critical reflection on relationship between society and education

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6 6 Does Education Really Change Society? Theoretical Reflections on a Case Study

• Published: October 2012
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Sociologists and anthropologists always have a sense of unease over what education is doing to society. Does education really make any difference? Or is it only reproducing inequality? And how can one know the answer? This chapter highlights some of the ways in which recent social theory can help us grapple with these questions. This chapter evaluates the notion that education leads to the reproduction of inequality in society, culture, and economy, and examines the roles played by structure and agency. It argues that a literal interpretation of the reproduction thesis is misleading, and suggests that a more nuanced understanding—with a more differentiated conceptual treatment—is needed. This author identifies the ways by which social theory can help illuminate the role of education in inequality, and discusses the views of Margaret Archer and Anthony Giddens who integrated systemic theorizing with the play of individual agency. In conclusion, the author suggests that we need a vision that encapsulates a wider view of the concrete roles, groups, and processes in society. Only then may one begin to address the question of whether education is making any difference at all.

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The relationship between education and society (7040 words).

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Society may be viewed as a system of interrelated mutually dependent parts which cooperate (more or less) to preserve a recognisable whole and to satisfy some purpose or goal. Social system refers to the orderly arrangement of parts of society and plurality of individuals interacting with each other. Social system presupposes a social structure consisting of different parts which are interrelated in such a way as to perform its functions.

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To perform its functions every society sets up various institutions. Five major complexes of institutions are identified: familial institutions, religious institutions, educational institutions, economic institutions and political institutions. These institutions form sub-systems within social system or larger society.

Education as a Sub-System:

Education is a sub-system of the society. It is related to other sub-systems. Various institutions or sub-systems are a social system because they are interrelated. Education as a sub-system performs certain functions for the society as whole. There are also functional relations between education and other sub-systems. For example, Education trains the individuals in skills that are required by economy. Similarly education is conditioned by the economic institutions.

The effectiveness of organised activities of a society depends on the interaction and inter relationships of these institutions which constitute the whole. Now we will examine the role of education for the society and the relationship between education and other sub-system of society in terms of functionalist perspective. The functionalist view of education tends to focus on the positive contributions made by education to the maintenance of social system.

Emile Durkheim says that the major function of education is the transmission of society’s norms and values. He maintains that, “society can survive only if there exists among its members a sufficient degree of homogeneity; education perpetuates and reinforces this homogeneity by fixing in the child from the beginning the essential similarities which collective life demands”. Without these essential similarities, cooperation, social solidarity and therefore social life would be impossible. The vital task of all society is the creation of solidarity.

This involves a commitment to society, a sense of belonging and feeling that the social unit is more important than the individual. Durkheim argues that to become attached to society the child must feel in it something that is real, alive and powerful, which dominates the person and to which he also owes the best part of himself.

Education in particular the teaching of history, provides this link between the individual and society. If the history of his society is brought alive to the child, he will come to see that he is a part of something larger than himself, he will develop a sense of commitment to the social group.

Durkheim argues that in complex industrial societies, the school serves a function which cannot be provided either by family or peer groups. Membership of the family is based on kinship relationship, membership of the poor group on the personal choice.

Membership of society as a whole is based neither of these principles. Individuals must learn to cooperate with those who are neither their kin nor their friends. The school provides a context where these skills can be learned. As such, it is society in miniature, a model of the social system. In school, the child must interact with other members of the school in terms of fixed set of rules.

Drawing on Durkheim’s ideas, Talcott Parsons argues that after primary socialisation within the family, the school takes over as the ‘focal socialising agency’. School acts a bridge between the family and society as a whole, preparing the child for his adult role. Within the family, the child is judged and treated largely in terms of ‘particularistic’ standards.

In the wider society the individual is treated and judged in terms of ‘Universalistic’ standards. Within the family the child’s status is ascribed, it is fixed by birth. However, in advanced industrial society, status in adult life is largely achieved. Thus, the child must move from particularistic standards and ascribed status of the family to universalistic standards and achieved status of adult society.

The school prepares young people for this transition. Schools operates on meritocratic principle, status is achieved on the basis of merit. Like Durkheim, Parsons also argue that the school represents society in miniature. By reflecting the operation of society as a whole, the school prepares young people for their adult roles.

As part of this process, schools socialise young people into the basic values of society. These values have important functions in society as a whole.

Finally, Parsons sees the educational system as an important mechanism for the selection of individuals for their future role in society. In his words, it “functions to allocate these human resources within the role structure of adult society”. Thus, schools, by testing and evaluating students, match their talents, skills and capacities to the jobs for which they are best suited. The school is therefore seen as the major mechanism for role allocation.

Like Parsons, Davis and Moore see education as means of role allocation. But they link the educational system more directly with the system of social stratification. According Davis and Moore social stratification is a mechanism for ensuring that most talented and able members of society are allocated to those positions which are functionally most important for the society. High rewards which act as incentives are attached to these positions which means that all will win through. The education system is one important part of this process.

Scholars have also analysed the relationship of education and society in terms of ‘Marxian perspective’. Chief among them are Louis Althusser, Samuel Bowels and Herbert Gintis. According to Althusser, a French philosopher, as a part of the superstructure, the educational system is ultimately shaped by infrastructure. It will therefore reflect the relations of production and serve the interests of the capitalist ruling class.

For the ruling class to survive and prosper, the reproduction of labour power is essential. He argues that the reproduction of labour involves two processes. First, the reproduction of the skills necessary for an efficient labour force. Second, the reproduction of ruling class ideology and the socialisation workers in terms of it.

These processes combine to reproduce a technically efficient and submissive and obedient work force. The role of education in capitalist society is the reproduction of such a work force. Althusser argues that the reproduction of labour power requires not only reproduction of its skills, but also, at the same time a reproduction of its submission to the ruling ideology.

The submission is reproduced by a number of ideological State Apparatuses”, such as mass media, law, religion and education. Ideological State Apparatus transmit ruling class ideology thereby creating false class consciousness.

Education not only transmits a general ruling class ideology which justifies and legitimates the capitalist system. It also reproduces the attitudes and behaviour required by the major groups in the division of labour. It teaches workers to accept and submit to their exploitation, it teaches the agents of ‘exploitation and repression’, the managers, administrators and politicians, how to practise their crafts and rule the work force as agents of ruling class.

Like Althusser, the American economists Bowels and Gintis argue that the major role of education in capitalist society is the reproduction of labour power. In particular, they maintain that education contributes to the reproduction of workers with the kind of personalities, attitudes and outlooks which will fit them for their exploited status. They argue that social relationships in schools replicate the hierarchical division of labour in their work place.

It can be stated here that education performs certain role for the society. At the same time education is also conditioned by the social structure. Society crates educational institutions such as schools, colleges and universities to perform certain functions in accomplishing its end. The educational system may be viewed as a part of the total social system.

It reflects and influences the social and cultural order of which it is a part. The class system, the cultural values, the power structure, the balance between individual freedom and social control, the degree of urbanisation and industrialisation all these factors exercise a profound influence on school system of any society.

Functional Relationships between Education and other Sub-Systems:

What are the functional relationships between education and other sub-systems of society. Many functionalists have argued that there is functional relationship between different sub-systems. For example there is a functional relationship between education and economic system. Skills and values learned in education are directly related to the way in which the economy and the occupational structure operate. Education trains the individuals in skills that are required by the economy. Similarly, education is also influenced by economy.

Throughout the twentieth century, the rapid expansion of the tertiary occupation in industrial societies has produced an increasing demand for clerical, technical’, professional and managerial skills. Education reflects these changes in the economy.

In this context Halsey and Floud argue that, the educational system is bent increasingly to the service of the labour force. This can be seen from the steady increase in the school leaving age, the increasing specialisation of educational provision and the rapid expansion of higher and vocational education.

Various institutions or sub-Systems – familial, political, economic, educational institutions – may be viewed as a ‘whole cluster of institutions’. These institutions are social system because they are interrelated. A social system reveals a balance between its parts which facilitates its operation. Occasionally it may reveal imbalance, but it tends towards equilibrium.

In a changing society the interdependence of social institutions has a good deal of significance, to quote Ogburn and Nimkoff, for a change in one institution may affect other institutions”. For example, when a country changes its Constitution, the change is never confined to its political institutions. Corresponding changes take place in economic relationships, in the educational system, in the class structure and so on. All the social institutions would be in balance, each being adjusted to other, forming a single unified scheme.

Social Origins and Orientation of Students and Teachers:

Education is a social concern. It is a social process. Its objective is to develop and awaken in the child those physical, intellectual and moral states which are acquired of the individual by his society as a whole and the milieu for which he is specially destined. It is the significant means of socialisation. The function of education is to socialise the young by imparting to them norms and values, culture and heritage, and to provide them with skills and placement. This is traditionally, the accepted role of education.

In the West, for long, literacy was not considered essential for all. It remained confined to the priests, ruling classes and to commercial class. The education imparted was literary and religious. The valuation of education was not very high. In the Indian social milieu, education has been traditionally given significant importance.

Education has been given greater prominence in India than in Western or Islamic societies or in China. Referring to eighteenth century education in France, Helvelius observed that men “are born ignorant, not stupid; they are made stupid by education.” In England, where, there did not exist a well organized education system, there were the public schools for the higher strata of the society.

But in these schools, “nothing worked except flogging.” In our country too, education suffered great fall and decline down the centuries. Eighteenth century, witnessed the total disruption of educational system. The British introduced their “own language gradually and eventually the language of public business throughout the country.”

In fulfillment of the provisions of Charter Act 1833, the resolution of Governor General’s Council, provided that education be imparted in English ‘alone’. In this Macarlays’ aim was, “to form a class who may be… Indian in blood and colour but English in tastes.” It ultimately arrested Indian intellectuality, alienated the educated from their mooring and gave to the society an educational system not representing the educational personality.

The modern industrial society with its advance technology, division of labour, job differentiation, assumes a general standard of literacy. It cannot carry on with handful of education and mass illiteracy. The technological advancement has necessitated the re-orientation of education.

The environmental effect of the education of child is now given special stress and attention. J.W.B. Douglas, in The Home and the School has specially developed this aspect of child education.

“The advantages which first children have over latter siblings in Douglas’s study, are best understood in terms of the greater degree of attention and responsibility which most first children are likely to receive from their parents as well as the greater responsibilities they have to shoulder. Likewise, children from smaller families generally have higher educational attainment, since they are also likely to receive more parental attention than children in large families.”

“Focussing on parental attention in this way helps us understand why apparently unconnected factors all tend to work in the same direction. They also affect the child’s behaviour at school as well as within the home. The amount and quality of child-adult interactions influence the development of the child’s linguistic capacity, e.g., the range of his vocabulary.

Likewise, the child’s own interest in schooling, as distinct from that of this parents, and his sense of being at ease when at school, are affected both directly and indirectly by his awareness of the importance and value his parents explicitly and implicitly place on schooling.

“The family itself thus constitutes a learning situation for the child. Nor is the child simply ‘moulded’ by the family environment. He or she is an active agent who has to learn to interpret that environment… Consequently, when considering the effects of the home on educational attainment. It is not enough to see this simply as the result of the occupation and education of the parents. Family insecurity, for example, is not only produced by poverty but also results when professional parents with busy lives spend little time with their children. Resentments built up through such family interactions may undermine the good intentions of parents to help their children perform well in school”.

In USA, there does not exist a national system of education. It is not a Federal subject. It is left entirely to the care of the local administration. There, therefore, exists diversity of institutions and of standards. Even within the same State, educational standards and the quality of schools varies.

The American elementary and high school education is comprehensive, and in the schools are conducted commercial, vocational and college preparatory programmes. There are schools, which exclusively conduct college preparatory courses. In England, there are elementary schools for the working class, Grammar schools for middle class children, and public school education, for the children of the upper class.

This pattern has remained more or less unchanged, since long time. The Education Act of 1944, did not bring about any change in this differentiation. There is, however, effort being made to bring about the changes in the system, to develop comprehensive school system. Education in our country under the British Raj did not make much progress.

In 1939, literacy did not cover more than 10 per cent of the population. Since independence much extension has been given to education and literacy. Efforts are afoot to extend education both at the primary and adult levels.

In the five decades since independence much advance has been made in education at secondary, college and university levels. Under the new pattern Ten plus Two system at the secondary and senior secondary levels, emphasis is now being laid on vocational and technical education.

In the traditional society, teacher was taken to symbolise the best in social values. He was accepted as a moral authority. But this position has now undergone a distinct change. Teacher in an educated society is not the only person who can be said to have intellectual competence and school too is not the only institution to impart education.

The normative aspect of education is not attended to. In fact it has remained neglected. The emphasis in learning is on the accumulation of knowledge or acquiring a qualification, vocational or otherwise.

Equality of Educational Opportunity:

The equalisation of educational opportunities is essentially linked with the notion of equality in the social system. In a social system if all the individuals are treated as equal, they get equal opportunities for advancement. Since education is one of the most important means of upward mobility, it is through an exposure to education one can aspire to achieve higher status, position and emoluments.

But for getting education he must have equal opportunities like other members of the society. In case educational opportunities are unequally distributed, the inequalities in the social structure continue to be perpetuated, it is in this light the quality of educational opportunity has been visualised.

The need for emphasising the equality of opportunity in education arise due to number of reasons. Some of these reasons are enumerated below:

(a) It is needed because it is through the education to all the people in a democracy; the success of democratic institutions is assured.

(b) The equality of educational opportunities will ensure rapid development of a nation.

(c) A closer link between the manpower needs of a society and the availability of a skilled personnel will develop.

(d) People with specialised talents for specialised jobs in a large number will be available and the society will be benefited.

A society which hold high promise of “Equality of status and of opportunity” for all and assures” the dignity of individual and the unity and integrity of the Nations”, has to attend to the mass spreading of learning much in the interest of creating the appropriate ground work for the social advancement. Education is supposed to eliminate social and economic inequality.

The relationship between education and inequality is a result of the historical particulars of the educational system. There are two factors in this (1) the available opportunities which structure individual choices and (2) the social and economic process which structure individual choices while the above factors point out that the educational system is a product of the social structure it must be remembered that it is not a one-way process because the educational system itself and the values it stands for influences individual decisions.

Educational Inequality:

The major problem with respect to the equality of educational opportunity is the perpetuation of inequalities through education. It is through a system of education in which elite control is predominant that the inequalities are perpetuated. In an elite controlled system the schools practise segregation. This segregation may be on the basis of caste, colour or class etc. In South Africa schools practise segregation on the basis of colour.

Equality of educational opportunity is more talked about, than really believed. In all modern industrially advanced countries there is the total inequality of educational opportunity. Educational opportunities for a child are determined by his family, class, neighborhood consideration.

A comprehensive school system free from these considerations is the demand all over the world. There is a move to this effect in U.S.A., France and Britain, and among the East European countries, especially in (Zechoslovakia, Yugoslavia and Sweden, where comprehensive school system is followed. But the movement is comparatively weak in Britain and France.

The size of the family and the parental attitude makes a lot of difference to the educational career of a child. The educated parents give due attention to the education of the children. The family influence determines the educational goal of the children.

Inequality of educational opportunity also occurs due to the poverty of a large section of the population and the relative affluence of small minority. The poor cannot pay the fees and their children do not find chances of continuing in schools. Children from the families that cannot provide the economic support and other perquisite, suffer badly. From this group, there is the maximum number of dropouts.

Education and social status have close connection. Social class position includes income, occupation and life style. These have impact on the upbringing of the child.

In the U.S.A. “Negros make up a disproportionately high percentage of school dropouts and their educational level is below that of whites. Under the segregated schooling that long prevailed in the United States, officially in the South and informally elsewhere, Negroes received an inferior education. Racially segregated schools have simply been poorer schools and children in these schools are not given the same opportunity to learn to the same level as white schools.

The neighborhood environment has much to do with the education of the children. Low income families concentrate in the inner city, live in old and decaying houses. Families with similar level of income, and similar vocation live in neighborhood. This sort of inequality is found everywhere in the West. The residential segregation is a factor that produces class structures. Neighborhood has its impact on the school, and on the peer group.

The attitude of the teacher has much to do with education of the children. The very real measurable differences between middle class and lower class children in tests, as well as the differences between white and Negro children, are to be accounted for, not by innate differences in ability, but by differences of cultural exposure and bearing opportunities.

The children in rural areas studying in poorly equipped schools have to compete with the children in urban areas where there are well-equipped schools and more informative environment for getting admission to the schools for higher bearing on professional colleges.

In Indian situation educational inequality due to sex is also very much visible. Girls’ education at all stages of education is not given the same encouragement as boys. The social customs and taboos hinder the progress of girls’ education. They are given inferior position in the family and their education is neglected.

Educational inequality is due to the system itself and also on account of conditions prevailing in society. It is multi-sided affair and is continuing both in developed and developing societies. In many societies it finds expression in the form of public schools.

Some of the societies including our own, run public schools which provide much better education than the type of education provided by State run and controlled educational institutions. The education in the former institutions being much costly as compared with the latter and admission obviously open to only few privileged. This creates educational inequality in its own way.

It is a paradox that education which should be the catalyst of change very often reflects the structured inequalities present ‘in the social system. It is really strange that education aimed at social transformation reflects the structured inequalities in our social system.

Education is supposed to eliminate social and economic inequality. Educational institutions are in a sense closed systems since opportunities that elite has for excellent educational system is not available for the unfortunate masses. Obviously this system breeds inequality of opportunities.

In many cities there is a definite status hierarchy in primary education and to a large extend, the choice of a primary school determines career opportunities. Top priority is given to English medium schools sponsored by missionaries since they offer the best education. Next in the hierarchy are non-English medium schools run by religious organisations and charitable trusts.

At the bottom of the hierarchy are the schools run by the Government. Naturally the choice of English medium schools is the forerunner for lucrative and prestigious careers for a particular segment of society. Various State Governments provide primary education free of cost, but since such education is in regional language medium, where the standard of instruction is on par with that of private-school’s the rates of drop-outs are high in such schools.

We have at present a stratified society and a stratified pattern of schooling and they compete each other. Dual system of education has to be done away with through legislation and thereby evolve a common pattern of schooling to build a strong and unified democratic system in India. Educational privileges must reach down to the poor and particularly it should benefit members of the Scheduled Castes.

Rapid expansion of education among women is achieved although they are still at a disadvantage compared to men. To some extent education has proved to be a source of social mobility for the depressed groups.

Education is a double-edged instrument which can eliminate the effects of socio-economic inequalities but it can also introduce a new kind of inequality.

Education can influence the process of social change among the weaker sections of society. Persistent and planned efforts by the Government and voluntary agencies will go a long way toward elimination of educational inequalities.

Education as Medium of Cultural Reproduction, Indoctrination:

The enduring function of education is the cultural reproduction. It has been recognised to be its main role. It is by education that the newborn is initiated in the social ways. It transmits culture to him. At the early stages the aim is to introduce the child to the normative order of his group. In the traditional society kinship group worked for the child to this end. In complex modern industrial society of the West, this work is undertaken by specialized agencies such as school.

In traditional society, cultural reproduction may take place by oral teaching of heritage and culture; history and legend, and in a practical way by participating in the celebration of festivals. One may at a successive stage be introduced to culture through books. Yet one may not be in a position to appreciate it. It is only after one has been initiated and motivated that one gets cultivated in the cultural ways. As indicated above it is a lifelong educational process.

But in present time’s family, school and teachers are no longer the only institutions that influence the growing generations. The movies, radio, record industry, and the television are strong instruments to impart education. Their appeal is direct. But these are not bound to any normative standard. Their basic standard is the marketability. The cultivated morality is challenged; established values are disregarded; mockery is made of humility and decency.

With the disregarding of the traditional values, the growing children find themselves like the waves in the boundless sea, and the older feel to have been left high and dry. “Perhaps nothing disturbs the basic function of cultural transmission by the institution of education as does this growth of a mass media that is not normatively regulated, and indeed that has not been consciously assigned such a function within the society. It throws into critical relief the whole issue of whether the culture is to be transmitted effectively within the frame work of recognized institutions or whether a disparate set of unlinked and unregulated structures and processes are to carry out competitive even contradictory cultural transmission, and whatever unanticipated consequences.”

The role of education as an agent of the transmission of culture is thus diminishing. It is becoming a specialized process.

Indoctrination:

Education is a process of indoctrination. It has been so and it shall remain so. A child is trained in the accepted values to fit in the social milieu. The training of child has been such down the ages. Education and the class room have been used for the perpetuation of the values, beliefs and faith in East and West alike. Pulpit throughout the Christiandom, has been the great instrument of indoctrination. Ecclesiastical order, which for long controlled the education, had generally been fanatic. They had vested interest in perpetuating fanaticism.

The French Marxist philosopher Louis Althusser, held that school has always been used as an ideological apparatus. “The ruling ideology thus determines the dominated culture of society, influencing what is taught in school and universities and determining through education and the mass media what types of thought and language are seen as normal and are ‘rewarded’ by society.”

In France the Third Republic took church to be its worst enemy, since in the church schools was conducted anti-republican propaganda. Gambetta observed, “Clericalism, that is our enemy.” This position was further elaborated by Premier Waldeck Rousseau, a follower of Gambetta. He said that the real peril was the growing power of religious orders of monks and nuns and from the character of the teaching given by them in the religious schools they were conducting.

They were doing their best to make the children hostile to the Republic. In 1902, Combos, the successor of Waldeck Rousseau observed. “Clericalism is, in fact to be found at the bottom of every agitation and every intrigue from which Republican France has suffered during the last thirty five years.”

The present day educational institutions are not free from it. But the role of education in India was regarded humanist. In ancient Indian schools, emphasis was laid on pure values. It is worth quoting. “The aim of learning are settled to be Sraddha (faith), Praja (progeny), dhana (wealth), ayuh (longevity), and amritatva (immortality).

Education and Social Change:

Education is considered the most powerful instrument of social change. It is through education that the society can bring desirable changes and modernise itself. Various studies have revealed the role of education in bringing about social changes.

The relation between education and changes in social structure has been examined in rural contexts. Allen R. Holmberg and Dobyns jointly as well as separately reported the Vicos action research project. The project was a study of the role of enlightenment in social development. The findings of this project were that education became enmeshed in wider social changes as knowledge became the means to status and effective participation.

It was also found that the most modernised citizens in the community were the youngsters, who had attended school. In another study by Daniel Lerner, it was found that the key to modernisation lies in the participant society, i.e. one in which people go to school, red newspapers, participate politically through elections. It is important to note that literacy not only proved to be key variable in moving from a traditional to a transitional society but also the pivotal agent in the transition to a fully participant’ society.

The studies of Philip Foster in Ghana and Edward Shils in India have also revealed the role of education in social change. According to Foster it was formal Western Schooling in Ghana that created a cultural environment in which innovations could take place. Shils making a study of the intellectuals in India came to conclusion that if there is to be any successful bridging in the gap between tradition and modern societies, it is the Western educated intellectual who must perform the task.

James S. Coleman, Foster, Lipset and many others have shown that education plays a very vital role in political change. It is held that political development is largely dependent on education. It provides the skills required by modern political bureaucracies, in many emergent nations it has provided a common language, it helps to recruit elite and provides a central force in movements for independence.

It may be said that social change may be brought about by political situation, economic development, technological development etc. By whatever mans the change may be brought about; education always plays an import role in its propagation.

The political situation may lead to democratic or totalitarian form of Government. The changes in keeping with the form of the government in the society can only be brought about through education. Even the acceptance of the form of Government by the majority will be dependent on how it is being educated.

The economic growth leads to social change. It is however, education which leads to economic growth. The development in science and technology are also dependent on education. Education is a ‘condition’ for economic change.

It is an important means of attaining economic standard of society. It is essential for the economy. Change in the educational system result in social and economic changes, greater social mobility and more skilled and well-trained manpower for technologically based industries.

Education has been playing in important role in getting occupations which are key determinants of general social status. Therefore, the schools are agent in realisation of the desire for upward mobility. The schools are instrumental in transforming the occupational structure as well as class structure. In most developing countries education is regarded as the ‘gateway’ to an improved social status.

Education increases political awareness and political participation of the people. This brings about wider political changes with the increasingly organised participation of the people in national politics.

Education is expected to contribute to ‘progress’. In modern societies educational organisations act as innovators. These organisations disseminate new knowledge and ideas and promote the processes of social change.

According to Alex Inkeles, different levels of education have different levels of effects. In the developing countries primary education is enabling the people to do things they would never have been able to do before. Basic literacy brings a society into world.

Higher education is not only an aid for individual development, but also for the all-round development of the society. In addition, university student’s movements have often been the major force demanding social change in many societies. In China, India, Japan, America and many other countries students agitation have resulted in vast changes.

In some cases, the students movements are found to discredit, transform or topple governments. As Drucker has pointed out, “highly educated man has become the central resource of today’s society and the supply of such men are the true measure of its economic, military and even its political potential”.

Modern Education changes our attitude and values. It affects our customs, traditions, beliefs and manners. It removes our superstitious beliefs and irrational fear about the supernatural things. Now education aims at imparting knowledge about science, technology and other secular knowledge. It has been universally acknowledged that through the promotion of education modern values in social, economic, political and cultural fields can be inculcated.

Education has contributed to the improvement in the status of women. So far as the importance of modern education is concerned, according Inkeles, it helps them in moving away from traditionalism to modernity. It has helped them to seek employment and to come out of the family.

To conclude, education is the driving force behind the phenomenon of social change. The role of education as a factor or instrument of social change and development is universally recognised today. Education can initiate and accelerate the process of change by changing the attitude and values of man. It can change man and his style of living and hence can change the society.

But education follows social changes. Changes in education take place due to the impact of social changes. Changes in content and methods of education become a necessity for education to be relevant and effective. When changes occur in needs of the society. Technology and values of society, education also undergoes changes.

Society has various needs and these need are subject to change. The changing needs of the society bring changes in the educational system. It means that educational changes occur because of social needs and aspirations. Universal education, adult education, vocational and scientific education are the various forms and varieties of education which have been brought about by the needs of modern Indian society.

Many changes occur in education because of cultural changes.

To conclude, education and social change are very intimately related. They influence each other mutually.

Education and Modernisation:

Modernisation denotes total transformation of traditional or pre-modern society into the types of technology and associated social organisation that characterise the advanced economically prosperous and relatively politically stable nations of the West. Modernisation is defined as a conscious set of plans and policies pursued by the leaders or elites of developing countries for changing their societies in the direction of modern developed societies.

Modernisation is the process of transforming the old traditional societies and nations to modernity in the fields of economic, technological, industrial and social advancement. It is to bring a less advanced nation at par with the advanced country. It is the result of the growing recognition of the need for global harmonisation in the larger interests of humanity.

The process modernisation is viewed as one time historical process which was started by the Industrial Revolution in England and the political Revolution in France. Modernisation first occurred in the West through the twin process of commercialization and industrialisation. Early in the twentieth century Japan, the first Asian country, joined the race for industrialisation. Latter U.S.S.R. as well as other countries tried to achieve different degree of modernisation.

The process is to be viewed as an all-in-all process but not a compartmentalised one. Hence, technical, economic, social, industrial and political orders are to be changed radically. Modernisation takes place in different spheres – political, economic, social and educational.

Industrialisation, urbanisation, secularisation, rapid growth of transport and communication, educational revolutions etc. are the steps in the progressive direction of modernisation of a nation.

Modernisation involves not only changes at structural level but also fundamental changes at the personal level, a change in modes of thinking, beliefs, opinion, attitudes and action. Several interacting transformations are involved in the process of modernisation.

Education is a great force in modernisation. It plays a crucial role in various spheres of modernisation. Education has been recognised as the most important factor connected with rise and growth of modernisation process of a society irrespective of cultural milieu in which it finds itself.

It has been universally acknowledged that through the promotion of education, modern values in social economic, political and cultural fields can be inculcated. Rationality and scientific temper being the preponderant characteristics of modernisation can be acquired through constant learning.

Emphasis has been given on education as an instrument for social reconstruction and modernisation. It is particularly the Western education that enabled many to develop and inculcate the sense of modern outlook. Such an evidence was visible enough when India was under British rule.

It was educated population who took the leadership and contributed in bringing many policies and programmes that were sought after before the British. They inculcated the values of patriotism, nativism, humanitarianism only through education and these ideas were employed as tools against the British.

Highly productive economies, distributive justice, people’s participation in decision-making bodies, adoption of scientific technology in industry, agriculture and other professions are accepted as the goals of for modernising a society. These goals are to be achieved through education.

Education prepares the mentality of the people to accept changes. It creates conducive environment for modernisation. By promoting democratic values and progressive attitudes in the people, education makes them capable to participate and strengthen the process of modernisation. It teaches them to fight against social evils, blind beliefs and superstitions.

Education is not only aid for individual development, but also for the all-round development of society and the country. It helps for the development of the qualities of an individual such as mental and emotional makeup as well as his temperament and character. For the individual it provides rational and scientific thinking, reasoning, skills and capabilities to adjust to new situations. Modern education helps people in moving away from traditionalism to modernity.

Education is considered the most powerful instrument of modernisation. It is through education that the society can bring desirable change and modernise itself. Learner says that the key to modernisation lies in the participant society; that is one in which people go through school, read newspapers, are in the wage and market economy, participate politically through elections and change opinions on matters of public business.

The importance of education as an instrument of modernisation needs no special reiteration. Similarly, none can deny the fact that modernisation has its significance to education. They influence mutually. There is a close relationship between education and modernisation.

Modernisation takes place in educational sphere for the effectiveness of education in a society. This involves change in content and methods of education. Modern society is characterised by very rapid and extensive changes. In such a changing society, education aims at communicating empirical knowledge, that is knowledge about science, technology and other types of such specialised knowledge.

In -keeping with the demands of changing society, there has been a corresponding transformations in the contents and methods of instruction. The inclusion of heavy study materials on modern science and technology into the syllabus makes it imperative that course of study on classical language and literature should be abridged or altogether drooped.

In educational sphere, modernisation involves growing specialisation of educational roles and organisations, growing unification and interrelation of different educational activities within the frameworks of one common system.

According to S.N. Isenstadt, “perhaps the best starting point for analysis of the characteristics in the educational institutions in modern societies is the pattern of demands for and the supply of educational services that tended to develop with modernisation.

In the field of demand we can distinguish between the demand for ‘the products’ and the ‘rewards’ of education. Among the most important products of education are, first, various skills, be they general skill such as of occupations or more specific professional and vocational skills, the number of which has continually increased and become diversified with growing economic, technical and scientific development.

“A second major product of education is identification with various cultural, socio-political symbols and values and relatively active commitment to various cultural, social and political groups and organisations.”

The supply side of educational services also become greatly diversified. According to him it includes the supply of manpower to be educated at different levels of educational system and adequate motivation and preparation for education and it includes the supply of various schooling facilities -schools at different levels, ranging from kinder garden to universities, of technical personnel (greatly dependent on fluctuation in the labour market) and of various facilities for the maintenance of such institutions and organisations.

Education plays a crucial role in the process, of modernisation in various fields and modernisation in these fields really enhances the evolvement of education technically which calls for in great need for imparting modern education and for producing capable and resourceful manpower.

It can rightly be concluded that education and modernisation are the two sides of the same coin and these mutually influence each other.

Related Articles:

• Relationship between Education and Social Change
• Relationship between Education, Social Change and Modernization

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Reflective Practices in Education: A Primer for Practitioners

• Haleigh Machost
• Marilyne Stains

Department of Chemistry, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22903

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Reflective practices in education are widely advocated for and have become important components of professional reviews. The advantages of reflective practices are many; however, the literature often focuses on the benefits to students, rather than the benefits for the educators themselves. Additionally, the extant literature concerning reflective practices in education is laden with conflicting terminology and complex studies, which can inhibit educators’ understanding of reflective practices and prevent their adoption. As such, this Essay serves as a primer for educators beginning reflective practices. It briefly describes the benefits to educators and different classifications and modalities of reflection and examines some of the challenges that educators may encounter.

INTRODUCTION

“Reflection” has become a buzzword in academia and has vast array of implications across fields, disciplines, and subdisciplines. When considering reflection about teaching practices, John Dewey, a psychologist and philosopher who was heavily influential in educational reform, provides a relevant description: reflection is ‘‘the active, persistent and careful consideration of any belief or supposed form of knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it and the further conclusions to which it tends” ( Dewey, 1933 , p. 9). The act of reflection in this context is meant to indicate a process , with Dewey highlighting the necessity of active thinking when encountering obstacles and problems. In less philosophical phrasing, reflection entails considering past or present experiences, learning from the outcomes observed, and planning how to better approach similar situations in the future. Consequently, Dewey suggests that educators embark on a journey of continual improvement when engaging in reflective practices. This is in stark contrast to how reflection is used in higher education. For many educators, the only time they engage in reflection is when they are asked to write documents that are used to evaluate whether they should be promoted, receive a raise, or be granted tenure. Reflection, within an evaluation framework, can be counterproductive and prevent meaningful reflections due to perceptions of judgment ( Brookfield, 2017 ).

This gap may result from the particular adaptation of reflections by some academics. The origin of reflective practices lies not in the realm of academia, but rather in professional training. It is often traced back to Donald Schön’s instrumental 1983 work The Reflective Practitioner , which, while aimed at his target audience of nonacademic professionals, has become foundational for reflective practices in teaching ( Munby and Russell, 1989 ).

In the varied topography of professional practice, there is a high, hard ground where practitioners can make effective use of research-based theory and technique, and there is a swampy lowland where situations are confusing “messes” incapable of technical solution. The difficulty is that the problems of the high ground, however great their technical interest, are often relatively unimportant to clients or to the larger society, while in the swamp are the problems of greatest human concern. ( Schön, 1983 , p. 42)

Schön’s work on the education of various professionals gained traction, as he diverged from common norms of the time. In particular, he disagreed with separating knowledge and research from practice, and methods from results ( Schön, 1983 ; Newman, 1999 ). In doing so, he advocated for practical as well as technical knowledge, enabling professionals to develop greater competency in the real-world situations they encounter. Research in the ensuing decades focused on both gaining evidence for the effectiveness of reflective practices ( Dervent, 2015 ; Zahid and Khanam, 2019 ) and understanding the obstacles that can prevent reflective practices from being adopted ( Davis, 2003 ; Sturtevant and Wheeler, 2019 ).

This Essay is not intended to provide a comprehensive review of this work for use by education researchers; rather, the goal of this Essay is to provide a guide, grounded in this literature, to inform beginning reflective practitioners about the benefits of reflections, the different types of reflections that one can engage in, practical advice for engaging in reflective practices, and the potential challenges and corresponding solutions when engaging in reflective practices. It is also intended as a resource for professional development facilitators who are interested in infusing reflective practice within their professional development programs.

WHY SHOULD I ENGAGE IN REFLECTIVE PRACTICES?

Perhaps the best place to begin when discussing reflective practices is with the question “Why do people do it?” It is common to conceptualize reflection about teaching situations as a way to help “fix” any problems or issues that present themselves ( Brookfield, 2017 ). However, this view is counterproductive to the overarching goal of reflective practices—to continually improve one’s own efficacy and abilities as an educator. Similar to how there is always a new, more efficient invention to be made, there is always room for improvement by even the most experienced and well-loved educators. People choose to be educators for any number of personal reasons, but often the grounding desire is to help inform, mentor, or guide the next generation. With such a far-reaching aim, educators face many obstacles, and reflective practices are one tool to help mitigate them.

Classrooms are an ever-changing environment. The students change, and with that comes new generational experiences and viewpoints. Updates to technology provide new opportunities for engaging with students and exploring their understanding. New curricula and pedagogical standards from professional organizations, institutions, or departments can fundamentally alter the modes of instruction and the concepts and skills being taught. As described by Brookfield, reflection can act as a “gyroscope,” helping educators stay balanced amid a changing environment ( 2017 , p. 81). Through the process of reflection, practitioners focus on what drives them to teach and their guiding principles, which define how they interact with both their students and their peers. Furthermore, reflective practitioners are deliberately cognizant of the reasoning behind their actions, enabling them to act with more confidence when faced with a sudden or difficult situation ( Brookfield, 2017 ). In this way, reflection can help guide educators through the challenging times they may experience in their careers.

One such obstacle is imposter syndrome, which is all too familiar for many educators ( Brems et al. , 1994 ; Parkman, 2016 ; Collins et al. , 2020 ). It is a sense that, despite all efforts put in—the knowledge gained, the relationships formed, and the lives changed—what one does is never enough and one does not belong. These feelings often lead to a fear of being “discovered as a fraud or non-deserving professional, despite their demonstrated talent and achievements” ( Chrousos and Mentis, 2020 , p. 749). A part of reflective practices that is often overlooked is the consideration of everything that goes well . While it is true that reflective practitioners are aware of areas for improvement in their teaching, it is also true that they acknowledge, celebrate, and learn from good things that happen in their classrooms and in their interactions with students and peers. As such, they are more consciously aware of their victories, even if those victories happen to be small ( Brookfield, 2017 ). That is not to say that reflective practices are a cure-all for those dealing with imposter syndrome, but reflections can be a reminder that their efforts are paying off and that someone, whether it be students, peers, or even the practitioner themselves, is benefiting from their actions. Furthermore, reflecting on difficult situations has the potential for individuals to realize the extent of their influence ( Brookfield, 2017 ).

In a similar vein, reflective practices can help educators realize when certain expectations or cultural norms are out of their direct ability to address. For example, educators cannot be expected to tackle systemic issues such as racism, sexism, and ableism alone. Institutions must complement educators’ efforts through, for example, establishment of support systems for students excluded because of their ethnicity or race and the implementation of data-driven systems, which can inform the institutions’ and educators’ practices. Thus, through reflections, educators can avoid “self-laceration” ( Brookfield, 2017 , p. 86) and feelings of failure when the problems experienced are multifaceted.

In addition to alleviating “self-laceration,” developing reflective practice and reflective practitioners has been identified as one of four dominant change strategies in the literature ( Henderson et al. , 2011 ). Specifically, developing reflective practitioners is identified as a strategy that empowers individual educators to enact change ( Henderson et al. , 2011 ). One avenue for such change comes with identifying practices that are harmful to students. Reflecting on teaching experiences and student interactions can allow educators to focus on things such as whether an explanatory metaphor is accessible to different types of students in the class (e.g., domestic and international students), if any particular group of students do not work well together, and whether the curriculum is accessible for students from varied educational and cultural backgrounds. Thus, through the process of reflection, educators grow in their ability to help their students on a course level, and they are better positioned to advocate on their students’ behalf when making curricular decisions on a departmental or institutional level.

An additional part of reflection is gathering feedback to enable a holistic view of one’s teaching practices. When feedback is given by a trusted peer, this invaluable information can guide chosen teaching methods and ways of explaining new information. When feedback is given by students and that feedback is then acted upon, it demonstrates to the students that their opinions and experiences are taken seriously and fosters a more trusting environment ( Brookfield, 2017 ). Furthermore, when discrepancies arise between the intention of the teacher and the interpretation of the students, reflection also aids practitioners in verbalizing their reasoning. Through reflection, educators would need to consider past experiences, prior knowledge, and beliefs that led to their actions. As such, reflective practitioners are able to have honest and informed discussions with their students who may be confused or unhappy with a particular decision. Explaining this to students not only models the practice of continuous inquiry and of considering one’s actions, but it also allows students to understand the rationale behind decisions they may not personally agree with, fostering a more productive student–teacher relationship ( Brookfield, 2017 ).

WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF REFLECTION?

This section aims to summarize and clarify the different ways reflection has been conceptualized in the literature ( Table 1 ). Specifically, reflections have been described based on their timing, depth, and content. Notably, practitioners of reflective practices must utilize multiple types of reflection in order to more effectively improve different aspects of their teaching ( Griffiths and Tann, 1992 ).

Time-Dependent

To understand the time-dependent conceptualization of reflection, we return to Schön (1983 ). He defines two particular concepts—“reflection-in-action” and “reflection-on-action”—which are delineated based on the time that the reflection takes place. Reflection-in-action is characterized as practitioners reflecting while simultaneously completing the relevant action. Reflection-on-action encompasses a practitioner reflecting on a past action, analyzing the different influences, and carefully considering the observed or potential outcomes. Reflection-in-action is perceived as more difficult due to the multiple factors that teachers have to consider at once while also ensuring that the lesson carries on.

Later work built on this initial description of time-dependent reflections. In particular, Loughran renamed the original two timings to make them more intuitive and added one time point ( Loughran, 2002a ). The three categories include: “anticipatory,” “contemporaneous,” and “retrospective,” wherein actions taken, or to be taken, are contemplated before, during, and after an educating experience, respectively. It should be noted that both Loughran’s and Schön’s models are able to function in tandem with the depth- or content-based understandings of reflections, which are described in the next sections.

Depth of Reflections

Conceptualizing reflection in terms of depth has a long history in the literature (see Section 5.1 in the Supplemental Material for a historical view of the depth-based model of reflections). Thankfully, Larrivee (2008a) designed a depth-classification system that encompasses an array of terminologies and explanations pre-existing in the literature. This classification includes a progression in reflective practices across four levels: “pre-reflection,” “surface,” “pedagogical,” and “critical reflection.”

During the pre-reflection stage, educators do not engage in reflections. They are functioning in “survival mode” ( Larrivee, 2008a , p. 350; Campoy, 2010 , p. 17), reacting automatically to situations without considering alternatives and the impacts on the students ( Larrivee, 2008a ; Campoy, 2010 ). At this stage, educators may feel little agency, consider themselves the victims of coincidental circumstances, or attribute the ownership of problems to others such as their students, rather than themselves ( Larrivee, 2008a ; Campoy, 2010 ). They are unlikely to question the status quo, thereby failing to consider and adapt to the needs of the various learners in their classrooms ( Larrivee, 2008a ; Campoy, 2010 ). While the description of educators at this level is non-ideal, educators at the pre-reflection level are not ill intended. However, the pre-reflective level is present among practitioners, as evidenced in a 2015 study investigating 140 English as a Foreign Language educators and a 2010 analysis of collected student reflections ( Campoy, 2010 ; Ansarin et al. , 2015 ). The presence of pre-reflective educators is also readily apparent in the authors’ ongoing research. As such, being aware of the pre-reflection stage is necessary for beginning practitioners, and this knowledge is perhaps most useful for designers of professional development programs.

The first true level of reflection is surface reflection. At this level, educators are concerned about achieving a specific goal, such as high scores on standardized tests. However, these goals are only approached through conforming to departmental norms, evidence from their own experiences, or otherwise well-established practices ( Larrivee, 2008a ). In other words, educators at this level question whether the specific pedagogical practices will achieve their goals, but they do not consider any new or nontraditional pedagogical practices or question the current educational policies ( Campoy, 2010 ). Educators’ reflections are grounded in personal assumptions and influenced by individuals’ unexamined beliefs and unconscious biases.

At the pedagogical level, educators “reflect on educational goals, the theories underlying approaches, and the connections between theoretical principles and practice.” ( Larrivee, 2008a , p. 343). At this level, educators also consider their own belief systems and how those systems relate to their practices and explore the problem from different perspectives. A representative scenario at this level includes: teachers contemplating their various teaching methods and considering their observed outcomes in student comprehension, alternative viewpoints, and also the current evidence-based research in education. Subsequently, they alter (or maintain) their previous teaching practices to benefit the students. In doing so, more consideration is given to possible factors than in surface reflection. This category is quite broad due to the various definitions present in the literature ( Larrivee, 2008a ). However, there is a common emphasis on the theory behind teaching practices, ensuring that practice matches theory, and the student outcomes of enacted teaching practices ( Larrivee, 2008a ).

The last level of reflection categorized by Larrivee is critical reflection, wherein educators consider the ethical, moral, and political ramifications of who they are and what they are teaching to their students ( Larrivee, 2008a ). An approachable way of thinking about critical reflection is that the practitioners are challenging their assumptions about what is taught and how students learn. In doing so, educators evaluate their own views, assertions, and assumptions about teaching, with attention paid to how such beliefs impact students both as learners and as individuals ( Larrivee, 2005 , 2008b ). Through practicing critical reflection, societal issues that affect teaching can be uncovered, personal views become evidence based rather than grounded in assumptions, and educators are better able to help a diverse student population.

Larrivee used this classification to create a tool for measuring the reflectivity of teachers (see Section 4.1 of the Supplemental Material).

Content of Reflections

The third type of reflection is one in which what is being reflected on is the defining feature. One such example is Valli’s five types of reflection ( 1997 ): “technical reflection,” “reflection-in and on-action,” “deliberative reflection,” “personalistic reflection,” and “critical reflection.” Note that Valli’s conceptions of the two types of reflection—reflection-in and on-action, and critical reflection—are congruent with the descriptions provided in the Time-Dependent and Depth sections of this Essay , respectively, and will thus not be detailed in this section.

In a technical reflection, educators evaluate their instructional practices in light of the findings from the research on teaching and learning ( Valli, 1997 ). The quality of this type of reflection is based on the educators’ knowledge of this body of work and the extent to which their teaching practices adhere to it. For example, educators would consider whether they are providing enough opportunities for their students to explain their reasoning to one another during class. This type of reflection does not focus on broader topics such as the structure and content of the curriculum or issues of equity.

Deliberative reflection encompasses “a whole range of teaching concerns, including students, the curriculum, instructional strategies, the rules and organization of the classroom” ( Valli, 1997 , p. 75). In this case, “deliberative” comes from the practitioners having to debate various external viewpoints and perspectives or research that maybe be in opposition. As such, they have an internal deliberation when deciding on the best actions for their specific teaching situations. The quality of the reflection is based on the educators’ ability to evaluate the various perspectives and provide sound reasoning for their decisions.

Personalistic reflection involves educators’ personal growth as well as the individual relationships they have with their students. Educators engaged in this type of reflection thoughtfully explore the relationships between their personal and professional goals and consider the various facets of students’ lives with the overarching aim of providing the best experience. The quality of the reflection is based on an educator’s ability to empathize.

To manage the limitations of each type of reflections, Valli recommended that reflective practitioners not focus solely on a specific type of reflection, but rather engage with multiple types of reflections, as each addresses different questions. It is important to note that some types of reflections may be prerequisite to others and that some may be more important than others; for example, Valli stated that critical reflections are more valuable than technical reflections, as they address the important issues of justice. The order of Valli’s types of reflection provided in Table 1 reflects her judgment on the importance of the questions that each type of reflection addresses.

HOW CAN I ENGAGE IN REFLECTION?

Larrivee suggested that there is not a prescribed strategy to becoming a reflective practitioner but that there are three practices that are necessary: 1) carving time out for reflection, 2) constantly problem solving, and 3) questioning the status quo ( Larrivee, 2000 ). This section of the Essay provides a buffet of topics for consideration and methods of organization that support these three practices. This section is intended to assist educators in identifying their preferred mode of reflection and to provide ideas for professional development facilitators to explicitly infuse reflective practices in their programs.

For educators who are new to reflective practices, it is useful to view the methods presented as “transforming what we are already doing, first and foremost by becoming more aware of ourselves, others, and the world within which we live” ( Rodgers and Laboskey, 2016 , p. 101) rather than as a complete reformation of current methods.

Focus of the Reflection: Critical Incident

When practicing reflection, a critical incident may be identified or presented in order to ignite the initial reflection or to foster deeper thought by practitioners ( Tripp, 2011 ). Critical incidents are particular situations that become the focus of reflections. Farrell described critical incidents in education as unplanned events that hold the potential to highlight misconceptions and foster greater and newer understanding about teaching and learning ( 2008 ). These can be situations ranging from students not understanding a foundational concept from a previous course to considering how to navigate the analysis of a data set that includes cultural background and socioeconomic status.

Critical incidents are used, because meaningful reflection is often a result of educators experiencing a problem or some form of cognitive dissonance concerning teaching practices and approaches to their students ( Lee, 2005 ). Therefore, it is most effective to combine techniques, which are outlined later in this section, with a critical incident to force practitioners into a new and difficult positions relating to education. Larrivee details that a sense of “uncertainty, dissonance, dilemma, problem, or conflict” is extremely valuable to personal reflection and growth ( 2008b , p. 93). Thus, unsettling experiences encourage changes to action far more than reflecting on typical teaching/learning interactions. This is an inherently uncomfortable experience for the practitioner, as feelings of self-doubt, uncertainty, anger, and self- or peer-rejection can come to the surface ( Larrivee, 2008b ). Yet, it is when educators are in an uncomfortable position that they are best able to challenge their learned assertions about what they are teaching and how they are supporting their students’ learning. This requires a conscious effort on the part of the educator. Humans tend to function automatically based on their past experiences and ingrained beliefs. This results in certain aspects of events being ignored while others become the driving force behind reactions. In a sense, humans have a “filter system” that can unconsciously eliminate the most effective course of action; this results in humans functioning in a cycle in which current, unquestioned beliefs determine which data and experiences are given attention ( Larrivee, 2000 , p. 295).

Critical incidents highlight any dissonance present in one’s actions, enabling practitioners to tackle social, ethical, political, and pedagogical issues that may be systemic to their departments, their fields, or their cultures. Critical incidents foster critical reflection (under the depth- and content-based models) even in novice teachers ( Pultorak, 1996 ; Griffin, 2003 ). It is because of the difficulty and uncertainty posed by critical incidents that they are widely promoted as an invaluable aspect of reflective practices in education. Therefore, the analysis of critical incidents, whether they are case studies or theoretical examples, has been used in educating both pre-service ( Griffin, 2003 ; Harrison and Lee, 2011 ) and current educators ( Benoit, 2013 ).

Scaffoldings Promoting Reflections

Once a critical incident has been identified, the next step is structuring the reflection itself. Several scaffolding models exist in the literature and are described in Section 3 of the Supplemental Material. As reflections are inherently personal, educators should use the scaffolding that works best for them. Two scaffoldings that have been found to be useful in developing reflective practices are Bain’s 5R and Gibbs’s reflective cycle.

Reporting involves considering a particular experience and the contextual factors that surround it.

Responding is when the individual practitioners verbalize their feelings, thoughts, and other reactions that they had in response to the situation.

Relating is defined as teachers making connections between what occurred recently and their previously obtained knowledge and skill base.

Reasoning then encourages the practitioners to consider the foundational concepts and theories, as well as other factors that they believe to be significant, in an effort to understand why a certain outcome was achieved or observed.

Finally, reconstructing is when the teachers take their explanations and uses them to guide future teaching methods, either to encourage a similar result or to foster a different outcome.

This framework facilitates an understanding of what is meant by and required for reflective practices. For a full explanation of Bain’s scaffolding and associated resources, see Sections 1.2 and 3.3 in the Supplemental Material.

Description: The practitioner first describes the situation to be reflected on in detail.

Feelings: The practitioner then explores their feelings and thoughts processes during the situation.

Evaluation: The practitioner identifies what went well and what went wrong.

Analysis: The practitioner makes sense of the situation by exploring why certain things went well while others did not.

Conclusions: The practitioner summarizes what they learned from their analysis of the situation.

Personal action plans: The practitioner develops a plan for what they would do in a similar situation in the future and what other steps they need to take based on what they learn (e.g., gain some new skills or knowledge).

For a full explanation of Gibbs’s scaffolding and associated resources, see Sections 1.3 and 3.4 in the Supplemental Material.

We see these two models as complementary and have formulated a proposed scaffolding for reflection by combining the two models. In Table 2 , we provide a short description of each step and examples of reflective statements. The full scaffolding is provided in Section 3.6 of the Supplemental Material.

a An expanded version is provided in Section 3.6 of the Supplemental Material.

Even with the many benefits of these scaffolds, educators must keep in mind the different aspects and levels of reflection that should be considered. Especially when striving for higher levels of reflection, the cultural, historical, and political contexts must be considered in conjunction with teaching practices for such complex topics to affect change ( Campoy, 2010 ). For instance, if equity and effectiveness of methods are not contemplated, there is no direct thought about how to then improve those aspects of practice.

Modalities for Reflections

The different scaffolds can be implemented in a wide variety of practices ( Table 3 ). Of all the various methods of reflection, reflective writing is perhaps the most often taught method, and evidence has shown that it is a deeply personal practice ( Greiman and Covington, 2007 ). Unfortunately, many do not continue with reflective writing after a seminar or course has concluded ( Jindal‐Snape and Holmes, 2009 ). This may be due to the concern of time required for the physical act of writing. In fact, one of the essential practices for engaging in effective reflections is creating a space and time for personal, solitary reflection ( Larrivee, 2000 ); this is partially due to the involvement of “feelings of frustration, insecurity, and rejection” as “taking solitary time helps teachers come to accept that such feelings are a natural part of the change process” while being in a safe environment ( Larrivee, 2000 , p. 297). It is important to note that reflective writing is not limited to physically writing in a journal or typing into a private document; placing such a limitation may contribute to the practice being dropped, whereas a push for different forms of reflection will keep educators in practice ( Dyment and O'Connell, 2014 ). Reflective writings can include documents such as case notes ( Jindal‐Snape and Holmes, 2009 ), reviewing detailed lesson plans ( Posthuma, 2012 ), and even blogging ( Alirio Insuasty and Zambrano Castillo, 2010 ; van Wyk, 2013 ; Garza and Smith, 2015 ).

The creation of a blog or other online medium can help foster reflection. In addition to fostering reflection via the act of writing on an individual level, this online form of reflective writing has several advantages. One such benefit is the readily facilitated communication and collaboration between peers, either through directly commenting on a blog post or through blog group discussions ( Alirio Insuasty and Zambrano Castillo, 2010 ; van Wyk, 2013 ; Garza and Smith, 2015 ). “The challenge and support gained through the collaborative process is important for helping clarify beliefs and in gaining the courage to pursue beliefs” ( Larrivee, 2008b , p. 95). By allowing other teachers to comment on published journal entries, a mediator role can be filled by someone who has the desired expertise but may be geographically distant. By this same logic, blogs have the great potential to aid teachers who themselves are geographically isolated.

Verbal reflections through video journaling (vlogs) follows the same general methods as writing. This method has the potential to be less time intensive ( Clarke, 2009 ), which may lower one of the barriers facing practitioners. Greiman and Covington (2007) identified verbal reflection as one of the three preferred modalities of reflection by student teachers. By recording their verbal contemplations and reflections, practitioners can review their old thoughts about different course materials, enabling them to adjust their actions based on reflections made when observations were fresh in their mind. Students learning reflective practices also noted that recorded videos convey people’s emotions and body language—reaching a complexity that is not achievable with plain text or audio ( Clarke, 2009 ).

If writing or video journaling is not appealing, another method to facilitate reflective practices is that of making video recordings of teaching experiences in vivo. This differs from vlogs, which are recorded after the teaching experiences. A small longitudinal qualitative study indicated that the video recordings allowed participants to be less self-critical and to identify effective strategies they were employing ( Jindal‐Snape and Holmes, 2009 ). Additionally, beginning teachers found the most value in videotaping their teaching as compared with electronic portfolios and online discussions ( Romano and Schwartz, 2005 ). By recording their teaching practices, practitioners can use a number of clearly outlined self- and peer-assessments, as detailed in Section 4 of the Supplemental Material. However, it should be noted that all three technology-driven methods used in the study by Romano and Schwartz (2005) were helpful for the participants, and as reflective practices are inherently personal, many methods should be considered by practitioners new to purposeful reflection.

Group efforts, such as group discussions or community meetings, can foster reflective thinking, thereby encouraging reflective practices. “The checks and balances of peers’ and critical friends’ perspectives can help developing teachers recognize when they may be devaluing information or using self-confirming reasoning, weighing evidence with a predisposition to confirm a belief or theory, rather than considering alternative theories that are equally plausible” ( Larrivee, 2008b , p. 94). These benefits are essential to help educators reach the higher levels of reflection (i.e., pedagogical reflection and critical reflection), as it can be difficult to think of completely new viewpoints on one’s own, especially when educators are considering the needs of diverse students yet only have their own experiences to draw upon. Henderson et. al . (2011) review of the literature found that successful reports of developing reflective practitioners as a strategy for change had two commonalities. One of these was the presence of either a community where experiences are shared ( Gess-Newsome et al. , 2003 ; Henderson et al. , 2011 ) or of an additional participant providing feedback to the educator ( Penny and Coe, 2004 ; McShannon and Hynes, 2005 ; Henderson et al. , 2011 ). The second commonality was the presence of support by a change agent ( Hubball et al. , 2005 ; Henderson et al. , 2011 ), which is far more context reliant.

Even in the absence of change agent support, peer observation can be implemented as a tool for establishing sound reflective practices. This can be accomplished through informal observations followed by an honest discussion. It is vital for the correct mindset to be adopted during such a mediation session, as the point of reflection is in assessing the extent to which practitioners’ methods allow them to achieve their goals for student learning. This cannot be done in an environment where constructive feedback is seen as a personal critique. For example, it was found that peers who simply accepted one another’s practices out of fear of damaging their relationships did not benefit from peer observation and feedback ( Manouchehri, 2001 ); however, an initially resistant observer was able to provide valuable feedback after being prompted by the other participant ( Manouchehri, 2001 ). One approach to ensure the feedback promotes reflections is for the observer and participant to meet beforehand and have a conversation about areas on which to focus feedback. The follow-up conversation focuses first on these areas and can be expanded afterward to other aspects of the teaching that the observer noticed. Observation protocols (provided in Section 4.2 in the Supplemental Material) can also be employed in these settings to facilitate the focus of the reflection.

For those interested in assessing their own or another’s reflection, Section 4 in the Supplemental Material will be helpful, as it highlights different tools that have been shown to be effective and are adaptable to different situations.

WHAT BARRIERS MIGHT I FACE?

It is typical for educators who are introducing new practices in their teaching to experience challenges both at the personal and contextual levels ( Sturtevant and Wheeler, 2019 ). In this section, we address the personal and contextual barriers that one may encounter when engaging in reflective practices and provide advice and recommendations to help address these barriers. We also aim to highlight that the difficulties faced are commonly shared by practitioners embarking on the complex journey of becoming reflective educators.

Personal Barriers

Professional development facilitators who are interested in supporting their participants’ growth as reflective practitioners will need to consider: 1) the misunderstandings that practitioners may have about reflections and 2) the need to clearly articulate the purpose and nature of reflective practices. Simply asking practitioners to reflect will not lead to desirable results ( Loughran, 2002b ). Even if the rationale and intent is communicated, there is also the pitfall of oversimplification. Practitioners may stop before the high levels of reflection (e.g., critical reflection) are reached due to a lack of in-depth understanding of reflective practices ( Thompson and Pascal, 2012 ). Even if the goals are understood and practitioners intend to evaluate their teaching practices on the critical level, there can still be confusion about what reflective practices require from practitioners. The theory of reflective practices may be grasped, but it is not adequately integrated into how practitioners approach teaching ( Thompson and Pascal, 2012 ). We hope that this Essay and associated Supplemental Material provide a meaningful resource to help alleviate this challenge.

A concern often raised is that the level of critical reflection is not being reached ( Ostorga, 2006 ; Larrivee, 2008a ). Considering the impacts that student–teacher interactions have on students beyond the classroom is always a crucial part of being an educator. In terms of practicality, situations being considered may not be conducive to this type of reflection. Consider an educator who, after a formative assessment, realizes that students, regardless of ethnicity, nationality, or gender, did not grasp a foundational topic that is required for the rest of the course. In such a case, it is prudent to consider how the information was taught and to change instructional methods to adhere to research-based educational practices. If the information was presented in a lecture-only setting, implementing aspects of engagement, exploration, and elaboration on the subject by the students can increase understanding ( Eisenkraft, 2003 ). If the only interactions were student–teacher based and all work was completed individually, the incorporation of student groups could result in a deeper understanding of the material by having students act as teachers or by presenting students with alternative way of approaching problems (e.g., Michaelsen et al. , 1996 ). Both of these instructional changes are examples that can result from pedagogical reflection and are likely to have a positive impact on the students. As such, educators who practice any level of reflection should be applauded. The perseverance and dedication of practitioners cannot be undervalued, even if their circumstances lead to fewer instances of critical reflection. We suggest that communities of practice such as faculty learning communities, scholarship of teaching and learning organizations, or professional development programs are excellent avenues to support educators ( Baker et al. , 2014 ; Bathgate et al. , 2019 ; Yik et al. , 2022a , b ), including in the development of knowledge and skills required to reach critical reflections. For example, facilitators of these communities and programs can intentionally develop scaffolding and exercises wherein participants consider whether the deadlines and nature of assignments are equitable to all students in their courses. Professional development facilitators are strongly encouraged to be explicit about the benefits to individual practitioners concomitantly with the benefits to students (see Section 2 in the Supplemental Material), as benefits to practitioners are too often ignored yet comprise a large portion of the reasoning behind reflective practices.

At a practitioner’s level, the time requirement for participating in reflective practices is viewed as a major obstacle, and it would be disingenuous to discount this extensive barrier ( Greiman and Covington, 2007 ). Reflective practices do take time, especially when done well and with depth. However, we argue that engagement in reflective practice early on can help educators become more effective with the limited time they do have ( Brookfield, 2017 ). As educators engage in reflective practices, they become more aware of their reasoning, their teaching practices, the effectiveness of said practices, and whether their actions are providing them with the outcomes they desire ( Thompson and Pascal, 2012 ). Therefore, they are able to quickly and effectively troubleshoot challenges they encounter, increasing the learning experiences for their students. Finally, we argue that the consistent engagement in reflective practices can significantly facilitate and expedite the writing of documents necessary for annual evaluations and promotions. These documents often require a statement in which educators must evaluate their instructional strategies and their impact on students. A reflective practitioner would have a trail of documents that can easily be leveraged to write such statement.

Contextual Factors

Environmental influences have the potential to bring reflective practices to a grinding halt. A paradigm shift that must occur to foster reflective teacher: that of changing the teacher’s role from a knowledge expert to a “pedagogic expert” ( Day, 1993 ). As with any change of this magnitude, support is necessary across all levels of implementation and practitioners to facilitate positive change. Cole (1997) made two observations that encapsulate how institutions can prevent the implementation of reflective practices: first, many educators who engage in reflective practices do so secretly. Second, reflections are not valued in academic communities despite surface-level promotions for such teaching practices; institutions promote evidence-based teaching practices, including reflection, yet instructors’ abilities as educators do not largely factor into promotions, raises, and tenure ( Brownell and Tanner, 2012 ; Johnson et al. , 2018 ). The desire for educators to focus on their teaching can become superficial, with grants and publications mattering more than the results of student–teacher interactions ( Cole, 1997 ; Michael, 2007 ).

Even when teaching itself is valued, the act of changing teaching methods can be resisted and have consequences. Larrivee’s (2000) statement exemplifies this persistent issue:

Critically reflective teachers also need to develop measures of tactical astuteness that will enable them to take a contrary stand and not have their voices dismissed. One way to keep from committing cultural suicide is to build prior alliances both within and outside the institution by taking on tasks that demonstrate school loyalty and build a reputation of commitment. Against a history of organizational contributions, a teacher is better positioned to challenge current practices and is less readily discounted. (p. 298)

The notion that damage control must be a part of practicing reflective teaching is indicative of a system that is historically opposed to the implementation of critical reflection ( Larrivee, 2000 ). We view this as disheartening, as the goal of teaching should be to best educate one’s students. Even as reflective practices in teaching are slowly becoming more mainstream, contextual and on-site influences still have a profound impact on how teachers approach their profession ( Smagorinsky, 2015 ). There must be a widespread, internal push for change within departments and institutions for reflective practices to be easily and readily adopted.

The adoption of reflective practices must be done in a way that does not negate its benefits. For example, Galea (2012) highlights the negative effects of routinizing or systematizing this extremely individual and circumstance-based method (e.g., identification of specific areas to focus on, standardized timing and frequency of reflections). In doing so, the systems that purportedly support teachers using reflection remove their ability to think of creative solutions, limit their ability to develop as teachers, and can prevent an adequate response to how the students are functioning in the learning environment ( Tan, 2008 ). Effective reflection can be stifled when reflections are part of educators’ evaluations for contract renewal, funding opportunities, and promotions and tenure. Reflective practices are inherently vulnerable, as they involve both being critical of oneself and taking responsibility for personal actions ( Larrivee, 2008b ). Being open about areas for improvement is extremely difficult when it has such potential negative impacts on one’s career. However, embarking on honest reflection privately, or with trusted peers and mentors, can be done separately from what is presented for evaluation. We argue that reflections can support the writing of documents to be considered for evaluation, as these documents often request the educators to describe the evolution of their teaching and its impact on students. Throughout course terms, reflections conducted privately can provide concreate ideas for how to frame an evaluation document. We argue that administrators, department chairs, and members of tenure committees should be explicit with their educators about the advantages of reflective practices in preparing evaluative documents focused on teaching.

CONCLUDING THOUGHTS

Reflective practices are widely advocated for in academic circles, and many teaching courses and seminars include information regarding different methods of reflection. This short introduction intends to provide interested educators with a platform to begin reflective practices. Common methods presented may appeal to an array of educators, and various self- and peer-assessment tools are highlighted in Section 4 in the Supplemental Material. Reflective practices are a process and a time- and energy-intensive, but extremely valuable tool for educators when implemented with fidelity. Therefore, reflection is vital for efficacy as an educator and a requirement for educators to advance their lifelong journeys as learners.

To conclude, we thought the simple metaphor provided by Thomas Farrell best encapsulates our thoughts on reflective practices within the context of teaching: Reflective practices are “a compass of sorts to guide teachers when they may be seeking direction as to what they are doing in their classrooms. The metaphor of reflection as a compass enables teachers to stop, look, and discover where they are at that moment and then decide where they want to go (professionally) in the future” ( Farrell, 2012 , p. 7).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We would like to thank Annika Kraft, Jherian Mitchell-Jones, Emily Kable, Dr. Emily Atieh, Dr. Brandon Yik, Dr. Ying Wang, and Dr. Lu Shi for their constructive feedback on previous versions of this article. This material is based upon work supported by NSF 2142045. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.

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Submitted: 28 July 2022 Revised: 8 February 2023 Accepted: 22 February 2023

© 2023 H. Machost and M. Stains. CBE—Life Sciences Education © 2023 The American Society for Cell Biology. This article is distributed by The American Society for Cell Biology under license from the author(s). It is available to the public under an Attribution–Noncommercial–Share Alike 4.0 Unported Creative Commons License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0).

Education in Network Society: Critical Reflections

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• Eva Gamarnikow  

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The main aim of this chapter is to raise a number of key questions about the current ‘education and globalisation’ policy discourse. This discussion is contextualised in critical reflections on how the thesis underpinning Castells' (2000) Network Society has been appropriated as a claim about the knowledge society and its significance in the era of globalisation. The main argument of the chapter is that Network Society is a treatise focusing primarily on changes in the economy, technology and work, and on the importance of the nation state, of the sphere of politics, in mediating economic and social changes. The focus of Network Society requires educational researchers to address issues which tend to be elided in discussions about education, namely the nature of the link between education and economy, technology and work. There is a tendency in policy sociology to treat economy, technology and work as taken-for-granted givens, occasionally under the conceptual umbrella of globalisation, whose main role is to act as a source of policy imperatives for expanding or otherwise intervening in education. The aim of this chapter is to explore the discourses constituting these sites of the policy trajectory, namely, the context of influence (Ball, 2006) of the contours and shape of education policy.

The chapter is organised in six main parts. The first three engage with the themes of Network Society which articulate with education policy. The following three sections are concerned with employment, education as human capital development and social mobility as key elements in policy discourses. The main focus of the argument is on the policy tensions which arise from the failure of current education policy to address the central theme identified in Network Society , namely its capitalist form.

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Higher Education in Networked Knowledge Societies

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Gamarnikow, E. (2009). Education in Network Society: Critical Reflections. In: Cowen, R., Kazamias, A.M. (eds) International Handbook of Comparative Education. Springer International Handbooks of Education, vol 22. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-6403-6_39

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