essay about kkk in the philippines

was also a member of , although he soon lost hope in gaining reforms though peaceful means. This feeling was especially heightened when Jose Rizal was exiled to Dapitan. Bonifacio became convinced that the only way the could gain independence was through a revolution.

” (KKK) on July 7, 1892 in a house on Azcarraga street (now Claro M. Recto), in Tondo Manila.

The Katipunan had colorful beginnings. As a symbol of the member’s loyalty, they performed the solemn rite of (blood compact), wherein each one signed his name with his own blood..

(about 25 centavos) each month in order to raise funds for the association.

The political goal was to completely separate the Philippines from Spain after declaring the country’s independence.
The moral goal was to teach the Filipinos good manners, cleanliness, hygiene, fine morals, and how to guard themselves against religious fanaticism..
The civic goal was to encourage Filipinos to help themselves and to defend the poor oppressed.

” (supreme council) was the highest governing body of the Katipunan. It was headed by a supremo, or president. Each province had a “ ” (Provincial Council) and each town had a “ ” (Popular Council).

Deodato Arellano -Supremo
Ladislao Diwa -Fiscal
Teodora Plata -Secretary
Valentine Diaz -treasurer
Andres Bonifacio -controller



never became involved in the organization and activities of the Katipunan; but the Katipuneros still looked up to him as a leader. In fact, Rizal’s name was used as a password among the society’s highest-ranking members, who were called bayani.

had already known Rizal during his La Liga Filipina days, although Rizal did not know Bonifacio personally Nevertheless, Bonifacio so respected Rizal’s intelligence and talent that in June 1896, he sent Dr. Pio Valenzuela to Dapitan to seek Rizal’s advice on the planned revolution.

Rumors about a had long been in circulation, although no solid evidence could be found to support them. The big break as far as the Spanish authorities was concerned, came on August 19, 1896 when a KKK member, Teodoro Patiño told his sister Honoria about the existence of the Katipunan. Patiño was a worker in the printing press of . Honoria was then living with nuns in a Mandaluyong orphanage.

of Tondo.

and found evidence of the Katipunan’s existence. The governor general was quickly informed. The printing press was padlocked and hundreds of suspected KKK members were arrested. .

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The katipunan – history, significance, and people leading to philippine independence, unraveling the rich history of philippine independence.

The Katipunan, also known as Kataastaasan Kagalanggalang na Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan (KKK), holds a prominent place in Philippine history. This revolutionary society played a crucial role in the fight for independence against Spanish colonial rule. Emerging in the late 19th century, it was founded by Filipino patriots who sought to liberate the country from Spanish oppression. It was established on July 7, 1892, by Andres Bonifacio, Teodoro Plata, Ladislao Diwa, along with a group of like-minded individuals who aimed to unite Filipinos and inspire resistance against the Spanish regime.

However, to fully understand what brought about for the need of the Katipunan, we have to go further back in time; Starting with the arrival of Ferdinand Magellan in 1521, the Philippines was under Spanish control for over three hundred years. The Spanish colonial government implement a system of governance, favoring Spanish elite, thereby marginalizing the local population. This created a political landscape and a population that sought change. The Katipunan holds a significant place in history, as it played a pivotal role for the Philippines fight for independence.

Spanish abuse, which included forced labor (polo y servicio, high taxation and discrimination caused widespread grievances among the local population, furthered the need for change. This paved the way for revolutionary sentiments to take root.

The 19th century witnessed the rise of Filipino nationalism and the spread of Enlightenment ideas. Filipino intellectuals, known as ilustrados , became exposed to liberal ideals and concepts of democracy through education in Europe and exposure to foreign literature. The Ilustrados were predominantly from the Filipino middle and upper class and had access to education, which was limited to a privileged few during the Spanish colonial period. They received formal education in prestigious universities, both in the Philippines and abroad, particularly in Spain. This exposure to western education, liberalism and nationalistic ideals shaped their thinking and fueled their desire for social, political, and economic reforms.

Their newfound knowledge and experiences found their way back to the Philippines as they began advocating for political reforms, social equality, and greater representation for Filipinos. The Ilustrados became advocates for reform, aiming to address the social, economic, and political injustices perpetuated by Spanish colonial rule. They wrote articles, essays, and books discussing the issues of the time, including the oppressive treatment of Filipinos, the abuses of the Spanish colonial government, and the need for equal rights and representation. Through their writings and intellectual discourse, they sought to awaken the consciousness of their fellow Filipinos and inspire a sense of national identity.

The Ilustrados Philisophy

The Ilustrados were instrumental in spreading nationalistic ideas and promoting a sense of Filipino identity. They believed in the concept of the “Filipino nation” and championed the idea that the Philippines should have self-governance and sovereignty. They used their writings, publications, and public speeches to raise awareness about the plight of the Filipino people and to foster a sense of unity among Filipinos across different regions and social classes.

However, there was a stark divide, both socially and economically between the Spanish ruling class and the majority of the Filipino population. The Spanish elite monopolized land ownership, wealth, and political power and did not wish this to change. In stark contrast, the majority of Filipinos lived in poverty, facing limited opportunities for social or economic change. This large disparity between these two groups helped further fuel the desire for change and the fight for equal rights.

The Propaganda Movement Starts

The Propaganda Movement, which the Ilustrados were active in, advocated for reforms and raising awareness of the Filipino cause in Spain. Notable Ilustrados such as Jose Rizal, Marcelo H. del Pilar, and Graciano Lopez Jaena were key figures in this movement which saw the most activity between 1880 through 1895, in the years leading up to the Philippine Revolution. Using newspapers, pamphlets, and other means of communication, they sought to expose the injustices of Spanish colonial rule and to rally support for political changes and independence.

The overall aim of the Propaganda Movement was to make the Philippines an official Province of Spain through peaceful means which was in shark contrast to the Katipunans, who sought to separate from Spain altogether.

The emergence of a nascent middle class, composed of educated Filipinos from various social classes, played a crucial role in driving the nationalistic movement. With access to education, exposure to revolutionary ideas from Europe and neighboring countries, they became instrumental in organizing and mobilizing the masses towards the cause of independence.

Enlightenment ideals, such as liberty, equality, and fraternity, heavily influenced the socio-political landscape in the country. Filipinos began questioning the legitimacy of Spanish rule, demanding representation, and asserting their rights as individuals and as a nation. These ideals served as the intellectual foundation for the movement towards independence.

Together, Ilustrados and the Propaganda Movement, both indirectly influenced the Katipunan; through Filipino nationalism and reformist ideas, which ultimately rippled through the population. It raised awareness about injustices being faced by Filipinos, and the need for both political and social change. The Ilustrados’ call for reforms and the exposure of Spanish abuses helped create the perfect environment for the emergence of the Katipunan. Though the Ilustrados shared many ideas with the Katipunan, both groups were distinctly differently with their approach.

The Propaganda Movement gave rise to La Liga Filipina ( The Philippine League ), which was founded by José Rizal, a prominent Ilustrado. La Liga Filipina was established as a secret society, looking to get Filipinos directly involved with reform, as well as providing scholarships, legal aid and lending capital.

Many have debated about Rizal’s push for peaceful reform but, few have discussed his long term outlook for the Philippines. For this, we would have to look at European history to understand the world stage at the time and what many Ilustrados may have learned or even seen first-hand, including Rizal.

At the time, Spain managed their overseas empire as a feudal system. Nobles and select individuals were given titles and presided over estates, managing the land’s resources and people while giving a percentage of the profits to Spain. In the early colonial period, this system was extremely beneficial to Spain, who looked to continued expansion, which would hopefully only add more distinction and gold to Spain. At this time, Spain held a lot of land, including the Netherlands, and even a good portion of Italy. So long as the Nobles continued to send money to Spain, Spain was able to pay its debts, manage their massive armada and continue to look towards expansion.

In theory, this sounds plausible, and it did at first. However, as a feudal system, many of the estates were passed on to heirs to manage the land, people and resources. Many times, these individuals were not qualified nor educated on systems of management, and thus it would only be a matter of time that many of the estates were no longer sending money back to Spain.

The Beginning of War

Eighty years war.

The Dutch revolt, which was known as the Eighty Years War, starting in the mid 1500’s, ending in the mid 1600’s had a lasting effect for Spain. This included several naval battles around the Philippines known as Battles of La Naval de Manila or Battle of Manila Bay, which the Dutch hoped to minimize Spanish influence and trade in the area, replacing it with their own. Soon after the end of the Eighty Years War, which ended in 1646, Charles II inherited the throne in 1665. By this time, Spain saw constant conflict in the past century, which would continue.

The Nine Years War which saw Spain’s standing armies grow to 100,000 in Europe, before the turn of the century in 1697 coincided with the Great Famine which further exhausted not only Spain, buy many countries in Europe. When Charles II passed away childless in 1700, many nations expected conflict to continue once again.

War of the Spanish Succession

War of the Spanish Succession started in 1701 as two different heirs vied for the Spanish Empire – Philip of Anjou and Charles of Austria. The Peace of Utrecht, which was a series of peace treaties between 1713-15 saw the end of the war and confirmed Philip as King of Spain, and the beginning of the House of Bourbon which still rules to this day. Spain was able to retain its independence and holding most of its vast empire, except for Spanish Netherlands and much of Italy, Gibraltar and Menorca.

Under Bourbon reforms, power was centralized and illicit trade was minimized and Spain was slowly rebuilding. This did not last however as Spain was once again engulfed in war. The Napoleonic Wars in 1808 further destabilized Spain, civil wars and eventually a liberal democracy with a constitution. This however overlapped uprisings, the independence of Mexico in 1821, along with additional conflicts in throughout the Spanish Americas.

The Ten Years War (1868-78) beginning in Cuba, would eventually lead to Cuba’s war of Independence in 1895, and the U.S. declaring war with Spain in 1898.

By now, Ilustrados studying in Spain or visiting other parts of Europe would have learned about ongoing conflict in the Spanish Americas. Britain was becoming a world power with naval superiority and a strong trading system established throughout Southeast Asia. The U.S. was a young country that was expanding in North America.

Though, Spain was no longer a super power, they still were contenders, as was shown when they sent 200,000 soldiers to Cuba during their war for Independence. This was the largest Atlantic crossing for an army until WWII. Ilustrados, like Rizal, contended the long-term benefit for the country and whether the Philippines would be better off as an independent nation, as a province with rights, freedoms and equality for Filipinos or conflict/colonization from another country altogether… He actually hoped that the Philippines, being an archipelagic country, with its various regions, diverse languages, customs and traditions would become a Federal Republic, as he said in his essay – Filipinas dentro de cien años.

Mexico after winning their independence just several decades earlier, was facing a crisis. Their labor force was significantly depleted due to the war. It is estimated that around one-sixth of the population, primarily men responsible for physical labor like farming and mining, had perished in war. This severe loss of manpower led to a decline in food production. Furthermore, the presence of numerous bodies on fields and overcrowding in the trenches resulted in the spread of infectious diseases throughout many areas.

Although Mexico had gained independence from Spain, it was still under the influence of the Church and the wealthy classes. Furthermore, the new government inherited an external debt incurred to finance soldiers’ salaries, weapons, and other war-related expenses.

Katipunan Becomes Known

These would all be similar issues that an independent Philippines would face as well. Potential conflict with Britain, the Dutch who were looking to expand their mercantile trade routes would also become a potential factor again. Could the Philippines remain independent or would they face potential colonization again under British or Dutch. However, much of that did not matter, in 1896 when Spain learned about the Katipunan, a secret society working toward independence from Spain.

The writings and works of Ilustrados like Jose Rizal, Marcelo H. del Pilar, and Graciano Lopez Jaena were a source of inspiration for the members of the Katipunan. These intellectual leaders provided a foundation of nationalistic thought, advocating for Filipino identity, unity, and self-determination. The Katipunan drew upon these ideas to shape their own revolutionary ideology, seeking to actualize the aspirations expressed by the Ilustrados.

However, some Ilustrados, such as Antonio Luna and Emilio Jacinto, had direct involvement with the Katipunan. These Ilustrados became influential figures within the revolutionary movement, providing leadership, guidance, and strategic expertise. Their education and intellectual background were valuable assets to the Katipunan, bringing a level of sophistication and organizational acumen to their efforts. However, the society also organized military training, gathering weapons, and spreading nationalist ideals through their publication, the “Kalayaan” newspaper which saw print in March 1896. Much of the Katipunan Society were influenced by masonic rites, as many founders were freemasons.

The discontent and nationalistic fervor cultivated by the Ilustrados contributed to the radicalization of Filipinos, particularly, marginalized groups of society, who sought more drastic measures to achieve their goals. The revolutionary spirit, need for national identity and unity spoken about by the Ilustrados served as a catalyst for the formation and mobilization of the Katipunan. Transcending regional, geographic and societal divisions, Filipinos came together as the Katipunan, with the independence of the Philippines as their ultimate goal.

Advocating for freedom, equality and social justice, society members took part in secret meetings, rituals, and ceremonies. To continue to maintain secrecy, the Katipunan developed a complex system of codes and symbols. They had three degrees of membership: Katipon, Kawal, and Bayani. Each member took an oath of loyalty and committed to the cause of the organization. The Katipunan’s emblem, the triangle, represented their threefold ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity.

Recently discovered documents suggest that Katipunan were organizing as early as January 1892 but only became active July 7 th , of that year, when Rizal was to be banished. Bonifacio, who was a member of La Liga Filipina, along with Plata, Diwa, Diaz, Arellano, and Dizon, founded the Katipunan in a house on Azcarraga St. in San Nicolas, Manila. They named Rizal as honorary president, without his knowledge, even though they were concerned with his stance on peaceful reformation. Bonifacio offered to rescue Rizal in exchange for support of the organization.

The Philippine Revolution

The Katipunan had four aims, namely:

• to develop a strong alliance with each and every Katipunero
• to unite Filipinos into one solid nation;
• to win Philippine independence by means of an armed conflict (or revolution);
• to establish a republic after independence.

In 1896, after a failed attempt to purchase arms from a Japanese warship, the Katipunan’s existence was exposed to Spanish authorities, triggering the Philippine Revolution. The revolutionaries took up arms, launching a series of uprisings across the country. Things however, came to a head on August 23 rd (or 24 th – the exact date is not known and was debated; the Philippine government declared August 23 to be the date of the event in Quezon City) as the second meeting of the second meeting of the Katipuneros where they decided to start an armed uprising against Spain. This has become to be known as the Cry of Pugad Lawin, the beginning of the Philippines Revolution, where Bonifacio and his men tore their “cedula” or tax certificate in defiance, symbolizing the start of the armed struggle for independence.

The “cedula” was a personal identification document or a certificate of residence that was used during the Spanish colonial period as a means of documenting and collecting taxes from the Filipino population. Implemented in the late 19 th century, every Filipino was required to obtain a cedula and carry it at all times as proof of identity and residency. The symbolic act of tearing it up was a pledge to the revolution. As Bonifacio declared, “If it is true that you are ready to revolt… I want to see you destroy your cedulas. It will be a sign that all of us have declared our severance from the Spaniards.” (Zaide, Gregorio (1990). “Cry of balintawak”. Documentary Sources of Philippine History)

Battle of Kakarong de Sili was fought on January 1, 1897 and was an important milestone for the Katipunans. After the unsuccessful Battle of San Juan del Monte, Katipuneros in Bulacan established the Kakarong Republic – the Cry of Balintawak, shortly after the Cry of Pugad Lawin. This was the first organized revolutionary government in the country.

Although the initial Philippine Revolution led by the Katipunan did not immediately achieve independence, it spurred nationalism among Filipinos.  The Katipunan’s principles and bravery paved the way for future resistances, which ultimately led to the successful revolution against Spanish rule.

Even today, the Katipunan have become an enduring symbol of Filipino nationalism and patriotism. The bravery and sacrifice of its members in the pursuit of independence have been celebrated and revered by generations of Filipinos. The ideals of freedom, justice, and self-governance continue to inspire and resonate with the Filipinos today, while serving as a reminder of their collective struggle and aspirations.

Ironically, one significant contribution by the Katipunan that many may not realize, is their contribution to Philippine history. The collected writings, memoirs, and accounts of the group’s members have provided invaluable insights into the society’s activities, the broader revolutionary movement, and give us a look at the country’s socio-political climate of the time. These records have aided historians in piecing together the narrative of the Philippine Revolution and understanding the significance of the Katipunan.

Today, Filipinos continue to reference Katipunan, as it serves as a source of inspiration and guideline for creating positive change within the Philippines. Much of is considered to be the “Filipino Spirit” is traced back to the Katipunans, without whom, the country of the Philippines would not exist. Their role in Philippine history is significant and as such, many pay respects to them, especially on Independence Day.

Monument Dedicated to the Katipunan

The Bonifacio Monument (also known as the Andrés Bonifacio Monument or Monumento), is a memorial structure located in Caloocan, Philippines was created by renowned artist Guillermo Tolentino as a tribute to Andrés Bonifacio.

Standing at a height of 13.7 meters (45 feet), the monument features symbolic imagery and elements related to the “Cry of Balintawak.” Consisting of five parts that represent different aspects of society, namely the “Kataastaasan, Kagalanggalang na Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan” (Highest and Most Venerable Association of the Sons of the Nation), there is a triumphant figure with wings, symbolizing victory at the very top.

Beneath the vertical pylon, there are 20 bronze figures molded onto an octagonal-shaped base, with an additional angel of peace at the pinnacle. The octagon represents the eight provinces that fought against Spanish rule and also corresponds to the eight rays depicted on the Katipunan flag. The base is raised on three steps, symbolizing the three centuries of Spanish dominance. These figures represent the Filipino people who endured inequality, suffering, and suppression during the colonial era, leading to an armed revolution in 1896 that eventually brought an end to Spanish rule.

The Bonifacio Shrine, also referred to as the Kartilya ng Katipunan or Heroes Park, is a public park and plaza located in Ermita, Manila, Philippines. Through the ongoing efforts of the city to clean up and eliminate illegal vendors, the bronze monument honoring Emilio Jacinto, which had been hidden from view for many years, has now become visible once again.

The Rizal Monument, originally known as Motto Stella (Latin for “guiding star”), is a memorial located in Rizal Park, Manila, Philippines. The monument features a standing bronze sculpture of Rizal, holding his renowned novels “El Filibusterismo” and “Noli Me Tangere,” placed on an obelisk situated atop a stone base. Rizal’s remains are interred within the base. A plaque on the front of the pedestal bears the inscription: “This monument is dedicated by the people of the Philippine Islands to the memory of José Rizal, a patriot and martyr who was executed on Bagumbayan Field on December 30, 1896.”

As we come upon Independence Day, take time to remember the details of history in all of its depth. Though many easily remember Bonifacio and the Katipunan, many have failed to realize the vital contributions and decades of events that have led up to them. Would the Katipunan have existed without Bonifacio? Would Bonifacio have been revolutionary without La Liga? Would La Liga have come to be without the Propaganda Movement? Would the movement have gained support if it wasn’t for Rizal or the other Ilustrados.

It can be easy to relegate history to a singular event, but it is tied to people, events and circumstances worldwide. It is important for people to explore history, our history at length, and for our academics and historians to help spread this knowledge. So on this Independence Day, take a moment to understand the grand events that have cultivated into leading the Philippines to become it’s own country, it’s own people with it’s own destiny.

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Understanding KKK’s Meaning in the Philippines

When you hear the initials KKK, what comes to mind? Many people associate these letters with the notorious Ku Klux Klan, a hate group that spread terror in the United States. But did you know that in the context of the Philippines , KKK has an entirely different meaning? In this article, we will delve into the history and significance of the KKK in the Philippines, shedding light on a lesser-known chapter of Filipino nationalism and revolution.

Key Takeaways:

• The KKK, or Katipunan, was a revolutionary organization founded in the Philippines in 1892.
• Its primary objective was achieving independence from the Spanish Empire through armed revolution.
• The KKK played a pivotal role in the Philippines’ quest for independence and the start of the Philippine Revolution.
• The KKK’s actions and sacrifices laid the groundwork for the eventual establishment of an independent Philippines.
• Stay tuned to discover the history, objectives, leadership, and impact of the Philippine KKK movement.

History of KKK in the Philippines

The Katipunan, also known as the KKK, was formed in July 1892 as a response to the arrest and deportation of Filipino nationalist José Rizal. Led by prominent figures such as Andrés Bonifacio, Deodato Arellano, and Teodoro Plata, the Katipunan aimed to achieve representation and independence for Filipinos through armed revolution.

This secret society operated clandestinely, carrying out its activities in pursuit of their revolutionary ideals. The Katipunan’s formation coincided with the establishment of the short-lived publication called Kalayaan, or “Freedom.” Through this publication, the society spread their message and inspired fellow Filipinos to join their cause.

Driven by a strong determination to free the Philippines from Spanish rule, the Katipunan’s influence grew rapidly. Their revolutionary fervor ultimately culminated in the declaration of independence on June 12, 1898, marking a significant milestone in the country’s history.

This image offers a visual representation of the historical context of the KKK in the Philippines, emphasizing its impact on the nation’s struggle for independence. The image captures the spirit of revolution and resilience that defined this pivotal period in Philippine history.

KKK’s Objectives and Significance

The Katipunan, also known as the KKK, had a clear objective in Filipino history – to gain independence from the Spanish Empire through armed revolution. The society sought to unite Filipinos and inspire them to fight for their rights and freedom. Its significance cannot be overstated, as the Katipunan played a pivotal role in mobilizing and organizing the Filipino people, setting the stage for the start of the Philippine Revolution.

The Katipunan’s actions and sacrifices were instrumental in laying the groundwork for the eventual establishment of an independent Philippines. By galvanizing the Filipino population, the society ignited the spirit of resistance against Spanish rule and paved the way for the country’s journey towards self-determination.

Katipunan’s Founders and Leadership

The Katipunan, also known as the KKK, was founded by a group of Filipino nationalists who played instrumental roles in the organization’s formation and the planning of the revolution. The key leaders of the Katipunan were Andrés Bonifacio, Deodato Arellano, and Teodoro Plata.

Andrés Bonifacio, in particular, emerged as the leader of the Katipunan and played a crucial role in leading the society’s revolutionary activities and inspiring its members. His charismatic leadership and unwavering commitment to the cause motivated countless Filipinos to join the fight for independence.

“The love of country is never extinguished as long as there remains a single Filipino willing to die for it.” – Andrés Bonifacio

Under Bonifacio’s guidance, the Katipunan grew in strength and influence, organizing secret meetings, recruiting members, and planning revolutionary strategies. His leadership skills and dedication to the cause made him a cherished figure among the members of the society.

As the founder and leader of the Katipunan, Andrés Bonifacio played a pivotal role in shaping the course of Filipino history and laying the foundation for the Philippine Revolution. His legacy continues to inspire Filipinos to fight for their rights and strive for a better future.

Key Leaders of the Katipunan

Katipunan’s Organizational Structure and Initiations

The Katipunan, inspired by freemasonry, implemented an organized hierarchical structure and initiation rites to unite its members and strengthen their loyalty to the society’s cause.

Initially, the Katipunan was a male-only society, but it later opened its doors to women members, recognizing their invaluable contributions to the revolutionary movement.

At the core of the organization was the Supreme Council, led by a president, secretary, treasurer, and fiscal. This council oversaw the overall operations and decision-making processes of the Katipunan.

Furthermore, the Katipunan established provincial councils in each province and popular councils in every town, creating a network of local leadership and ensuring efficient coordination of activities across the Philippines.

The initiation process for new members involved elaborate rites and ceremonies. These rituals not only served as a formal introduction but also instilled a sense of unity and commitment to the Katipunan’s cause.

Through the organizational structure and initiation rites, the Katipunan fostered a strong bond among its members, enabling them to work collectively towards their shared goal of independence.

“The unity and loyalty among Katipunan members were vital in driving the Philippine Revolution forward.”

Katipunan’s Publication and Literary Contributions

The Katipunan, in addition to its revolutionary activities , made significant contributions to Filipino literature through its publication called Kalayaan (Freedom). Kalayaan was established in March 1896 and served as a vital platform for the dissemination of revolutionary ideals and literature.

Prominent members of the Katipunan, including its founder Andrés Bonifacio, contributed their writings to Kalayaan, using the power of words to galvanize support for the revolution and inspire nationalistic sentiments among Filipinos. These literary works played a crucial role in uniting the Filipino people and fostering a sense of identity and purpose.

The Kalayaan publication featured poetry, essays, and articles that highlighted the struggles of the Filipino people under Spanish rule and advocated for independence. It served as a powerful medium for expressing the collective aspirations and grievances of the Filipino nation.

“Our pen will be the weapon that we will use in the struggle for our rights. Through our writings, we shall mobilize the hearts and minds of our fellow Filipinos, and ignite the flames of revolution.” – Andrés Bonifacio

Through literary contributions, the Katipunan expanded the Filipino literary landscape and paved the way for future writers and artists to explore themes of nationalism, freedom, and identity. The works published in Kalayaan continue to be revered as important pieces of Philippine literature, representing the spirit of the revolution and the indomitable will of the Filipino people.

Selected Works of Kalayaan Publication

Katipunan’s Plans for Revolution

The Katipunan, also known as the KKK, was founded with the ambitious goal of achieving independence from Spanish rule through armed revolution. The society had a well-thought-out plan for the revolution, which involved various strategic elements.

One crucial aspect of the Katipunan’s plan was to stockpile weapons and ammunition. This was done to ensure that the organization had the necessary means to fight against the Spanish forces and defend themselves effectively. By amassing weapons, the Katipunan aimed to establish a capable and armed resistance.

In addition to gathering arms, the Katipunan sought support from Filipino intellectuals who shared their revolutionary ideals. The society recognized the importance of intellectual and philosophical guidance in their pursuit of independence. They believed that the guidance of influential thinkers and visionaries could inspire and galvanize the masses.

“The philosopher must be a category of the society’s membership, for his wisdom and insight shall lead us to freedom.” – Andrés Bonifacio

The Katipunan’s leader, Andrés Bonifacio, played a crucial role in seeking the support of renowned Filipino philosopher and national hero, José Rizal. However, Rizal, though sympathetic to the cause of independence, hesitated to join the armed uprising. Despite Bonifacio’s efforts, Rizal believed that achieving national progress through education and reform should be the priority.

Undeterred, the Katipunan explored alternative avenues to secure arms for the revolution. One notable attempt was in 1896 when the society attempted to acquire firearms from a visiting Japanese warship. Unfortunately, this plan did not materialize, and the Katipunan had to explore other means to obtain the necessary weaponry.

Despite the setbacks, the Katipunan remained steadfast and determined in their commitment to achieving Philippine independence. The society persisted in their revolutionary efforts and would ultimately play a significant role in the Philippine Revolution.

Continue reading to discover the events that led to the discovery of the Katipunan and the declaration of war against the Spanish government.

Discovery and Declaration of War

In August 1896, the Katipunan’s existence and its revolutionary activities were discovered by Spanish authorities in Manila , Philippines. This discovery marked a turning point in the country’s history and ignited the flames of the Philippine Revolution. Under the leadership of Andrés Bonifacio, the Katipunan openly declared war against the Spanish government, signaling a bold and decisive step towards independence.

The declaration of war by the Katipunan paved the way for a three-year-long revolution, with fierce battles fought across Manila and its neighboring provinces. The Filipino revolutionaries, driven by a burning desire for freedom, exhibited immense bravery and resilience in the face of a powerful colonial force.

The discovery of the Katipunan and the subsequent declaration of war against the Spanish government marked a critical moment in Philippine history. It was a declaration of the Filipino people’s unwavering determination to fight for their rights and independence.

The Philippine Revolution: A Struggle for Freedom

The Philippine Revolution, sparked by the discovery of the Katipunan and its declaration of war, was a testament to the indomitable spirit of the Filipino people. The revolutionaries fought valiantly for their freedom, facing countless challenges and sacrifices along the way.

The battles waged during the revolution were not confined to military clashes alone. The Filipino revolutionaries also fought against the deeply entrenched social inequalities and injustices perpetuated by Spanish colonial rule. Their struggle was a multifaceted fight for self-determination, equality, and the restoration of Filipino pride and identity.

“The revolution is not just the taking up of arms; it is the awakening of the collective consciousness of a people, a realization that they possess the power to shape their destiny.” – Andrés Bonifacio

The Legacy of the Katipunan

The Katipunan’s discovery and subsequent declaration of war against the Spanish government set in motion a series of events that would ultimately lead to the Philippines’ independence. The sacrifices and bravery of the revolutionaries continue to inspire generations of Filipinos to this day, serving as a reminder of the unwavering spirit and resilience of the Filipino people.

The legacy of the Katipunan serves as a reminder of the power of unity, sacrifice, and the unwavering spirit of the Filipino people in the pursuit of independence.

Etymology of Katipunan

The name “Katipunan” is derived from the Tagalog word “katipon” or “to gather.” It symbolizes the association, gathering, or group formed by Filipinos united in their mission for independence.

The official name of the society, Kataastaasan, Kagalanggalangang Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan, translates to the Supreme and Most Honorable Society of the Children of the Nation.

Katipunan Etymology: Understanding the Meaning

The word “Katipunan” holds significant meaning in Filipino history. It represents the unity and collective spirit of the Filipinos who came together to fight for their independence from Spanish rule.

“Katipon,” the root word, signifies the act of gathering and joining forces. This emphasizes the powerful bond formed by the members of the society as they rallied behind a common cause.

The Katipunan was not just an organization; it was a symbol of national pride, courage, and determination. Its name, Kataastaasan, Kagalanggalangang Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan, further exemplifies its noble purpose and the respect bestowed upon its members.

“The name ‘Katipunan’ represents the strength of the Filipino people united in their fight for independence.”

The Katipunan’s Role in the Independence Process

The Katipunan played a crucial role in the Philippines’ quest for independence from Spanish rule. Through its revolutionary activities , the society mobilized, organized, and inspired Filipinos to fight for their rights and freedom.

Under the leadership of Andrés Bonifacio, the Katipunan paved the way for the start of the Philippine Revolution. Their actions weakened the Spanish colonial power and galvanized the Filipino people towards the goal of independence.

The sacrifices and determination of the Katipunan eventually led to the declaration of Philippine independence on June 12, 1898. This marked a significant milestone in the history of the Philippines and laid the foundation for the nation’s future development and growth.

“The Katipunan’s unwavering commitment to freedom and self-determination resonates to this day, reminding us of the strength and resilience of the Filipino spirit.” – Emilio Aguinaldo

The Katipunan’s contribution to the Philippine Revolution cannot be overstated. Their efforts brought about a fundamental shift in the Filipino mindset, instilling a sense of national identity and aspiration for independence.

The Katipunan’s Influence on the Philippine Revolution

The Katipunan’s fervent nationalism and organized resistance inspired Filipinos from all walks of life to join the cause of independence. The society’s networks and underground activities facilitated the coordination of revolutionary efforts and intensified the struggle against Spanish domination.

List of Filipino Independence Leaders:

The Katipunan’s role in the independence process was not limited to armed struggle alone. They also spread revolutionary ideals through literature and education, fueling the spirit of resistance and unity among Filipinos.

The legacy of the Katipunan continues to inspire generations of Filipinos, reminding them of their history and the importance of fighting for freedom and justice.

The Filipino KKK Movement and Jose Rizal

Although José Rizal was not formally a member of the Katipunan, he remained closely affiliated with the society and its ideals. Rizal, a Filipino national hero, had been a member of the La Liga Filipina , an organization that aimed for Filipino representation in the Spanish Parliament. When the La Liga was shut down, many members, including Rizal, joined the Katipunan, whose goals had shifted towards armed revolution. Rizal’s execution by the Spanish authorities further fueled the Katipunan’s revolutionary spirit and determination.

The connection between José Rizal and the Katipunan played a significant role in the history of the Filipino KKK movement . While Rizal’s involvement was indirect, his ideals and sacrifices resonated with the members of the Katipunan, spurring them on in their quest for independence. Rizal’s execution served as a rallying cry for the revolutionaries, reinforcing their commitment to the cause and galvanizing their determination to fight for freedom.

“The indomitable spirit of José Rizal lives within us. His martyrdom unites us, fuels our desire for independence, and strengthens our resolve to stand against oppression.” – Katipunan member

The Alleged Filipino KKK Branch in Hawaii

In 1922, rumors circulated about the existence of a Filipino branch of the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) operating in Hawaii. These rumors originated from investigations into labor disputes and alleged extortion incidents. However, it is important to note that these rumors were unfounded, and no such Filipino KKK branch actually existed.

These rumors likely arose from misconceptions and racial prejudices that were prevalent against the Filipino community at the time. The Filipino community in Hawaii faced discrimination and unfair treatment, which led to the spread of untrue rumors and stereotypes.

It is crucial to approach historical claims with critical thinking and to verify information from credible sources. In this case, the alleged Filipino KKK in Hawaii was a product of misinformation and biases, rather than a reality.

Rumors vs. Historical Facts

“The alleged presence of a Filipino KKK branch in Hawaii was based on unfounded rumors and misconceptions. It is essential to examine credible historical evidence rather than perpetuate false narratives.”

Positive Contributions of the Filipino Community

Despite facing discrimination, the Filipino community in Hawaii made significant contributions to the economic and cultural landscape of the region. Many Filipinos worked in agriculture, labor, and other industries, helping to build up the local economy. Their rich cultural heritage and traditions also added vibrancy to the diverse cultural fabric of Hawaii.

Combating Stereotypes and Promoting Understanding

It is crucial to challenge stereotypes and combat the spread of misinformation to promote understanding and unity among diverse communities. By educating ourselves about different cultures and histories, we can create a more inclusive society that values and appreciates the contributions of every individual.

Media Coverage and Stereotyping of Filipinos

The media coverage of Filipinos in Hawaii has often perpetuated negative stereotypes and reinforced underlying racial prejudices. Unfortunately, the alleged existence of a Filipino branch of the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) in Hawaii added fuel to these distorted perceptions. Filipinos were constantly portrayed in a negative light, with any negative news about the community sensationalized and amplified.

This biased coverage had detrimental consequences for the Filipino community, leading to the disproportionate targeting and mistreatment of Filipinos in Hawaii. Instead of promoting understanding and empathy, the media coverage contributed to the perpetuation of harmful stereotypes and the marginalization of an entire community.

“Stereotypes are dangerous and limit our understanding of complex issues. The media has a responsibility to present accurate and nuanced depictions of different communities.” – Anonymous

It is crucial to recognize that media coverage plays a significant role in shaping public opinion and influencing social attitudes. By promoting more inclusive narratives and challenging stereotypes, the media can contribute to creating a more equitable and harmonious society.

The Power of Responsible Journalism

Responsible journalism entails providing fair and balanced coverage that reflects the diversity and complexities of communities. It involves avoiding the sensationalization of events and the perpetuation of discriminatory stereotypes.

Table: Examples of Stereotypes Against Filipinos in Hawaii

Journalists have a responsibility to challenge stereotypes and provide a more accurate representation of marginalized communities such as Filipinos in Hawaii. By doing so, they can contribute to a more inclusive and tolerant society where everyone is treated with dignity and respect.

The Katipunan, also known as the KKK, played a pivotal role in the Philippines’ quest for independence from Spanish rule. This revolutionary society mobilized and inspired Filipinos to fight for their rights and freedom, ultimately leading to the declaration of Philippine independence. The sacrifices and determination of the Katipunan members laid the foundation for the establishment of an independent nation.

Today, the Katipunan’s legacy continues to be celebrated as a symbol of Filipino nationalism and the fight for self-determination. The significance of the Katipunan in Philippine history cannot be overstated. It served as a catalyst for change and united Filipinos in their pursuit of a better future.

Through its armed revolution and unwavering commitment to independence, the Katipunan exemplified the resilience and spirit of the Filipino people. The society’s impact on Philippine history resonates to this day, reminding us of the power of unity and collective action in shaping our nation’s destiny.

What is the meaning of KKK in the Philippines?

What is the history of kkk in the philippines, what is the significance of kkk in the philippine revolution, who were the founders and leaders of the katipunan, what was the organizational structure of the katipunan, did the katipunan have any publications or literary contributions, what were the katipunan’s plans for revolution, how was the katipunan discovered, and how did it lead to a declaration of war, what does the name “katipunan” mean, what was the role of the katipunan in the independence process, what was the connection between the katipunan and jose rizal, was there a filipino kkk branch in hawaii, how did media coverage contribute to stereotypes against filipinos in hawaii, source links.

• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katipunan
• https://www.phillife.co/kkk-operations-philippines/
• https://www.civilbeat.org/2023/07/the-bizarre-and-troubling-story-of-hawaiis-filipino-kkk-scare/

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KKK and its Revolutionary Operations in the Philippines 3 min read

As a little PSA for the uninitiated in Philippine history. The many references to the KKK you may see or hear are not what you think.

I still remember laughing as I passed the chain restaurant donning the name KKK. Obviously , I knew they weren’t advertising the American white supremacist group.

After asking a few people about it, I didn’t seem to get a complete answer on what the KKK was referencing. So, I decided to dive into the topic myself.

So who was behind the KKK revolutionary group?

It turns out the KKK is a historically important secret society and revolutionary group . Its beginnings date back to 1892 when anti-Spanish Filipinos decided to band together. The members had the common goal of gaining independence from Spanish rule.

Now the official name of the society was Kataastaasan, Kagalanggalangang Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan . When translated into English, means Supreme and Most Honorable Society of the Children of the Nation . So it seems that shortening it to KKK or the Katipunan was a reasonable decision.

The founders of the group Andres Bonifacio, Teodoro Plata, Ladislao Diwa plus various others were mostly Freemasons . This meant that a lot of the organisational structure adopted by the KKK was borrowed from Philippine Freemasonry .

A lot of people associate the Filipino national hero Jose Rizal with the KKK. Although Rizal was not formally a member of the group; due to his being exiled to Mindanao at the time; he still remained a close affiliate with the KKK . The society had been created  as a reaction to the La Liga Filipina organization being shut down, an organization in which Rizal was the founding member.

Members of the La Liga Filipina moved away from the organization when the realization came that the organizations’ peaceful stance would be suppressed by Spanish authorities . As these members moved to the KKK their aims were adjusted to the concept of an armed revolution against the Spanish .

The KKK had begun their work in preparing for the revolution over the course of many years. They had been working to stockpile weapons and build membership to their organization. These activities did not go unnoticed by the Spanish authorities, as they had begun to alert their superiors to possible anti-Spanish movements amongst the Filipinos .

Click here to find out more about Filipino culture

The Spanish turn against the movement

Shortly after the Spanish became aware of the movement, they received information on the location of the organizations’ operations . Spanish officers arrived at the site of the Katipunan newspaper printing operations and made several arrests; this became the trigger for the Katipunan to stage their revolution .

This led to a series of battles across Manilla and into its neighbouring provinces. As a consequence, many rebels were killed or arrested and ultimately the Katipunan were subject to defeat . But this was only the beginning of the demise of Spanish dominance in The Philippines.

In the end, the movement worked to weaken the Spanish colonial power due to their frequent clashes . The Spanish were also weakened after needing to focus resources on fighting another war across the globe . After much resistance, the rebels were able to gather control over most of the countries’ territory .

In the end, the rebels were able to declare independence on June 12, 1898, in Cavite. After 333 years of colonial rule, The Philippines was finally able to declare independence from the Spanish .

As a side note, the Philippine hero Jose Rizal was killed as a result of these uprisings. At the time, Rizal was on his way to Spain. Word got out that a group he was instrumental in forming had begun to revolt against the Spanish. In the end, Rizal was executed by the Spanish after being convicted for treason.

Click here to read more about the vibrant history of the Philippines.

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The Katipunan - also known as Kataas-taasang, Kagalang-galangang Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan or KKK - was a revolutionary society founded in the Philippines by anti-Spanish colonialism Filipinos in 1892. The ultimate goal of the society was to regain independence for the country from Spain. The group was founded by Filipino patriots Andrés Bonifacio, Teodoro Plata, Ladislao Diwa and many others, all of whom fought tirelessly to achieve their goals in secret until the society was discovered by the colonial government in 1896. It was this discovery that resulted in the Philipine Revolution that followed.

While the group remained a secret organisation, all members were subjected to secrecy and strict guidelines that were established by the founders. As such, those who wanted to become part of the society were forced to take part in initiation rites if they wanted to be accepted. Initially, this was a process only offered to male Filipinos, but women were later accepted as the society grew. The growth of the society meant they needed to spread their word far and wide. This desire to communicate with people across the country led to the creation of the Kalayaan publication, which was first printed in March 1896. The success of the publication meant ideals began to develop and grow and soon some of the society’s most prominent members were even contributing to Filipino literature outside of the group. The society eventually became known after a member called Teodoro Patiño revealed its existence to his sister. Days later, the Spanish authorities caught wind of the group’s illegal activities and their questioning of the members resulted in the start of the Philippine Revolution .

MLA Citation/Reference

"Katipunan". HistoryLearning.com. 2024. Web.

Related Pages

• Library of Congress
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World of 1898: International Perspectives on the Spanish American War

• Introduction
• Overview Essay
• Cuba in 1898
• Chronology of Cuba in the Spanish-American War
• Philippine Perspective
• The Changing of the Guard: Puerto Rico in 1898
• The Spanish-American War of 1898: a Spanish View
• American Perspective
• Emilio Aguinaldo y Famy
• Russell Alexander Alger
• Thomas McArthur Anderson
• Basilio Augustin y Dávila
• Ramón Auñón y Villalón
• Román Baldorioty de Castro
• José Celso Barbosa
• Clara Barton
• Segismundo Bermejo
• Ramón Emeterio Betances
• Ramón Blanco y Erenas
• Andrés Bonifacio
• John Rutter Brooke
• Jules-Martin Cambon
• Pascual Cervera y Topete
• Grover Cleveland
• Stephen Crane
• George W. Davis
• Federico Degetau y González
• George Dewey
• José de Diego
• Manuel V. Domenech
• Enrique Dupuy de Lôme
• Oswald Herbert Ernst
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• John Milton Hay
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• Eugenio María de Hostos y Bonilla
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• James Franklin Wade
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• Valeriano Weyler
• Walt Whitman
• Henry H. Whitney
• James Harrison Wilson
• Coamo and Aibonito
• Mayagüez, Hormigueros, and Arecibo
• Cienfuegos Bay
• Abolition of Slavery in Puerto Rico
• American Ships in the Spanish-American War
• Balzac v. Porto Rico
• Foraker Act (Organic Act of 1900)
• Grito de Balintawak
• Grito de Lares
• Hurricane San Ciriaco
• Anti-Imperialist League
• Military Government in Puerto Rico
• Olmsted Amendment
• Peace Agreement in Puerto Rico
• Reconcentration Policy
• Rough Riders
• Spanish Ships in the Spanish-American War
• Teller and Platt Amendments
• Treaty of Paris of 1898
• U.S.S. Gloucester
• Additional Resources
• Acknowledgements

In 1892 Filipinos interested in the overthrow of Spanish rule founded an organization following Masonic rites and principles to organize armed resistance and terrorist assassinations within a context of total secrecy. It operated as an alternative Filipino government complete with a president and cabinet. When Andrés Bonifacio assumed control over the organization, it became much more aggressive. With the Grito de Balintawak , the Philippine revolution began. Filipinos ripped up their tax and citizenship documents and started fighting through Luzon. Emilio Jacinto commanded Katipunan's troops in several decisive struggle where both sides sustained major losses. The Katipunan movement frightened the Spanish and their supporters in the country. Consequently, the authorities arrested or exiled some 4,000 rebels, not to mention the myriad executions. At this time, the Filipinos were by no means united; Emilio Aguinaldo served as president of the insurgent government while José Rizal headed the Liga Filipina.

When General Camilo de Polavieja became the new Spanish military governor on December 3, 1896, he utilized the same strategy of reconcentration as did his counterpart Valeriano Weyler in Cuba . He also ordered the execution of Rizal and 24 others. The spanish crackdown led to a series of victories against Andrés Bonifacio and the Katipunan that Aguinaldo was quick to take advantage of at the Tejeros Convention in March 1897 to force the Katipunan into his new revolutionary government. The Katipunan was revived briefly during the insurrection against the U.S. in 1900.

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The role of Kartilya ng Katipunan in the Philippine revolution and its historical values

The Kartilya ng Katipunan , written by Emilio Jacinto, was the ethical guide for the Philippine revolution, promoting righteous living , equality , justice , and patriotism , and played a crucial role in fostering Filipino identity and national unity against Spanish rule. Its principles of social justice and egalitarianism continue to inspire modern governance and activism in the Philippines.

• Foundation of Ethical Revolution : The Kartilya ng Katipunan, penned by Emilio Jacinto, served as the moral and ideological backbone of the Katipunan, guiding revolutionaries with principles of righteous living , equality , justice , and patriotism . It was instrumental in shaping the ethical codes and punishments within the revolutionary movement, emphasizing the importance of love of country and self-sacrifice for the greater good.
• Catalyst for National Identity and Unity : The Kartilya played a crucial role in fostering a sense of Filipino identity and nationalism , uniting diverse groups under common goals against Spanish colonial rule. It advocated for compassion , generosity , and humanity , inspiring future leaders and rekindling nationalism. The principles laid out in the Kartilya, including the emphasis on women's societal value and character formation , were pivotal in the collective struggle for independence.
• Blueprint for Societal Reform : Beyond its immediate role in the revolution, the Kartilya ng Katipunan laid the groundwork for societal reform, advocating for equality and challenging discrimination based on race, wealth, or gender. It promoted a vision of an egalitarian society where honor was prioritized over personal interests, and kindness was defined as selfless service to others.
• Educational and Cultural Impact : The Kartilya ng Katipunan also had a profound impact on Philippine education and culture, instilling values of hard work , equality , and moral integrity . Its teachings continue to influence contemporary societal values, promoting positive influence and cohesion among Filipinos. The re-translation of Katipunan texts, including the Kartilya, has further enriched the understanding of indigenous concepts and the movement's challenge to European narratives, promoting cultural preservation .
• Legacy in Modern Governance and Activism : The principles of the Kartilya ng Katipunan, particularly its emphasis on social justice , freedom , and equality , have transcended the historical context to inspire modern governance and activism. The document's advocacy for collective well-being over personal comfort and its call to duty to the oppressed resonate in contemporary efforts towards social equity and democratic governance.

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Katipunan and Revolution: Memoirs of a General by Santiago Alvarez

THE KATIPUNAN (KKK)

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Rizal Law in the Philippines: Its impact on education and nationalism

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Jose Rizal and the 19th century Philippines: Economic, political challenges, and the fight for emancipation

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Jose Rizal and the 19th century Philippines: How social changes shaped a hero

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Revisiting Bonifacio’s controversial history

As the country commemorates the birth of the father of Philippine revolution and founder of the KKK, find out more about Andres Bonifacio’s legacy.

In line with the celebration of Bonifacio Day, Filipinos look back on the Supremo's ideals to launch a revolutionary government in search of true freedom and independence, and the mysteries behind his intriguing dispute with first Philippine President Emilio Aguinaldo.

Who is Supremo Andres Bonifacio?

On July 7, 1892, Andres Bonifacio led the foundation of the secret revolutionary movement Kataas-taasang, Kagalang-galangang Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan (KKK) , also known as “Katipunan,” spearheaded the uprising against the Spanish colonizers and laid the groundwork for the first Philippine Republic.

In 1895, Bonifacio became one of the chief Katipunan officers and emerged as the Supreme leader or “Supremo.”

By the year 1896, Katipunan had an estimated 100,000 members and branches not only in Manila but also in other parts of the country. Its members were mostly workers and peasants. The movement eventually became the most prominent revolutionary force that Spaniards faced.

Bonifacio vs. Aguinaldo, country’s most intriguing strife

Andres Bonifacio and Emilio Aguinaldo’s rivalry was the country’s most intriguing strife, loaded with secrets and deception.

According to the Malacañan Palace’s Presidential Museum and Library, on March 22, 1897, a convention was held in Tejeros in order to settle the dispute between the two councils, the Magdalo and Magdiwang , and to decide on what type of government should be installed. Aguinaldo won, while Bonifacio came in second after votes were counted to decide who will be the president after the overthrow of the Spanish colonizers.  Meanwhile, according to the National Historical Commission of the Philippines, Bonifacio rejected the result saying the voting had been rigged and became a rebel leader within a revolutionary government.

A day later, Bonifacio emphasized in a letter “ Acta de Tejeros ” that the Tejeros convention was deemed invalid after he was insulted by Daniel Tirona, a Magdalo member and war director contender, through stating Bonifacio’s lack of credentials to have a seat in the government. Tirona suggests for the election of a lawyer named Jose del Rosario to replace Bonifacio as the Director of the Interior, as according to Tirona, the position requires for the appointed person to have a lawyer diploma. The “ Acta de Tejeros” letter proclaimed the events at the assembly to be disorderly and tarnished by dishonesty. Signatories to this petition rejected the republic instituted at Tejeros and affirmed their steadfast devotion to the Katipunan’s ideals.

Moreover, according to Katipunan : Documents and Studies, in a meeting in Naic, Cavite in April 1897, Bonifacio and his men authored the “ Acta de Naik” wherein they resolved to establish a government independent from the established revolutionary government in Tejeros. 

Then, Bonifacio, along with his family and men, left Naic for Indang, a place in Cavite where food was scarce and people were tightfisted. However, while on his way, Aguinaldo sent men to arrest him. Bonifacio resisted the arrest and thus resulted in him becoming wounded in the process. 

He faced a trial for acts that are harmful to the existence of the new government and was given the death sentence by a military tribunal but was reduced to indefinite exile.

Meanwhile, the Philippine News Agency reported that on May 10, 1987, Bonifacio along with his brother Procopio Bonifacio was killed by Katipuneros and not by the Spaniards.

In an article published by Esquire Magazine titled “The Untold Story of Andres Bonifacio’s Execution,” there are two versions told by Lazaro Makapagal , who was behind the execution of the Bonifacio brothers that was ordered by Aguinaldo, to how Bonifacio brothers were executed on May 10, 1897. 

The first account was that Makapagal turned away before ordering his men to shoot Bonifacio brothers, while the other version was that Procopio was shot first and Andres tried to run away and that makapagal had to chase and gum him down. According to the Inquirer, the bodies of the Bonifacio brothers were never found. Regardless of the truth on how Bonifacio died, one thing is clear in Philippine history that the father of Philippine revolution was killed under the order of the first Philippine President.

24 years after Bonifacio’s death, Republic Act No. 2946 was enacted declaring Nov. 30 as a national holiday in remembrance of the birth of Bonifacio.

According to the Philippine News Agency, unlike other national heroes of the country such as Dr. Jose Rizal, Bonifacio is remembered on his birth rather than the date of his death, May 10, 1897, because he died in the hands of his fellow Filipinos and not killed by foreign colonizers. 

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Ilustrado, Revolutionaries or Accomplices of the Spanish Empire: The Contested Influence of Filipino Ilustrados on Philippine National Independence (1872-1898)

February 6, 2022 Alfonso Ralph Mendoza Manalo Academic Articles , Southeast Asia

Introduction

1872-1898 marked a crucial point in the history of the Philippines, as it encapsulated the spread of the Propaganda Movement which sought to expose the atrocities of the Spanish colonial government in the Philippines and ended with the expulsion of the Spanish from the islands. Throughout this time period, we witness the birth and the flourishing of a new intellectual and social class, this being the Ilustrados, of whom many are regarded as national heroes today. This includes José Rizal, Juan Luna, Graciano López Jaena, and Marcelo del Pilar who all sought to protect the rights of the Filipino people by advocating for reforms. On the other hand, it was the KKK ANB ( Kataastaasan, Kagalanggalangang Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan (KKK)) who mobilized the Filipino masses and fought for Philippines’ independence through armed revolt.  

This perceived disjuncture between the KKK and the Ilustrados, forms the basis of my research question, which is: if the Ilustrados aided or hampered the KKK in gaining Philippine independence? I argue that the Ilustrados, and their organizations (i.e. the Spain-based publication La Solidaridad and its subsequent Philippine-based La Liga Filipina), complemented and provided a starting point for the KKK to build off of and mobilize the Filipino masses in revolting against the Spanish by dispelling colonial mentality amongst Filipinos and promoting nationalism, spreading awareness on the socio-political climate in the Philippines, and by, persuading the KKK to resort to armed revolution due to the Ilustrados failures to achieve these reforms. I seek to prove that the relationship between the Ilustrados and the KKK albeit being complicated in nature, was in fact complementary and not at odds with one another.

1872-1898 Life Under Spanish Rule| Friarcracy and Censure

In order for us to understand the complexities and the significance of the KKK and the Ilustrados, we must first temporally situate ourselves. The Philippines was a Spanish colony from 1521-1898. However, despite the fact that the Spanish state held authority over the islands in de jurae, it was the Spanish friars in de facto that exercised their authority most prolifically with the colonial administration in provinces outside of Manila later developing into “friarcracies ( frailocracias ).” [1] [2] According to Ronald E. Dolan, the Spanish Catholic friars held various executive and administrative powers outside of Manila, the most notable of which included their monopolistic power over education in the region which severely restrained intellectual and cultural life in the Philippines, their responsibility to report on the individual character of Filipinos, report supposed acts of sedition and maintain public morality, and their role in supervising the selection of town officials and the police. [3] The friars were the largest owners of land in the Philippines outside of Manila, garnering them a massive profit through land taxes; and were granted leeway by the Spanish state as there was an insufficient amount of Spaniards living outside of the capital to properly assert Spanish dominance without them. [4]

To bolster the censure of new and radical ideas, the Permanent Commission of Censors was formed and tasked with the censoring of all new and radical ideas from all publications, shows, and artistic works. [5] This left little room for historically accurate and especially revolutionary publications to be circulated in the archipelago, with mainly the works of friars and any other publication that focused on sorrow and the racial inferiority of the Filipinos passing the censure. [6] This heavily reflected the friars’ general attitude towards educating the Filipinos, who viewed it as a means to treachery and rebellion. One Spanish friar notes that “it is not good for the Indio (Native Filipino) to separate from his carabao in order to waste his time studying in Manila because, when he returns to his place of origin, he becomes treacherous, meaning an enemy of the state, of the church, and those in power.” [7] This resulted in many Ilustrados longing for a more expressive intellectual climate, influencing them to travel to Europe and other destinations to freely express themselves and pursue liberal education that did not run the risk of being censored by the Spanish Friars.   

GOMBURZA Incident 1872

1872, and more specifically the GOMURZA incident marked a turning point in Philippine history. GOMBURZA refers to three Filipino priests (Mariano (Go)mez, José (Bu)rgos, and Jacinto (Za)mora who were publicly executed via garrotte under false accusations of treason and sedition in 1872. [8] All three priests were native Filipinos and/or mestizos (Filipino mixed with Chinese or Spanish blood) and were part of the growing secularization movement, which called for reforms allowing native Filipinos to become parish priests and to take authoritative posts in the Catholic Church which Spanish Friars enjoyed. [9] To quell the Secularization Movement, the Spanish Friars used racial tropes to justify how native Filipino’s were unfit for priesthood. The dramatic nature of their execution is felt through the last words of Fr. Burgos who was believed to have said: “But what crime have I committed? Is it possible that I should die like this? My God is there no justice on earth…but I am innocent.” [10] The public execution of these priests lingered in the cultural memory of a sizeable number of Filipinos, most especially the Ilustrados and members of the KKK. Their sentencing and execution despite calling for peaceful reforms would be used by Filipino KKK revolutionaries to liken them to the Ilustrados, as enemies of the state despite their avoidance of using arms.

The Ilustrados and the KKK ANB / KKK at a Glance

The Ilustrados (or the enlightened ones) were middle-class Filipinos who studied and/or lived in Europe, most of them residing in Madrid and Barcelona. They are considered to have promoted nationalism and patriotism through their pieces of art and literary works, and by forming various socio-political organizations that advocated for reforms. They sought to achieve this, by spreading awareness on the socio-political condition in the Philippines and to correct racist images and rhetoric surrounding Filipinos. This is referred to as the Propaganda Movement, [11] which called for the following reforms:

• Incorporating the Philippines as a Spanish Province
• The Provision of Basic Human Rights
• Representation at the Spanish Cortes
• Education Independent from the Spanish Friars
• The Secularization of the Spanish Priesthood (allowing native Filipino priests to be ordained and take positions of authority in the Philippines) [12]

As aforementioned, the influence of the Ilustrados on the Philippine Revolution is contested as the group that rallied the Filipino people to revolt against Spain was not the Ilustrados, but the KKK, founded by Andres Bonifacio. [13] This secret organization sought to gain total independence for the Philippines through armed revolution, and is noted to be a “proletarian” organization as its membership mainly consisted of Tagalog-speaking blue-collared workers (i.e. milk vendors, firemen, barbers, shoemakers, laundrymen, etc.). [14] [15]

At first glance their political goal seems to be in direct contrast with the reforms proposed by the Ilustrados, however it is important to note that José Rizal himself was not necessarily opposed to the idea of armed revolution in its entirety. Rizal opposed the idea of gaining Philippine Independence through armed revolt, specifically because he thought that the Filipino peoples did not possesses a sufficient number of military arms and support to successfully topple the armed Spanish colonial administration, resulting in him settling to pursue reforms instead to avoid the anticipated bloodshed. This is supported by the fact that upon being visited by Dr. Pio Valenzuela in exile, and being notified that there was an impending rebellion amongst the Filipino masses José Rizal replied with:

“Never start a revolution without arms against an armed nation. Its consequences would be fatal and disastrous to the country. Filipinos will necessarily lose because of lack of arms. Once they prove victorious, the Spanish will annihilate those Filipinos who love their country; they will use all means to oppose the intellectual, moral, and material progress of the Filipinos, who sunk in misery, will find it hard to start another revolution.” [16]

The sentiments present in the aforementioned quote triangulates with Rizal’s testimony to Colonel Francisco Olive during his interrogation, and his statement to José Alejandrino where he explicitly clarifies that he would support an armed revolution should once occur in the Philippines, but he would not lead it himself. This can be seen in the written statement given to José Alejandrino by Rizal, wherein he states that: “I will never head a disorderly revolution that has no probability of success, because I don’t want to lad my conscience with the imprudent and futile shedding of blood; but he who wishes to lead a revolution in the Philippines will find me by his side! [17]  

Erasing Colonial Mentality and Stirring Nationalism

A substantive mechanism in the maintenance of colonial empires is through the justification of colonization on a certain ground. The justification behind the colonizing of the Filipinos was riddled with racial tropes, pitting them as backwards savages in need of salvation.  Given the control and censure that the friars and colonial officials held over the Philippines, the citizenry was exposed to a curriculum that engrained colonial mentality (i.e., the belief that colonialism was beneficial to one’s race or nation).  This can be acutely felt in the words of Father Cura Gaspar de San Agustin who said that the “Filipino descended from apes and had half a soul, ” [18] and Francisco Cañaque y Jiménez a Spanish historian who noted in 1877 that the “indolence of the (native) Filipinos was beyond remedy.” [19] The Ilustrados actively worked to counter this by correcting historical inaccuracies and spreading awareness on precolonial traditions and practices, which not only dispelled colonial mentality amongst Filipinos and promoted nationalism, but subsequently taught the Filipinos that they were capable of self-governance despite the racial stereotypes imposed onto them. An example of this is, Rizal’s Sore la Indolencia de los Filipinos where he notes that it was the Spaniards who were indolent. Here he states that:

“They are surrounded by many helpers, they never walk, instead they always ride their carriages, and they always need helpers, not only to remove their boots and shoes but to fan them… they live and eat abundantly, work only for themselves alone in order to become rich, with hope in the future free and respected, while the lowly subjects, the lazy subjects are not eating well, they are without hope, they work for others and are forced to work, and are even raped.” [20]

The Ilustrados worked to actively dispel these racist tropes through literary and artistic works, like Juan Luna’s 1885 Blood Compact ( Pacto de Sangre ), which depicts Sikatuna and Miguel Legazpi ceremonially drinking eachother’s blood. [21] Interestingly this echoes Rizal’s questioning of the term conquest when referring to the Spanish conquest of the Philippines wherein he suggests the “Cebu, Panay, Luzon, Mindoro and other parts of the Philippines were acquired through pacts, treaties of  friendship and reciprocal alliances which suggests equivalence amongst both signatories (native Filipino and Spanish).” [22] This echoes the Ilustrado’s greater goals of proving that Filipinos were of an equal or higher civility than their Spanish counterparts, so as to prove that they were worthy of being a Spanish province with equal rights.

It is important to note however, that the Ilustrados were subject to their own biases as well, which primarily those related to class. This can be seen in the fact that the Ilustrados most often used Spanish in their written works and their daily affairs, which despite being the vernacular for elite Indios (native Malay Filipinos), Mestizo (Mixed-race), Peninsulares, Americanos, and Insulares/Filipinos (people of pure Spanish descent born in Spain, Spanish America, and the Philippines respectively) was not the vernacular of Indios (native Filipinos) who hailed from lower-middle classes. This can arguably be due to the fact that the principal audience of the Ilustrado’s were those who hailed from upper social classes and held positions of authority, as Rizal himself arguably “hoped that the Spanish-literate members of the town elite would lead poorer members onto a path of liberal revolution like France and America.” [23]  

The Ilustrados also reinterpreted historically notable events in the colonization of the Philippines, and worked to spread awareness on how Filipinos had precolonial traditions and practices that were ruined when the Spanish conquered. [24] Some notable works include Pedro Paterno’s La Antigua Civilización Tagala, Las Islas, and Ninay: Costumbres Filipinas which described the lives of Tagalog royalty, their advanced culture, and cultural influences from other cultures, [25] and José Rizal’s Centro de Cien Años which reminded the Spanish of the intricate legal system, customs, and modes of governance in pre-colonial Philippines. [26]

Another vivid example of Ilustrado-made nationalist works is José Rizal’s Essay El Amor Patrio ( For the love of country ) which was published in the Manila-based Diariong Tagalog while he was residing in Spain. [27] This newspaper was the first bilingual newspaper, writing in both Spanish and Tagalog. It becomes evident in the following excerpt that this poem sought to stir nationalism amongst its Filipinos readers. The excerpt reads: “whatever be her name, her age, her fortune. We always love her as children love their mother even in hunger and poverty, and how strange it is! The poorer and more miserable we are and the more we suffer for our country, so much the more do we venerate and adore her even to the point of finding joy in our suffering.” [28] Given the number of censures in the Philippines, the works of Ilustrado’s were often composed or created in Europe and were some of the sole sources of nationalistic works for the native Filipino upper-middle class.

The impact of these nationalist works is imminent in the fact that Bonifacio himself, the leader of the KKK was known to have been inspired by the works of José Rizal alongside other European revolutionaries. [29] The influence of these works on Bonifacio is seen in the following initiation statement for KKK members:

 “When the Spaniards came to us … the Filipinos living along the coasts already knew how to have a good livelihood and citizenship. Back then, we Filipinos were free citizens; there were cannons; we knew how to wear silk clothes; we were already negotiating trade with neighboring countries in Asia. We had our own faith and religion, we have our own letters and writing, we enjoyed freedom and independence.” [30]

Noli and El Fillibusterismo | Exposing the Socio-Political Climate in the Philippines

The second way in which the Ilustrados aided the Philippine Revolution was by regularly writing and spreading awareness on the atrocities being committed in the Philippines, through their transnational newspaper La Solidaridad. Their works brought these atrocities to the forefront of Filipino everyday discourse, mainly through the publishing and circulation of José Rizal’s famous novels Noli Me Tangere (Touch Me Not) and El Fillibusterismo (The Reign of Greed). These two books in particular sought to expose the corrupt and immoral acts of the friars and the weaponizing of religion to oppress native Filipinos. The book centres around Ibarra, a Spanish mestizo who had returned to the Philippines from his studies in Europe and his plight in trying to bring his newfound liberal idealism in a socially conservative Philippines. The main antagonist is Father Salvi who attempts to frame Ibarra for a rebellion that he himself organized, rapes Maria Clara who is Ibarra’s main love interest once she becomes a nun and kills and beats multiple characters. [31] Rizal shows the irony in this and highlights the lack of accountability they enjoy as Salvi gets promoted to a bishop while Ibarra and other characters either die, become mentally destitute, or emigrate out of the country.

2,000 copies of Noli Me Tangere were published and smuggled into the Philippines in 1887. [32] The book instantly became controversial as it was labelled as heretical and subversive by the Special Jury at the Royal and Pontifical University of Santo Tomas [33] and was publicly denounced by multiple friars and politicians in the Spanish Cortes. [34] Its circulation, importation, and reproduction in the Philippines was also prohibited by the Permanent Commission of Censors [35] and caused debates amongst the friars themselves, with Fr. José Rodriguez (Augustinian) circulating pamphlets that deemed Noli me Tangere as heretical and an attack on the church. [36] This was juxtaposed by its Fr. Vicente Garcia who noted that Noli Me Tangere was “not an attack on the church but on the immoral and corrupt practices of the friars and Spanish officials.” [37] However, due to the publicity of the book’s controversial nature, Filipinos were even more intrigued about the contents of the book. This led to its increase in circulation amongst Filipinos which in turn exposed them to the brutalities that they were facing at the hands of the friars, with the book becoming so popular that it became a highly valued commodity with its price jumping from 5 to 50 pesos per copy “at the height of the controversy.” [38] This book later become the reason for the arrest and execution of Rizal, becoming so prolific that José Rizal was exiled shortly after he arrived back in Manila.    

It can be presumed that Noli me Tangere was one of the works of Rizal that Bonifacio had read given that the awareness surrounding the atrocities felt by the native Filipinos was prominent amongst the members of the KKK. This is seen in another of the answers iterated by its recruits: “The “friars” are the fiercest opponents of the ingenuity and skill of the Filipinos who in fact do not want us to learn Spanish. So that all the experiences of oppression, rape, atrocities, looking at the Filipinos as if they were different from the Spaniards…” [39]

The Execution of José Rizal | The Failures and Symbolism of the Ilustrados

Arguably, the most significant way in which the Ilustrados complemented and aided the Philippine Revolution was through their failures as a movement. Following the arrest of Rizal in 1892, Andres Bonifacio became disillusioned by the promises of peaceful reforms and founded the KKK. [40] As a former member of La Liga Filipina, a short-lived group of reformers based in the Philippines that Rizal founded prior to his arrest; Bonifacio concluded that the sole way that Filipinos could get basic human rights was through an armed revolution leading to their independence. Similar to the GOMBURZA, the Ilustrados failed to get their reforms ratified and were labelled as enemies of the Spanish colonial state despite using peaceful means to advocate their causes. Rizal became a symbol of martyrdom due to his public execution in 1896 and the translating of his smuggled final poem Mi Ultimo Dios from Spanish to Tagalog by Bonifacio who circulated it amongst the KKK. [41]

Rizal later became venerated amongst the KKK, with his portrait present at all meetings and his name used as a password amongst senior officials in the secret society. [42] The martyrdom of Rizal is echoed by Apolinario Mabini, a notable figure in the Philippine Revolution, whose letter from April 1898 entitled Letter to those who come to the defense of the honor of our country refers to Rizal as “unforgettable, the enlightened son of our country, who died greatly happy because he knew that his death would usher in a life greater than that which our country had just experienced.” [43]   

However, it was not solely the deaths and exile of José Rizal, but the Ilustrados broadly who inspired Bonifacio and the KKK to seek for Independence rather than reform. Taken from Bonifacio’s biography, the impact of the failure of Ilustrados can be felt through the following words wherein he names various Ilustrados alongside Rizal:

“the Spanish government and the “friars” —cannot be obtained through petition, pleas and reasoning, instead the response to the deeds of “masons” like Rizal, Del Pilar, Lopez Jaena, Regidor, Cortez and others is that they are considered “enemies of ~ Spain and God, “and many of them and their followers were imprisoned, exiled to distant lands and tortured in prisons, even though they had committed no sin.” [44]  

Conclusion  

The Ilustrados supported the Philippine Revolution in multiple nuanced ways, despite their overall calls for reform rather than independence. In exposing the socio-political climate in the Philippines and dispelling colonial mentality amongst the Filipinos they stirred a national consciousness that advocated for the provision of not only the provision of basic human rights, but the freedoms attached with self-governance. In their failure to achieve such reforms, their execution, and their exile to foreign lands they instigated what Rizal thought was near impossible, a formidable armed Philippine Revolution. Thus, the relationship between the KKK and the Ilustrados should not be reduced to one that is oppositional, but one filled with nuance and complexity, exchanges of information, shared members, and at times reverence and support of one another.

Alfonso Ralph Mendoza Manalo   is a fourth-year undergraduate student at the University of Toronto Scarborough, majoring in Co-op Public Policy and Global Asia Studies and minoring in Critical Migration Studies. He currently works as an Equity, Diversity, and Inclusion Policy Advisor and as an Ad-hoc Race-based Data Collection policy Advisor for the RCMP, an Administration Assistant and Grant Writer at the Filipino Centre Toronto, and as a Research Assistant for Professor Julie Moreau at the University of Toronto’s Department of Political Science. He has also held various research roles across the public and non-for profit sector, including the Richard Charles-Lee Asian Pathways Research Lab at the Asian Institute, the RCMP’s Information Management Branch, the Scarborough Campus Students Union – Racialized Students Collective, the Filipino Centre Toronto, and the Urban Alliance on Race Relations. Some of the topics he is passionate about include Filipinx, Southeast Asian, Diasporic Studies, Race and Racism, Anti-Asian Racism, Public Administration, and Queer Studies. His articles can also be found at Synergy’s sister journal, Re:Locations Journal of the Asia Pacific World.

Bibliography:

“Andres Bonifacio.” In Encyclopedia of World Biography , 2nd ed., 2:393. GALE, 2004.

Bonoan, Raul J., and Laong Laan. “Rizal’s First Published Essay: ‘El Amor Patrio.’” Philippine Studies 44, no. 3 (1996): 299–320.

Carado, Hannibal F., Joey A. Lopez, and Armando E. Paras. Rizal: Life, Works, and Writings of the Greatest Malayan | For College Students . Quezon City, Philippines: HisGoPhil Publishing House, Inc., n.d.

Choa, Sonia H. C. “Representational Practice in Rizal’s ‘Noli Me Tangere.’” Philippine Studies 47, no. 4 (1999): 550–57.

Cruz, Hermenegildo. Kartilyang Makabayan Mga Tanong at Sagot Ukol Kay Andrés Bonifacio at sa KKK . Maynila, Philippines, 1922. http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/14822 .

Dolan, Ronald E. Philippines: A Country Study . Area Handbook Series. Washington, DC: Library of Congress, 1993. http://www.loc.gov/item/92039812/ .

Escalante, Rene R. “Bonifacio and the Katipunan in the Cuerpo de Vigilancia Archival Collection.” Philippine Studies: Historical and Ethnographic Viewpoints 65, no. 4 (2017): 451–83. https://doi.org/10.1353/phs.2017.0032 .

Guillermo, Ramon. “Andres Bonifacio: Proletarian Hero of the Philippines and Indonesia.” Inter-Asia Cultural Studies 18, no. 3 (2017): 338–46. https://doi.org/10.1080/14649373.2017.1350498 .

Ileto, Reynaldo C. “The Road to 1898: On American Empire and the Philippine Revolution.” The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 49, no. 3 (May 4, 2021): 505–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/03086534.2021.1920804 .

Library of Congress. “Andrés Bonifacio – The World of 1898: The Spanish-American War,” June 22, 2011. https://www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/1898/bonifacio.html .

Mabini, Apolinario. The Letters of Apolinario Mabini . Edited by Carlos Quirino. Translated by National Heroes Commission. 2nd ed. Publications of the National Heroes Commission. Ermita, Manila: The National Historical Institute, 1999. https://issuu.com/filipinasheritagelibrary/docs/the_letters_of_apolinario_mabini?e=18015266/13677878 .

Quibuyen, Floro. “Rizal and the Revolution.” Philippine Studies 45, no. 2 (1997): 225–57.

Quirino, Carlos. The Great Malayan: The Biography of Rizal . Philippine National Life and Literature Series. Manila, Philippines: Manila Philippine Education Company, 1940. https://issuu.com/filipinasheritagelibrary/docs/the_great_malayan?e=18015266/13751482 .

Rizal, Dr. Jose. Rizal’s Correspondence with Fellow Reformists, 1882-1896 (Part 1 of 2) . Edited by Carlos Quirino. National Heroes Commission Edition. Vol. 2. Publications of the National Heroes Commission. Manila, Philippines: Republic of the Philippines | Office of the President, 1963. https://issuu.com/filipinasheritagelibrary/docs/rizal_s_correspondence_with_fellow_?e=18015266/13750974 .

Teodoro, Noel V. “Rizal and the Ilustrados in Spain.” Asian and Pacific Migration Journal 8, no. 1–2 (March 1, 1999): 65–82. https://doi.org/10.1177/011719689900800104 . Thomas, Megan C. “Lessons in History: The Decline of Spanish Rule, and Revolutionary Strategy.” In Orientalists, Propagandists, and Ilustrados: Filipino Scholarship and the End of Spanish Colonialism , 171–99. Minneapolis, MN, US: University of Minnesota Press, 2012. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/utoronto/detail.action?docID=902557 .

[1] Teodoro, Noel V. “Rizal and the Ilustrados in Spain.” Asian and Pacific Migration Journal 8, no. 1–2 (March 1, 1999): 65–82.

[2] Dolan, Ronald E. Philippines: A Country Study . Area Handbook Series. Washington, DC: Library of Congress, 1993.

[3] Dolan, Ronald E. Philippines: A Country Study . Area Handbook Series. Washington, DC: Library of Congress, 1993.

[4] Dolan, Ronald E. Philippines: A Country Study . Area Handbook Series. Washington, DC: Library of Congress, 1993.

[5] Teodoro, Noel V. “Rizal and the Ilustrados in Spain.” Asian and Pacific Migration Journal 8, no. 1–2 (March 1, 1999): 65–82.

[6] Teodoro, Noel V. “Rizal and the Ilustrados in Spain.” Asian and Pacific Migration Journal 8, no. 1–2 (March 1, 1999): 65–82.

[7] Teodoro, Noel V. “Rizal and the Ilustrados in Spain.” Asian and Pacific Migration Journal 8, no. 1–2 (March 1, 1999): 65–82.

[8] Carado, Hannibal F., Joey A. Lopez, and Armando E. Paras. Rizal: Life, Works, and Writings of the Greatest Malayan | For College Students . Quezon City, Philippines: HisGoPhil Publishing House, Inc., n.d.

[9] Teodoro, Noel V. “Rizal and the Ilustrados in Spain.” Asian and Pacific Migration Journal 8, no. 1–2 (March 1, 1999): 65–82.

[10] Carado, Hannibal F., Joey A. Lopez, and Armando E. Paras. Rizal: Life, Works, and Writings of the Greatest Malayan | For College Students . Quezon City, Philippines: HisGoPhil Publishing House, Inc., n.d.

[11] Dolan, Ronald E. Philippines: A Country Study . Area Handbook Series. Washington, DC: Library of Congress, 1993.

[12] Teodoro, Noel V. “Rizal and the Ilustrados in Spain.” Asian and Pacific Migration Journal 8, no. 1–2 (March 1, 1999): 65–82.

[13] ““Andres Bonifacio.” In Encyclopedia of World Biography , 2nd ed., 2:393. GALE, 2004.

[14] Escalante, Rene R. “Bonifacio and the Katipunan in the Cuerpo de Vigilancia Archival Collection.” Philippine Studies: Historical and Ethnographic Viewpoints 65, no. 4 (2017): 451–83.

[15] Ileto, Reynaldo C. “The Road to 1898: On American Empire and the Philippine Revolution.” The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 49, no. 3 (May 4, 2021): 505–26.

[16] Quirino, Carlos. The Great Malayan: The Biography of Rizal . Philippine National Life and Literature Series. Manila, Philippines: Manila Philippine Education Company, 1940. https://issuu.com/filipinasheritagelibrary/docs/the_great_malayan?e=18015266/13751482 .

[17] Quirino, Carlos. The Great Malayan: The Biography of Rizal . Philippine National Life and Literature Series. Manila, Philippines: Manila Philippine Education Company, 1940. https://issuu.com/filipinasheritagelibrary/docs/the_great_malayan?e=18015266/13751482 .

[18] Teodoro, Noel V. “Rizal and the Ilustrados in Spain.” Asian and Pacific Migration Journal 8, no. 1–2 (March 1, 1999): 65–82.

[19] Teodoro, Noel V. “Rizal and the Ilustrados in Spain.” Asian and Pacific Migration Journal 8, no. 1–2 (March 1, 1999): 65–82.

[20] Teodoro, Noel V. “Rizal and the Ilustrados in Spain.” Asian and Pacific Migration Journal 8, no. 1–2 (March 1, 1999): 65–82.

[21] Thomas, Megan C. “Lessons in History: The Decline of Spanish Rule, and Revolutionary Strategy.” In Orientalists, Propagandists, and Ilustrados: Filipino Scholarship and the End of Spanish Colonialism , 171–99. Minneapolis, MN, US: University of Minnesota Press, 2012.

[22] Thomas, Megan C. “Lessons in History: The Decline of Spanish Rule, and Revolutionary Strategy.” In Orientalists, Propagandists, and Ilustrados: Filipino Scholarship and the End of Spanish Colonialism , 171–99. Minneapolis, MN, US: University of Minnesota Press, 2012.

[23] Ileto, Reynaldo C. “The Road to 1898: On American Empire and the Philippine Revolution.” The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 49, no. 3 (May 4, 2021): 505–26.

[24] Thomas, Megan C. “Lessons in History: The Decline of Spanish Rule, and Revolutionary Strategy.” In Orientalists, Propagandists, and Ilustrados: Filipino Scholarship and the End of Spanish Colonialism , 171–99. Minneapolis, MN, US: University of Minnesota Press, 2012.

[25] Teodoro, Noel V. “Rizal and the Ilustrados in Spain.” Asian and Pacific Migration Journal 8, no. 1–2 (March 1, 1999): 65–82.

[26] Teodoro, Noel V. “Rizal and the Ilustrados in Spain.” Asian and Pacific Migration Journal 8, no. 1–2 (March 1, 1999): 65–82.

[27] Carado, Hannibal F., Joey A. Lopez, and Armando E. Paras. Rizal: Life, Works, and Writings of the Greatest Malayan | For College Students . Quezon City, Philippines: HisGoPhil Publishing House, Inc., n.d.

[28] Bonoan, Raul J., and Laong Laan. “Rizal’s First Published Essay: ‘El Amor Patrio.’” Philippine Studies 44, no. 3 (1996): 299–320.

[29] “Andres Bonifacio.” In Encyclopedia of World Biography , 2nd ed., 2:393. GALE, 2004.

[30] Cruz, Hermenegildo. Kartilyang Makabayan Mga Tanong at Sagot Ukol Kay Andrés Bonifacio at sa KKK . Maynila, Philippines, 1922.

[31] Choa, Sonia H. C. “Representational Practice in Rizal’s ‘Noli Me Tangere.’” Philippine Studies 47, no. 4 (1999): 550–57.

[32] Carado, Hannibal F., Joey A. Lopez, and Armando E. Paras. Rizal: Life, Works, and Writings of the Greatest Malayan | For College Students . Quezon City, Philippines: HisGoPhil Publishing House, Inc., n.d.

[33] Choa, Sonia H. C. “Representational Practice in Rizal’s ‘Noli Me Tangere.’” Philippine Studies 47, no. 4 (1999): 550–57.

[34] Carado, Hannibal F., Joey A. Lopez, and Armando E. Paras. Rizal: Life, Works, and Writings of the Greatest Malayan | For College Students . Quezon City, Philippines: HisGoPhil Publishing House, Inc., n.d.

[35] Carado, Hannibal F., Joey A. Lopez, and Armando E. Paras. Rizal: Life, Works, and Writings of the Greatest Malayan | For College Students . Quezon City, Philippines: HisGoPhil Publishing House, Inc., n.d.

[36] Carado, Hannibal F., Joey A. Lopez, and Armando E. Paras. Rizal: Life, Works, and Writings of the Greatest Malayan | For College Students . Quezon City, Philippines: HisGoPhil Publishing House, Inc., n.d.

[37] Carado, Hannibal F., Joey A. Lopez, and Armando E. Paras. Rizal: Life, Works, and Writings of the Greatest Malayan | For College Students . Quezon City, Philippines: HisGoPhil Publishing House, Inc., n.d.

[38] Carado, Hannibal F., Joey A. Lopez, and Armando E. Paras. Rizal: Life, Works, and Writings of the Greatest Malayan | For College Students . Quezon City, Philippines: HisGoPhil Publishing House, Inc., n.d.

[39] Cruz, Hermenegildo. Kartilyang Makabayan Mga Tanong at Sagot Ukol Kay Andrés Bonifacio at sa KKK . Maynila, Philippines, 1922.

[40] Cruz, Hermenegildo. Kartilyang Makabayan Mga Tanong at Sagot Ukol Kay Andrés Bonifacio at sa KKK . Maynila, Philippines, 1922.

[41] Ileto, Reynaldo C. “The Road to 1898: On American Empire and the Philippine Revolution.” The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 49, no. 3 (May 4, 2021): 505–26.

[42] Quirino, Carlos. The Great Malayan: The Biography of Rizal . Philippine National Life and Literature Series. Manila, Philippines: Manila Philippine Education Company, 1940.

[43] Mabini, Apolinario. The Letters of Apolinario Mabini . Edited by Carlos Quirino. Translated by National Heroes Commission. 2nd ed. Publications of the National Heroes Commission. Ermita, Manila: The National Historical Institute, 1999. https://issuu.com/filipinasheritagelibrary/docs/the_letters_of_apolinario_mabini?e=18015266/13677878 .

[44] Cruz, Hermenegildo. Kartilyang Makabayan Mga Tanong at Sagot Ukol Kay Andrés Bonifacio at sa KKK . Maynila, Philippines, 1922.

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   Katipunan  

   documents and studies  .

This site is dedicated to the study of the Katipunan, the patriotic secret society that in 1896 launched the revolution against Spanish rule in the Philippines. 

Although the late 19th century is the most celebrated period in Philippine history, much of what has been published on the Katipunan is unreliable and the surviving primary sources are as yet largely unexplored. The principal aim here is to bring to light a number of important Katipunan documents that have not been published before, or are not readily accessible.

Foundational documents (1892)

Membership documents

January-February 1896

Kalayaan, the Katipunan newspaper

March-August 1896

Kamaynilaan and Morong, August 1896-April 1897

Cavite: politics in a time of revolution

Andres Bonifacio: Biographical notes  

Much of the material on this website was published by the Ateneo de Manila University Press in 2013 under the title The Light of Liberty: Documents and Studies on the Katipunan, 1892-1897 .  The book should be available at Solidaridad Bookshop and various branches of Fully Booked, as well at  the AdMUP's offices on the Loyola Heights campus.    

Andres Bonifacio: proletarian hero of the Philippines and Indonesia

• Inter-Asia Cultural Studies 18(3):338-346
• 18(3):338-346

• University of the Philippines

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Nihongojin Across the Philippines: Essay Open Call (FY2024)

The Japan Foundation, Manila (JFM) is now accepting submissions of written articles for the Nihongojin Across the Philippines Essay Contest.

The theme “こんなところに にほんご人: Nihongojin Across the Philippines” aims to highlight the unique experiences of Nihongo learners and teachers across the different parts of the Philippines.

Three talented winners will get the chance to publish their article in the latest edition of Nihongojin Connect! It is the JFM’s official newsletter of the Japanese Language Education section. A cash prize worth Php 1,000.00 will also be given to each winner.

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