causes of the fall of the roman empire history essay

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8 Reasons Why Rome Fell

By: Evan Andrews

Updated: September 5, 2023 | Original: January 14, 2014

The Course of Empire. Destruction, 1836. Found in the collection of New York Historical Society.

1. Invasions by Barbarian tribes

The most straightforward theory for Western Rome’s collapse pins the fall on a string of military losses sustained against outside forces. Rome had tangled with Germanic tribes for centuries, but by the 300s “barbarian” groups like the Goths had encroached beyond the Empire’s borders. The Romans weathered a Germanic uprising in the late fourth century, but in 410 the Visigoth King Alaric successfully sacked the city of Rome.

The Empire spent the next several decades under constant threat before “the Eternal City” was raided again in 455, this time by the Vandals. Finally, in 476, the Germanic leader Odoacer staged a revolt and deposed Emperor Romulus Augustulus. From then on, no Roman emperor would ever again rule from a post in Italy, leading many to cite 476 as the year the Western Empire suffered its death blow.

2. Economic troubles and overreliance on slave labor

Even as Rome was under attack from outside forces, it was also crumbling from within thanks to a severe financial crisis. Constant wars and overspending had significantly lightened imperial coffers, and oppressive taxation and inflation had widened the gap between rich and poor. In the hope of avoiding the taxman, many members of the wealthy classes had even fled to the countryside and set up independent fiefdoms.

At the same time, the empire was rocked by a labor deficit. Rome’s economy depended on slaves to till its fields and work as craftsmen, and its military might had traditionally provided a fresh influx of conquered peoples to put to work. But when expansion ground to a halt in the second century, Rome’s supply of slaves and other war treasures began to dry up. A further blow came in the fifth century, when the Vandals claimed North Africa and began disrupting the empire’s trade by prowling the Mediterranean as pirates. With its economy faltering and its commercial and agricultural production in decline, the Empire began to lose its grip on Europe.

3. The rise of the Eastern Empire

The fate of Western Rome was partially sealed in the late third century, when Emperor Diocletian divided the Empire into two halves—the Western Empire seated in the city of Milan, and the Eastern Empire in Byzantium, later known as Constantinople. The division made the empire more easily governable in the short term, but over time the two halves drifted apart. East and West failed to adequately work together to combat outside threats, and the two often squabbled over resources and military aid.

As the gulf widened, the largely Greek-speaking Eastern Empire grew in wealth while the Latin-speaking West descended into an economic crisis. Most importantly, the strength of the Eastern Empire served to divert Barbarian invasions to the West. Emperors like Constantine ensured that the city of Constantinople was fortified and well guarded, but Italy and the city of Rome—which only had symbolic value for many in the East—were left vulnerable. The Western political structure would finally disintegrate in the fifth century, but the Eastern Empire endured in some form for another thousand years before being overwhelmed by the Ottoman Empire in the 1400s.

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4. Overexpansion and military overspending

At its height, the Roman Empire stretched from the Atlantic Ocean all the way to the Euphrates River in the Middle East, but its grandeur may have also been its downfall. With such a vast territory to govern, the empire faced an administrative and logistical nightmare. Even with their excellent road systems, the Romans were unable to communicate quickly or effectively enough to manage their holdings.

Rome struggled to marshal enough troops and resources to defend its frontiers from local rebellions and outside attacks, and by the second century, the Emperor Hadrian was forced to build his famous wall in Britain just to keep the enemy at bay. As more and more funds were funneled into the military upkeep of the empire, technological advancement slowed and Rome’s civil infrastructure fell into disrepair.

5. Government corruption and political instability

If Rome’s sheer size made it difficult to govern, ineffective and inconsistent leadership only served to magnify the problem. Being the Roman emperor had always been a particularly dangerous job, but during the tumultuous second and third centuries it nearly became a death sentence. Civil war thrust the empire into chaos, and more than 20 men took the throne in the span of only 75 years, usually after the murder of their predecessor.

The Praetorian Guard—the emperor’s personal bodyguards—assassinated and installed new sovereigns at will, and once even auctioned the spot off to the highest bidder. The political rot also extended to the Roman Senate, which failed to temper the excesses of the emperors due to its own widespread corruption and incompetence. As the situation worsened, civic pride waned and many Roman citizens lost trust in their leadership.

6. The arrival of the Huns and the migration of the Barbarian tribes

The Barbarian attacks on Rome partially stemmed from a mass migration caused by the Huns’ invasion of Europe in the late fourth century. When these Eurasian warriors rampaged through northern Europe, they drove many Germanic tribes to the borders of the Roman Empire. The Romans grudgingly allowed members of the Visigoth tribe to cross south of the Danube and into the safety of Roman territory, but they treated them with extreme cruelty.

According to the historian Ammianus Marcellinus, Roman officials even forced the starving Goths to trade their children into slavery in exchange for dog meat. In brutalizing the Goths, the Romans created a dangerous enemy within their own borders. When the oppression became too much to bear, the Goths rose up in revolt and eventually routed a Roman army and killed the Eastern Emperor Valens during the Battle of Adrianople in A.D. 378. The shocked Romans negotiated a flimsy peace with the barbarians, but the truce unraveled in 410, when the Goth King Alaric moved west and sacked Rome. With the Western Empire weakened, Germanic tribes like the Vandals and the Saxons were able to surge across its borders and occupy Britain, Spain and North Africa.

7. Christianity and the loss of traditional values

The decline of Rome dovetailed with the spread of Christianity, and some have argued that the rise of a new faith helped contribute to the empire’s fall. The Edict of Milan legalized Christianity in 313, and it later became the state religion in 380. These decrees ended centuries of persecution, but they may have also eroded the traditional Roman values system. Christianity displaced the polytheistic Roman religion, which viewed the emperor as having a divine status, and also shifted focus away from the glory of the state and onto a sole deity.

Meanwhile, popes and other church leaders took an increased role in political affairs, further complicating governance. The 18th-century historian Edward Gibbon was the most famous proponent of this theory, but his take has since been widely criticized. While the spread of Christianity may have played a small role in curbing Roman civic virtue, most scholars now argue that its influence paled in comparison to military, economic and administrative factors.

8. Weakening of the Roman legions

For most of its history, Rome’s military was the envy of the ancient world. But during the decline, the makeup of the once mighty legions began to change. Unable to recruit enough soldiers from the Roman citizenry, emperors like Diocletian and Constantine began hiring foreign mercenaries to prop up their armies. The ranks of the legions eventually swelled with Germanic Goths and other barbarians, so much so that Romans began using the Latin word “barbarus” in place of “soldier.”

While these Germanic soldiers of fortune proved to be fierce warriors, they also had little or no loyalty to the empire, and their power-hungry officers often turned against their Roman employers. In fact, many of the barbarians who sacked the city of Rome and brought down the Western Empire had earned their military stripes while serving in the Roman legions.

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The Fall of Rome: When, Why, and How Did Rome Fall?

The fall of Rome and of the Western Roman Empire was a complex process driven by a combination of economic, political, military, and social factors, along with external barbarian invasions. It took place over several centuries and culminated in the deposition of the last Roman emperor in 476 CE.

Table of Contents

When Did Rome Fall?

The generally agreed-upon date for the fall of Rome is September 4, 476 AD. On this date, the Germanic king Odaecer stormed the city of Rome and deposed its emperor, leading to its collapse.

But the story of the fall of Rome is not this simple. By this point in the Roman Empire timeline , there were two empires, the Eastern and Western Roman empires.

READ MORE: The Foundation of Rome: The Birth of an Ancient Power

Whilst the western empire fell in 476 AD, the eastern half of the empire lived on, transformed into the Byzantine Empire, and flourished until 1453. Nevertheless, it is the fall of the Western Empire that has most captured the hearts and minds of later thinkers and has been immortalized in debate as “the fall of Rome.”

The Effects of the Fall of Rome

Although debate continues around the exact nature of what followed, the demise of the Western Roman Empire has traditionally been depicted as the demise of civilization in Western Europe. Matters in the East carried on, much as they always had (with “Roman” power now centered on Byzantium (modern Istanbul), but the West experienced a collapse of centralized, imperial Roman infrastructure.

Again, according to traditional perspectives, this collapse led to the “Dark Ages” of instability and crises that beset much of Europe. No longer could cities and communities look to Rome, Roman emperors , or formidable Roman army ; moving forward there would be a splintering of the Roman world into a number of different polities, many of which were controlled by Germanic “barbarians” (a term used by the Romans to describe anyone who wasn’t Roman), from the northeast of Europe.

Such a transition has fascinated thinkers, from the time it was actually happening, up until the modern day. For modern political and social analysts, it is a complex but captivating case study, that many experts still explore to find answers about how superpower states can collapse.

How Did Rome Fall?

Rome did not fall overnight. Instead, the fall of the Western Roman Empire was the result of a process that took place over the course of several centuries. It came about due to political and financial instability and invasions from Germanic tribes moving into Roman territories.

The Story of the Fall of Rome

To give some background and context to the fall of the Roman Empire (in the West), it is necessary to go as far back as the second century AD. During much of this century, Rome was ruled by the famous “ Five Good Emperors ” who made up most of the Nerva-Antonine Dynasty. Whilst this period was heralded as a “kingdom of gold” by the historian Cassius Dio , largely due to its political stability and territorial expansion, the empire has been seen to undergo a steady decline after it.

There were periods of relative stability and peace that came after the Nerva-Antonine’s, fostered by the Severans (a dynasty started by Septimius Severus ), the Tetrarchy , and Constantine the Great . Yet, none of these periods of peace really strengthened the frontiers or the political infrastructure of Rome; none set the empire on a long-term trajectory of improvement.

Moreover, even during the Nerva-Antonines, the precarious status quo between the emperors and the senate was beginning to unravel. Under the “Five Good Emperors,” power was increasingly centered on the emperor – a recipe for success in those times under “Good” Emperors, but it was inevitable that less praiseworthy emperors would follow, leading to corruption and political instability.

Then came Commodus , who designated his duties to greedy confidants and made the city of Rome his plaything. After he was murdered by his wrestling partner, the “High Empire” of the Nerva-Antonines came to an abrupt close. What followed, after a vicious civil war, was the military absolutism of the Severans, where the ideal of a military monarch took prominence and the murder of these monarchs became the norm.

The Crisis of the Third Century

Soon came the Crisis of the Third Century after the last Severan, Severus Alexander , was assassinated in 235 AD. During this infamous fifty-year period the Roman Empire was beset by repeated defeats in the east – to the Persians, and in the north, to Germanic invaders.

READ MORE: Ancient Persia: From the Achaemenid Empire to the History of Iran

It also witnessed the chaotic secession of several provinces, which revolted as a result of poor management and a lack of regard from the center. Additionally, the empire was beset by a serious financial crisis that reduced the silver content of the coinage so far that it practically became useless. Moreover, there were recurrent civil wars that saw the empire ruled by a long succession of short-lived emperors.

Diocletian and the Tetrarchy

In 293 AD the emperor Diocletian sought to find a solution to the empire’s recurrent problems by establishing the Tetrarchy, also known as the rule of four. As the name suggests, this involved splitting the empire into four divisions, each ruled by a different emperor – two senior ones titled “Augusti,” and two junior ones called “Caesares,” each ruling their portion of territory.

Such an agreement lasted until 324 AD, when Constantine the Great retook control of the whole empire, having defeated his last opponent Licinius (who had ruled in the east, whereas Constantine had begun his power grab in the northwest of Europe). Constantine certainly stands out in the history of the Roman Empire, not only for reuniting it under one person’s rule and reigning over the empire for 31 years but also for being the emperor who brought Christianity to the center of the state infrastructure.

READ MORE: How Did Christianity Spread: Origins, Expansion, and Impact

Many scholars and analysts have pointed to the spread and cementing of Christianity as the state religion as an important, if not fundamental cause for Rome’s fall.

The Rule of Constantine

Constantine’s reign however, as well as his enfranchisement of Christianity, did not provide a wholly reliable solution to the problems that still beset the empire. Chief amongst these included an increasingly expensive army, threatened by an increasingly dwindling population (especially in the west). Straight after Constantine, his sons degenerated into civil war, splitting the empire in two again in a story that really seems very representative of the empire since its heyday under the Nerva-Antonines.

There were intermittent periods of stability for the remainder of the 4 th century AD, with rare rulers of authority and ability, such as Valentinian I and Theodosius . Yet by the beginning of the 5 th century, most analysts argue, things began to fall apart.

The Fall of Rome Itself: Invasions from the North

Similar to the chaotic invasions seen in the Third Century, the beginning of the 5 th century AD witnessed an immense number of “barbarians” crossing over into Roman territory, caused amongst other reasons by the spread of warmongering Huns from northeastern Europe.

This started with the Goths (constituted by the Visigoths and Ostrogoths ), which first breached the frontiers of the Eastern Empire in the late 4 th century AD.

Although they routed an Eastern army at Hadrianopolis in 378 AD and then turned to blunder much of the Balkans, they soon turned their attentions to the Western Roman Empire, along with other Germanic peoples.

These included the Vandals , Suebes , and Alans, who crossed the Rhine in 406/7 AD and recurrently laid waste to Gaul, Spain, and Italy. Moreover, the Western Empire they faced was not the same force that enabled the campaigns of the warlike emperors Trajan , Septimius Severus , or Aurelian.

Instead, it was greatly weakened and as many contemporaries noted, had lost effective control of many of its frontier provinces. Rather than looking to Rome, many cities and provinces had begun to rely on themselves for relief and refuge.

This, combined with the historic loss at Hadrianopolis, on top of recurrent bouts of civil discord and rebellion, meant that the door was practically open for marauding armies of Germans to take what they liked. This included not only large swathes of Gaul (much of modern-day France), Spain, Britain, and Italy, but Rome itself.

Indeed, after they had plundered their way through Italy from 401 AD onwards, the Goths sacked Rome in 410 AD – something that had not happened since 390 BC! After this travesty and the devastation that was wrought upon the Italian countryside, the government granted tax exemption to large swathes of the population, even though it was sorely needed for defense.

A Weakened Rome Faces Increased Pressure from Invaders

Much the same story was mirrored in Gaul and Spain, wherein the former was a chaotic and contested war zone between a litany of different peoples, and in the latter, the Goths and Vandals had free reign to their riches and people. At the time, many Christian writers wrote as though the apocalypse had reached the western half of the empire, from Spain to Britain.

The barbarian hordes are depicted as ruthless and avaricious plunderers of everything they can set their eyes upon, in terms of both wealth and women. Confused by what had caused this now-Christian empire to succumb to such catastrophe, many Christian writers blamed the invasions on the sins of the Roman Empire, past and present.

Yet neither penance nor politics could help salvage the situation for Rome, as the successive emperors of the 5 th century AD were largely unable or unwilling to meet the invaders in much decisive, open battles. Instead, they tried to pay them off or failed to raise sufficiently large armies to defeat them.

The Roman Empire on the Verge of Bankruptcy

Moreover, whilst the emperors in the west still had the rich citizens of North Africa paying tax, they could just about afford to field new armies (many of the soldiers in fact taken from various barbarian tribes), but that source of income was soon to be devastated as well. In 429 AD, in a significant development, the Vandals crossed over the strait of Gibraltar and within 10 years, had effectively taken control of Roman North Africa.

This was perhaps the final blow from which Rome was unable to recover. It was by this point the case that much of the empire in the west had fallen into barbarian hands and the Roman emperor and his government did not have the resources to take these territories back. In some instances, lands were granted to different tribes in return for peaceful coexistence or military allegiance, although such terms were not always kept.

By now the Huns had begun to arrive along the fringes of the old Roman frontiers in the west, united behind the terrifying figure of Attila. He had previously led campaigns with his brother Bleda against the Eastern Roman Empire in the 430s and 440s, only to turn his eyes west when a senator’s betrothed astonishingly appealed to him for help.

He claimed her as his bride in waiting and half of the Western Roman Empire as his dowry! Unsurprisingly this was not met with much acceptance by the emperor Valentinian III , and so Attila headed westwards from the Balkans laying waste to large swathes of Gaul and Northern Italy.

In a famous episode in 452 AD, he was stopped from actually besieging the city of Rome, by a delegation of negotiators, including Pope Leo I. The next year Attila died from a hemorrhage, after which the Hunnic peoples soon broke up and disintegrated, to the joy of both Roman and German alike.

Whilst there had been some successful battles against the Huns throughout the first half of the 450s, much of this was won by the help of the Goths and other Germanic tribes. Rome had effectively ceased to be the securer of peace and stability it had once been, and its existence as a separate political entity, no doubt appeared increasingly dubious.

This was compounded by the fact that this period was also punctuated by constant rebellions and revolts in the lands still nominally under Roman rule, as other tribes such as the Lombards, Burgundians, and Franks had established footholds in Gaul.

Rome’s Final Breath

One of these rebellions in 476 AD finally gave the fatal blow, led by a Germanic general named Odoacer, who deposed the last emperor of the Western Roman Empire, Romulus Augustulus . He styled himself as both “dux” (king) and client to the Eastern Roman Empire. But was soon deposed by the Ostrogoth king Theodoric the Great .

Henceforth, from 493 AD the Ostrogoths ruled Italy, the Vandals North Africa, the Visigoths Spain and parts of Gaul, the rest of which was controlled by Franks, Burgundians, and the Suebes (who also ruled parts of Spain and Portugal). Across the channel, the Anglo-Saxons had for some time ruled much of Britain.

There was a time, under the reign of Justinian the Great when the Eastern Roman Empire retook Italy, North Africa, and parts of Southern Spain, yet these conquests were only temporary and constituted the expansion of the new Byzantine Empire, rather than the Roman Empire of Antiquity. Rome and its empire had fallen, never again to reach its former glory.

Why Did Rome Fall?

Since the fall of Rome in 476 and indeed before that fateful year itself, arguments for the empire’s decline and collapse have come and gone over time. Whilst the English historian Edward Gibbon articulated the most famous and well-established arguments in his seminal work, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire , his inquiry, and his explanation, are only one of many.

For example, in 1984 a German historian listed a total of 210 reasons that had been given for the fall of the Roman Empire, ranging from excessive bathing (which apparently caused impotency and demographic decline) to excessive deforestation.

Many of these arguments have often aligned with the sentiments and fashions of the time. For instance, in the 19 th and 20 th centuries, the fall of Roman civilization was explained through the reductionist theories of racial or class degeneration that were prominent in certain intellectual circles.

Around the time of the fall as well – as has already been alluded to – contemporary Christians blamed the disintegration of the empire on the last remaining vestiges of Paganism, or the unrecognized sins of professed Christians. The parallel view, at the time and subsequently popular with an array of different thinkers (including Edward Gibbon) was that Christianity had caused the fall.

The Barbarian Invasions and the Fall of Rome

The immediate cause of the empire’s fall was the unprecedented number of barbarians, aka those living outside Roman territory, invading the lands of Rome.

Of course, the Romans had had their fair share of barbarians on their doorstep, considering they were constantly involved in different conflicts along their long frontiers. In that sense, their security had always been somewhat precarious, especially as they needed a professionally manned army to protect their empire.

These armies needed constant replenishment, due to the retirement or death of soldiers in their ranks. Mercenaries could be used from different regions inside or outside the empire, but these were almost always sent home after their term of service, whether it was for a single campaign or several months.

As such, the Roman army needed a constant and colossal supply of soldiers, which it began to increasingly struggle to procure as the population of the empire continued to decrease (from the 2 nd century onwards). This meant more reliance on barbarian mercenaries, which could not always be as readily relied upon to fight for a civilization they felt little fealty towards.

Pressure on the Roman Borders

At the end of the 4 th century AD, hundreds of thousands, if not millions of Germanic peoples, migrated westwards towards the Roman frontiers. The traditional (and still most commonly asserted) reason given for this is that the nomadic Huns spread out from their homeland in Central Asia, attacking Germanic tribes as they went.

This forced a mass migration of Germanic peoples to escape the wrath of the dreaded Huns by entering Roman territory. Therefore, unlike in previous campaigns along their northeastern frontier, the Romans were facing a prodigious mass of peoples united in common purpose, whereas they had, up until now, been infamous for their internecine squabbles and resentments. This unity was simply too much for Rome to handle.

Yet, this tells only half of the story and is an argument that has not satisfied most later thinkers who wanted to explain the fall in terms of the internal issues entrenched in the empire itself. It seems that these migrations were for the most part, out of Roman control, but why did they fail so miserably to either repel the barbarians or accommodate them within the empire, as they had previously done with other problematic tribes across the frontier?

Edward Gibbon and His Arguments for the Fall

Edward Gibbon was perhaps the most famous figure to address these questions and has, for the most part, been heavily influential for all subsequent thinkers. Besides the aforementioned barbarian invasions, Gibbon blamed the fall on the inevitable decline all empires faced, the degeneration of civic virtues in the empire, the waste of precious resources, and the emergence and subsequent domination of Christianity.

Each cause is given significant stress by Gibbon, who essentially believed that the empire had experienced a gradual decline in its morals, virtues, and ethics, yet his critical reading of Christianity was the accusation that caused the most controversy at the time.

The Role of Christianity According to Gibbon

As with the other explanations given, Gibbon saw in Christianity an enervating characteristic that sapped the empire not only of its wealth (going to churches and monasteries) but also its warlike persona that had molded its image for much of its early and middle history.

Whilst the writers of the Roman Republic and early empire encouraged manliness and service to one’s state, Christian writers impelled allegiance to God and discouraged conflict between his people. The world had not yet experienced the religiously endorsed Crusades that would see Christians wage war against non-Christians. Moreover, many of the Germanic peoples who entered the empire were themselves Christian!

Outside of these religious contexts, Gibbon saw the Roman Empire rotting from within, more focused on the decadence of its aristocracy and the vainglory of its militaristic emperors, than the long-term health of its empire. Since the heyday of the Nerva-Antonines, the Roman Empire had experienced crisis after crisis exacerbated in large part by poor decisions and megalomaniacal, disinterested, or avaricious rulers. Inevitably, Gibbon argued, this had to catch up with them.

Economic Mismanagement of the Empire

Whilst Gibbon did point out how wasteful Rome was with its resources, he did not really delve too heavily into the economics of the empire. However, this is where many recent historians have pointed the finger, and is with the other arguments already mentioned, one of the main stances taken up by later thinkers.

It has been well noted that Rome did not really have a cohesive or coherent economy in the more modern developed sense. It raised taxes to pay for its defense but did not have a centrally planned economy in any meaningful sense, outside of the considerations it made for the army.

There was no department of education or health; things were run on more of a case-by-case, or emperor-by-emperor basis. Programmes were carried out on sporadic initiatives and the vast majority of the empire was agrarian, with some specialized hubs of industry dotted about.

It did however have to raise taxes for its defense and this came at a colossal cost to the imperial coffers. For example, it is estimated that the pay needed for the whole army in 150 AD would constitute 60-80% of the imperial budget, leaving little room for periods of disaster or invasion.

Whilst soldier pay was initially contained, it was recurrently increased as time went by (partly because of increasing inflation). Emperors would also tend to pay donatives to the army when becoming emperor – a very costly affair if an emperor only lasted a short amount of time (as was the case from the Third Century Crisis onwards).

This was therefore a ticking time bomb, which ensured that any massive shock to the Roman system – like endless hordes of barbarian invaders – would be increasingly difficult to deal with, until, they couldn’t be dealt with at all. Indeed, the Roman state likely ran out of money on a number of occasions throughout the 5 th century AD.

Continuity Beyond the Fall: Did Rome Really Collapse?

On top of arguing about the causes of the Roman Empire’s fall in the West, scholars are also racked in debate about whether there was an actual fall or collapse at all. Similarly, they question whether we should so readily call to mind the apparent “dark ages” that followed the dissolution of the Roman state as it had existed in the West.

Traditionally, the end of the Western Roman empire is supposed to have heralded the end of civilization itself. This image was molded by contemporaries who depicted the cataclysmic and apocalyptic series of events that surrounded the deposition of the last emperor. It was then compounded by later writers, especially during the Renaissance and Enlightenment, when the collapse of Rome was seen as a massive step backward in art and culture.

Indeed, Gibbon was instrumental in cementing this presentation for subsequent historians. Yet from as early as Henri Pirenne (1862-1935) scholars have argued for a strong element of continuity during and after the apparent decline. According to this picture, many of the provinces of the Western Roman Empire were already in some way detached from the Italian center and did not experience a seismic shift in their everyday life, as is usually depicted.

Revisionism in the Idea of “Late Antiquity”

This has developed in more recent scholarship into the idea of “Late Antiquity” to replace the cataclysmic idea of the “Dark Ages. One of its most prominent and celebrated proponents is Peter Brown, who has written extensively on the subject, pointing to the continuity of much Roman culture, politics, and administrative infrastructure, as well as the flourishing of Christian Art and literature.

According to Brown, as well as other proponents of this model, it is therefore misleading and reductionist to talk of a decline or fall of the Roman Empire, but instead to explore its “transformation.”

In this vein, the idea of barbarian invasions causing the collapse of a civilization has become deeply problematic. It has instead been argued that there was an (albeit complex) “accommodation” of the migrating Germanic populations that reached the empire’s borders around the turn of the 5 th century AD.

Such arguments point to the fact that various settlements and treaties were signed with the Germanic peoples, who were for the most part escaping the marauding Huns (and are therefore posed often as refugees or asylum seekers). One such settlement was the 419 Settlement of Aquitaine, where the Visigoths were granted land in the valley of the Garonne by the Roman state.

As has already been alluded to above, the Romans also had various Germanic tribes fighting alongside them in this period, most notably against the Huns. It is also undoubtedly clear that the Romans throughout their time as a Republic and a Principate, were very prejudiced against “the other” and would collectively assume that anybody beyond their borders was in many ways uncivilized.

This aligns with the fact that the (originally Greek) derogatory term “barbarian” itself, derived from the perception that such people spoke a coarse and simple language, repeating “bar bar bar” repeatedly.

The Continuation of Roman Administration

Regardless of this prejudice, it is also clear, as the historians discussed above have studied, that many aspects of Roman administration and culture did continue in the Germanic kingdoms and territories that replaced the Roman Empire in the West.

This included much of the law that was carried out by Roman magistrates (with Germanic additions), much of the administrative apparatus, and indeed everyday life, for most individuals, will have carried on quite similarly, differing in extent from place to place. Whilst we know that a lot of land was taken by the new German masters, and henceforth Goths would be privileged legally in Italy, or Franks in Gaul, many individual families would not have been affected too much.

This is because it was obviously easier for their new Visigoth, Ostrogoth, or Frankish overlords to keep much of the infrastructure in place that had worked so well up until then. In many instances and passages from contemporary historians, or edicts from Germanic rulers, it was also clear that they respected much about Roman culture and in a number of ways, wanted to preserve it; in Italy for instance the Ostrogoths claimed “The glory of the Goths is to protect the civil life of the Romans.”

Moreover, since many of them converted to Christianity, the continuity of the Church was taken for granted. There was therefore a lot of assimilations, with both Latin and Gothic being spoken in Italy for example and Gothic mustaches being sported by aristocrats, whilst clad in Roman clothing.

Issues with Revisionism

However, this change of opinion has inevitably been reversed as well in more recent academic work – particularly in Ward-Perkin’s The Fall of Rome – wherein he strongly states that violence and aggressive seizure of land was the norm, rather than the peaceful accommodation that many revisionists have suggested .

He argues that these scant treaties are given far too much attention and stress when practically all of them were clearly signed and agreed to by the Roman state under pressure – as an expedient solution to contemporary problems. Moreover, in quite typical fashion, the 419 Settlement of Aquitaine was mostly ignored by the Visigoths as they subsequently spread out and aggressively expanded far beyond their designated limits.

Aside from these issues with the narrative of “accommodation,” the archaeological evidence also demonstrates a sharp decline in standards of living between the 5 th and 7 th centuries AD, across all of the western Roman Empire’s former territories (albeit under varying degrees), strongly suggested a significant and profound “decline” or “fall” of a civilization.

READ MORE: Ancient Civilizations Timeline: The Complete List from Aboriginals to Incans

This is shown, in part, by the significant decrease of post-roman finds of pottery and other cookware across the West and the fact that what is found is considerably less durable and sophisticated. This rings true for buildings as well, which began to be made more often in perishable materials like wood (rather than stone) and were notably smaller in size and grandeur.

Coinage also completely disappeared in large parts of the old empire or regressed in quality. Alongside this, literacy and education seem to have been greatly reduced across communities and even the size of livestock shrunk considerably – to bronze-age levels! Nowhere was this regression more pronounced than in Britain, where the islands fell into pre-Iron Age levels of economic complexity.

READ MORE: Prehistory: Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic Periods, and More

Rome’s Role in the Western European Empire

There are many specific reasons given for these developments, but they can almost all be linked to the fact that the Roman Empire had kept together and maintained a large, Mediterranean economy and state infrastructure. Whilst there was an essential commercial element to the Roman economy, distinct from state initiative, things like the army or the political apparatus of messengers, and governor’s staff, meant that roads needed to be maintained and repaired, ships needed to be available, soldiers needed to be clothed, fed, and moved around.

When the empire disintegrated into opposing or partially opposed kingdoms, the long-distance trade and political systems fell apart too, leaving communities dependent on themselves. This had a catastrophic effect on the many communities that had relied upon long-distance trade, state security, and political hierarchies to manage and maintain their trade and lives.

Regardless, then, of whether there was continuity in many areas of society, the communities that carried on and “transformed” were seemingly poorer, less connected, and less “Roman” than they had been. Whilst much spiritual and religious debate flourished still in the West, this was almost exclusively centered around the Christian church and its widely dispersed monasteries.

Later Models in Byzantium and the Holy Roman Empire: An Eternal Rome?

However, it can also be pointed out, quite rightly, that the Roman Empire may have fallen (to whatever extent) in the West, but the Eastern Roman Empire flourished and grew at this time, experiencing somewhat of a “golden age.” The city of Byzantium was seen as the “New Rome” and the quality of life and culture in the east certainly did not meet the same fate as the west.

There was also the “Holy Roman Empire” which grew out of the Frankish Empire when its ruler, the famous Charlemagne, was appointed emperor by Pope Leo III in 800 AD. Although this possessed the name “Roman” and was adopted by the Franks who had continued to endorse various Roman customs and traditions, it was decidedly distinct from the old Roman Empire of antiquity.

These examples also call to mind the fact that the Roman Empire has always held an important place as a subject of study for historians, just as many of its most famous poets, writers, and speakers are still read or studied today. In this sense, although the empire itself collapsed in the West in 476 AD, much of its culture and spirit is still very alive today.

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Fall of the Roman Empire: Year, Internal & External Causes

The fall of the Roman Empire occurred in AD 476, after a long period of decline. For centuries, the Roman Empire controlled a vast territory stretching from Britain to North Africa and from Spain to the Middle East. However, the empire eventually fell victim to its size and complexity.

As the empire grew, it became increasingly difficult to govern effectively. At the same time, barbarian invasions from the north began to take their toll. In 476 AD the last Roman emperor was overthrown, and the empire collapsed soon after.

Although there is no single cause for the fall of the Roman Empire, historians have identified several contributing factors, including political corruption, economic decline, and military weakness. Whatever the reasons, the fall of Rome was a pivotal moment in history that ushered in a new era of European civilization.

Table of Contents

The Fall of the Roman Empire: Internal and External Causes

There were several internal and external reasons for the fall of the Roman Empire. Here are some of the most significant:

Invasions by barbarians
Economic problems
The division of the Roman Empire into East and West
Political corruption and instability
The Huns are pressing from the east

The internal reasons include, among other things, financial problems, the division of the Eastern Roman Empire and the Western Roman Empire, as well as political corruption and instability. The external causes include invasions by barbarians and Hun pressure from the east.

Let’s take a closer look at these.

1. Invasions by Barbarians

Those who invade other nations are destined to make many enemies. The Roman Empire expanded its borders and reached its greatest geographical size around it 2nd century AD, a time when they had achieved dominance over all the areas around the Mediterranean Sea, an area of approximately 5.4 million square kilometers (expanded further down the page).

Anyone who has seen the size of Italy itself on a map , and compared it with the areas that were incorporated under Roman rule, will realize that the Romans had had to do an enormous amount of warfare to carve out this empire.

With great reputation comes great enemies, and the Romans had been successful in keeping Germanic tribes, the barbarians, away, until the 4th century AD, when the Goths broke through the extensive defenses on the borders. At the end of the century, the Romans succeeded in putting down a Germanic rebellion, but in 410 the Visigoths succeeded in sacking the city.

The Visigoths lived in what is today Romania and were led by King Alaric who pushed westward as a result of pressure from the Huns who, led by “Attila the Hun,” pushed from Kazakhstan and other areas of Asia. In the year 455, Rome was sacked again by the Vandals, and in 476 the Germanic leader Odoacer led a coup and deposed the last Western Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus.

2. Financial Problems

While the Roman Empire struggled with attacks from the outside, a financial crisis exacerbated the problems. Ongoing warfare and overspending greatly reduced the imperial treasury, and high taxation and inflation widened the divide between rich and poor.

At the same time, the slaves were an important resource for the Romans, and when the expansion ended around the 2nd century AD the kingdom began to feel the lack of fresh slaver. When you add the fact that the Vandals took control of North Africa, an important post for grain supplies, and prevented Roman trade by piracy in the Mediterranean, you quickly see that the situation is becoming serious for the Romans. With economic, trade, and supply problems, the empire began to lose its grip on Europe.

3. The Division of the Roman Empire into East and West

When emperor Diocletian split the empire in two in the late 3rd century, he in a sense sealed the fate of the Western Roman Empire. On the one hand, it became easier to administer the kingdom with a post in Milan, and one in Byzantium, but only in the short term. In the longer term, the split led to miscommunication between the two halves and internal conflicts over who should receive the most financial or military support.

While the emperors chose to strengthen the Eastern Empire, the Western Empire, including Italy and the original capital Rome, was abandoned to face barbarian tribes who chose to plunder the West rather than try their hand at the strong Eastern Empire. Rome, from which we know the city Caesar and Augustus its time, loses its grandeur and strength, and we hear less and less about the once mighty capital in sources the further we get into the first millennium.

In a short intervening period in the 5th century, however, it looked like there was hope for the Roman Empire to rise again. At the request of Emperor Justinian, the Eastern Roman general Belisarius is sent out to reconquer Rome in the year 535, which he succeeds in doing the following year. He also reconquers other parts of what once belonged to the western part of the Roman Empire. Unfortunately, this will be a short-lived victory, as the general does not have enough resources to hold the areas. Rome is therefore lost forever.

4. Political Corruption and Instability

Irregular leadership is not a good recipe for success in any business or nation, but for the Roman Empire, with its enormous size, it proved particularly fatal. As civil wars and internal strife took root, people began to see imperial rule as a death sentence.

In just 75 years, there were 20 different emperors, which corresponds to only 3-4 years of rule per person on average – a decent period if you compare with Norway’s prime ministers’ 4 years, but not when you consider that these emperors were usually deposed by assassination after 3-4 years and that Emperor Augustus ruled successfully for over 40 years.

The Praetorian Guard – the soldiers assigned to protect Rome from outside attacks – took control and did exactly as they pleased by ousting some emperors and installing others.

5. The Huns Press On from the East

When the Huns invaded Europe in the late fourth century, many barbarian tribes were pushed closer and closer to Rome’s borders. Eventually, the Romans agreed to let the Visigoths cross the Danube River into the safety of Roman territory, but the way they treated the newcomers matched the way the Romans saw these barbarians. They oppressed the new people, going so far as to force the Visigoths to sell their children into slavery in exchange for dog meat.

When the oppression became too much, the Visigoths rebelled and succeeded in sacking Rome, as mentioned above. One can only wonder if history would have turned out differently if the Romans had treated barbarians like the Visigoths well, and perhaps even cooperated with them to put down the Hunnic invaders.

Other factors also played a role in the fall of the Roman Empire – including an increasingly weakened military force and an increased focus on Christian values.

What Was the Cause of the Fall of the Roman Empire?

If one were to select one main reason for the fall of the Roman Empire, it would be difficult to arrive at a unanimous answer. Nevertheless, some scholars have argued that the main cause of the empire’s fall was its overexpansion .

At its height, the empire encompassed a vast territory, stretching from Great Britain in the north down to North Africa in the south. This vast territory presented several logistical and administrative challenges, as the Imperial authorities had to maintain order and ensure sound governance over hundreds of cities and millions of people.

In addition, this vast network of cities required significant resources for defense, tax collection, and maintenance of public infrastructure. Over time, as economic crises and barbarian invasions depleted the resources available to Rome, armies began to weaken and internal rebellions became more frequent.

Ultimately, this combination of military vulnerability and political instability led to the collapse of Roman power, marking one of the most important events in world history. One of the main reasons for the fall of the Roman Empire is therefore its impractically enormous size.

Year of the Fall of the Roman Empire

The fall of the Roman Empire was in the year 476 AD when Romulus Augustulus was deposed as emperor. After his deposition, no emperor has ever held a leadership position in Italy. Since the Western Roman Empire is considered the “true Roman Empire” in terms of traditional Roman values and culture, the year 476 is therefore considered the official year of the fall of the Roman Empire. The fall of the Eastern Roman Empire did not come until about 1,000 years later.

What Was the Situation Like in Europe After the Fall of the Roman Empire?

After the fall of the Roman Empire, Europe was in a state of chaos and upheaval. The collapse of the empire left people struggling to survive amidst growing economic inequality, political instability, and widespread violence. In particular, many regions fell victim to warring tribes and raiders who terrorized local communities. At the same time, power struggles raged between kingdoms and city-states, as different leaders tried to assert their dominance over others.

Despite these chaotic conditions, Europe also saw pockets of prosperity during this time. Throughout the Dark Ages and Middle Ages, there were cultural developments such as advances in art and architecture, as well as scientific innovations such as the printing press.

By far the most significant development, however, was the spread of Christianity across Europe, which helped bring stability to many regions. While things were in many ways bleak after the fall of Rome, Europe would eventually emerge from these dark times, primed for further growth and prosperity.

The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire

The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire was particularly popular when Edward Gibbon launched the book The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire in 1776. If you’re interested in getting a deeper look at the events that led to the fall of Rome, I would highly recommend it, especially the abridged version by David P. Womersley. Check it out by clicking here .

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Decline of the Roman Empire (180-337 AD)

15 Comments

Interesting article! Just wanted to point out that financial problems in the Roman Empire weren’t only about spending too much. They also struggled with a shrinking tax base because of the population decline. It’s a complex issue.

Was the division of the empire meant as a temporary solution or did they think this could actually save Rome in the long run? Seems like it just made things more complicated.

Every time I read about the fall of the Roman Empire, I’m amazed at how parallels can be drawn with modern societies. It’s like history really does repeat itself, or at least rhymes.

Ah yes, political corruption and instability, because that’s definitely a thing of the past. Glad we’ve evolved beyond all that.

I think the article oversimplifies the issue of the Huns. They were certainly a factor, but the internal decay was already well underway. The Huns just pushed on an open door.

Agreed, Jenny. But wouldn’t you say the psychological impact of the Hun invasions exacerbated the existing issues, hastening the fall?

If only the Roman Empire had Google Maps, maybe they could’ve seen the barbarians coming and avoided the whole mess.

It’s fascinating to consider how technology might have changed historical events. The fall of the Roman Empire is such a pivotal moment.

The architectural legacy of the Roman Empire is astounding. Despite their fall, we still learn from and admire their achievements today.

Imagine if instead of barbarians, the Romans had to deal with dragons. That would’ve been an entirely different kind of fall.

All empires fall, sooner or later. The Roman Empire’s turn just came up. It’s the nature of civilizations.

This article briefly touched on the significance of the legal and administrative reforms that were attempted. It’s crucial to understand that Rome’s legal system laid groundwork for many modern laws.

The fall of Rome has inspired so many stories, movies, and games. It’s a testament to the lasting intrigue of their civilization. Great article that captures the essentials!

It’s interesting how nature reclaimed Rome after its fall. There are lessons to be learned about resilience and rebirth.

Guess you could say Rome’s biggest enemy was itself. Like watching a superhero movie where the hero is their own worst villian.

Fall of the Western Roman Empire

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To many historians, the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century CE has always been viewed as the end of the ancient world and the onset of the Middle Ages, often improperly called the Dark Ages, despite Petrarch 's assertion. Since much of the west had already fallen by the middle of the 5th century CE, when a writer speaks of the fall of the empire , he or she generally refers to the fall of the city of Rome . Although historians generally agree on the year of the fall, 476 CE, and its consequences for western civilization , they often disagree on its causes. English historian Edward Gibbon , who wrote in the late 18th century CE, points to the rise of Christianity and its effect on the Roman psyche while others believe the decline and fall were due, in part, to the influx of 'barbarians' from the north and west.

Whatever the cause, whether it was religion , external attack, or the internal decay of the city itself, the debate continues to the present day; however, one significant point must be established before a discussion of the roots of the fall can continue: the decline and fall were only in the west. The eastern half - that which would eventually be called the Byzantine Empire - would continue for several centuries, and, in many ways, it retained a unique Roman identity.

The Fall of the Western Roman Empire, c. 480 CE

External Causes

One of the most widely accepted causes - the influx of a barbarian tribes - is discounted by some who feel that mighty Rome, the eternal city, could not have so easily fallen victim to a culture that possessed little or nothing in the way of a political, social or economic foundation. They believe the fall of Rome simply came because the barbarians took advantage of difficulties already existing in Rome - problems that included a decaying city (both physically and morally), little to no tax revenue, overpopulation, poor leadership, and, most importantly, inadequate defense. To some the fall was inevitable.

Unlike the fall of earlier empires such as the Assyrian and Persian, Rome did not succumb to either war or revolution. On the last day of the empire, a barbarian member of the Germanic tribe Siri and former commander in the Roman army entered the city unopposed. The one-time military and financial power of the Mediterranean was unable to resist. Odovacar easily dethroned the sixteen-year-old emperor Romulus Augustalus, a person he viewed as posing no threat. Romulus had recently been named emperor by his father, the Roman commander Orestes, who had overthrown the western emperor Julius Nepos. With his entrance into the city, Odovacar became the head of the only part that remained of the once great west: the peninsula of Italy . By the time he entered the city, the Roman control of Britain , Spain, Gaul , and North Africa had already been lost, in the latter three cases to the Goths and Vandals . Odovacar immediately contacted the eastern emperor Zeno and informed him that he would not accept that title of emperor. Zeno could do little but accept this decision. In fact, to ensure there would be no confusion, Odovacar returned to Constantinople the imperial vestments, diadem, and purple cloak of the emperor.

Internal Causes

There are some who believe, like Gibbon, that the fall was due to the fabric of the Roman citizen. If one accepts the idea that the cause of the fall was due, in part, to the possible moral decay of the city, its fall is reminiscent of the “decline” of the Republic centuries earlier. Historian Polybius , a 2nd century BCE writer, pointed to a dying republic (years before it actually fell) - a victim of its declining moral virtue and the rise of vice within. Edward Gibbon reiterated this sentiment (he diminished the importance of the barbaric threat) when he claimed the rise of Christianity as a factor in the “tale of woe” for the empire. He held the religion sowed internal division and encouraged a “turn-the-other-cheek mentality” which ultimately condemned the war machine, leaving it in the hands of the invading barbarians. Those who discount Gibbon's claim point to the existence of the same religious zealots in the east and the fact that many of the barbarians were Christian themselves.

To Gibbon the Christian religion valued idle and unproductive people. Gibbon wrote in his book The History of Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire ,

A candid but rational inquiry into the progress and establishment of Christianity, may be considered as a very essential part of the history of the Roman empire. While this great body was invaded by open violence, or undermined by slow decay, a pure and humble religion greatly insinuated itself into the minds of men, grew up in silence and obscurity, derived new vigour from opposition, and finally erected the triumphant banner of the cross on the ruins of the Capitol.”

He added that the Roman government appeared to be “odious and oppressive to its subjects” and therefore no serious threat to the barbarians.

Gibbon, however, does not single out Christianity as the only culprit. It was only one in a series that brought the empire to its knees. In the end, the fall was inevitable:

…the decline of Rome was the natural and inevitable effect of immoderate greatness. Prosperity ripened the principle of decay; the causes of destruction multiplied with the extent of conquest , and as soon as time or accident has removed artificial supports, the stupendous fabric yielded to the pressure of its own weight.

A Divided Empire

Although Gibbon points to the rise of Christianity as a fundamental cause, the actual fall or decline could be seen decades earlier. By the 3rd century CE, the city of Rome was no longer the center of the empire - an empire that extended from the British Isles to the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers and into Africa. This massive size presented a problem and called for a quick solution, and it came with the reign of Emperor Diocletian . The empire was divided into two with one capital remaining at Rome and another in the Eastern Empire at Nicomedia; the eastern capital would later be moved to Constantinople, old Byzantium , by Emperor Constantine . The Senate, long-serving in an advisory capacity to the emperor, would be mostly ignored; instead, the power centered on a strong military. Some emperors would never step foot in Rome. In time Constantinople, Nova Roma or New Rome, would become the economic and cultural center that had once been Rome.

Despite the renewed strength that the division provided (the empire would be divided and united several times), the empire remained vulnerable to attack, especially on the Danube-Rhine border to the north. The presence of barbarians along the northern border of the empire was nothing new and had existed for years - the army had met with them on and off since the time of Julius Caesar . Some emperors had tried to buy them off, while others invited them to settle on Roman land and even join the army. However, many of these new settlers never truly became Roman even after citizenship was granted, retaining much of their old culture.

This vulnerability became more obvious as a significant number of Germanic tribes, the Goths, gathered along the northern border. They did not want to invade; they wanted to be part of the empire, not its conqueror. The empire's great wealth was a draw to this diverse population. They sought a better life, and despite their numbers, they appeared to be no immediate threat, at first. However, as Rome failed to act to their requests, tensions grew. This anxiety on the part of the Goths was due to a new menace further to the east, the Huns .

The Goth Invasion

During the reign of the 4th century eastern emperor Valens (364 -378 CE), the Thervingi Goths had congregated along the Danube-Rhine border - again, not as a threat, but with a desire only to receive permission to settle. This request was made in urgency, for the “savage” Huns threatened their homeland. Emperor Valens panicked and delayed an answer - a delay that brought increased concern among the Goths as winter was approaching. In anger, the Goths crossed the river with or without permission, and when a Roman commander planned an ambush, war soon followed. It was a war that would last for five years.

Although the Goths were mostly Christian many who joined them were not. Their presence had caused a substantial crisis for the emperor; he couldn't provide sufficient food and housing. This impatience, combined with the corruption and extortion by several Roman commanders, complicated matters. Valens prayed for help from the west. Unfortunately, in battle , the Romans were completely outmatched and ill-prepared, and the Battle of Adrianople proved this when two-thirds of the Roman army was killed. This death toll included the emperor himself. It would take Emperor Theodosius to bring peace.

An Enemy from Within: Alaric

The Goths remained on Roman land and would ally themselves with the Roman army. Later, however, one man, a Goth and former Roman commander, rose up against Rome - a man who only asked for what had been promised him - a man who would do what no other had done for eight centuries: sack Rome. His name was Alaric, and while he was a Goth, he had also been trained in the Roman army. He was intelligent, Christian, and very determined. He sought land in the Balkans for his people, land that they had been promised. Later, as the western emperor delayed his response, Alaric increased his demands, not only grain for his people but also recognition as citizens of the empire; however, the emperor, Honorius, continually refused. With no other course, Alaric gathered together an army of Goths, Huns and freed slaves and crossed the Alps into Italy. His army was well-organized, not a mob. Honorius was incompetent and completely out of touch, another in a long line of so-called “shadow emperors” - emperors who ruled in the shadow of the military. Oddly enough, he didn't even live in Rome but had a villa in nearby Ravenna.

Alaric sat outside the city, and over time, as the food and water in the city became increasingly scarce, Rome began to weaken. The time was now. While he had never wanted war but only land and recognition for his people Alaric, with the supposed help of a Gothic slave who opened the gates from within, entered Rome in August of 410 CE. He would stay for three days and completely sack the city; although he would leave St. Paul and St Peters alone. Honorius remained totally blind to the seriousness of the situation. While temporarily agreeing to Alaric's demands - something he never intended to honor - 6,000 Roman soldiers were sent to defend the city, but they were quickly defeated. Even though the city's coffers were nearly empty, the Senate finally relinquished; Alaric left with, among other items, two tons of gold and thirteen tons of silver .

Some people at the time viewed the sacking of the city as a sign from their pagan gods. St. Augustine , who died in 430 CE, said in his City of God that the fall of Rome was not a result of the people's abandonment of their pagan gods (gods they believed protected the city) but as a reminder to the city's Christians why they needed to suffer. There was good, for the world was created by good, but it was flawed by human sin; however, he still believed the empire was a force for peace and unity. To St. Augustine there existed two cities : one of this world and one of God.

Barbarian Invasions

Although Alaric would soon die afterwards, other barbarians - whether Christian or not - did not stop after the sack of the city. The old empire was ravaged, among others, by Burgundians, Angles, Saxons , Lombards , and Magyars. By 475 CE Spain, Britain, and parts of Gaul had been lost to various Germanic people and only Italy remained as the “empire” in the west. The Vandals would soon move from Spain and into northern Africa, eventually capturing the city of Carthage . The Roman army abandoned all hope of recovering the area and moved out. The loss of Africa meant a loss of revenue, and the loss of revenue meant there was less money to support an army to defend the city. Despite these considerable losses, there was some success for the Romans. The threat from Attila the Hun was finally stopped at the Battle of Chalons by Roman commander Aelius who had created an army of Goths, Franks , Celts and Burgundians. Even Gibbon recognized Attila as one “who urged the rapid downfall of the Roman empire.” While Attila would recover and sack several Italian cities, he and the Hun threat ended with his death due to a nosebleed on his wedding night.

Conclusion: Multiple Factors

One could make a sound case for a multitude of reasons for the fall of Rome. However, its fall was not due to one cause, although many search for one. Most of the causes, initially, point to one place: the city of Rome itself. The loss of revenue for the western half of the empire could not support an army - an army that was necessary for defending the already vulnerable borders. Continual warfare meant trade was disrupted; invading armies caused crops to be laid to waste, poor technology made for low food production, the city was overcrowded, unemployment was high, and lastly, there were always the epidemics. Added to these was an inept and untrustworthy government.

The presence of the barbarians in and around the empire added to a crisis not only externally but internally. These factors helped bring an empire from “a state of health into non-existence.” The Roman army lacked both proper training and equipment. The government itself was unstable. Peter Heather in his The Fall of the Roman Empire states that it “fell not because of its 'stupendous fabric' but because its German neighbors responded to its power in ways that the Romans could not ever have foreseen… By virtue of its unbounded aggression, Roman imperialism was responsible for its own destruction.”

Rome's fall ended the ancient world and the Middle Ages were borne. These “Dark Ages” brought the end to much that was Roman. The West fell into turmoil. However, while much was lost, western civilization still owes a debt to the Romans. Although only a few today can speak Latin, it is part of our language and the foundation of the Romance languages of French, Italian, and Spanish. Our legal system is based on Roman law . Many present day European cities were founded by Rome. Our knowledge of Greece comes though Rome and many other lasting effects besides. Rome had fallen but it had been for so so long one of the history's truly world cities.

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Bibliography

Baker, S. Ancient Rome. BBC Books, 2007.
Clark, G. Late Antiquity. Oxford University Press, 2011.
Gibbon, E. The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Penguin Classics, 2005.
Heather, P. The Fall of the Roman Empire. Oxford University Press, 2007.
James, E. Europe's Barbarians AD 200-600. Routledge, 2009.
Rodgers, N. Roman Empire. Metro Books, 2008
Sommer, M. The Complete Roman Emperor. Thames & Hudson, 2010.

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The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire

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The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire , historical work by Edward Gibbon , published in six volumes between 1776 and 1788. A continuous narrative from the 2nd century ce to the fall of Constantinople in 1453, it is distinguished by its rigorous scholarship, its historical perspective, and its incomparable literary style.

The Decline and Fall is divided into two parts, equal in bulk but different in treatment. The first half covers about 300 years to the end of the empire in the West, about 480 ce ; in the second half nearly 1,000 years are compressed. Gibbon viewed the Roman Empire as a single entity in undeviating decline from the ideals of political and intellectual freedom that characterized the classical literature he had read. For him, the material decay of Rome was the effect and symbol of moral decadence.

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Why Did the Roman Empire Fall?

[I am] holding a wolf by the ears . TIBERIUS, EMPEROR OF ROME (R. 14–37)

The Roman empire was antiquity’s largest and most powerful state. It reached its zenith under Trajan (r. 98–117), encompassing nearly 2 million square miles and containing some 60 million people. Linking its provinces were more than 250,000 miles of roads, 50,000 of which were paved. Roman engineers founded or improved more than 1,000 cities and towns, transforming the rural European landscape into a marvel of urbanization. In the third century the Roman army could field 450,000 infantry and cavalry and 45,000 sailors and marines. By the time Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453, the Roman army—the oldest continually existing social institution in the Western world—had been on the march for two millennia.

Rome itself was a magnificent example of cultural, technological and social superiority in its time. In 356 the city had 28 libraries, 10 basilicas, 11 public baths, two amphitheaters, three theaters, two circuses (the Circus Maximus could seat 150,000 people; the Colosseum , 50,000), 19 aqueducts, 11 public squares, 1,352 fountains and 46,602 apartment buildings. Yet little more than a century later barbarian invaders stood astride the empire’s corpse, the capital in ruins.

The reasons for the empire’s demise remain among the great unsettled historical debates. Regardless, it is possible to identify some of the primary forces that rendered the imperial government incapable of dealing with the lethal challenges that beset it. Of all the factors draining the empire of its ability to survive, four stand out: the changing nature of the external threat to the empire’s western borders; the frequent civil wars among claimants to the imperial throne; the migration and settlement of large, armed and culturally hostile barbarian populations within the imperial borders; and the gradual erosion and eventual demise of the empire’s manpower and the taxpayer base required to sustain, defend and administer the Roman state.

The Romans called the area beyond the western imperial border along the Rhine and Danube rivers the land of the barbarians. Its mostly Germanic-speaking inhabitants were relatively few in number and lived in small villages, their populations limited by their primitive agricultural technology. Employing only the wooden scratch plow, German farmers could not turn the earth sufficiently to maintain its fertility. The soil’s ability to sustain adequate agricultural production quickly declined, forcing the population to move every generation or so in search of more fertile land.

The small populations and nomadism of the German tribes retarded development of their political structures. Governments were local, comprising mostly clan chiefs whose ruling power was limited by councils of advisers drawn from among other influential clan members. An individual chieftain did not have the wealth or manpower to form a warrior group loyal to him alone. Instead, clan warriors came together as circumstances required. These groups were usually small and capable only of conducting limited raids. In a few instances the tribes provided warriors to serve in limited military capacities in the Roman army itself.

The Romans used subsidies, trade, military honors and punitive expeditions to ensure the loyalty of the tribes, often playing them off against one another. The German tribes along the western border did not pose a threat to Roman garrisons, and the limited size of the tribal populations meant there was no mass migration. Indeed, the Romans occasionally settled small groups as farmers on the imperial side of the border.

But by the third century circumstances in this region had changed. The presence of Roman garrisons and merchants spurred the economic and sociopolitical development of the border tribes. The garrisons provided lucrative markets for local agricultural products, metals, slaves and military recruits. The introduction of Roman agricultural techniques—use of the deep-running iron plow, manure fertilization and irrigation—brought larger farms, abundant food, an explosion in tribal populations and the establishment of towns, all of which ended the clans’ traditional agricultural nomadism and stabilized the populations.

These larger tribes required more complex political and organizational structures. Among the more significant developments was the ability of now-wealthy tribal chiefs to support a large warrior class. By the end of the second century the populations of the tribes along the western imperial borders had grown considerably. When the chiefs of the tribes arranged themselves in confederation under the temporary authority of elected leaders, these confederations could easily field 10,000-man armies.

At the same time the discovery of large metal ore deposits beyond the imperial border created a local armaments industry. Just two deposits within the present-day borders of Poland produced 16 million pounds of iron during the Roman period. Before this find, metal weapons were produced singly, were very expensive and were strictly controlled by Roman authorities. By the third century local factories along the border were producing thousands of weapons––chiefly swords and spear points––equipping not only the Roman garrisons but also many tribal warriors. As long as the clans were content to remain under imperial control and limit themselves to periodic raiding, they were no threat to the Romans. But with pressure from other tribes seeking better land or plunder, the large border clans began to present the threat of mass migration across the imperial borders.

The tribal chieftains, who were by this time able to support and equip considerable armies, adopted the Roman practice of compulsory, full-time military service. The result was the emergence of well-armed, semiprofessional military forces whose leaders had often served in the Roman army. An example of this long-standing practice was Arminius, the German chieftain whose forces massacred three Roman legions at the AD 9 Battle of the Teutoburg Forest.

Thus, even by the end of the second century the nature and size of the threat facing the Romans across the western imperial border had changed drastically. The Germanic-speaking tribes had become large, politically organized confederations led by warrior chieftains with competent armies. They remained largely content to raid and plunder Roman settlements on their side of the border. While such raids sometimes brought harsh Roman retaliation, they just as often brought the tribes higher subsidies and greater economic opportunities. But when pushed from behind by other tribes, or drawn by the lure of a better economic life, those tribes could pose a significant threat.

Once the invaders had breached the border defenses, Rome lacked the military strength to expel them and instead settled them.

In the winter of 166 this new reality burst forth when two Germanic-speaking tribes, the Langobardi and Ubii, raided the Roman province of Pannonia (present-day Hungary south of the Danube). A year later two other powerful tribes, the Marcomanni and Victuali, demanded to cross the Danube and settle within the empire. Prompting these demands was pressure from tribes beyond the frontier zone that sought to conquer the area for their own use. Rome was slow to respond. Emperor Marcus Aurelius (r. 161–180) was at war with the Parthians and had been diverting troops to that conflict. The Romans were eventually able to contain the pressure, but not before German raiders had besieged Aquileia, in Italy itself, and the conflict had dragged on for a decade.

The Marcomannic wars were no mere border raids. The German tribes sacked a number of cities and wrought widespread damage. Amid the warfare some of the tribes attempted large-scale migration. Between 235 and 275 barbarians launched major raids all along the western Roman frontier, some settling in within the imperial borders. Scholars call this period the Third Century Crisis. The warrior tribes were now a force to be reckoned with and would remain so for the next two centuries until, ultimately, Roman defenses on the Rhine and Danube frontier collapsed completely.

A major factor in Rome’s inability to deal with the growing barbarian threat was the recurring state of civil war between emperors and usurpers—the latter usually generals or other officers who supported some rival claimant to the throne. These clashes brought high casualties, disrupted training and the manpower supply, and drew units away from the Rhine and Danube frontiers. In their respective conflicts with Emperor Theodosius I, Magnus Maximus (r. 383–388) and Flavius Eugenius (392–394) so depleted the Roman border garrisons that the defense of the Rhine was dependent almost entirely on the loyalty of local barbarian client kings.

Before the reign of Marcus Aurelius the western Roman empire had experienced few serious civil wars. But between his death in 180 and the deposition of the last western emperor, Romulus Augustus, in 476, the empire witnessed more than 100 instances of armed violence as would-be usurpers challenged sitting emperors. Some of these conflicts lasted years, exhausting Roman military manpower and leaving the frontiers vulnerable. Ironically, most of the emperors and usurpers then died at the hands of their own subordinates.

The frequent civil wars ensured that fear of usurpers—not threats to the empire’s borders—became the leading concern for Roman emperors. Since no usurper could hope to succeed without the support of a substantial army, Roman administrators broke up the larger provinces to minimize the military power of any one provincial official. The breakup of the provinces began under Septimius Severus (r. 193–211), and Diocletian (r. 284–305) continued the process until some of the provincial garrisons were too small even to deal with local raiders.

Early in the fourth century Constantine (r. 306–337) drastically changed the organizational structure of the Roman army. A usurper who had gained power through civil war, Constantine was most concerned with protecting himself from other would-be emperors. He created large, mobile field armies called comitatenses, commanded by himself and intended to protect his person and thwart attempts on the throne. As part of these security arrangements he and succeeding emperors abandoned Rome as a capital, moving often to avoid threats to their safety. This crippled the empire’s central administration, as slow communications and uncertainty at the court made it difficult for the bureaucracy to operate efficiently. This was especially detrimental for the army, which relied on state bureaucrats to provide the materials, manpower and finances for war.

The comitatenses had no permanent installations and instead billeted with the civilian populations in the towns wherever the emperor held court. The old 5,000-man frontier legions were reduced in size, as were all garrison commands on the frontiers—again to keep usurpers from mustering large military units. Many frontier forts and strongpoints were reduced in size, and others simply abandoned, forcing the army to rely on local barbarian recruits to defend the frontier. Even the comitatenses armies were mostly pieced together from the remnants of the various civil war forces. By the middle of the fourth century the Roman emperors had to rely on weakened and poorly positioned military forces to deal with threats along the frontiers, internal rebellions and raids by the barbarian tribes already settled within the empire.

Despite the civil wars and the empire’s reduced military capability, Roman emperors in the fourth century were able to contain the border threats surprisingly well. New tribes continued to press settled groups closer to the border, and Roman power helped client chiefs resist the invaders. In some cases Roman administrators settled tribes of moderate size within the empire’s borders, dispersing their populations to work vacant farmland.

Far to the east, however, a large coalition of nomadic tribes led by the Huns began moving toward the Danube frontier. Recruiting warriors from conquered tribes along the way, the Hunnic army swept over the middle Hungarian plain, sending local populations fleeing toward the Roman border for protection. In the summer of 376 two groups of displaced Goths—some 15,000 warriors and 60,000 women, children and the elderly—arrived on the banks of the Danube, requesting asylum within the imperial borders and permission to settle in Thrace. Emperor Valens (r. 364–78), in order to fight Persia, had stripped the Danubian frontier of forces, and, unable to repel the Goths, he agreed to their settlement.

Things soon went horribly wrong. There was an acute shortage of food in the region, and a corrupt Roman commander named Lupicinus gathered up all the dogs in the area and sold them to the starving Goths; his going rate was one child for one dog. This set the Goths on a rampage, and they ravaged northern Thrace. Valens made peace with the Persians in 377, and the following year the Goth and Roman warriors met in battle at Adrianople. In a stunning upset the Goths killed two-thirds of the Roman troops along with the emperor. They continued fighting in Thrace until concluding a peace in 382 that allowed some of them to settle in Italy and the rest in Thrace.

The dam had burst. The success of the Goths in defeating the Roman army, in obtaining resettlement, plus the desire for a better life and Hunnic pressure spurred more tribes to cross the weakly defended border. The defeat at Adrianople had destroyed 60 percent of the Roman army of the east. The Romans tried hard to stop what had become a mass migration, attacking the migrants as they attempted to cross the rivers and hunting them down as they moved inland.

Between 405 and 408, during a period historians refer to as the Fourth Century Crisis, the empire suffered other large-scale barbarian invasions. Roman losses during the campaigns between 395 and 410 were horrific; some estimates claim the invaders shattered as many as 80 regiments—nearly 50 percent of the Roman field army in the west. Short on troops, desperate Roman commanders resorted to hiring the warriors of tribes already settled in the empire. Barbarians now fought to keep other barbarians from entering the empire.

Once the invaders had breached the border defenses, Rome lacked the military strength to expel them and instead settled them in various provinces, on the condition they provide troops to the Roman army. But settling the migrants did not end the problem. The barbarian settlements, with their own rulers and strong armies, resisted Roman efforts to control them. Within a few years the barbarian kings took to fighting one another and to raiding and occupying neighboring Roman settlements. Most of the empire’s interior cities and towns lacked defensive walls, a consequence of the long Roman peace, so the barbarian raids and Roman counterattacks devastated several of the provinces. The barbarian settlements became the prototypes of the feudal kingdoms that would emerge later.

With the barbarian settlement and outright occupation of some of the provinces, the flow of tax money to the imperial capital dried up. By the end of the third century an estimated two-thirds of the empire’s tax revenue no longer reached the imperial administration. The Vandals’ capture of Rome’s Spanish silver mines in 411 and the conquest of the empire’s North African provinces in 435 and 439 robbed Rome of her richest provinces in terms of grain supply and tax revenue. These events crippled imperial finances beyond repair.

Without sufficient funds, what remained of the imperial administration could no longer raise sufficient numbers of troops or train them adequately to meet the empire’s needs. In short order the once-matchless Roman army was reduced to a coterie of barbarian war bands serving under their own chiefs. The empire of Rome was now in its death throes.

The collapse of the western Roman empire throws into sharp relief the success of the eastern empire’s ability to function as an important state for another 1,000 years. For the most part the circumstances and events that brought down the western empire did not confront the eastern empire.

Geography was an important reason for the eastern empire’s survival. In the west the only natural obstacles to invasion were the Danube and Rhine rivers. In the east the main geographic barrier was the Bosporus. To cross that strait in any force required ships and the power to confront the formidable Roman navy—resources that barbarian tribes lacked. The imperial capital at Constantinople was protected in the northeast by mountains and easy to defend passes. Roman diplomacy maintained good relations with the mountain tribes that provided manpower and early warning against invasion. To the south and east the Parthians and later the Sassanid Persians blocked Arab invasions. Although the Romans had security issues with the Persians, dealing with an organized state was much easier than dealing with a number of powerful tribes attacking along an extensive and vulnerable border.

While the eastern empire was not entirely free of threats posed by usurpers, the few civil conflicts there were were short-lived and mostly ended in victory for the imperial rulers. The eastern emperors were rarely assassinated, and Constantinople remained the administrative, political and military capital, effectively controlling the army and imperial bureaucracy and finances. The stability of the capital also contributed to a persistent sense of national identity with the old empire, an identity that had been lost in the west. To the very end inhabitants of the eastern realm thought of themselves as Romans.

The geography that made invasion of the eastern empire difficult had the effect of diverting the invaders to the west, where it was easier to assault the imperial frontier. The geographical conditions and the still-effective Roman army kept migrating tribes from breaking through the eastern defenses in large numbers. So the eastern emperors were never forced to settle large barbarian populations with independent armies capable of threatening the empire from within. Moreover, the Roman army of the east deliberately limited the number of barbarian soldiers allowed in its ranks.

After the collapse of the western Roman empire, the eastern—Byzantine—empire withstood the efforts of various attackers until 1453, when Constantinople came under full-scale assault by the Ottoman Turks, armed with some of the earliest siege cannons in history. Although the Roman army faced certain death, perhaps mindful of its noble heritage, it put up one hell of a fight.

Richard A. Gabriel, a distinguished professor of history and war studies at the Royal Military College of Canada, is the author of more than 40 books. For further reading he recommends Empires and Barbarians: The Fall of Rome and the Birth of Europe , by Peter Heather, and How Rome Fell: Death of a Superpower , by Adrian Goldsworthy.

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The History Hit Miscellany of Facts, Figures and Fascinating Finds

What Caused The Fall of the Roman Empire?

Colin Ricketts

24 jul 2018.

When Romulus Augustus was defeated and deposed by the German tribal leader Odovacer in September 476 AD, Italy had its first king and Rome bade farewell to its last emperor. The imperial regalia were sent to the eastern capital, Constantinople, and 500 years of Empire in western Europe was at an end.

Even this apparently simple event is hotly debated by historians. There is no simple answer to how, when and why the greatest power of the ancient world vanished.

By 476 AD the signs of Rome’s decline had been around for a while.

The sack of Rome

The sack of Rome by Alaric.

On 24 August, 410 AD Alaric, a Visigoth general, led his troops into Rome . The three days of looting that followed were reportedly quite restrained by the standards of the time, and the capital of the Empire had moved to Ravenna in 402 AD. But it was an enormously symbolic blow.

Forty-five years later, the Vandals carried out a more thorough job.

Great migrations

The arrival of these German tribesmen in Italy explains one of the chief reasons why the Empire fell.

As Rome had expanded from Italy, it had incorporated the people it conquered into its way of life, selectively granting citizenship – with its privileges – and providing a longer, more peaceful and prosperous life with military and civic hierarchies, which citizens could advance up.

Large movements of peoples to the east of the Empire started to bring new people into Rome’s territories. These included Alaric’s Goths, a tribe originally from Scandinavia, but which had grown to control a massive area between the Danube and the Urals.

The movement of the Huns, led from 434 to 454 by the legendary Attila, from their Central Asian homelands in the fourth and fifth centuries caused a domino effect, pushing Goths, Vandals, Alans, Franks, Angles, Saxons and other tribes west and south into Roman territory.

The Huns – shown in blue – move west.

Rome’s greatest need was for soldiers. The military protected and ultimately enforced the tax-collection system that enabled Rome’s strong central state. “Barbarians” were useful, and deals had historically been struck with tribes like the Goths, who fought for the Empire in return for money, land and access to Roman institutions.

This large-scale “Great Migration” tested that system to breaking point.

At the 378 AD Battle of Hadrianople, Gothic warriors showed what breaking promises to resettlement land and rights could mean. The Emperor Valens was killed and much of an army of 20,000 legionaries was lost in a single day.

The Empire could no longer cope with the numbers and the belligerence of its new arrivals. Alaric’s sacking of Rome was inspired by further broken deals.

A fragile system

Large numbers of capable, uncontrollable warriors entering into, then setting up territories within the Empire broke the model that kept the system going.

A tax collector at his vital work.

Rome’s state was supported with effective tax collection. Most of the tax revenues paid for the massive military that, in turn, ultimately guaranteed the tax collection system. As tax collection failed, the military was starved of funds further weakening the tax collection system… It was a spiral of decline.

The Empire was, by the fourth and fifth centuries, a hugely complex and extensive political and economic structure. The benefits of Roman life to its citizens were dependent on the roads, subsidised transport and trade that sent high quality goods around the Empire.

Under pressure these systems started to break down, damaging the belief of its citizens that the Empire was a force for good in their lives. Roman culture and Latin vanished from former territories remarkably quickly – why participate in ways of life that no longer provide any benefit?

Internal strife

Rome was also rotting from within. We have seen that Roman emperors were a decidedly mixed bag. The chief qualification for this massively important job was the support of enough troops, who could be bought easily enough.

The lack of a hereditary succession may have been admirable to modern eyes, but it meant almost every emperor’s death or fall triggered bloody, costly and weakening power struggles. Too often the strong centre required to govern such large territories was simply missing.

Theodosius, the last one-man ruler of the Western Empire.

Under Theodosius (ruled 379 AD – 395 AD), these struggles reached their destructive zenith. Magnus Maximus declared himself Emperor of the west and started carving out his own territory. Theodosius defeated Maximus, who brought large numbers of barbarian soldiers into the Empire, only to face a second civil war against a new pretender.

The Empire was never again to be ruled by a single man and the western portion never again to have an effective standing army. When Stilicho, a general rather than emperor, tried to reunite the Empire, he ran out of troops and by 400 AD was reduced to recruiting vagrants and conscripting veterans’ sons.

So when Alaric sacked the “Eternal City”, he was plucking at the heart of an almost dead body. Troops and administration were being drawn – or thrown – back from the edges of the Empire. In 409 AD Romano-British citizens threw Roman magistrates out of their cities, a year later the soldiers left the defence of the islands to the local populations.

Emperors came and went, but few had any real power, as internal factions and arriving barbarians picked over the fast extinguishing glory of the greatest power of the ancient world.

Rome was not perfect, by modern standards it was an appalling tyranny, but the end of its power ushered in what historians named The Dark Ages, and many of Rome’s achievements were not to be matched until the industrial revolution.

No single cause

A great many theories have sought to pin the fall of the Empire onto a single cause.

One popular villain was lead poisoning contracted from sewers and water pipes and contributing to lower birth rates and weakening physical and mental health in the population. This has now been dismissed.

Decadence in some form is another popular single-issue cause of the fall. Edward Gibbon’s massive 1776 to 1789 work The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, was a proponent of this idea. Gibbon argued that Romans became effeminate and weak, unwilling to make the sacrifices necessary to defend their territories.

Today, this view is considered far too simplistic, though the weakening of civil structures that ran the Empire certainly had a human dimension.

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World History Edu

Ancient Rome

Major Causes of the Fall of the Western Roman Empire

by World History Edu · November 26, 2019

Fall of the Western Roman Empire

After a rise, comes a fall. And of course, good times don’t last forever. This was the deplorable situation that struck a once unified and soaring Roman Empire. Somewhere in the 5th century, Rome’s influence and standing in the world took a nosedive, ushering in its worse days of disunity and conflicts. Whether you cast your mind on the Western Empire that crumbled earlier in the 5th century or the Eastern side that followed suit centuries later, the fact is that Rome (as a whole) did fall eventually, after witnessing unprecedented growth.

What were the causes of Rome’s decline? This remains the million-dollar question that has prodded the minds of historians as they debate frequently to find the truth.

In this article, we share historical insights into the major causes of the fall of the Roman Empire.

Why Rome Fell

Just like any normal civilization fall, the stories behind Rome’s decline are rooted in a plethora of internal and external factors. It’s hard to pinpoint one causative factor of Rome’s fall, but we do know that invasions, religion, imperial incompetence, diseases, and divisions were just some of the reasons why Rome fell.

Barbarian Invasion

Barbarians sacking Rome in 410 CE

Most people hold strong assertions that the underlying cause of the collapse of the mighty Rome was the empire’s inability to defend herself from the Barbarian invasion. For many centuries, Romans warred with Germanic tribal groups, but they didn’t succumb to them. But around 300 CE, Barbarians penetrated Rome and caused considerable havoc. In 410 CE , King Alaric of the Visigoths did the impossible thing when he literally conquered Rome and sacked them from the city.

The Roman Empire became vulnerable to attacks; its troubles increased further when the Vandals attacked the Eternal City in 455 CE. In 476 CE, still not finished yet, King Odoacer cleared down the remaining legs of Roman rule in Italy when he rose up against Emperors Romulus & Augustulus. It’s no wonder why some historians state 476 CE as the exact year the Western Empire got annihilated.

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Division and Cracks in Rome

The rulers of ancient Rome failed to pay heed to unity – “Divided we fall, united we stand”. When Emperor Diclotian controversially divided a once unified Rome into West and East during the late 3rd century CE, he created room for a quick fall of the Western side.

Government wise, the division favored the effective rule of both halves, but in the long, the two empires stood far apart. Instead of working together as Roman citizens, the West and East weakened their ties by engaging in minor conflicts over resources.

As time went on, the East grew stronger than the West. The weak Western Empire, therefore, became a vulnerable target to the Barbarian attacks. By the 5th century CE, the West had collapsed, but the East would go on to live for 1000 years before succumbing to the Ottoman Empire in 1453.

Introduction of Christianity

Christianity became a turning point when it was introduced to the Romans as a new religion. When Emperor Constantine (306-337 CE ) brought religious change (Christianity) to Rome, he was naïve about the long-term consequences of what he did. For centuries, Romans were used to the idea of many gods and goddesses (polytheism); emperors like Caligula even viewed himself as a god.

When Christianity came preaching a monotheistic (one) God, it was completely contrary to the established religious doctrines of ancient Romans. Consequently, Christians faced a series of persecutions. But they were once again saved by the anti-persecution principles of Emperor Constantine.

By embracing this new religion and throwing away their core traditions, Romans severely committed a suicidal change of faith. To speed up the Roman decadence, Christianity was made the empire’s main religion. This lessened the authority of their imperial rulers; within an eye’s blink, Roman emperors became nobody. How could the empire have survived without a respected leader?

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Lead Poisoning

Some historians move the fall issue from social problems to chemical poisoning. It’s unbelievable how ancient Romans played with the tail of a lion – they were drinking lead-infested water from water pipes. Even though ancient Romans supposedly had some knowledge of the dangers of lead, they went ahead to carelessly tamper with it.

With time their bodies absorbed and accumulated lethal amounts of the poisonous metal. Scholars argue that lead poisoning could have decreased the fertility rate and intelligence of Romans, leaving them with unwise population and leaders. In all, this might have contributed to their vulnerability and eventual breakdown.

Military Decay

Why Rome fell – Military Decay

According to historian Vegetus, the Roman army degraded internally. In the long absence of wars, the army retired to sleep without training. This made them ill-prepared for the invasions that finally came their way. They were struck down by relatively superior enemy weapons. This decay of the army was partly caused by incompetent leadership. Due to a lack of motivation (rewards), soldiers laid down their tools and lived as ordinary civilians.

Economic Downturn

After the reign of the Great Marcus Aurelius , Romans made little to no expansionism efforts. When you erect a building and leave it uncompleted at the peak, it would gradually fall down. This may have been the exact case of the Romans when they grew tired of expanding their empire.

Moreover, they spent lavishly at a time when gold supply to the empire was scaled down. The Roman currency lost its value when minting of their coins was done with little gold. In this vein, some theorists suggest that the empire collapsed on itself because it expanded so high. The bigger it got, the harder it became to govern.

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Diseases and Misery

What can wipe out a civilization better than a disease? Historians think that massive depopulation hit hard at Western Rome, leaving them to be downtrodden by the Barbarian invasion. Between the 2nd & 3rd centuries CE, two catastrophic plagues visited the Roman Empire and killed the majority of its workforce. The Antonine & Cyprian epidemics were able to devastate Rome because of the empire’s extended trade links to China, India, and the East African coastline.

The number of Roman lives that were claimed by diseases was quite significant – some towns became empty, but exact death figures are unavailable. Consequently, the unhealthy Roman soldiers could hardly defend against the Barbarian invasion.

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Tags: Antonine & Cyprian epidemics King Alaric Sacking of Rome Lead Poisoning Roman Emperors Rome's Fall

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The Roman Empire and Its Fall in 476 A.D. Essay

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Introduction

The fall of Rome is widely considered a major turning point in the history of Europe. The Roman Empire, which had been a major political and military force since the 1st century B.C., collapsed in the late 5th century A.D. The causes of the fall of Rome were complex and varied, but the consequences were seismic. Rome was eventually divided in 395 A.D by the death of Theodosius I, with the East becoming the Byzantine Empire and the West becoming the Western Roman Empire. This continued to exist in some form until 476 A.D, when it was officially dissolved by the Germanic King Odoacer. Therefore, although Rome fell in 476 A.D due to deposition of Emperor Romulus Augustulus, some of its practices such as religion and political system were continued while others were discontinued.

The fall of the Roman Empire is traditionally dated to be 476 A.D, when the emperor of the Western Empire, Romulus Augustulus. This marked the end of the Roman imperial system and the transition to the Middle Ages. Despite this, many of the continuities between Rome and its successor kingdoms can be seen throughout the 5th century and beyond. The Byzantine Empire, which emerged in the East, claimed to be the legitimate successor of the Roman Empire, and its rulers continued to use the title of ‘Emperor.’ The Byzantine Empire maintained much of the Roman political, legal, and religious traditions, including the Greek language and Christian faith.

One of the main continuities that can be seen after the fall of Rome was the continued presence of a strong and unified Christian faith. Despite the rise of the Ostrogothic, Visigothic and Frankish kingdoms, Rome and its legacy of Catholic Christianity remained a major unifying force throughout Europe. This was further reinforced by the growth of the Holy Roman Empire from Charlemagne, which further spread the influence of Catholicism. Additionally, the claims of the Papacy to be the legitimate heirs of Roman imperial rule in the West helped to maintain a sense of continuity after the fall of Rome. Thus, the successor states maintained much of the Roman political, legal, and religious traditions, including the Greek language and Christian faith.

However, there were some discontinuities such as adoption of a new form of government adopted by Roman Empire’s successor kingdoms. The most significant of these was the decentralization of power, as the Ostrogothic, Visigothic and Frankish kingdoms replaced the unified Roman Empire. This led to the emergence of a number of new political entities, which competed for power and influence in Europe. Additionally, the decline of the Roman Empire led to a decline in the level of technological sophistication and economic prosperity that the Romans had enjoyed. Therefore, this decline in the standard of living was further exacerbated by the emergence of new diseases and the decline of trade networks

The fall of the Roman Empire in 476 A.D. marked the end of the classical period and the beginning of the Middle Ages. The continuities and discontinuities between Rome and its successor kingdoms depend largely on the region in question, but all of them adopted some of the Roman traditions and institutions while developing their unique characteristics. The Byzantine Empire is among the successors that sustained Roman traditions the longest. However, the claims made by the Papacy to be the legitimate heirs of Roman imperial rule in the West were declared with the Donation of Constantine in the 8th century.

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IvyPanda. (2024, January 9). The Roman Empire and Its Fall in 476 A.D. https://ivypanda.com/essays/the-roman-empire-and-its-fall-in-476-ad/

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The Factors Behind the Fall of the Roman Empire

The fall of the roman empire.

The Roman Empire, once a symbol of power and grandeur, eventually met a dramatic decline that led to its ultimate collapse. This article aims to explore the various factors that contributed to the fall of this mighty empire. From political instability and economic crisis to barbarian invasions and social decay, a combination of internal and external pressures weakened the Roman Empire over several centuries. Additionally, administrative problems, overexpansion, cultural decline, plague and disease, as well as a decline in morale, all played significant roles in the empire’s demise. Understanding these factors helps shed light on the complex and multifaceted downfall of one of history’s most influential empires.

Political Instability: The Decline of Strong Leadership

One of the key factors contributing to the fall of the Roman Empire was the decline of strong leadership. After the death of Emperor Marcus Aurelius in 180 CE, a period known as the Crisis of the Third Century ensued. This period was marked by frequent changes in leadership and a lack of stability within the empire. Emperors came to power through assassinations, civil wars, and the influence of the military. These constant power struggles weakened the empire’s ability to respond effectively to external threats and internal challenges.

Economic Crisis: The Weakening of the Roman Economy

Another significant factor in the fall of the Roman Empire was the economic crisis that plagued the empire. The Roman economy was primarily based on slave labor and the exploitation of conquered territories’ resources. However, as the empire expanded, the influx of wealth created economic instability. Inflation, high taxes, and a widening wealth gap between the rich and poor led to social unrest and a decline in productivity. Furthermore, the reliance on slave labor hindered technological progress, making the Roman economy vulnerable to external competition.

The Roman Empire is widely regarded as one of the most powerful and prosperous civilizations in history. However, beneath its grandeur lay an economic crisis that would ultimately contribute to its decline. The decline of the Roman economy was a complex and multi-faceted phenomenon, influenced by various factors such as inflation, taxation, and the collapse of trade networks. Understanding these factors is crucial to comprehending the economic crisis that befell the Roman Empire.

Several factors contributed to the decline of the Roman economy. One of the key factors was the continuous expansion of the empire. As the Romans conquered new territories, they faced the daunting task of governing and administering these vast regions. This led to an increased strain on resources and finances, as well as a drain on manpower. The cost of maintaining an extensive military presence and constructing infrastructure further burdened the Roman economy.

Another factor that contributed to the decline was the loss of productive agricultural land. The Roman Empire heavily relied on agriculture as its economic backbone. However, as the empire expanded, fertile land was gradually depleted, leading to diminishing agricultural yields. This decline in agricultural productivity put a strain on food supplies and increased the cost of essential commodities, further exacerbating the economic crisis.

Inflation and taxation played a significant role in the decline of the Roman economy. The empire’s monetary system experienced a period of rampant inflation due to a variety of factors. The debasement of the coinage, caused by the use of cheaper metals and excessive minting, led to a rapid decrease in the value of Roman currency. This fueled inflation, as the purchasing power of the population diminished, thus eroding the economy .

Furthermore, excessive taxation imposed by the Roman government further strained the economy. The burden of taxation fell heavily on the productive classes, such as farmers and merchants, causing a decline in their ability to invest and engage in trade. This led to a decrease in production and hindered economic growth. The oppressive tax system also created a sense of discontent among the population, further destabilizing the empire.

The collapse of the Roman economy had far-reaching consequences for the empire. The decline in trade and production resulted in a decline in wealth and living standards. As economic opportunities diminished, the Roman population faced unemployment and poverty. This societal unrest contributed to the decline of social order and the eventual fall of the Roman Empire.

The economic crisis of the Roman Empire serves as a valuable lesson for future civilizations. It highlights the importance of balanced economic policies, sustainable resource management, and the need to avoid excessive expansionism. The decline of the Roman economy underscores the fragility of even the most powerful civilizations and the vital role that a stable and prosperous economy plays in ensuring the longevity of a society.

The decline of the Roman economy was a complex phenomenon that played a significant role in the fall of the Roman Empire. Factors such as expansion, loss of productive land, inflation, and excessive taxation all contributed to the economic crisis. The consequences of this decline were widespread, leading to a decline in wealth and living standards, as well as social unrest. The lessons learned from this crisis highlight the importance of balanced economic policies and sustainable resource management. The decline of the Roman Empire serves as a reminder that even the most prosperous civilizations are not immune to economic challenges.

Barbarian Invasions: External Threats to the Empire

The Roman Empire faced numerous external threats in the form of barbarian invasions. During the declining years , Germanic tribes such as the Visigoths, Vandals, and Ostrogoths took advantage of the empire’s weakened state and began raiding and eventually carving out their own territories within the empire’s borders. These invasions put immense pressure on the Roman military, stretched their resources thin, and further weakened the empire’s ability to defend itself.

The Roman Empire, known for its grandeur and dominance, faced numerous challenges throughout its existence. Among these challenges, the Barbarian invasions were perhaps the most significant. These invasions, characterized by the influx of various Barbarian tribes into Roman territories, posed a threat to the Empire’s stability and ultimately contributed to its decline. This article will delve into the major Barbarian tribes , their impact on the Roman Empire, the strategies employed by the empire to counter these invasions, and the eventual decline of the empire due to the Barbarian conquests.

The Barbarian invasions were primarily fueled by the migration of numerous tribes from the northern regions into the Roman Empire. Among the most notable tribes were the Visigoths, Ostrogoths, Vandals, Franks, and the Huns. Each tribe had its unique impact on the empire. The Visigoths, for instance, sacked Rome in 410 AD, while the Vandals captured and pillaged the city in 455 AD. These acts not only caused immense destruction but also dealt significant blows to the Roman Empire’s prestige.

In response to the Barbarian invasions, the Roman Empire adopted various strategies to protect its territories. One of the key approaches was the employment of diplomacy and alliances. The empire sought to form alliances with some Barbarian tribes, allowing them to settle within Roman territories in exchange for military support. This strategy aimed to create a buffer zone against hostile tribes. Additionally, the empire built fortifications such as Hadrian’s Wall in Britain and the Limes in Germany to deter incursions.

Despite its best efforts, the Roman Empire eventually succumbed to the Barbarian invasions, leading to its decline. The decline was a culmination of several factors, including economic instability, political corruption, and the inability to effectively defend against the Barbarian onslaught. The Visigoths’ sack of Rome in 410 AD and the subsequent fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD marked the end of an era. The Barbarian conquests not only shattered the empire’s unity but also reshaped the political landscape of Europe, with Barbarian kingdoms emerging in the conquered territories.

The Barbarian invasions had a profound impact on the Roman Empire, ultimately leading to its downfall. These invasions brought about significant changes in the political, social, and cultural fabric of Europe. The Barbarian tribes, once perceived as threats, eventually integrated into the societies they conquered, contributing to the formation of new kingdoms and cultures. The fall of the Roman Empire and the subsequent rise of Barbarian kingdoms marked the beginning of the medieval period. Though the Roman Empire’s external threats proved to be its undoing, they also set the stage for the transformative events that followed, leaving a lasting legacy in the annals of history.

Social Decay: Growing Inequality and Corruption

Social decay within the Roman Empire was another contributing factor to its fall. As the empire expanded, the gap between the rich and poor grew wider, leading to a decline in social cohesion. The ruling elite became increasingly detached from the common people, and corruption permeated various levels of society. Bribes, embezzlement, and favoritism became rampant, eroding trust in the government and undermining the stability of the empire.

The Roman Empire, once a prosperous and mighty civilization, experienced a gradual decline that ultimately led to its fall. One of the key factors contributing to this decline was the social decay within the empire. In this article, we will delve into the investigation of the Roman Empire’s social decay, focusing on the rising inequality and corruption that plagued the society. Through examining these two aspects, we can gain a deeper understanding of how these factors played a significant role in the downfall of the empire.

Examining the Roman Empire’s Social Decay: Inequality on the Rise

The Roman Empire witnessed a significant increase in inequality over the course of its existence. Initially, the empire was characterized by a relatively equal distribution of wealth and a social structure that offered opportunities for upward mobility. However, as the empire expanded and accumulated vast amounts of wealth, this balance began to erode.

The accumulation of wealth in the hands of the elite: The Roman Empire’s conquests brought immense wealth, which was primarily concentrated in the hands of the ruling classes. This concentration of wealth led to a widening wealth gap between the rich and the poor.
Economic exploitation of the lower classes: The elites controlled vast estates and utilized slave labor, resulting in a decline in job opportunities for Roman citizens. This economic exploitation further exacerbated the inequality within society.
Decline of the middle class: The middle class, once vibrant and influential, gradually disappeared under the weight of economic inequality. The rising costs of living and limited economic opportunities forced many middle-class citizens into poverty, widening the gap between the rich and the poor.
Patron-client relationships: The Roman society was built on a system of patronage, which further perpetuated inequality. The wealthy would provide financial support and protection to their clients in exchange for loyalty and political support, creating an uneven power dynamic.
Inadequate redistribution of wealth: The Roman government failed to implement effective policies to redistribute wealth, further exacerbating the inequality. The lack of measures to address the growing wealth gap contributed to the deteriorating social fabric of the empire.

Unveiling the Roman Empire’s Social Decay: The Corrosion of Integrity

In addition to the rising inequality, corruption played a significant role in the social decay of the Roman Empire. Corruption infiltrated various facets of society, weakening the integrity of the empire and contributing to its eventual downfall.

Government corruption: The Roman government became riddled with corruption, with officials using their positions for personal gain rather than serving the best interests of the empire. Bribery, embezzlement, and nepotism became increasingly prevalent, undermining the effectiveness and legitimacy of the government.
Judicial corruption: The judicial system of the Roman Empire was also plagued by corruption. Judges were often bribed or influenced by the elites, resulting in biased rulings and a lack of justice. This erosion of trust in the judiciary further deteriorated the social fabric.
Military corruption: Corruption permeated the Roman military, with officers engaging in bribery, embezzlement, and favoritism. This compromised the efficiency and effectiveness of the military, making the empire vulnerable to external threats.
Moral decay: The Roman Empire witnessed a decline in moral values and ethics. The pursuit of personal gain and pleasure became widespread, leading to a disregard for societal norms and responsibilities. This moral decay further fueled corruption and undermined social cohesion.
Lack of accountability: The absence of effective mechanisms to hold individuals accountable for their actions allowed corruption to flourish. Without consequences for corrupt behavior, the cycle of corruption continued unabated, contributing to the social decay of the empire.

The Roman Empire’s social decay, characterized by rising inequality and corruption, played a significant role in its downfall. The widening wealth gap and economic exploitation created deep divisions within society, while corruption corroded the integrity of the government, judiciary, and military. These factors weakened the empire from within, leaving it vulnerable to external pressures. By examining these aspects of social decay, we can learn valuable lessons about the importance of addressing inequality and corruption in maintaining the stability and longevity of any civilization.

Military Weakness: The Deterioration of Roman Forces

The decline in the strength and effectiveness of the Roman military was a significant factor in the empire’s fall. During its early years, the Roman army was renowned for its discipline, organization, and superior tactics. However, as the empire expanded, maintaining a large army became increasingly challenging. The recruitment of soldiers from conquered territories led to a decline in training standards, loyalty, and overall military effectiveness. Furthermore, the military’s loyalty began to shift towards individual generals, further destabilizing the empire.

Rise of Christianity: Impact on Traditional Roman Values

The rise of Christianity had a profound impact on traditional Roman values, ultimately contributing to the fall of the empire. Initially viewed as a threat, Christianity gained popularity among the lower classes and slaves due to its promises of salvation and equality. As its influence grew, it challenged the authority and legitimacy of the traditional Roman religion and values. This led to further social unrest and divisions within the empire, weakening its unity and collective identity.

Administrative Problems: Inefficiency and Bureaucracy

The Roman Empire suffered from various administrative problems that hindered its ability to govern effectively. Over time, the bureaucracy became bloated and inefficient, burdened by corruption and red tape. Decision-making processes were often delayed or compromised, leading to ineffective governance and the misallocation of resources. Additionally, the empire’s vast size made it increasingly challenging to maintain control and enforce laws, leading to a breakdown in the rule of law and further contributing to its decline.

Overexpansion: Straining the Empire’s Resources

One of the most significant factors in the fall of the Roman Empire was its overexpansion. The empire’s rapid expansion placed immense strain on its resources, both financial and military. Conquering and maintaining control over vast territories required a considerable amount of resources, stretching the empire’s limits. This overextension eventually led to overtaxation, the depletion of resources, and the inability to effectively defend its borders against external threats.

Cultural Decline: Loss of Roman Identity and Values

The decline of Roman culture and values played a crucial role in the fall of the empire. As the empire expanded, it absorbed diverse cultures and traditions. While this enriched Roman society, it also led to a dilution of traditional Roman values and identity. The growing influence of foreign cultures eroded the sense of shared identity and loyalty to the empire. Furthermore, the loss of traditional Roman virtues, such as discipline, loyalty, and civic duty, further weakened the fabric of the empire.

Plague and Disease: Devastating Effects on the Population

Plague and disease had a devastating effect on the population of the Roman Empire. Outbreaks of diseases, such as the Antonine Plague in the 2nd century and the Plague of Cyprian in the 3rd century, caused high mortality rates and economic disruption. These epidemics severely weakened the population and further strained the empire’s already struggling economy and military. The loss of a significant portion of the population had long-term consequences for the empire’s ability to maintain its power and stability.

Decline of Morale: Loss of Faith in the Empire’s Future

The decline of morale among the Roman population was a final blow to the empire’s stability. As the empire faced numerous challenges, including external invasions and internal unrest, the people began to lose faith in the empire’s ability to secure their future. The lack of effective leadership, economic crisis, and deteriorating living conditions eroded the optimism and loyalty of the population. This loss of morale further contributed to the disintegration of the empire, as people turned to local authorities and alternative power structures for stability and security.

The fall of the Roman Empire was a complex and multifaceted process influenced by a combination of internal and external factors. Political instability, economic crisis, barbarian invasions, social decay, military weakness, the rise of Christianity, administrative problems, overexpansion, cultural decline, plague and disease, and decline of morale all played significant roles in the empire’s ultimate collapse. By examining these factors, we can gain a deeper understanding of the challenges faced by one of the most powerful empires in history and the lessons it offers for future civilizations.

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The Fall of Rome: Understanding The Causes and Consequences

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Published: Sep 7, 2023

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Internal factors: the empire's achilles' heel, external pressures: invaders at the gates, consequences of the fall: shaping subsequent history.

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The Fall of the Roman Empire: Understanding its Causes and Consequences

Share share tweetoverview introduction to the roman empire the roman empire was one of the most powerful and influential civilizations in history. spanning over a thousand years, from 27 bc to 476 ad, it encompassed vast territories and had a profound impact on the development of western civilization. the empire was characterized by its strong […].

by Andrei Tapalaga | Nov 10, 2023 | Culture

Introduction to the Roman Empire

The Roman Empire was one of the most powerful and influential civilizations in history. Spanning over a thousand years, from 27 BC to 476 AD, it encompassed vast territories and had a profound impact on the development of Western civilization. The empire was characterized by its strong military, advanced infrastructure, and sophisticated governance system. It was during this time that important works of literature , such as the book by Adam Miller , were produced, shaping the cultural and intellectual landscape of the empire.

The Rise and Expansion of the Roman Empire

The rise and expansion of the Roman Empire marked a significant period of growth and dominance in ancient history. Starting as a small city-state in Italy, Rome gradually extended its influence through military conquests and strategic alliances. Ambitious emperors like Julius Caesar and Augustus played pivotal roles in expanding the empire’s borders and consolidating power. Through a combination of military strength, political cunning, and effective governance, Rome established itself as a formidable force in the Mediterranean region. The empire’s expansion brought numerous benefits, including economic prosperity, cultural exchange, and technological advancements. Roman engineering marvels such as aqueducts, roads, and architectural wonders still stand as testaments to the empire’s grandeur and ingenuity. However, the rapid expansion also posed challenges and set the stage for future problems that would contribute to the eventual fall of the Roman Empire .

The Peak of the Roman Empire

At its peak, the Roman Empire was an awe-inspiring civilization that stretched across vast territories, encompassing diverse cultures and peoples. With a strong centralized government and a highly efficient bureaucracy, the empire was able to maintain control over its vast territories. The Roman military, renowned for its discipline and tactical prowess, ensured the empire’s dominance and security. The empire’s economy flourished, fueled by extensive trade networks and agricultural productivity. The cities of Rome and Constantinople stood as shining examples of urban development and grandeur. The Roman Empire’s peak was characterized by political stability , economic prosperity, and cultural achievements. However, beneath this facade of strength and grandeur, there were underlying issues that would eventually contribute to its downfall.

Political Causes

Corruption and Political Instability

Corruption and political instability were major factors that contributed to the fall of the Roman Empire. Corruption permeated all levels of government, from the highest officials to the lowest bureaucrats. Political instability was rampant, with frequent changes in leadership and power struggles. This created a sense of uncertainty and lack of trust in the government, leading to a breakdown in the social fabric of Roman society. The constant thinking hard required to navigate the complex political landscape took a toll on the efficiency and effectiveness of the government, making it difficult to address the many challenges facing the empire.

Ineffective Leadership and Succession Crisis

One of the major political causes of the fall of the Roman Empire was the ineffective leadership and succession crisis that plagued the empire. As the empire expanded, the task of governing such a vast territory became increasingly challenging. The emperors who came to power often lacked the necessary skills and experience to effectively rule. This led to a deterioration of modern concrete and a decline in the empire’s ability to maintain control over its territories. Additionally, the issue of succession became a recurring problem, as emperors struggled to secure a smooth transition of power. This instability weakened the empire and made it vulnerable to external threats.

Military Overextension and Decline in Discipline

One of the key political causes that contributed to the fall of the Roman Empire was military overextension and a decline in discipline within the military. As the empire expanded, the Roman army was stretched thin, with troops stationed in far-flung regions to maintain control and defend against external threats. This led to a strain on resources, as the empire struggled to supply and support its vast military presence. Additionally, the prolonged military campaigns and constant warfare resulted in a decline in discipline among the soldiers. The soldiers became more focused on personal gain and looting rather than upholding the values and discipline that had once made the Roman army formidable. This lack of discipline weakened the military’s effectiveness and made it vulnerable to attacks from external enemies. Furthermore, the excessive military expansion also led to a drain on the economy, as resources were diverted towards maintaining the army rather than investing in infrastructure and development. Ultimately, the combination of military overextension and decline in discipline contributed to the weakening and eventual collapse of the Roman Empire.

Economic Causes

Inflation and Devaluation of Currency

Inflation and devaluation of currency were significant economic causes that contributed to the fall of the Roman Empire. Inflation refers to the sustained increase in the general price level of goods and services, resulting in a decrease in the purchasing power of money. During the later years of the empire, the Roman government faced severe financial difficulties, leading to the debasement of the currency. This involved reducing the amount of precious metal in coins, which resulted in their decreased value. As a consequence, people lost trust in the currency, causing a decline in trade and economic activity. Moreover, the devaluation of currency led to economic inequality , as the wealthy could afford to hoard gold and silver, while the poor struggled to meet their basic needs. The decline in the value of money also affected the military, as soldiers were paid in debased currency, leading to a decline in discipline and morale. The combination of inflation and devaluation of currency had a detrimental impact on the Roman economy, contributing to its ultimate downfall.

Excessive Taxation and Economic Inequality

Excessive taxation and economic inequality were significant economic causes of the fall of the Roman Empire. The Roman government heavily relied on taxation to fund its expansive military and bureaucratic apparatus. However, the burden of taxation fell disproportionately on the lower classes, exacerbating economic inequality and widening the gap between the rich and the poor. Excessive taxation not only stifled economic growth but also led to widespread resentment among the population. The wealthy elite, on the other hand, often enjoyed tax exemptions and privileges, further exacerbating the economic divide. This unequal distribution of wealth and resources contributed to social unrest and instability within the empire. Additionally, the decline in trade and agricultural productivity further weakened the Roman economy , as the empire struggled to meet the demands of its growing population. The combination of excessive taxation, economic inequality, and declining economic productivity ultimately undermined the stability and prosperity of the Roman Empire.

Decline in Trade and Agricultural Productivity

The decline in trade and agricultural productivity played a significant role in the fall of the Roman Empire. Trade , which was once a thriving aspect of the empire, began to decline due to various factors. The inflation and devaluation of currency made trade less profitable, discouraging merchants from engaging in commercial activities. Additionally, the excessive taxation imposed by the empire put a strain on the economy, further hampering trade. Moreover, the empire’s decline in agricultural productivity had a severe impact on its overall stability. The once fertile lands of the empire faced overexploitation and environmental degradation , leading to a decrease in agricultural output. This, in turn, resulted in food shortages and rising prices , exacerbating the economic crisis. The decline in trade and agricultural productivity weakened the empire’s economic foundation, making it vulnerable to external pressures and internal conflicts.

Social and Cultural Causes

Barbarian Invasions and Loss of Roman Identity

The Barbarian invasions played a significant role in the fall of the Roman Empire. These invasions, led by various Germanic tribes such as the Visigoths, Vandals, and Ostrogoths, put immense pressure on the already weakened Roman military. The loss of Roman identity was also a consequence of these invasions, as the Roman Empire struggled to maintain its cultural and social cohesion in the face of external threats. The invading tribes brought with them their own languages, customs, and traditions, which gradually eroded the Roman way of life. Additionally, the weakening of the Roman military due to continuous conflicts with the barbarians further contributed to the loss of Roman identity. The Romans, once known for their military might and discipline, were now facing defeat at the hands of the barbarian invaders. This loss of military prowess not only weakened the empire’s defense but also shattered the confidence and pride of the Roman people. As a result, the sense of unity and loyalty towards the Roman Empire began to crumble, ultimately leading to its downfall.

Decline in Morality and Values

The decline in morality and values was a significant factor contributing to the fall of the Roman Empire . As the empire expanded and became more diverse, the traditional Roman virtues of discipline, loyalty, and honor began to erode. Corruption became rampant, with officials and politicians using their positions for personal gain rather than serving the best interests of the empire. Decadence and excessive indulgence became prevalent among the ruling elite, leading to a loss of focus on the well-being of the empire and its people. The erosion of moral values also manifested in the decline of the patriarchal family structure, with an increase in divorce rates and a decrease in the importance placed on marriage and family. Additionally, the spread of Christianity challenged traditional Roman religious beliefs and practices, further contributing to the moral and cultural decline. The loss of moral compass and the erosion of traditional values weakened the social fabric of the empire, making it more vulnerable to external threats and internal conflicts.

Christianity and the Transformation of Roman Society

The rise of Christianity had a profound impact on Roman society and played a significant role in the transformation and eventual fall of the Roman Empire. Christianity emerged as a major religious movement in the first century AD and quickly gained followers throughout the empire. The teachings of Jesus Christ and the spread of Christian beliefs challenged traditional Roman values and practices. The influence of Christianity can be seen in various aspects of Roman society, including politics, culture, and social norms. The adoption of Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire by Emperor Constantine in the 4th century AD marked a significant turning point in the history of the empire. This decision not only solidified the influence of Christianity but also led to the rise of the Byzantine Empire , which would continue the legacy of the Roman Empire in the Eastern Mediterranean for centuries to come .

Legacy of the Fall of the Roman Empire

The fall of the Roman Empire left a profound and lasting impact on the world. Politically , it marked the end of one of the most powerful and influential empires in history, leading to a power vacuum that would shape the course of European history for centuries to come. Economically , the collapse of the Roman Empire resulted in widespread economic turmoil, with inflation and devaluation of currency causing severe economic instability. Socially and culturally , the fall of the empire led to a decline in Roman identity and a loss of unity, as barbarian invasions and the spread of Christianity transformed the social fabric of the region. The legacy of the fall of the Roman Empire serves as a cautionary tale, highlighting the dangers of corruption, ineffective leadership, and overextension. It also emphasizes the importance of maintaining strong institutions, fostering economic stability, and preserving cultural identity. The lessons learned from the decline and fall of the Roman Empire continue to be relevant in modern times, reminding us of the fragility of empires and the need for vigilance in maintaining a stable and prosperous society.

Lessons Learned from the Decline and Fall

The decline and fall of the Roman Empire offers valuable lessons for societies throughout history. One of the key lessons is the importance of effective leadership and stable governance . The Roman Empire suffered from corruption, political instability, and ineffective leadership, which weakened the empire and ultimately led to its downfall. Another lesson is the danger of overextension and military decline . The Roman Empire expanded its territories to an unsustainable extent, leading to a strain on resources and a decline in military discipline. Additionally, the economic causes of the empire’s fall, such as inflation , excessive taxation , and decline in trade , highlight the need for balanced economic policies and fair distribution of wealth . Lastly, the social and cultural causes, including the loss of Roman identity and the transformation of society by Christianity , emphasize the importance of cultural cohesion and preservation of core values . Overall, the fall of the Roman Empire serves as a cautionary tale, reminding us of the consequences of neglecting these crucial aspects of society.

Relevance of the Roman Empire’s Fall in Modern Times

The fall of the Roman Empire continues to hold significant relevance in modern times. It serves as a cautionary tale, highlighting the potential consequences of political, economic, and social instability. One of the key lessons to be learned is the detrimental impact of corruption and ineffective leadership on the stability and longevity of a nation. The Roman Empire’s decline was exacerbated by widespread corruption within the government, leading to a loss of trust and support from the people. Additionally, the empire’s economic troubles, including inflation, excessive taxation, and economic inequality, mirror many of the challenges faced by modern societies. These issues can erode social cohesion and create divisions within a nation. Furthermore, the fall of the Roman Empire was also influenced by cultural and societal changes, such as the influx of barbarian invasions and the transformation brought about by Christianity. These factors remind us of the importance of maintaining a strong national identity and upholding core values. Homosexuality blamed for fall Roman Empire . This controversial theory suggests that the acceptance and prevalence of homosexuality in Roman society contributed to its downfall . While this theory has been widely discredited by historians, it serves as a reminder of the dangers of scapegoating and blaming specific groups for societal problems. Overall, the fall of the Roman Empire serves as a reminder of the fragility of civilizations and the need for constant vigilance to prevent the repetition of history’s mistakes.

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The Fall of the Roman Empire

Rome was not built in one day; so too, the mighty Roman Empire did not fall in a day – it covered hundreds of years. Why did Rome fall? Just like the human body is inevitably subject to growth, decay, and death it is the same with nations. History is replete with such examples without a single exception. The fall of an empire or nation is a natural phenomenon. The other causes are incidental like the disease that brings about the death of a human body.

One of the causes of the fall of Rome was the Barbarian invasions – they marched through the very roads Rome had built to reach and subjugate them. But Rome since the time of Augustus had been battling the German tribes. Why should they suddenly overpower Rome in the 6 th century? The barbarian invasions during the 3 rd and 4 th centuries were far fiercer but they were pushed back leaving behind scant traces of their marauding. The fact is that the Barbarians were no match to the Roman army. Thus it can be said that the Barbarians won in the 6 th century not because of their superior strength but because of the weakness of the Romans 1 .

The second cause is the decay in the structure of Roman society. Three distinct tribes divided into ten clans each made up Roman society in the early stages. This tribal character continued during the days of the Republic. The system allowed for stability and self-government. Self-government entails self-discipline by subordinating self-interest for the welfare of the family and then of the society as a whole. Without discipline self-government is impossible.

Originally the plebeians were not part of the government because they did not belong to the tribes that originated in Rome; neither could they take part in the religion of the state that comprised of family gods. The king was a sort of high priest. This led to the voluntary exile of the plebeians for a short time to the Sacred Mountain because “ no hereditary religion attaches us to this sit ” 2 . But later after many years of struggle, they became part of the Roman administration but at the cost of Rome no longer being tribal-based. It became more wealth-based.

Things took a turn for the worse with Rome following expansionist policies. Foreign influence gnawed into Roman society. When Sulla conquered Greece it was followed by a reverse invasion of Greek literature, philosophy, and manners. But Greece of those days had become degenerate. More destructive was the influence from the east – the Babylonian, Assyrian and Persian Empires with their proletariat demoralized culture that attracted the urban elite of Rome.

The third vital cause was the change in the Roman army too had changed. The conquests led to Rome setting up garrisons in distant places where the soldiers were posted for many years. Consequently, they forgot their loyalties towards Rome and directed it more towards the local garrison commander 3 .

At home, the army became degenerate with the introduction of public games. The worst damage was done to slavery that swelled into an institution. Roman administration could not manage the slaves it took in. Society became dependent on slaves. The administration became too much occupied with huge bands of slaves, extremely dissatisfied, living in squalid conditions. Corn came to be freely distributed leading to transforming the self-respecting working class into beggars. The land came to be neglected and the condition of the soil worsened. Farmers were overtaxed while others were overindulged. The granaries of Rome became the deserts of Africa today.

Bibliography

Bowersock, David. 1996. “The Vanishing Paradigm of the Fall of Rome.” Bulletin of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 49: 31-42.
Ferrill, Arther. 2009. The Fall of the Roman Empire: The Military Explanation . New York: Thames and Hudson Ltd.
Tainter, Joseph. 1988. The Collapse of Complex Societies . NY: Princeton Uni Press.

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Reasons for the Fall of Rome

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Varro , a Republican Roman antiquarian, dated the founding of Rome to the 21st of April 753 B.C. While canonical, the date is most likely wrong. The fall of Rome also has a traditional date -- about a millennium later, on September 4, A.D. 476, a date established by the historian Edward Gibbon. This date is a matter of opinion, for it was on this date that the last Roman emperor to rule the western Roman Empire -- a usurper, but only the last of many -- was kicked out of office. The Sack of Rome by the Goths on August 24, A.D. 410 is also popular as a date for Rome's fall. Some say the Roman Empire never fell. But assuming it did fall, why did it fall?

There are adherents to single factors, but more people think Rome fell because of a combination of such factors as Christianity, decadence, and military problems. Even the rise of Islam is proposed as the reason for Rome's fall, by some who think the Fall of Rome happened at Constantinople in the 15th Century. Here I am writing about a roughly fifth century fall of Rome (or the western division of the Roman Empire).

Why do you think Rome fell?

Christianity

When the Roman Empire started, there was no such religion as Christianity, although by the time of the second emperor, Jesus had been executed for treasonous behavior. It took his followers a few centuries to gain enough clout that they were able to win over imperial support. This came in the early 4th century, with Constantine , who was actively involved in Christian policy-making. Over time, Church leaders became influential and took power away from the emperor; for example, the threat of withholding the sacraments compelled Emperor Theodosius to do the penance Bishop Ambrose required. Since Roman civic and religious life were the same -- priestesses controlled the fortune of Rome, prophetic books told leaders what they needed to win wars, emperors were deified, Christian religious beliefs and allegiances conflicted with the working of empire.

Barbarians and Vandals

Rome embraced the barbarians, a term covering a variety and changing group of outsiders, using them as suppliers of tax revenue and bodies for the military, even promoting them to positions of power, but Rome also lost territory and revenue to them, especially in northern Africa, which Rome lost to the Vandals at the time St. Augustine.

One can spot decay in many areas, going back to the crises of the Republic under the Gracchi , Sulla and Marius, but in the imperial period and in the military, it meant men were no longer trained right and the invincible Roman army was no longer, and there was corruption throughout.

Right now, the price of an ounce of gold is $1535.17/ounce (EUR 1035.25). If you bought what you thought was an ounce of gold and took it to an appraiser who told you it was worth only $30, you'd be upset and probably take action against the gold seller, but if your government issued money that was inflated to that degree you would no more have recourse than you'd have the money to buy necessities. That was what inflation was like in the century before Constantine. By the time of Claudius II Gothicus (268-270 A.D.) the amount of silver in a supposedly 100% silver denarius was only .02%.

The presence of lead in the drinking water leached in from the water pipes, glazes on containers that came in contact with food and beverages, and food preparation techniques could have contributed to heavy metal poisoning. It was also absorbed through the pores since it was used in cosmetics. Lead, associated with contraception, was recognized as a deadly poison.

Economic factors are cited as a major cause of the fall of Rome. Some of the major factors, like inflation, are discussed elsewhere. But there were also lesser problems with the economy of Rome that combined together to escalate financial stress. These include:

Poor management
The dole (bread and circuses)

Division of the Empire

The Roman Empire was split not just geographically, but culturally, with a Latin Empire and a Greek one, the latter of which may have survived because it had most of the population, a better military, more money, and more effective leadership.

Hoarding and Deficit

Causes of the fall of Rome include economic decay through hoarding of bullion, barbarian looting of the treasury, and trade deficit.

Want Even More?

The University of Texas has re-posted a German list ranging from the puzzling (like "useless eaters") to the obvious (like "stress") with a bunch of good ones in between (including "Nationalism of Rome's subjects" and "Lack of orderly imperial succession": "210 Reasons for the decline of the Roman Empire." Source: A. Demandt, Der Fall Roms (1984)

Do read the 21st century books The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians , by Peter Heather and The Fall of Rome and the End of Civilization , by Bryan Ward-Perkins, which are summarized, reviewed and compared in the following review article:

"The Return of the Fall of Rome The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians by Peter Heather; The Fall of Rome and the End of Civilization by Bryan Ward-Perkins," Review by: Jeanne Rutenburg and Arthur M. Eckstein The International History Review , Vol. 29, No. 1 (Mar., 2007), pp. 109-122.

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Selected Books on Roman History
Timeline of the Period of the Dominate
The First and Second Triumvirates of Rome
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Primary Sources of Roman History
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OCTOBER, 1955. THE DECLINE AND FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE1. There are few questions in history that have aroused. sustained controversy than the causes of the fall of the Roman. Empire. The debate began when the sack of Rome by Alaric. first revealed the empire's weakness, and it is still going today.

8 Reasons Why Rome Fell

1. Invasions by Barbarian tribes

2. Economic troubles and overreliance on slave labor

3. The rise of the Eastern Empire

How Far Did Ancient Rome Spread?

5 Ways Christianity Spread Through Ancient Rome

6 Civil Wars that Transformed Ancient Rome

4. Overexpansion and military overspending

5. Government corruption and political instability

6. The arrival of the Huns and the migration of the Barbarian tribes

7. Christianity and the loss of traditional values

8. Weakening of the Roman legions

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Fall of the Roman Empire: Year, Internal & External Causes

The Fall of the Roman Empire: Internal and External Causes

1. Invasions by Barbarians

2. Financial Problems

3. The Division of the Roman Empire into East and West

4. Political Corruption and Instability

5. The Huns Press On from the East

What Was the Cause of the Fall of the Roman Empire?

Year of the Fall of the Roman Empire

What Was the Situation Like in Europe After the Fall of the Roman Empire?

The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire

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Fall of the Western Roman Empire

External Causes

Internal Causes

A Divided Empire

The Goth Invasion

An Enemy from Within: Alaric

Barbarian Invasions

Conclusion: Multiple Factors

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