique the research process and findings, I open the study to external scrutiny, which helps in mitigating any potential biases and enhances the study’s rigor. These colleagues act as devil’s advocates, challenging assumptions and conclusions, thereby strengthening the study’s validity. Collectively, these strategies form a comprehensive approach to validating case study research, ensuring that the findings are well-substantiated and trustworthy.”

10. What measures do you take to ensure the transferability of your qualitative research findings?

When asked about ensuring transferability, the interviewer is assessing your ability to articulate the relevance of your findings beyond the specific context of your study. They want to know if you can critically appraise your research design and methodology.

To respond effectively, you should discuss the thoroughness of your data collection methods, such as purposive sampling, to gather diverse perspectives that enhance the depth of the data. Explain your engagement with participants and the setting to ensure a rich understanding of the phenomenon under study. Highlight your detailed documentation of the research process, including your reflexivity, to allow others to follow your footsteps analytically. Finally, speak about how you communicate the boundaries of your research applicability and how you encourage readers to consider the transferability of findings to their contexts through clear and comprehensive descriptions of your study’s context, participants, and assumptions.

Example: “ In ensuring the transferability of my qualitative research findings, I prioritize a robust and purposive sampling strategy that captures a wide range of perspectives relevant to the research question. This approach not only enriches the data but also provides a comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon across varied contexts. By doing so, I lay a foundation for the findings to resonate with similar situations, allowing others to judge the applicability of the results to their own contexts.

I meticulously document the research process, including the setting, participant interactions, and my own reflexivity, to provide a transparent and detailed account of how conclusions were reached. This level of documentation serves as a roadmap for other researchers or practitioners to understand the intricacies of the study and evaluate the potential for transferability. Furthermore, I ensure that my findings are presented with a clear delineation of the context, including any cultural, temporal, or geographic nuances, and discuss the assumptions underpinning the study. By offering this rich, contextualized description, I invite readers to engage critically with the findings and assess their relevance to other settings, thus facilitating a responsible and informed application of the research outcomes.”

11. How do you determine when data saturation has been reached in your study?

Determining data saturation is crucial because it signals when additional data does not yield new insights, ensuring efficient use of resources without compromising the depth of understanding. This question is posed to assess a candidate’s experience and judgment in qualitative research.

When responding to this question, one should highlight their systematic approach to data collection and analysis. Discuss the iterative process of engaging with the data, constantly comparing new information with existing codes and themes. Explain how you monitor for emerging patterns and at what point these patterns become consistent and repeatable, indicating saturation. Mention any specific techniques or criteria you employ, such as the use of thematic analysis or constant comparison methods, and how you document the decision-making process to ensure transparency and validity in your research findings.

Example: “ In determining data saturation, I employ a rigorous and iterative approach to data collection and analysis. As I engage with the data, I continuously compare new information against existing codes and themes, carefully monitoring for the emergence of new patterns or insights. Saturation is approached when the data begins to yield redundant information, and no new themes or codes are emerging from the analysis.

I utilize techniques such as thematic analysis and constant comparison methods to ensure a systematic examination of the data. I document each step of the decision-making process, noting when additional data does not lead to new theme identification or when existing themes are fully fleshed out. This documentation not only serves as a checkpoint for determining saturation but also enhances the transparency and validity of the research findings. Through this meticulous process, I can confidently assert that data saturation has been achieved when the collected data offers a comprehensive understanding of the research phenomenon, with a rich and well-developed thematic structure that accurately reflects the research scope.”

12. Relate an instance where member checking significantly altered your research conclusions.

Member checking serves as a vital checkpoint to ensure accuracy, credibility, and resonance of the data with those it represents. It can reveal misunderstandings or even introduce new insights that substantially shift the study’s trajectory or outcomes.

When responding, candidates should recount a specific project where member checking made a pivotal difference in their findings. They should detail the initial conclusions, how the process of member checking was integrated, what feedback was received, and how it led to a re-evaluation or refinement of the research outcomes. This response showcases the candidate’s methodological rigor, flexibility in incorporating feedback, and dedication to producing research that authentically reflects the voices and experiences of the study’s participants.

Example: “ In a recent qualitative study on community responses to urban redevelopment, initial findings suggested broad support for the initiatives among residents. However, during the member checking phase, when participants reviewed and commented on the findings, a nuanced perspective emerged. Several participants highlighted that their apparent support was, in fact, resignation due to a lack of viable alternatives, rather than genuine enthusiasm for the redevelopment plans.

This feedback prompted a deeper dive into the data, revealing a pattern of resigned acceptance across a significant portion of the interviews. The conclusion was substantially revised to reflect this sentiment, emphasizing the complexity of community responses to redevelopment, which included both cautious optimism and skeptical resignation. This critical insight not only enriched the study’s validity but also had profound implications for policymakers interested in understanding the true sentiment of the affected communities.”

13. What are the key considerations when selecting a sample for phenomenological research?

The selection of a sample in phenomenological research is not about quantity but about the richness and relevance of the data that participants can provide. It requires an intimate knowledge of the research question and a deliberate choice to include participants who have experienced the phenomenon in question.

When responding to this question, it’s essential to emphasize the need for a purposeful sampling strategy that aims to capture a broad spectrum of perspectives on the phenomenon under study. Discuss the importance of sample diversity to ensure the findings are robust and reflect varied experiences. Mention the necessity of establishing clear criteria for participant selection and the willingness to adapt as the research progresses. Highlighting your commitment to ethical considerations, such as informed consent and the respectful treatment of participants’ information, will also demonstrate your thorough understanding of the nuances in qualitative sampling.

Example: “ In phenomenological research, the primary goal is to understand the essence of experiences concerning a particular phenomenon. Therefore, the key considerations for sample selection revolve around identifying individuals who have experienced the phenomenon of interest and can articulate their lived experiences. Purposeful sampling is essential to ensure that the participants chosen can provide rich, detailed accounts that contribute to a deep understanding of the phenomenon.

The diversity of the sample is also crucial. It is important to select participants who represent a range of perspectives within the phenomenon, not just a homogenous group. This might involve considering factors such as age, gender, socio-economic status, or other relevant characteristics that could influence their experiences. While the sample size in phenomenological studies is often small to allow for in-depth analysis, it is vital to ensure that the sample is varied enough to uncover a comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon.

Lastly, ethical considerations are paramount. Participants must give informed consent, understanding the nature of the study and their role in it. The researcher must also be prepared to handle sensitive information with confidentiality and respect, ensuring the participants’ well-being is prioritized throughout the study. Adapting the sample selection criteria as the study progresses is also important, as initial interviews may reveal additional nuances that require the inclusion of further varied perspectives to fully grasp the phenomenon.”

14. Which software tools do you prefer for qualitative data analysis, and for what reasons?

The choice of software tools for qualitative data analysis reflects a researcher’s approach to data synthesis and interpretation. It also indicates their proficiency with technology and their ability to leverage sophisticated features to deepen insights.

When responding, it’s essential to discuss specific features of the software tools you prefer, such as coding capabilities, ease of data management, collaborative features, or the ability to handle large datasets. Explain how these features have enhanced your research outcomes in the past. For example, you might highlight the use of NVivo for its robust coding structure that helped you organize complex data efficiently or Atlas.ti for its intuitive interface and visualization tools that made it easier to detect emerging patterns. Your response should demonstrate your analytical thought process and your commitment to rigorous qualitative analysis.

Example: “ In my qualitative research endeavors, I have found NVivo to be an invaluable tool, primarily due to its advanced coding capabilities and its ability to manage large and complex datasets effectively. The node structure in NVivo facilitates a hierarchical organization of themes, which streamlines the coding process and enhances the reliability of the data analysis. This feature was particularly beneficial in a recent project where the depth and volume of textual data required a robust system to ensure consistency and comprehensiveness in theme development.

Another tool I frequently utilize is Atlas.ti, which stands out for its user-friendly interface and powerful visualization tools. These features are instrumental in identifying and illustrating relationships between themes, thereby enriching the interpretive depth of the analysis. The network views in Atlas.ti have enabled me to construct clear visual representations of the data interconnections, which not only supported my analytical narrative but also facilitated stakeholder understanding and engagement. The combination of these tools, leveraging their respective strengths, has consistently augmented the quality and impact of my qualitative research outcomes.”

15. How do you handle discrepancies between participants’ words and actions in ethnographic research?

Ethnographic research hinges on the researcher’s ability to interpret both verbal and non-verbal data to draw meaningful conclusions. This question allows the interviewer to assess a candidate’s methodological rigor and analytical skills.

When responding, it’s essential to emphasize your systematic approach to reconciling such discrepancies. Discuss the importance of context, the use of triangulation to corroborate findings through multiple data sources, and the strategies you employ to interpret and integrate conflicting information. Highlight your commitment to ethical research practices, the ways you ensure participant understanding and consent, and your experience with reflective practice to mitigate researcher bias. Showcasing your ability to remain flexible and responsive to the data, while maintaining a clear analytical framework, will demonstrate your proficiency in qualitative research.

Example: “ In ethnographic research, discrepancies between participants’ words and actions are not only common but also a valuable source of insight. When I encounter such discrepancies, I first consider the context in which they occur, as it often holds the key to understanding the divergence. Cultural norms, social pressures, or even the presence of the researcher can influence participants’ behaviors and self-reporting. I employ triangulation, utilizing multiple data sources such as interviews, observations, and relevant documents to construct a more comprehensive understanding of the phenomena at hand.

I also engage in reflective practice to examine my own biases and assumptions that might influence data interpretation. By maintaining a stance of cultural humility and being open to the participants’ perspectives, I can better understand the reasons behind their actions and words. When integrating conflicting information, I look for patterns and themes that can reconcile the differences, often finding that they reveal deeper complexities within the social context being studied. Ethical research practices, including ensuring participant understanding and consent, are paramount throughout this process, as they help maintain the integrity of both the data and the relationships with participants.”

16. What role does reflexivity play in your research process?

Reflexivity is an ongoing self-assessment that ensures research findings are not merely a reflection of the researcher’s preconceptions, thereby increasing the credibility and authenticity of the work.

When responding, illustrate your understanding of reflexivity with examples from past research experiences. Discuss how you have actively engaged in reflexivity by questioning your assumptions, how this shaped your research design, and the methods you employed to ensure that your findings were informed by the data rather than your personal beliefs. Demonstrate your commitment to ethical research practice by highlighting how you’ve maintained an open dialogue with your participants and peers to challenge and refine your interpretations.

Example: “ Reflexivity is a cornerstone of my qualitative research methodology, as it allows me to critically examine my own influence on the research process and outcomes. In practice, I maintain a reflexive journal throughout the research process, documenting my preconceptions, emotional responses, and decision-making rationales. This ongoing self-analysis ensures that I remain aware of my potential biases and the ways in which my background and perspectives might shape the data collection and analysis.

For instance, in a recent ethnographic study, I recognized my own cultural assumptions could affect participant interactions. To mitigate this, I incorporated member checking and peer debriefing as integral parts of the research cycle. By actively seeking feedback on my interpretations from both participants and fellow researchers, I was able to challenge my initial readings of the data and uncover deeper, more nuanced insights. This reflexive approach not only enriched the research findings but also upheld the integrity and credibility of the study, fostering a more authentic and ethical representation of the participants’ experiences.”

17. Describe a complex qualitative dataset you’ve managed and how you navigated its challenges.

Managing a complex qualitative dataset requires meticulous organization, a strong grasp of research methods, and the ability to discern patterns and themes amidst a sea of words and narratives. This question evaluates the candidate’s analytical and critical thinking skills.

When responding to this question, you should focus on a specific project that exemplifies your experience with complex qualitative data. Outline the scope of the data, the methods you used for organization and analysis, and the challenges you encountered—such as data coding, thematic saturation, or ensuring reliability and validity. Discuss the strategies you implemented to address these challenges, such as iterative coding, member checking, or triangulation. By providing concrete examples, you demonstrate not only your technical ability but also your methodological rigor and dedication to producing insightful, credible research findings.

Example: “ In a recent project, I managed a complex qualitative dataset that comprised over 50 in-depth interviews, several focus groups, and field notes from participant observation. The data was rich with nuanced perspectives on community health practices, but it presented challenges in ensuring thematic saturation and maintaining a systematic approach to coding across multiple researchers.

To navigate these challenges, I employed a rigorous iterative coding process, utilizing NVivo software to facilitate organization and analysis. Initially, I conducted a round of open coding to identify preliminary themes, followed by axial coding to explore the relationships between these themes. As the dataset was extensive, I also implemented a strategy of constant comparison to refine and merge codes, ensuring thematic saturation was achieved. To enhance the reliability and validity of our findings, I organized regular peer debriefing sessions, where the research team could discuss and resolve discrepancies in coding and interpretation. Additionally, I conducted member checks with a subset of participants, which not only enriched the data but also validated our thematic constructs. This meticulous approach enabled us to develop a robust thematic framework that accurately reflected the complexity of the community’s health practices and informed subsequent policy recommendations.”

18. How do you integrate quantitative data to enhance the richness of a primarily qualitative study?

Integrating quantitative data with qualitative research can add a layer of objectivity, enhance validity, and offer a scalable dimension to the findings. This mixed-methods approach can help in identifying outliers or anomalies in qualitative data.

When responding to this question, a candidate should articulate their understanding of both qualitative and quantitative research methodologies. They should discuss specific techniques such as triangulation, where quantitative data serves as a corroborative tool for qualitative findings, or embedded analysis, where quantitative data provides a backdrop for deep qualitative exploration. The response should also include practical examples of past research scenarios where the candidate successfully merged both data types to strengthen their study, highlighting their ability to create a symbiotic relationship between numbers and narratives for richer, more robust research outcomes.

Example: “ Integrating quantitative data into a qualitative study can significantly enhance the depth and credibility of the research findings. In my experience, I employ triangulation to ensure that themes emerging from qualitative data are not only rich in context but also empirically grounded. For instance, in a study exploring patient satisfaction, while qualitative interviews might reveal nuanced patient experiences, quantitative satisfaction scores can be used to validate and quantify the prevalence of these experiences across a larger population.

Furthermore, I often use quantitative data as a formative tool to guide the qualitative inquiry. By initially analyzing patterns in quantitative data, I can identify areas that require a deeper understanding through qualitative methods. For example, if a survey indicates a trend in consumer behavior, follow-up interviews or focus groups can explore the motivations behind that trend. This embedded analysis approach ensures that qualitative findings are not only contextually informed but also quantitatively relevant, leading to a more comprehensive understanding of the research question.”

19. What is your rationale for choosing narrative inquiry over other qualitative methods in storytelling contexts?

Narrative inquiry delves into individual stories to find broader truths and patterns. This method captures the richness of how people perceive and make sense of their lives, revealing the interplay of various factors in shaping narratives.

When responding, articulate your understanding of narrative inquiry, emphasizing its strengths in capturing lived experiences and its ability to provide a detailed, insider’s view of a phenomenon. Highlight your knowledge of how narrative inquiry can uncover the nuances of storytelling, such as the role of language, emotions, and context, which are essential for a deep understanding of the subject matter. Demonstrate your ability to choose an appropriate research method based on the research question, objectives, and the nature of the data you aim to collect.

Example: “ Narrative inquiry is a powerful qualitative method that aligns exceptionally well with the exploration of storytelling contexts due to its focus on the richness of personal experience and the construction of meaning. By delving into individuals’ stories, narrative inquiry allows researchers to capture the complexities of lived experiences, which are often embedded with emotions, cultural values, and temporal elements that other methods may not fully grasp. The longitudinal nature of narrative inquiry, where stories can be collected and analyzed over time, also offers a dynamic perspective on how narratives evolve, intersect, and influence the storyteller’s identity and worldview.

In choosing narrative inquiry, one is committing to a methodological approach that honors the subjectivity and co-construction of knowledge between the researcher and participants. This approach is particularly adept at uncovering the layers of language use, symbolism, and the interplay of narratives with broader societal discourses. It is this depth and nuance that makes narrative inquiry the method of choice when the research aim is not just to catalog events but to understand the profound implications of storytelling on individual and collective levels. The method’s flexibility in accommodating different narrative forms – be it oral, written, or visual – further underscores its suitability for research that seeks to holistically capture the essence of storytelling within its natural context.”

20. How do you address potential power dynamics that may influence a participant’s responses during interviews?

Recognizing and mitigating the influence of power dynamics is essential to maintain the integrity of the data collected in qualitative research, ensuring that findings reflect the participants’ genuine perspectives.

When responding to this question, one should emphasize their awareness of such dynamics and articulate strategies to minimize their impact. This could include techniques like establishing rapport, using neutral language, ensuring confidentiality, and employing reflexivity—being mindful of one’s own influence on the conversation. Furthermore, demonstrating an understanding of how to create a safe space for open dialogue and acknowledging the importance of participant empowerment can convey a commitment to ethical and effective qualitative research practices.

Example: “ In addressing potential power dynamics, my approach begins with the conscious effort to create an environment of trust and safety. I employ active listening and empathetic engagement to establish rapport, which helps to level the conversational field. I am meticulous in using neutral, non-leading language to avoid inadvertently imposing my own assumptions or perspectives on participants. This is complemented by an emphasis on the voluntary nature of participation and the assurance of confidentiality, which together foster a space where participants feel secure in sharing their authentic experiences.

Reflexivity is a cornerstone of my practice; I continuously self-assess and acknowledge my positionality and its potential influence on the research process. By engaging in this critical self-reflection, I am better equipped to recognize and mitigate any power imbalances that may arise. Moreover, I strive to empower participants by validating their narratives and ensuring that the interview process is not just extractive but also offers them a platform to be heard and to contribute meaningfully to the research. This balanced approach not only enriches the data quality but also adheres to the ethical standards that underpin responsible qualitative research.”

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Methodology

• Types of Interviews in Research | Guide & Examples

Types of Interviews in Research | Guide & Examples

Published on March 10, 2022 by Tegan George . Revised on June 22, 2023.

An interview is a qualitative research method that relies on asking questions in order to collect data . Interviews involve two or more people, one of whom is the interviewer asking the questions.

There are several types of interviews, often differentiated by their level of structure.

• Structured interviews have predetermined questions asked in a predetermined order.
• Unstructured interviews are more free-flowing.
• Semi-structured interviews fall in between.

Interviews are commonly used in market research, social science, and ethnographic research .

Table of contents

What is a structured interview, what is a semi-structured interview, what is an unstructured interview, what is a focus group, examples of interview questions, advantages and disadvantages of interviews, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about types of interviews.

Structured interviews have predetermined questions in a set order. They are often closed-ended, featuring dichotomous (yes/no) or multiple-choice questions. While open-ended structured interviews exist, they are much less common. The types of questions asked make structured interviews a predominantly quantitative tool.

Asking set questions in a set order can help you see patterns among responses, and it allows you to easily compare responses between participants while keeping other factors constant. This can mitigate   research biases and lead to higher reliability and validity. However, structured interviews can be overly formal, as well as limited in scope and flexibility.

• You feel very comfortable with your topic. This will help you formulate your questions most effectively.
• You have limited time or resources. Structured interviews are a bit more straightforward to analyze because of their closed-ended nature, and can be a doable undertaking for an individual.
• Your research question depends on holding environmental conditions between participants constant.

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Semi-structured interviews are a blend of structured and unstructured interviews. While the interviewer has a general plan for what they want to ask, the questions do not have to follow a particular phrasing or order.

Semi-structured interviews are often open-ended, allowing for flexibility, but follow a predetermined thematic framework, giving a sense of order. For this reason, they are often considered “the best of both worlds.”

However, if the questions differ substantially between participants, it can be challenging to look for patterns, lessening the generalizability and validity of your results.

• You have prior interview experience. It’s easier than you think to accidentally ask a leading question when coming up with questions on the fly. Overall, spontaneous questions are much more difficult than they may seem.
• Your research question is exploratory in nature. The answers you receive can help guide your future research.

An unstructured interview is the most flexible type of interview. The questions and the order in which they are asked are not set. Instead, the interview can proceed more spontaneously, based on the participant’s previous answers.

Unstructured interviews are by definition open-ended. This flexibility can help you gather detailed information on your topic, while still allowing you to observe patterns between participants.

However, so much flexibility means that they can be very challenging to conduct properly. You must be very careful not to ask leading questions, as biased responses can lead to lower reliability or even invalidate your research.

• You have a solid background in your research topic and have conducted interviews before.
• Your research question is exploratory in nature, and you are seeking descriptive data that will deepen and contextualize your initial hypotheses.
• Your research necessitates forming a deeper connection with your participants, encouraging them to feel comfortable revealing their true opinions and emotions.

A focus group brings together a group of participants to answer questions on a topic of interest in a moderated setting. Focus groups are qualitative in nature and often study the group’s dynamic and body language in addition to their answers. Responses can guide future research on consumer products and services, human behavior, or controversial topics.

Focus groups can provide more nuanced and unfiltered feedback than individual interviews and are easier to organize than experiments or large surveys . However, their small size leads to low external validity and the temptation as a researcher to “cherry-pick” responses that fit your hypotheses.

• Your research focuses on the dynamics of group discussion or real-time responses to your topic.
• Your questions are complex and rooted in feelings, opinions, and perceptions that cannot be answered with a “yes” or “no.”
• Your topic is exploratory in nature, and you are seeking information that will help you uncover new questions or future research ideas.

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Depending on the type of interview you are conducting, your questions will differ in style, phrasing, and intention. Structured interview questions are set and precise, while the other types of interviews allow for more open-endedness and flexibility.

Here are some examples.

• Semi-structured
• Unstructured
• Focus group
• Do you like dogs? Yes/No
• Do you associate dogs with feeling: happy; somewhat happy; neutral; somewhat unhappy; unhappy
• If yes, name one attribute of dogs that you like.
• If no, name one attribute of dogs that you don’t like.
• What feelings do dogs bring out in you?
• When you think more deeply about this, what experiences would you say your feelings are rooted in?

Interviews are a great research tool. They allow you to gather rich information and draw more detailed conclusions than other research methods, taking into consideration nonverbal cues, off-the-cuff reactions, and emotional responses.

However, they can also be time-consuming and deceptively challenging to conduct properly. Smaller sample sizes can cause their validity and reliability to suffer, and there is an inherent risk of interviewer effect arising from accidentally leading questions.

Here are some advantages and disadvantages of each type of interview that can help you decide if you’d like to utilize this research method.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Student’s  t -distribution
• Normal distribution
• Null and Alternative Hypotheses
• Chi square tests
• Confidence interval
• Quartiles & Quantiles
• Cluster sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Data cleansing
• Reproducibility vs Replicability
• Peer review
• Prospective cohort study

Research bias

• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Placebo effect
• Hawthorne effect
• Hindsight bias
• Affect heuristic
• Social desirability bias

The four most common types of interviews are:

• Structured interviews : The questions are predetermined in both topic and order. 
• Semi-structured interviews : A few questions are predetermined, but other questions aren’t planned.
• Unstructured interviews : None of the questions are predetermined.
• Focus group interviews : The questions are presented to a group instead of one individual.

The interviewer effect is a type of bias that emerges when a characteristic of an interviewer (race, age, gender identity, etc.) influences the responses given by the interviewee.

There is a risk of an interviewer effect in all types of interviews , but it can be mitigated by writing really high-quality interview questions.

Social desirability bias is the tendency for interview participants to give responses that will be viewed favorably by the interviewer or other participants. It occurs in all types of interviews and surveys , but is most common in semi-structured interviews , unstructured interviews , and focus groups .

Social desirability bias can be mitigated by ensuring participants feel at ease and comfortable sharing their views. Make sure to pay attention to your own body language and any physical or verbal cues, such as nodding or widening your eyes.

This type of bias can also occur in observations if the participants know they’re being observed. They might alter their behavior accordingly.

A focus group is a research method that brings together a small group of people to answer questions in a moderated setting. The group is chosen due to predefined demographic traits, and the questions are designed to shed light on a topic of interest. It is one of 4 types of interviews .

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.

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• Volume 14, Issue 8
• Pilot qualitative exploration of the impact of community asset mapping within the undergraduate psychiatry curriculum at an Irish medical school
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• http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2055-2852 Gareth Edwards 1 ,
• Leona Moore 2 ,
• http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4664-7371 Vincent Russell 2
• 1 Health Professions Education Centre , RCSI University of Medicine and Health Sciences , Dublin , Ireland
• 2 Department of Psychiatry , RCSI University of Medicine and Health Sciences , Dublin , Ireland
• Correspondence to Dr Vincent Russell; vincentrussell{at}rcsi.ie

Introduction Providing an effective response to global health disparities requires that future doctors are better prepared to embrace a public health ethos. Asset-based approaches see people and communities as coproducers of health and well-being and have begun to influence healthcare policy and the training of health professionals. However, to date, there is scant research in this area within undergraduate medical education.

Objectives To explore: (1) whether an asset-mapping assignment enhances medical students’ experience and understanding of psychiatry. (2) The extent to which asset mapping promotes engagement of students with the clinical teams and communities in which they are placed, as perceived by students, clinical tutors and other team members.

Design Using a qualitative case study approach, semistructured interviews were completed with 16 students, 8 psychiatry tutors and 3 multidisciplinary team members (MDTMs) to explore their experiences of the initiative. Interview transcripts were thematically analysed, based on the study aims.

Setting This research was carried out at Ireland’s largest medical school, among undergraduate medical students following a 6-week psychiatry clerkship.

Intervention Students completed a team-based assignment to elicit information on community assets from patients and presented an asset map to their host clinical team at the end of the clerkship.

Results We identified three over-arching themes within the data: (a) connecting the individual patient with the community; (b) relationship building; and (c) pedagogical challenges and rewards. Students found the asset-mapping assignment not only challenging but also rewarding and supported its retention within the curriculum. Tutors were predominantly positive, but some felt that the social focus diluted students’ professional identity. MDTMs welcomed the initiative and wished to be more involved.

Conclusion Our findings suggest that community asset mapping offers added value within the undergraduate medical curriculum, sensitising students to the importance of exploring patient-perceived community assets.

• medical education & training
• public health

Data availability statement

Data are available upon reasonable request. Data are available from the authors upon reasonable request and with permission.

This is an open access article distributed in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution Non Commercial (CC BY-NC 4.0) license, which permits others to distribute, remix, adapt, build upon this work non-commercially, and license their derivative works on different terms, provided the original work is properly cited, appropriate credit is given, any changes made indicated, and the use is non-commercial. See:  http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ .

https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2024-085709

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STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS OF THIS STUDY

The study explored the perspectives of three key populations: students, clinical tutors and multidisciplinary team members across urban and rural clinical sites.

The study methodology did not address the patient experience of asset mapping.

The number of multidisciplinary team members participating in the study was low.

Introduction

There is increasing awareness of the importance of the social determinants of health, and of the profoundly negative impacts on health and mortality rates that result from avoidable structural inequities that disadvantage society’s most vulnerable individuals and communities. 1 In addressing inequities between and within countries, the need to include the individual and the community as active partners in a whole-system approach to health and social care is recognised. 2 3 Such concepts as salutogenesis, self-management, personalised medicine and social prescribing reflect this awareness and have gained considerable traction as reflected in the academic literature. 4–7 In mental healthcare, the recovery model, prioritising the patient experience and quality of life over symptomatic improvement, has begun to shape policy and influence practice. 8

In a parallel development, Kretzmann and McKnight, in the 1990s, criticised traditional societal responses to deprived communities as overly focused on problems and needs as opposed to strengths and capacities. 9 They proposed asset-based community development (ABCD), as a model that aims to guide communities to discover untapped assets, so that their residents become agents of change rather than passive service recipients and as an alternative to the traditional need-based approach to service delivery. 10 Assets, in this context, refer to those social, physical, environmental or human resources that, in the eyes of the beholder, protect against negative health outcomes and improve life chances.

Building on Kretzmann and Knight’s original work, subsequent literature has described a range of initiatives and adaptations under the broad heading of asset-based approaches, and this has influenced recent developments in health and social policy in several jurisdictions. 11–13 Quantitative studies within this paradigm suggest that mobilising community assets can improve the health of participants, while qualitative research points towards benefits including increased sense of involvement and enhanced well-being. 11–13 Findings from a recent longitudinal study of participation in community assets among older people with long-term conditions also found an association with improved quality of life and reduced costs of care. 14

Within the asset-based paradigm, community asset mapping has been frequently employed as a tool for an individual or group to generate an inventory of the resources and capacities available within a given community. 15 16 Studies in this area, conducted primarily among deprived or marginalised groups, suggest that if it is to lead to better health, the asset-mapping process must be driven by and interwoven with relationships at every level. 17–19

More recently, asset-based approaches have transferred into health professions education settings. An evaluation of an asset-based component within a paediatric residency programme, reported changed trainee perceptions of the role of the paediatrician, with increased awareness of the importance of forging community partnerships. 20 Similarly, Calderon-Larranaga et al have developed a research protocol to evaluate the impact of an asset-mapping initiative in the context of a GP training programme in Spain, whereby trainees familiarise themselves with community resources during their clinical placements and then map the assets for subsequent presentation to their host primary care team. 21 The process involves 8 hours of classroom-based training initially, with sessions on the social determinants of health and community diagnosis, the theoretical foundations of ABCD and the methodology of health assets mapping. This is followed by a practical exercise over a 1-month period, where GP trainees, with support from the primary care team, identify a prevalent health condition and then walk around the local area, introducing themselves to community organisations and identifying community health assets relevant to the selected health condition. The final step in the intervention is where the individual GP trainee collates and presents the identified health assets in a poster that is shared with the primary care team and community organisations.

Providing an effective response to global health needs requires that future doctors are better prepared to embrace a public health ethos and to work in community settings with relatively deprived and vulnerable populations. 22 There is evidence that positive clinical learning experiences within underserved, rural and community settings during the undergraduate medical years increase the likelihood of medical graduates being better prepared for and choosing to practice in these settings in the future, 21 23–25 thereby helping to redress inequities in the medical manpower within and between countries. This, in turn, demands a shift from a medical professional identity that has been traditionally paternalistic and individualistic, towards one that is community-oriented, patient-centred and collaborative. This trend is consistent with the increasing emphasis on competencies in community-based medical education and with calls for medical schools to demonstrate greater social accountability. 22 26

Various initiatives have been reported in undergraduate medical education that aim to nurture awareness of psychosocial factors in healthcare, while promoting values of equity, teamwork and community orientation. These include situated learning experiences in primary care, identifying psychosocial cues in case-based learning, distributive clinical placements in rural areas, student-run clinics in resource-deprived communities and student selected components involving volunteer placements within community-based non-government organisations. 26–30 To date, however, there is, to the authors’ knowledge, no published research into the application of the asset-based approach in an undergraduate medical education context and the present study sought to address this important gap in the literature.

This study took place at the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland (RCSI), University of Medicine and Health Sciences, a culturally diverse, international institution that offers a range of undergraduate and postgraduate medical programmes. The Department of Psychiatry at RCSI has developed an asset-mapping component in the undergraduate curriculum. We focused on fourth-year undergraduate medical students who were in engaged in a 6-week clinical clerkship within geographically dispersed RCSI affiliated mental health services across Ireland.

The primary motivation for introducing the initiative arose out of feedback, from students themselves and their clinical educators, suggesting that during clinical clerkships in regional settings outside their normal RCSI Dublin base, students were often unfamiliar with local community supports and resources outside their immediate clinical teaching setting. This is despite that the university sourced local student accommodation in privately operated guest houses. Almost 80% of RCSI undergraduates are international students, who will progress on graduation to clinical practice in a range of service environments across the globe. It is important, in a context of medical manpower maldistribution, to provide early learning opportunities that promote potential career choices and pathways outside well-resourced and technologically advanced hospitals within large urban settings. Asset mapping as an undergraduate clinical training intervention, adapted from the approach described by Calderon et al , 31 appeared to offer the basis for a pragmatic organisational response to this identified concern. Theoretical principles underlying the asset-based approach that especially appealed, from a pedagogical perspective, were that the model is both community-oriented and person- centred, requiring that students engage as participatory learners with patients whose opinions matter and are listened to.

Here, we describe a pilot qualitative exploration of the asset-mapping initiative from the perspective of students, their clinical tutors and members of the host clinical teams in which the students are placed. The study objectives were to explore (a) whether an asset-mapping assignment enhances medical students’ experience and understanding of psychiatry and (b) the extent to which asset mapping promotes engagement of students with the clinical teams and communities in which they are placed, as perceived by students, clinical tutors and other team members.

Methodology

This study adopted a qualitative case study approach. Case studies are used to develop rich insights of bounded systems, for example, a programme, activity, group, etc, within a specific context. 32–34 In the current study, the asset-mapping activity represents the bounded system, and the clinical clerkship in psychiatry represents the context. A distinctive feature of the case study methodology is the use of triangulation—using two or more theoretical perspectives, methodological approaches, sources of data, study investigators or methods of data analysis, to gain a richer understanding of the phenomenon under investigation. 32 35 This study used person triangulation , a form of data source triangulation, whereby the perspectives and experiences of multiple populations (students, clinical tutors and multidisciplinary team members (MDTMs)) are explored to provide a more complete account of the investigated phenomenon (the asset-mapping activity). 36

In year 4 of the RCSI undergraduate medical programme, students rotate through general practice, paediatrics, obstetrics and gynaecology and psychiatry placements. The psychiatry clerkship involves groups of 4–10 students being allocated to host community mental health services across 12 urban and rural settings across Ireland. These community mental health services, the majority of which are publicly funded, deliver a range of in-patient, outpatient, day and home-treatment interventions through consultant-led multidisciplinary teams serving geographic catchment areas. During the 6-week clerkship, students spend 4 days each week within their assigned clinical placements, taking histories, examining patients’ mental state and joining mental health professionals in case-based discussions and multidisciplinary care planning meetings. Students return to the RCSI Dublin campus 1 day each week for workshops and seminars facilitated by academic faculty. Their learning outcomes are evaluated through formative and summative assessment at the end of each 6-week rotation and through an end-of-year written examination.

Intervention

The department of psychiatry faculty designed an asset-based assignment, informed by previous literature and largely modelled on and adapted from the approach proposed by Calderon-Larranaga et al among Spanish GP trainees. 31 We piloted the initiative, as a compulsory but non-graded curricular activity, across all 12 clinical teaching sites during the 2021–2022 academic year. Initially, all 12 clinical tutors, all of whom were psychiatry trainees appointed for 1-year periods, attended a dedicated workshop with senior faculty in the department of psychiatry, as part of their induction to the tutor role and their expected tasks in supporting the asset-mapping assignment were outlined. Information on the delivery and assessment of the project were also included in the tutors’ handbook (see online supplemental material 1 ). Faculty leading the project (VR and LM) offered tutors ongoing support by telephone and through an informal WhatsApp group for any outstanding questions or ongoing concerns they might have. Then, at the beginning of each of five 6-week clinical placement throughout the academic year, students themselves participated in a standalone small-group workshop, lasting approximately 90 min, also delivered by senior faculty, to introduce the topic and the assignment. The workshop was reinforced by slides, background reading and literature references, uploaded to the students online learning portal that they could access through the course of the subsequent clinical placement (see online supplemental material 2 ).

Supplemental material

Students were tasked to create an asset map of resources in the local community as perceived by the patients they met during their placement. The asset-mapping exercise was carried out under the guidance of the local clinical tutor, whom students could approach individually or during their weekly group teaching sessions. In addition, tutors were asked to identify a designated permanent member of the local multidisciplinary team, who was familiar with the range of local community resources, as an additional source of support. However, it was emphasised that students were required to elicit information on assets directly from patients, as opportunities arose during their individual routine clinical contacts, rather than merely compiling an inventory of available community supports from information provided by staff. Students were asked to then engage collaboratively with their peers in each clinical site in preparing the asset map as a joint team activity, based on pooled data from their individual patient contacts. In the final week of their rotation, the students, in consultation with their tutor, arranged to make a formal presentation of the asset map to the host community mental health team and provided a PowerPoint digital poster of the map as a physical legacy of their activity during the clerkship. Permission to publish student asset maps was not sought, however, an illustrative example of an asset map, replicating the general style and content of those produced by the students has been developed by one of the authors (LM). This is shown in figure 1 .

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An illustrative asset map showcasing the diversity of resources included in students’ posters.

While the asset map was not formally graded, each clinical team across the 12 sites, was asked to select the group of students that engaged best with the project over the course of the academic year, and students in the selected group were awarded an individual certificate of achievement by the RCSI department of psychiatry, which they could add to their learning portfolio and curriculum vitae.

Learning theory background

The intervention was informed by current perspectives in educational theory, which emphasise that learning is to a large extent a social activity, powerfully influenced by context and by the tools available in a specific setting. 37 As applied to undergraduate medical training, this points towards the importance of providing a holistic appreciation of the patient experience and situated learning opportunities in settings typical of those in which the future physician will ultimately practice. 38 Developments in experiential learning suggest that the meaning students derive is dependent on the quality of relationships between the learner, other agents and the environment. 39 It is also recognised that professional identity is intrinsically shaped by the context in which future doctors learn. An important element in optimising experience-based learning and preparing them for future practice is that students are not merely observers but that they make an actual contribution to patient care, however small, through authentic clinical experience with real patients. 40

More specifically, the experiential learning model developed by Kolb provided a useful conceptual framework for asset mapping as an educational innovation, which is structured to broadly conform to Kolb’s four learning cycles. 41 The initial task of eliciting patient-perceived assets by students, representing a novel ‘concrete experience’ as described by Kolb, is followed by opportunities for reflective observation, abstract conceptualisation of the experience and active experimentation. In completing the asset mapping assignment, students engage in an iterative process of interpreting the information elicited from patients individually, preparing the asset map as an interactive team-based activity and then presenting it to the host clinical team. The authors anticipated that the asset mapping assignment would support and complement the students other learning, anchoring their pre-existing and largely theoretical knowledge of psychiatry’s biopsychosocial model in an authentic and engaging clinical experience of the model’s social element.

In approaching the asset mapping task, students would have acquired some limited advance knowledge, skills and practice in the area of reflective learning in the early years of their course. In year 4, all students also complete an integrated reflective writing (RW) assignment, which is a graded activity delivered as a collaboration between the departments of psychiatry, general practice and paediatrics. The RW assignment, which is formally graded by faculty, involves students submitting a 700-word RW report based on an actual clinical experience that had resonance during the course of the respective clinical clerkship. 42 In preparation for the RW assignment, and separate from the asset mapping innovation, students had participated in reflective learning workshops, using Gibbs reflective cycle and the Reflection Evaluation For Learner’s Enhanced Competencies (REFLECT) rubric, at the commencement of their rotations through psychiatry, obstetrics and gynaecology, and general practice and had support from tutors in completing the RW task 43 44

Overall, however, the RCSI undergraduate psychiatry curriculum is more highly structured than those of the other clinical disciplines in year 4. Large and small group teaching in psychiatry is closely supervised by clinical tutors in each teaching site and supported by weekly campus-based lectures and a comprehensive course book and online material that provide very clear goals and explicit learning outcomes. The authors anticipated, therefore, that because of the relatively self-directed nature of the asset mapping assignment, placing greater demands for independent learning and ownership of the learning process, students might be particularly challenged.

Study sample

Participants comprised fourth-year undergraduate medical students who had completed a 6-week clinical clerkship in psychiatry, clinical tutors responsible for the supervision of students while on placement, and members of the host clinical teams (social workers, occupational therapists, consultants, etc) who had interacted with students as part of the multidisciplinary team in their placement sites. There was significant variation in the make-up of local clinical teams, and in the students’ interaction with MDTMs across the 12 placement sites. Interaction with MDTMs was frequently either as a chance encounter, or following a formal introduction by the clinical tutor. This was further complicated by COVID-19 restrictions, which meant that many multidisciplinary team meetings were being held online during the time of this cohort’s clinical placements.

Study recruitment

Students were informed of the study at the beginning of their clinical clerkships and were contacted by GE once they had completed these placements. The psychiatry administrative team provided lists of potential participants to invite to interview ensuring maximum variation of backgrounds throughout the groups following completion of each rotation. Students were randomly selected according to gender, placement location, and whether the student was direct or graduate entry.

There was a high rate of non-response among students, a situation which is increasingly noted in studies with student populations 45 and attributable to a range of issues, including: timing, interest in the research topic and fatigue brought on by being an over-researched population. 45 46 Having initially attempted to purposively select students according to the defined criteria within each rotation, a collective decision was made by the authors to adopt a pragmatic approach to sampling, and an invitation to participate was extended to all students from the 2021/2022 cohort during the final rotation, so as to increase the sample size. We were, however, still able to recruit an equal number of students who were graduate/non-graduate entry and those who completed their clerkships in urban/non-urban areas. We achieved an almost equal split of female/male students ( table 1 ).

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Interview participants and participant characteristics

Clinical tutors were approached by VR, as clinical lead for the study, and contact details were shared with GE where consent was provided. Clinical tutors provided details of MDTMs working within their services, who had exposure to the project, again where consent was provided. Participants were provided with a Participant Information Leaflet (PIL), given an opportunity to consider involvement, and to ask any questions in advance of meeting with the interviewer. All participants provided explicit, written, informed consent.

384 students, 11 clinical tutors and 3 MDTMs were invited to participate in the study. Ultimately 16 students, 8 tutors and 3 MDTMs were interviewed ( table 1 ). One additional tutor dropped out prior to interview—no explanation was provided, nor required as set out in the study PIL and ethics application.

Patient and public involvement

No patient or public involvement.

Data collection

Qualitative semistructured interviews were considered an appropriate method of data collection due to the exploratory nature of the study within a novel context. Interviews with students were conducted throughout the 2021/2022 academic year and took place following completion of their 6-week psychiatry clerkships. A conscious decision was made to interview clinical tutors and MDTMs in the summer months following the completion of all student rotations, so that they could reflect on the academic year as a whole. All students interviewed completed separate asset-mapping exercises. Some students were in the same clinical site as others, but at different time points.

Interviews were conducted according to the participants’ availability, and typically within 2–3 weeks of completing the clerkship (students), or of overseeing the annual cohort of students (clinical tutors/MDTMs). Students who were invited to participate outside of their initial recruitment cycle were interviewed, no more than 6 months following completion of their clerkship. Some clinical tutors were interviewed up to 2 months following completion of the clerkship due to heavy workloads or personal circumstances.

Interviews were conducted online using MS teams and were scheduled and conducted by GE, a male research officer working in the university’s education and faculty development unit, who is unaffiliated with the psychiatry department. GE has experience of qualitative research, had no responsibility for teaching this cohort of students and, prior to recruitment, was unknown to all study participants. This minimised the potential for power differentials to arise during data collection. 47 48

Interviews were recorded and auto-transcribed before being checked for accuracy and pseudonymised by GE. Identifiers were removed and recordings were irrevocably deleted following the cleaning of the collected data. Pseudonymised transcripts were shared with VR and LM for analysis. Interviews lasted between 20 min and 50 min and separate interview guides were developed and used for the three different participant groups (see online supplemental material 3 ). The development of interview guides was based on the ABCD literature, and its anticipated impact on the participants in an undergraduate education context. The interview guides differed based on the need to reflect the unique perspectives and challenges of each of the three populations, that is, questions were posed to the tutors about supervising the project, whereas students were asked about the demands of completing and undertaking the asset-mapping exercise as part of their clinical clerkship. Fieldnotes were not taken during interviews, however, non-verbal responses and emphasis on particularly salient points were noted as the transcripts were cleaned and checked for accuracy vis-à-vis the video recordings.

Data analysis

An inductive thematic analysis using Braun and Clarkes’ six-step approach 49 was used for the purposes of data analysis. This followed the processes of data familiarisation, developing initial codes, identifying, reviewing and defining themes and writing the report.

All authors independently familiarised themselves with three transcripts from each population in the first instance, coding line-by-line, before meeting to discuss preliminary observations and to begin identifying initial codes. The remaining transcripts were coded iteratively with authors meeting every second week to discuss progress and to review and refine any additional codes that might have emerged. Frequent meetings and sustained communication ensured that any disagreements were discussed and consensus was achieved. The authors hand-coded all transcripts in shared documents on a cloud-based version of Microsoft Word.

Once all transcripts were coded, the authors grouped codes so as to develop initial themes (see online supplemental material 4 ). Following a rereading of the transcripts and a review of the initial themes, the authors defined and agreed three themes based on the study aims and objectives. The data were then summarised as per the agreed themes.

The study strived for data sufficiency, which the research team identified as a point whereby further data collection was deemed unnecessary based on existing insights from the current sample. 50 51 The data gathered from both students and clinical tutors were considered comprehensive based on initial familiarisation and analysis of the data.

We identified three overarching themes, through inductive reasoning, from the qualitative analysis of interviewees’ reported experience of the asset-mapping initiative:

Connecting the individual patient with the community.

Relationship building.

Pedagogical challenges and rewards.

Illustrative quotations for each theme can be seen in table 2 (see online supplemental material 4 for additional quotations). Participants consented for pseudonymised quotations to be used verbatim in the reporting of results.

Illustrative quotations

Connecting the individual patient with the community

Student interviewees’ responses to questions in the topic guide suggested that they grasped the theoretical principles and identified with the values underlying the asset-based approach. They also recognised the key element of the model, namely the patient’s frame of reference. There were frequent references to how the asset-mapping exercise provided actual evidence of the social component within the biopsychosocial model of care, which had been covered extensively in lectures and tutorials from a theoretical perspective, but which was not always evident in students’ clinical learning experiences. Some students reported that despite having previously undertaken a clinical placement in the same geographic location, they only became aware of local assets after they had participated in the asset mapping project during their psychiatry rotation. Conversely, students who had already completed asset mapping during their psychiatry rotation, before placements in other disciplines, reported that their learning experience was enhanced by greater factual knowledge of local community resources.

When asked about how patients described the types of assets they valued, it was the category of individual assets that was most frequently mentioned activities such as meeting family or walks in the immediate area. The students recognised that many activities were significantly impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic restrictions on travel and in-person attendance at social activities and events, a particular issue in rural areas. They realised that the information elicited from patients was often new to the treating teams, and that the digital poster produced was of benefit to patient care. Comparable comments emerged in interviews with the tutors, with some stating that their knowledge of local resources had increased, while others pointed to the benefit to individual patient care that derived from patient-perceived assets identified by students. Among MDTM interviewees, there was strong enthusiasm for the asset-mapping project in terms of the values it represented. They recognised the similarities with the recovery approach utilised in mental health and they could identify the benefits of asset mapping for themselves in their professional role.

Relationship building

While students were encouraged to seek support in completing the asset-mapping assignment from clinical staff, they were required to elicit the information from patients themselves during history-taking activity. Several students spoke about appreciating the person behind the diagnosis and that this lessened the power imbalance in their interaction with patients. They also acknowledged the value of the patients’ input in identifying resources they found beneficial and, as a result, the students reported more willingness to involve the patient in their treatment plan. Beyond the student-patient interaction, it was apparent from the interviews that the structure of the assignment facilitated teamwork between students from different cultural backgrounds, and a greater appreciation of the role and contribution of MDTMs. The asset-mapping exercise provided students with the opportunity to give new information to the treating team, thereby making a unique contribution to patient care, and creating a shift in the traditional student-teacher relationship, from that of passive learner towards one of greater agency on the students’ part. Student interviewees reported strong sense of validation from the response received from sharing the asset map with senior members of the clinical team.

Pedagogical rewards and challenges

All student interviewees felt that the asset-mapping assignment was a valid learning activity, complementing their other experiences during the placement, and that it should be retained within the undergraduate psychiatry curriculum. They embraced the value of holistic care with enthusiasm, with some expressing that it may be more beneficial introduced in the earlier years. Most tutors also expressed positive opinions of the educational value of the asset-mapping exercise. Several felt it promoted teamwork among the students and served to increase integration with non-medical members of the clinical team. However, tutors’ responses to questions exploring the educational value of the assignment tended to be nuanced. Some expressed anxiety that the time spent by students on this non-graded activity could distract from what tutors regarded as core learning needs. In marked contrast to views expressed by the students, a small number of tutors cautioned that asset mapping could threaten students’ professional identity and cause them to have what one tutor described as a ‘wishy-washy’ impression of psychiatry.

Students reported little difficulty incorporating questions on assets into their history-taking, often reporting having experimented with different wording, in order to discover which questions worked best. Importantly, several students reported that asset-based questions were non-threatening and helped to establish rapport and trust. They described how eliciting information on perceived assets from patients helped to normalise the interaction and acted as helpful counter-balance to the detailed and intrusive approach required in establishing the presence or otherwise of symptoms of psychopathology, such as hallucinations and delusions.

In exploring perceived challenges and how the asset-mapping activity could be better delivered, student interviewees provided a rich and diverse set of responses. The most frequent challenge described was that asset mapping called on the students’ ability to demonstrate resourcefulness and self-directedness as adult learners, and some felt the demands in this regard were excessive. It was also apparent that some teaching sites provided better opportunities for the asset-mapping assignment than others, because of varying opportunities for direct patient contact, local impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic, or other contextual factors affecting the students’ overall experience. Some students expressed concern that the project was not sufficiently integrated with other learning resources.

When asked whether they felt the asset-mapping assignment should be formally graded, the great majority of both students and tutors favoured it remaining as a non-graded activity. The current arrangement whereby the department of psychiatry offered a certificate award for the best poster during the academic year from each teaching site found general favour. MDTM interviewees felt they could have better supported students had they been better informed on the project in advance, with some fully grasping the initiative only when the students presented the poster at the end of the placement. Some tutors questioned the appropriateness of asset-mapping as part of the medical undergraduate learning experience, although even the most sceptical acknowledged that it was not excessively burdensome and that it proved to be a feasible addition to the clinical clerkship.

To our knowledge, this is the first published study exploring the impact of community asset mapping as a component of the undergraduate medical curriculum. In summary, our major findings were that medical students embraced the concept of ABCD, felt that asset mapping offered a unique understanding of the social within the biopsychosocial model and that it complemented their other learning experiences. Overseeing the asset-mapping assignment during the clinical clerkship was seen as a manageable task by tutors and the innovation was welcomed by multidisciplinary members of the host clinical teams. Student interviewees demonstrated sensitivity to the individual patient’s frame of reference in identifying meaningful community assets across a range of categories, while also describing a greater appreciation of the contribution of non-medical members of the multidisciplinary team. Both students and tutors recognised the importance of factual community knowledge as essential to holistic patient care and the potential applicability of the asset-based approach within clinical specialties other than psychiatry.

Other important findings were, first, that students found that questions exploring perceived assets helped to build rapport with patients and could be easily interwoven into the standard process of psychiatric history-taking. Second, the task of team-based preparation and presentation of the asset map in the form of a PowerPoint poster, as perceived both by students and their local tutors, was transferable across multiple clinical teaching sites and provided a unique opportunity for students’ active role in patient care to be validated.

Our first theme, Connecting the Individual with the Community, resonates with findings from a qualitative study by Garouette and McCarthy-Gilmore within a third-level sociology programme, suggesting that the asset-mapping experience increased students’ understanding of the relationship between individuals and the broader community. 52 This theme is also consistent with other findings in a postgraduate medical educational context, where there was evidence of a change in paediatric residents’ attitudes to their role as paediatricians in the community. 30 Our student interviewees’ spontaneous references to the benefits of the information on community resources obtained through asset mapping in other specialty rotations, especially general practice, support Calderon et al ’s contention that primary care medical training is especially well placed to integrate the asset-based approach. 31

In keeping with previous literature suggesting that relationships, interactions and dialogue are central features of asset-based approaches, our second overarching theme, Relationship Building , reflects the shift in the pattern of relatedness between the various actors involved in the project. 53 Students attributed a range of benefits to the asset-mapping experience, including: enhanced person-centredness in their engagement with patients; increased agency in their interactions with their clinical supervisors and more rewarding interactions with non-medical members of the clinical team. Similar findings were reported in a qualitative study among paediatric residents of community placement, which also found a shift in the understanding of their role as physicians. 20

Our final overarching theme, Pedagogical Rewards and Challenges, reflects findings that are particularly salient for medical educators and curriculum planners. Some students were discomposed initially by the relatively less structured nature of the task in comparison to their other assignments, yet all favoured retaining it within the curriculum. One possible explanation for their receptivity is that, as future healthcare practitioners, the students were instinctively attracted by an approach that builds on the tradition of relationship-based practice and were then reinforced in this regard by the positive emotional response they received from the patients they interviewed. 54

In this regard, our findings also suggest that in responding to the challenge of a relatively less structured and directed learning task, within a real-world clinical service environment, students were able to adapt and draw creatively on their own resources as adult learners, individually and as a group. The student interviews revealed that the asset-mapping assignment generated anxiety, in keeping with previous literature, much of which frames the transition to clinical learning conceptually as a struggle. 55 Equally, however, our findings support arguments for positively reframing these transitions as potential and transformative experiences, in which students are offered tools for ownership of their learning and an opportunity to develop coping skills that will be essential as they progress to clinical situations of increasing complexity and uncertainty. 56

It was interesting that, in contrast to the students’ opinions, some tutor interviewees were more cautious and acknowledged fears that asset mapping could contribute to a dilution of students’ medical identity. In interpreting this finding, it seems plausible to suggest that tutors, as trainees in psychiatry still in their early career, may be relatively more sensitive to the risk that a socially focused learning experience could risk undermining the students’ perception of psychiatry as a fundamentally medical specialty. It is also possible that the reaction of some tutors reflected an understandable fear that students might underperform in their summative assessments and that this, in turn, could reflect negatively on the tutor. Consequently, in introducing asset mapping as an addition to the traditional undergraduate curriculum, our findings suggest that even among younger clinical teachers, the novelty of the approach is such that that enthusiasm for the initiative cannot be assumed and that comprehensive induction and ongoing support from senior faculty must be provided.

In terms of other challenges, some students critiqued the fact that the ABCD model was not well integrated into their other clinical learning and course materials and felt it should have been introduced during the earlier years of their course. This observation points towards one of the pitfalls identified in the literature in a broader service context, namely that attempts to superimpose a new approach on top of the existing system may encounter what has been described as an inhibitive organisational culture, that leaves the old system intact beneath. 57 Similarly, it has been argued that if asset-based approaches are to be moved from the margins to the mainstream, organisations must be ‘in it for the long game’. 58 An important consideration, therefore, in ensuring that asset mapping is not merely tokenistic would appear to be that its underlying principles are introduced early, and that related learning opportunities are provided across the full range of clinical specialties.

In comparing our findings to those of other published descriptions and evaluations of the range interventions aimed at introducing students to psychosocial factors in mental health, a common theme emerges that students value direct patient engagement above all. 59 60 Asset mapping would appear to have the particular advantage over other interventions in the area in that the requirement to elicit the lived experience of the patient is built into the design. A further potential advantage is the intervention’s relatively uncomplicated structure, such that major curricular adjustments are not required for its implementation. The asset-mapping component, therefore, could be offered within clinical specialty placements in addition to psychiatry while also providing a rich source of material for an integrated reflective learning experience that cuts across several other disciplines. 42

Our study findings are strengthened by the fact that we explored the perspectives of a range of key groups: students, clinical tutors and MDTMs across urban and rural clinical teaching sites. However, as a pilot study, using a qualitative methodology alone, there are several limitations. The sample may have under-represented the views of those who had a less positive experience, while the numbers of non-medical participants was low. In further evaluating the initiative, a quantitative method such as a broader survey of the opinions would be useful. Similarly, the students’ factual knowledge of community resources before and after the clerkship could be assessed. While the pilot study yielded a rich qualitative dataset, we were unable to directly explore the patient experience. The benefits of the learning experience may have been reinforced had the project involved direct contacts between students and the community assets identified by the patients. One of our stated objectives was that the asset mapping assignment would enhance students’ experience and understanding of psychiatry. It is difficult to draw firm conclusions from our findings regarding the extent to which this objective was met. While the initiative was received positively by our interviewees, and increased their appreciation of psychiatry’s psychosocial aspects, their overall experience and understanding of psychiatry would be influenced by a range of other factors. Introduction of the asset-mapping initiative also coincided with a period during which COVID-19 restrictions may have impacted significantly on the students’ overall learning experience. 61

A proposal has been submitted to introduce the asset mapping project within the earlier years of the medical school curriculum. This aligns with recent changes in the RCSI undergraduate medical school programme, which has introduced a spiral curriculum, that is, key topics, subjects and themes are revisited throughout the course. 62

This pilot qualitative study found that an asset-mapping assignment, while challenging, was experienced positively by students, their tutors and MDTMs, in both urban and rural community placements. Asset mapping promoted greater student awareness of patients as active partners in mental healthcare, who can identify community assets that enhance their well-being and quality of life. The innovation as described, was implemented within a traditional 6 week clinical clerkship and as such, could be considered by other specialties and within other undergraduate medical school curricula. Our qualitative findings could inform the design of a larger study to include quantitative methods and an exploration of asset mapping from the patient perspective.

Ethics statements

Patient consent for publication.

Not applicable.

Ethics approval

Ethical approval was granted from the Research Ethics Committee at RCSI University of Medical and Health Sciences, Dublin (reference number 202110015). Participants gave informed consent to participate in the study before taking part.

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to thank Professor Kieran Murphy, Chairman, RCSI Department of Psychiatry for supporting the initiative and the Department of Psychiatry administrative staff for their assistance with recruitment. The authors would also like to thank Professor Jan Illing, Director, RCSI Health Professions Education Centre, for initial help defining the parameters of the project, and HPEC colleagues, Dr Jenny Moffett, Dr Dara Cassidy and Ms Catherine Bruen for guidance on preparing the manuscript for publication. Finally, the authors wish to acknowledge the cooperation and support of the mental health services within which the study was carried out.

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X @GarethIE1

Contributors VR and LM conceived the study. GE completed the data collection. All authors contributed to the analysis and interpretation of the data. GE and VR prepared a first draft, with LM contributing significantly to subsequent revisions. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. VR is the guarantor.

Funding The authors have not declared a specific grant for this research from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

Competing interests None declared.

Patient and public involvement Patients and/or the public were not involved in the design, or conduct, or reporting, or dissemination plans of this research.

Provenance and peer review Not commissioned; externally peer-reviewed.

Supplemental material This content has been supplied by the author(s). It has not been vetted by BMJ Publishing Group Limited (BMJ) and may not have been peer-reviewed. Any opinions or recommendations discussed are solely those of the author(s) and are not endorsed by BMJ. BMJ disclaims all liability and responsibility arising from any reliance placed on the content. Where the content includes any translated material, BMJ does not warrant the accuracy and reliability of the translations (including but not limited to local regulations, clinical guidelines, terminology, drug names and drug dosages), and is not responsible for any error and/or omissions arising from translation and adaptation or otherwise.

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• Sampson, H. (204) Navigating the waves: the usefulness of a pilot in qualitative research, Qualitative Research, 4 , 3, pp. 383-402.
• Williams-McBean, C. T. (2019) The Value of a Qualitative Pilot Study in a Multi-Phase Mixed Methods Research, The Qualitative Report, 24 , 5, pp. 1055-1064.
• How many interviews are needed for a pilot study in a qualitative research approach?: https://www.researchgate.net/post/How_many_interviews_are_needed_for_a_pilot_study_in_a_qualitative_research_approach

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