literature review on online education

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How to Write a Review That Stands Out: A Guide for English Learners

Writing an online review is a powerful way to share your experiences and help others make informed decisions.

This guide will help you understand how to write clear and effective reviews that offer valuable insights and help potential customers make decisions.

Things to consider before writing a review

What are you trying to achieve.

Before you start writing, think about what you want to achieve with your review. Are you trying to share a positive or negative experience? Do you want to provide valuable insights to help others? Do you just want to express your feelings?

Your review can influence a business’s online reputation and guide other customers, so be clear about your goal to make sure your review is helpful and effective.

How to format your review

Formatting your review properly is important to make sure it’s clear and easy to read. Start with a brief introduction that summarises your experience. Then, provide specific details about what you liked or didn’t like.

Use paragraphs to separate different points and make sure to proofread your review for any spelling or grammar mistakes. A well-formatted review shows your attention to detail and makes a stronger impact.

Consider your audience

Think about who will be reading your review. Are you addressing the company to provide feedback, or are you writing for other customers to help them make informed decisions?

Shape your language and specific details to suit your audience. For example, if you’re writing a review for other customers to read, focus on how the product or service met your needs and why you would highly recommend it (or not).

If you’re addressing the company, be sure to provide constructive feedback that could lead to improvements.

Types of reviews and how to write them

How to write a book review.

When writing a book review, include specific details about the plot, characters, and writing style. Mention what you liked or disliked and why. Your insights can have a significant impact on other readers.

Book review example sentences:

• “The author’s descriptive writing made the scenes come alive.”
• “I didn’t enjoy the book because it was slow and uneventful.”
• “The plot was engaging and full of unexpected twists, keeping me on the edge of my seat throughout the entire story.”

How to write a movie review

A good movie review should talk about the story, acting, and direction. Share your positive or negative thoughts and provide details. This helps others decide if they want to watch the movie.

Movie review example sentences:

• “The actors delivered outstanding performances.”
• “The direction was sloppy and uninspired, lacking any clear vision or creativity, which made the movie difficult to follow and unenjoyable to watch.”
• “The story was captivating from start to finish.”

How to write a product review

In a product review, describe how the product or service worked for you. Mention any customer service experiences. Be honest and include both pros and cons to give a balanced view. Good reviews are clear and helpful.

Product review example sentences:

• “The product worked perfectly and exceeded my expectations.”
• “I had a terrible experience with customer service, they were very unhelpful.”
• “I would not recommend this product to anyone; it broke after being used once.”

How to write a restaurant review

For a restaurant review, talk about the food, service, and atmosphere. Would you highly recommend the food? How was the customer service from the wait staff? Your review can help guide others looking for a great dining experience.

Restaurant review example sentences:

• “The food was delicious and beautifully presented.”
• “The service was slow and unprofessional.”
• “The atmosphere was noisy and uncomfortable; I would not eat here again.”

How to write a travel review

When writing a travel review, include specific details about the location, accommodation, and activities. Mention what you enjoyed and what could be improved. This helps others plan their trips better.

Travel review example sentences:

• “There were plenty of fun activities to do, and all within walking distance.”
• “I highly recommend this beautiful destination to other travellers.”
• “The hotel was hard to find, with poor signage and confusing directions, and once we finally arrived, it was not worth the effort due to its outdated facilities.”

How to write a customer service review

A customer service review should focus on the quality of service you received. Did the staff respond to your needs? Were they helpful? Customer reviews that highlight good or bad service can influence a company’s online reputation.

Customer service review example sentences:

• “The staff responded quickly and resolved my issue.”
• “Everyone was friendly and went above and beyond to make sure we had a good time.”
• “I’m very disappointed with the service. The staff were unresponsive, and my issue was not resolved despite multiple attempts to get help.”

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The 100 Best Books of the 21st Century: A Printable List

By The New York Times Books Staff Aug. 26, 2024

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The New York Times Book Review I've I want THE 100 BEST BOOKS OF THE 21ST CENTURY read to it read it 1 My Brilliant Friend, by Elena Ferrante 26 26 Atonement, by lan McEwan 2 The Warmth of Other Suns, by Isabel Wilkerson 27 Americanah, by Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie 3 Wolf Hall, by Hilary Mantel 28 Cloud Atlas, by David Mitchell 4 The Known World, by Edward P. Jones 29 The Last Samurai, by Helen DeWitt 5 The Corrections, by Jonathan Franzen 30 Sing, Unburied, Sing, by Jesmyn Ward 6 2666, by Roberto Bolaño 31 White Teeth, by Zadie Smith 7 The Underground Railroad, by Colson Whitehead 32 The Line of Beauty, by Alan Hollinghurst 8 Austerlitz, by W.G. Sebald 33 Salvage the Bones, by Jesmyn Ward 9 Never Let Me Go, by Kazuo Ishiguro 34 Citizen, by Claudia Rankine 10 Gilead, by Marilynne Robinson 35 Fun Home, by Alison Bechdel 11 The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao, by Junot Díaz 36 Between the World and Me, by Ta-Nehisi Coates 12 The Year of Magical Thinking, by Joan Didion 37 The Years, by Annie Ernaux 13 The Road, by Cormac McCarthy 38 The Savage Detectives, by Roberto Bolaño 14 Outline, by Rachel Cusk 39 A Visit From the Goon Squad, by Jennifer Egan 15 Pachinko, by Min Jin Lee 40 H Is for Hawk, by Helen Macdonald 16 The Amazing Adventures of Kavalier & Clay, by Michael Chabon 41 Small Things Like These, by Claire Keegan 17 The Sellout, by Paul Beatty 42 A Brief History of Seven Killings, by Marlon James 18 Lincoln in the Bardo, by George Saunders 43 Postwar, by Tony Judt 19 Say Nothing, by Patrick Radden Keefe 44 The Fifth Season, by N.K. Jemisin 20 Erasure, by Percival Everrett 45 The Argonauts, by Maggie Nelson 21 Evicted, by Matthew Desmond 46 The Goldfinch, by Donna Tartt 22 22 Behind the Beautiful Forevers, by Katherine Boo 47 A Mercy, by Toni Morrison 23 Hateship, Friendship, Courtship, Loveship, Marriage, by Alice Munro 48 Persepolis, by Marjane Satrapi 24 The Overstory, by Richard Powers 49 The Vegetarian, by Han Kang 25 25 Random Family, by Adrian Nicole LeBlanc 50 Trust, by Hernan Diaz I've I want read to it read it

The New York Times Book Review I've I want THE 100 BEST BOOKS OF THE 21ST CENTURY read to it read it 51 Life After Life, by Kate Atkinson 52 52 Train Dreams, by Denis Johnson 53 Runaway, by Alice Munro 76 77 An American Marriage, by Tayari Jones 78 Septology, by Jon Fosse Tomorrow, and Tomorrow, and Tomorrow, by Gabrielle Zevin 54 Tenth of December, by George Saunders 55 The Looming Tower, by Lawrence Wright 56 The Flamethrowers, by Rachel Kushner 57 Nickel and Dimed, by Barbara Ehrenreich ཤྲཱ རྒྱ སྐྱ A Manual for Cleaning Women, by Lucia Berlin The Story of the Lost Child, by Elena Ferrante Pulphead, by John Jeremiah Sullivan. Hurricane Season, by Fernanda Melchor 58 Stay True, by Hua Hsu 83 When We Cease to Understand the World, by Benjamín Labatut 59 Middlesex, by Jeffrey Eugenides 84 The Emperor of All Maladies, by Siddhartha Mukherjee 60 Heavy, by Kiese Laymon 85 Pastoralia, by George Saunders 61 Demon Copperhead, by Barbara Kingsolver 86 Frederick Douglass, by David W. Blight 62 10:04, by Ben Lerner 87 Detransition, Baby, by Torrey Peters 63 Veronica, by Mary Gaitskill 88 The Collected Stories of Lydia Davis 64 The Great Believers, by Rebecca Makkai 89 The Return, by Hisham Matar 65 The Plot Against America, by Philip Roth 90 The Sympathizer, by Viet Thanh Nguyen 66 We the Animals, by Justin Torres 91 The Human Stain, by Philip Roth 67 Far From the Tree, by Andrew Solomon 92 The Days of Abandonment, by Elena Ferrante 68 The Friend, by Sigrid Nunez 93 Station Eleven, by Emily St. John Mandel 69 59 The New Jim Crow, by Michelle Alexander 94 On Beauty, by Zadie Smith 10 70 All Aunt Hagar's Children, by Edward P. Jones 95 Bring Up the Bodies, by Hilary Mantel 71 The Copenhagen Trilogy, by Tove Ditlevsen 96 Wayward Lives, Beautiful Experiments, by Saidiya Hartman 72 22 Secondhand Time, by Svetlana Alexievich 97 Men We Reaped, by Jesmyn Ward 73 The Passage of Power, by Robert A. Caro 98 Bel Canto, by Ann Patchett 74 Olive Kitteridge, by Elizabeth Strout 99 How to Be Both, by Ali Smith 75 15 Exit West, by Mohsin Hamid 100 Tree of Smoke, by Denis Johnson I've I want read to it read it

Blog The Education Hub

https://educationhub.blog.gov.uk/2024/08/20/gcse-results-day-2024-number-grading-system/

GCSE results day 2024: Everything you need to know including the number grading system

Thousands of students across the country will soon be finding out their GCSE results and thinking about the next steps in their education.   

Here we explain everything you need to know about the big day, from when results day is, to the current 9-1 grading scale, to what your options are if your results aren’t what you’re expecting.  

When is GCSE results day 2024?  

GCSE results day will be taking place on Thursday the 22 August.     

The results will be made available to schools on Wednesday and available to pick up from your school by 8am on Thursday morning.  

Schools will issue their own instructions on how and when to collect your results.   

When did we change to a number grading scale?  

The shift to the numerical grading system was introduced in England in 2017 firstly in English language, English literature, and maths.  

By 2020 all subjects were shifted to number grades. This means anyone with GCSE results from 2017-2020 will have a combination of both letters and numbers.  

The numerical grading system was to signal more challenging GCSEs and to better differentiate between students’ abilities - particularly at higher grades between the A *-C grades. There only used to be 4 grades between A* and C, now with the numerical grading scale there are 6.  

What do the number grades mean?  

The grades are ranked from 1, the lowest, to 9, the highest.  

The grades don’t exactly translate, but the two grading scales meet at three points as illustrated below.  

The bottom of grade 7 is aligned with the bottom of grade A, while the bottom of grade 4 is aligned to the bottom of grade C.    

Meanwhile, the bottom of grade 1 is aligned to the bottom of grade G.  

What to do if your results weren’t what you were expecting?  

If your results weren’t what you were expecting, firstly don’t panic. You have options.  

First things first, speak to your school or college – they could be flexible on entry requirements if you’ve just missed your grades.   

They’ll also be able to give you the best tailored advice on whether re-sitting while studying for your next qualifications is a possibility.   

If you’re really unhappy with your results you can enter to resit all GCSE subjects in summer 2025. You can also take autumn exams in GCSE English language and maths.  

Speak to your sixth form or college to decide when it’s the best time for you to resit a GCSE exam.  

Look for other courses with different grade requirements     

Entry requirements vary depending on the college and course. Ask your school for advice, and call your college or another one in your area to see if there’s a space on a course you’re interested in.    

Consider an apprenticeship    

Apprenticeships combine a practical training job with study too. They’re open to you if you’re 16 or over, living in England, and not in full time education.  

As an apprentice you’ll be a paid employee, have the opportunity to work alongside experienced staff, gain job-specific skills, and get time set aside for training and study related to your role.   

You can find out more about how to apply here .  

Talk to a National Careers Service (NCS) adviser    

The National Career Service is a free resource that can help you with your career planning. Give them a call to discuss potential routes into higher education, further education, or the workplace.   

Whatever your results, if you want to find out more about all your education and training options, as well as get practical advice about your exam results, visit the  National Careers Service page  and Skills for Careers to explore your study and work choices.   

You may also be interested in:

• Results day 2024: What's next after picking up your A level, T level and VTQ results?
• When is results day 2024? GCSEs, A levels, T Levels and VTQs

Tags: GCSE grade equivalent , gcse number grades , GCSE results , gcse results day 2024 , gsce grades old and new , new gcse grades

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A literature review: efficacy of online learning courses for higher education institution using meta-analysis

• Published: 04 November 2019
• Volume 26 , pages 1367–1385, ( 2021 )

Cite this article

• Mayleen Dorcas B. Castro   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6618-6958 1 , 2 &
• Gilbert M. Tumibay 3  

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The Internet has made online learning possible, and many educators and researchers are interested in online learning courses to enhance and improve the student learning outcomes while battling the shortage in resources, facilities and equipment particularly in higher education institution. Online learning has become popular because of its potential for providing more flexible access to content and instruction at any time, from any place. It is imperative that the researchers consider, and examine the efficacy of online learning in educating students. For this study, the researchers reviewed literature through meta-analysis as the method of research concerning the use of ADDIE (Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation and Evaluation) framework for designing and developing instructional materials that can provide wider access to quality higher education. This framework can be used to list generic processes that instructional designers and training developers use (Morrison et al., 2010 ). It represents a descriptive guideline for building effective training and performance support tools in five phases, as follows: 1.) Analysis, 2.) Design, 3.) Development, 4.) Implementation, and 5.) Evaluation. The researchers collected papers relating to online learning courses efficacy studies to provide a synthesis of scientifically rigorous knowledge in online learning courses, the researchers searched on ERIC (Education Resources Information Center), ProQuest databases, PubMed, Crossref, Scribd EBSCO, and Scopus. The researchers also conducted a manual search using Google Scholar. Based on the analysis, three main themes developed: 1.) comparison of online learning and traditional face-to-face setting, 2.) identification of important factors of online learning delivery, and 3.) factors of institutional adoption of online learning. Based on the results obtained 50 articles. The researchers examine each paper and found 30 articles that met the efficacy of online learning courses through having well-planned, well-designed courses and programs for higher education institution. Also, it highlights the importance of instructional design and the active role of institutions play in providing support structures for educators and students. Identification of different processes and activities in designing and developing an Online Learning Courses for Higher Education Institution will be the second phase of this study for which the researchers will consider using the theoretical aspect of the ADDIE framework.

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Mayleen Dorcas B. Castro

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Castro, M.D.B., Tumibay, G.M. A literature review: efficacy of online learning courses for higher education institution using meta-analysis. Educ Inf Technol 26 , 1367–1385 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-019-10027-z

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Received : 16 April 2019

Accepted : 25 September 2019

Published : 04 November 2019

Issue Date : March 2021

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-019-10027-z

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Research articles

Challenges faced by adult learners in online distance education: a literature review.

• Mehmet Kara
• Fatih Erdoğdu
• Mehmet Kokoç
• Kursat Cagiltay

Although online distance education provides adult learners with an opportunity for life-long learning, there are still factors challenging them to engage in educational processes. The purpose of this study is to explore the challenges faced by adult learners in online distance education through the analysis of the relevant literature. The articles (N=36) published in the key journals in the fields of open and distance education, instructional technology, and adult education were reviewed and analyzed through constant comparative analysis in the current study. The findings reveal that adult learners have challenges related to internal, external, and program-related factors indicating the interrelated nature of these challenges. The findings also show that the challenges experienced by adult learners vary depending on their age, gender, knowledge and skills as well as the context in which they study. The findings of this study, which has an exploratory nature, have several implications for distance education stakeholders such as administrators, instructors, instructional designers, and policy makers.

• online distance education
• adult learners

Introduction

It is clearly known that distance education provides adult learners with the advantage of life-long learning due to its flexibility. Distance education is defined as the planned teaching and learning activities provided through the use of a communication channel within an institutional organization without any time and place limitations (Moore & Kearsley, 2011 , p. 2). With the widespread adoption of the Internet and online tools as the communication medium, online distance education empowered the flexibility of educational opportunities. Considering the advantages of online distance education, adults compose the largest audience for online distance education (Ke & Xie, 2009 ; Lim, 2001 ) and consequently the limits of the diversity expand in online distance education practices. Specifically, they display significant differences from traditional students in terms of their academic, psychological, and life characteristics (Richardson & King, 1998 ). Besides, their engagement in education is more irregular and varied compared with the traditional ones (McGivney, 2004 ). This variation and irregularity is due to the fact that they mostly continue their education with their work and family responsibilities. With all these in mind, adult learners’ unique characteristics cause unique challenges for them, which affect the way they continue their education or participate in online distance educational processes.

Adult Learning

Adult learners have distinct characteristics in comparison to traditional students. Firstly, they are aware of why and what they need to learn (Knowles, 1996 ). It is also known that the adult learners, who have diverse educational background and goals, want to reflect their experiences on their educational process (Lindeman, 2015 ). They are different from other learners in terms of their responsibilities in their daily lives, which influence their educational experience (Cercone, 2008 ). For this reason, there is a need for an educational environment where adult learners are allowed to determine their own educational processes; to share their ideas comfortably; and to sustain their educational process alongside their private lives. Thus, online distance education environment offers appropriate opportunities through the flexibility it provides for adult learners, who are aware of their own learning responsibilities and are required to manage their own learning processes.

In spite of the increase in the number of adult learners and consequently in the diversity of the students in online distance education, the number of the studies related to them are fewer in the literature than those studies about traditional learners (Chu & Tsai, 2009 ; Ke, 2010 ; Remedios & Richardson, 2013 ). Adult learners can be classified as young and older adults depending on their ages. However, adult learner can be defined as the ones who continue their education by balancing their family and work and are generally older than 22 (Kahu, Stephens, Leach & Zepke, 2013 ) and these characteristics makes them quite different from traditional learners. Although these differences might provide adult learners with some advantages in educational processes, they might lead to various challenges as well. As a consequence, these point out the need to plan educational environments and processes in accordance with these learners’ characteristics.

Adult Learners in Online Distance Education

Considering the learner-centered nature of all instructional design models, it is a necessity to design and implement online distance education programs that meet the needs of diverse learners including adults. This requires a sound understanding of the link between adult learners’ characteristics and the appropriateness of the online environments for their online experiences.

Learners can manage learning processes wherever and whenever they desire through the online learning environments. Additionally, adult learners have an opportunity to engage in more interaction via the tools (e.g. discussion and chat) offered by online learning environments (Kim, Liu & Bonk, 2005 ). By this way, they can develop virtual teaming skills and control their own learning processes (Kim, Liu, & Bonk, 2005 ). Interaction is also considered as a key factor in online distance education and it is a good predictor of learning (Picciano, 2002 ). Online distance education also provides an opportunity for learners to engage in individualized instruction and thus learning processes can be planned in harmony with their characteristics (Means, Toyama, Murphy, Bakia & Jones, 2009 ). Furthermore, one of the most fundamental and crucial benefits of online distance education for adults is the opportunity for life-long learning.

In addition to the advantages of distance learning mentioned above, it is known that especially adult learners face particular challenges during their online education. Computer and Internet self-efficacy of adult learners play a significant role in online learning processes (Johnson, Morwane, Dada, Pretorius & Lotriet, 2018 ). The learners who have low perception of competency in these issues or the older adult learners might have challenges in this process and this might cause learner dropout (Appana, 2008 ). The problems related to learner support might also be experienced in online distance education. It might be the case that adult learners do not have available support through the related resources and orientation programs as college students do. Therefore, they might feel isolated in their educational experience. The challenges they experienced in education might increase when they lack of adequate support from their families and workplaces. In addition, adults have multiple roles such as spouse, parent, colleague, and student, each of which means additional responsibilities and workload (Thompson & Porto, 2014 ). These challenges might affect their learning success as well as causing dropout in online distance education programs or courses (Park & Choi, 2009 ). Increasing dropout rates are considered as a crucial problem in distance adult education. One study by Choi and Kim ( 2018 ) examined meaningful factors affecting adult distance learners’ decisions to drop out. Their study found that some of the factors affected adult learners’ decisions to persist in or drop out of the online degree programs such as basic physical constraints from work, scholastic aptitude, family/personal issues, motivation for studying, academic integration, interaction, and motivation (Choi & Kim, 2018 ). In another major study, Lee, Choi and Kim ( 2013 ) found that academic locus of control and metacognitive self-regulation skills were the more important factors influencing the dropout of adult learners. Deschacht and Goeman ( 2015 ) emphasized that future studies should be focused on preventing the dropout of adult online learners. These studies showed that the external and internal challenges faced by adults increased the likelihood of adult learners’ dropout. Due to the high rates of dropout, particularly by adult learners as a result of the challenges they faced, student retention is now considered as a success factor in online distance education programs (De Paepe, Zhu & DePryck, 2018 ; Martinez, 2003 ). Thus, there is also an immense need to focus on these challenges in online distance education practices.

Former research has concentrated on what to do to improve quality and adult learners’ performance in online distance education (Johnson et al., 2018 ; Thompson & Porto, 2014 ). In the review of the literature, it is observed that the relevant studies focus on a single component of distance adult education. For this reason, it seems significant to create a framework and explore current landscape regarding the mentioned challenges for the future studies in adult distance education. Recent studies addressed that a holistic understanding of the problems and challenges faced by adults in online distance education plays a key role in building effective online learning experiences (Wang, 2011 ; De Paepe et al., 2018 ). Therefore, the purpose of this study is to investigate the challenges faced by adult learners in online distance education through the review of the related literature so as to create such a framework. Specifically, the current study strives to answer the research question: What are the identified challenges faced by adult learners at a distance in the literature?

The present study used systematic literature review procedures. The research studies in the literature reporting the challenges faced by adults were systematically reviewed and analyzed. The followed procedure was presented in the following sections.

Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

Several criteria were determined for the inclusion of the studies. The main inclusion criterion was that the reviewed studies had to be conducted in the contexts of online distance education programs offering academic degrees. Therefore, the studies about corporate trainings and Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) were excluded from the study because only the studies reporting the findings from the online distance education programs offering academic degrees were aimed to be included. Based on this main criterion, other inclusion and exclusion criteria were identified to review. Considering the developments in online distance education, the studies published since 2000 were included in this study. As another basic inclusion criterion, only the empirical journal articles were included; that is, the book reviews, literature reviews, meta-analysis studies, editorials, and conference proceedings were excluded in the current study. Furthermore, merely the articles published in peer-reviewed journals were included.

In accordance with the aim of this study, the journal articles aiming to investigate the challenges of adult learners in online distance education were included. As another criterion, the participants of the studies needed to be adult learners in that the studies either stated the ages of the participants explicitly or the participants were adult learners at a distance. The participants of the studies were accepted as adults only if they met the adult learner definition by Kahu et al. ( 2013 ). Since the focus of the current study is on reviewing the studies exploring adult learners’ challenges, only the qualitative, mixed methods, or descriptive studies were included. Additionally, it is obvious in the literature that some challenges faced by adult learners cause dropouts in online distance education programs. For this reason, the journal articles aiming to investigate the reasons for dropout behavior of adult learners were also included in the present study.

Data Collection and Analysis

The data collection started with a comprehensive search on the electronic databases and the tables of contents of the key journals publishing distance education and adult learning articles. The e-databases on which the search was conducted are Web of Science, SAGE Journals Online, Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC), Wiley Online Library, ScienceDirect, SpringerLink , and Taylor & Francis Online Journals . The search was conducted by using the keywords: distance education, adult learning/learners, challenges, obstacles, dropout, persistence , and retention .

The tables of the contents of the 36 key journals in distance education, instructional technology, adult and lifelong education were specifically reviewed. The journal articles were reviewed in terms of their aims, methods, contexts, and results. Finally, 36 journal articles included in this study were identified. The list of the journal articles reviewed in the current study are presented in Table 1 . The demographics of the participants in the reviewed articles are also presented in Table 2 .

Articles reviewed in this study

Participants in the articles reviewed in this study

The data analysis was conducted in three phases: organization of the articles, reduction of the findings in the articles through coding, and illustration of the findings via tables and a figure. The articles were firstly organized in an article database created by the researchers and were analyzed by using Constant Comparative Analysis method as suggested by Glaser ( 1965 ). Constant comparative analysis was used to compare and contrast the challenges that are encountered by adult learners at a distance reported in the studies. The challenges reported in the articles were coded and then categorized based on their similarities and differences. The analysis results were reported by comparing and contrasting the concepts and integrating the studies. The themes were created by adapting Willging and Johnson’s ( 2009 ) category of dropout reasons. They were grouped as the internal challenges directly related to the adult learners’ characteristics, the external challenges affected by the study conditions, and institutional challenges stemming from the educational organization responsible for the delivery of the instruction.

Review Procedure

Following the identification of the research studies based on the relevant literature and inclusion criteria, the abstracts and findings sections of these studies were reviewed. The abstracts were firstly reviewed to find out an indicator or clue of a challenge causing problems or dropout for adults. When an indicator or clue was not found in the abstract, the findings section was reviewed. In the findings section, it was aimed to identify whether there were findings regarding the challenges and whether these findings were related with adults. Finally, the identified findings were coded.

For the internal validity of the study, the reviewed studies and the findings were checked by a subject field expert along with the researchers and the required revisions were made, consequently. As for the external validity, the qualitative findings were analyzed according to Willging and Johnson’s ( 2009 ) category of dropout reasons of adults. As for the reliability, the data collection procedure, including the databases and keywords and data analysis, were clearly reported so that the study can be easily replicated. Figure 1 illustrates the phases of the analysis of a reviewed article and how the findings were coded.

Data Collection Procedure and Decision-Making Process

Following the procedure demonstrated in Figure 1 , 36 articles meeting the pre-determined inclusion criteria were identified and included in the current study. Diverse codes and themes were revealed through the detailed review of the abstracts and findings of these articles.

Findings and Discussion

The challenges experienced by adults were organized as themes depending on the properties of the challenges. The identified themes were internal, external, and program-related challenges.

Internal Challenges

The internal challenges include adult learners’ individual challenges related to their own characteristics. The internal challenges experienced by adult learners are classified as Management Challenges, Learning Challenges, and Technical Challenges as demonstrated in Table 3 .

Internal challenges faced by Adult Learners in Distance Education

The first sub-theme found in the literature is management challenges. In the literature there is a consensus on the fact that adult learners are different from traditional students since they have family and work responsibilities. For this reason, they need to manage their family and work while continuing their education. This requisite is reported in many of the studies in the literature as the source of a major challenge for adults; creating balance between work and family or other social responsibilities (Doherty, 2006 ; Selwyn, 2011 ; Yasmin, 2013 ). Particularly, female learners are reported as the ones who are mostly challenged by such family responsibilities as childcare and domestic works as well as their work if they are employed (Selwyn, 2011 ). Correspondingly, adult learners are required to have time management skills or appropriately structure or schedule their studies to create this balance (Calvin & Freeburg, 2010 ; Zhang & Krug, 2012 ). If they have insufficient or lack of time management skills, then this causes another challenge for them to continue their education or to successfully complete distance education program. The review regarding the internal challenges indicated that middle-aged adults (between the ages of 36 and 55) are unable to create a balance between their education and work, family, and social life. Additionally, female learners who were married and had children generally have challenge to establish balance between their family and education and they could not give adequate importance to their education, accordingly (Selwyn, 2011 ).

The second sub-theme is learning challenges. The aforementioned management challenges influence adults’ commitment to their education and less commitment to education poses one of the learning challenges for them as reported by Dumais et al. ( 2013 ). Yasmin ( 2013 ) found out that the adult learners who start to study after a long period of time have a difficulty focusing on studying. In addition to these personal challenges, some factors pertaining to distance education programs also pose learning challenges for adults when an inconsistency between the program and learners occurs. In their study, Willging and Johnson ( 2009 ) reported that lack of interest in a program or learning materials is a source of challenge for adults. Pierrakeas et al. ( 2004 ), on the other hand, indicated that learners’ inability to understand course materials and their lack of prerequisite knowledge or skills for a course might be also challenges for traditional learners. The review showed that middle-aged adults have challenges to concentrate on studying and course materials owing to their busy work life.

The final sub-theme is technical challenges especially experienced by older adults. The studies conducted with older adults reported that technology usage poses a challenge for them. For example, in his study with undergraduate students who are 50 and older, Nor ( 2011 ) reported that communication on the Internet is a challenge for adult learners. In another study with graduate adult learners who are between 50 and 65 by Erickson and Noonan ( 2010 ), it was reported that the lack of technical skills makes the instructional process challenging for learners. The same finding was also reported in the study with the students who are between 41 and 51, by Dzakiria ( 2012 ). He additionally revealed that accessing reliable information via the Internet is another challenge for adults. The review findings demonstrated that the older adults who are 50 and above unlike the young and middle-aged adults have difficulty to participate in the collaborative activities satisfactorily due to the insufficient technical skills and insufficient interaction on the internet (Nor, 2011 ; Dzakiria, 2012 ; Chang & Kang, 2016 ).

External Challenges

The external challenges include the challenges stemming from work and domestic environments or from responsibilities of adult learners as independent from their personal characteristics. The external challenges are categorized into two sub-themes as Job-related and Domestic challenges as shown in Table 4 .

External challenges faced by Adult Learners in Distance Education

Employed adults have challenges concerning their jobs. Even if they have the ability to create the balance between work and education, they could not find the needed time to meet the course or program requirements when they were overloaded with their works as reported by Dumais et al. ( 2013 ). Likewise, Willging and Johnson ( 2009 ) revealed that varying job responsibilities are also a challenge for adult learners. They also reported that when the adults had jobs that did not have a pre-determined work schedule or had financial problems, there were high rates of dropout in the distance education programs. It was observed that this challenge was faced by the employed middle-aged adults who lived in the countries with high population (e.g. USA, China, India, and Canada), and thereby who had busy work schedule. In this regard, they needed support from the organizations where they worked to meet the educational requirements. Lack of organizational support was reported as either the main source of the challenges or as a factor that made it difficult for adults to deal with these challenges in several studies (Joo, 2014 ; Park & Choi, 2009 ; Willging & Johnson, 2009 ). Due to heavy workload, lack of organizational support, schedule conflicts or, sometimes, family responsibilities –especially for female learners–, adults tend to have limited time to allocate for their education (Erickson & Noonan, 2010 ; Kahu et al., 2014 ; Rao & Giuli, 2010 ; Venter, 2003 ; Willging & Johnson, 2009 ; Zembylas, 2008 ).

One of the domestic challenges is concerned with technical problems such as disconnection problems and lack of broadband Internet speed experienced by adults in their study locations (Dzakiria, 2012 ; Kahu et al., 2014 ; Ostlund, 2005 ; Rao & Giuli, 2010 ). For example, in their study with mature age learners, Kahu et al. ( 2014 ) reported that some of the learners had technical problems in participating in the educational activities at their home and they could not study in their workplaces. This challenge is partially a source of another challenge, which is limited physical environment to study (Kahu et al., 2014 ; Selvyn, 2011 ; Zembylas, 2008 ; Zhang & Krug, 2012 ). In his study with undergraduate and graduate adults, Selwyn ( 2011 ) indicated that the lack of suitable physical environment to study is particularly a challenge for females since they have multiple responsibilities aside from their education such as childcare, household works, and their job-related works if they are employed. In this respect, adults need to have family support for their education as well as organizational support. Otherwise, lack of family support becomes another domestic challenge (Willging & Johnson, 2009 ; Zembylas, 2008 ). In his study with graduate students, Zembylas ( 2008 ) reported that family support served to help adult learners to deal with many of the problems they encountered and to create a balance between their family responsibilities and education.

Program-related Challenges

In online distance education, the context of each program might be also a source of challenge itself for learners, which is called in this study as program-related challenges. These sorts of challenges include the ones pertained to the distance education program in which adults participate in educational activities. Within this theme, there were two sub-themes called ‘tutor-related’ and ‘institutional challenges’ as demonstrated in Table 5 .

Program-related challenges faced by Adult Learners in Distance Education

The literature indicates that adults suffer from insufficient interaction with both tutors and other students. Tutors clearly influence learners’ satisfaction and success in both distance education and traditional education settings. Tutors’ ineffective interaction with learners brings about several learning challenges (Dumais et al., 2013 ; Dzakiria, 2012 ; Joo, 2014 ; Ostlund, 2005 ; Venter, 2003 ). Tutors’ interaction problems with learners might arise when the tutors have limited communication with learners (Joo, 2014 ), or fail to provide them with any response (Dumais et al., 2013 ), or with timely response (Dzakiria, 2012 ). The lack of sufficient feedback ( Östlund, 2005 ), the needed tutor assistance (Pierrakeas et al., 2004 ), and the lack of synchronous communication with tutors (Joo, 2014 ) are also among other interaction problems between the tutor and the learners.

Interaction among learners emerges as another interaction challenge. Studies show that interaction among adults or their engagement in the social learning groups is quite low (Furnborough, 2012 ; Östlund, 2005 ; Venter, 2003 ; Zhang & Krug, 2012 ). The reason for the insufficient interaction among the learners varied in different studies. For example, in Furnborough’s ( 2012 ) study, the adults stated that they could not interact with their peers because of their work and family responsibilities. The participants in Zhang and Krug’s ( 2012 ) study, on the other hand, showed that the reason for their lack of interaction was related to their belief that establishing a social relationship was difficult at a distance.

In some studies, feeling of isolation is reported as a challenge faced by adults. The sources of this feeling might include a single or multiple reasons. For example, in the study conducted with graduate adults, Zembylas ( 2008 ) revealed that the lack or insufficiency of communication between the learners and the instructors and among learners tended to act as a source of isolation on part of the learners. In another study with graduate students, Venter ( 2003 ) listed the sources of isolation as “inadequate structure, discipline, and guidance by tutors”, “inadequate interaction with tutors and among learners”, “lack of feeling of belonging to institution or being a student”, and “lack of time due to work and family responsibilities”.

The final tutor-related challenge is found to be unsuitable course requirements. These sorts of challenges include too difficult assignments (Rao & Giuli, 2010 ; Willging & Johnson, 2009 ), lack of clarity in assignments (Dumais et al., 2013 ), and too difficult or demanding courses or programs (Willging & Johnson, 2009 ; Xenos et al., 2002 ). These challenges might stem from either institutional challenges (Dumais et al., 2013 ; Wilging & Johnson, 2009 ) or internal challenges such as the incongruences between the course materials and learners’ preferences, learners’ lack of prerequisite knowledge about courses and programs (Grace & Smith, 2001 ; Pierrakeas et al., 2004 ) or their lack of interest in the course materials (Willging & Johnson, 2009 ).

The institutional challenges, on the other hand, are unsuitable learning materials, too difficult or demanding programs, and the lack or inefficiency of technological and pedagogical support in distance education institutions. Firstly, the learning materials provided by distance education institutions might not fit learners’ expectations depending on the various reasons and this situation might cause learning challenges. According to the related literature, the learning materials provided by distance education institutions are unsuitable since they do not meet learners’ learning preferences (Grace & Smith, 2001 ). It is also often the case that the learners have a lack of interest in the materials (Willging & Johnson, 2004 ) or they are unable to understand them (Pierrakeas et al., 2004 ). Additionally, the materials might have heavy academic language or be unsuited to learners’ worldview and experiences (Joo, 2014 ). As a common finding, the adult learners experiencing these challenges are generally employed females, who continue their education by dealing with housework and childcare and thus having a great deal of responsibility in both family and work life.

The second challenge is presented as unsuitable course requirements under the tutor-related challenges theme above. Program difficulty or difficulty of the courses in general are also reported as a challenge that brings about dropouts in distance education programs (Xenos et al., 2002 ; Willging & Johnson, 2009 ). For this reason, the study conducted by Dumais et al., ( 2013 ) implies that it is crucial to take learners’ generational status into consideration during the development of distance education programs as well as services.

The final challenge is found as the lack of technological and pedagogical support. Studies indicate that adults need both technological (Erickson & Noonan, 2010 ; Wilging & Johnson, 2009 ) and pedagogical support for learning materials (Dumais et al., 2013 ). Since some studies show that some learners, especially older adults have a challenge in using technology (Dzakiria, 2012 ; Nor, 2011 ), it appears that these learners need technological support from their distance education institutions. For example, in their study with graduate adult learners who are between 50 and 65, Erickson and Noonan ( 2010 ) revealed that adults needed a higher level of technological support to be successful in distance education courses. Additionally, Park and Choi ( 2009 ) reported that organizational support was one of the predictive factors of dropout in distance education courses.

The results of the study revealed three main categories, which comprise internal, external, and program-related challenges. These challenges are found to be generally interrelated. Additionally, the review yielded a classification of the challenges faced by adult learners in online distance education (see Figure 2 ). It was also demonstrated that the challenges perceived by adults depend on individual characteristics such as age, gender, knowledge, skills, and the context.

Challenges Faced by Adult Learners in Distance Education

The theme of internal challenges presents those challenges that are caused by the learners’ individual characteristics or by their lack of some required skills to cope with these challenges. They are classified as management, learning, and technical challenges. It arises from the review that the internal challenges are closely related with the external challenges, which stem from their job and domestic conditions. The job-related challenges include work overload, lack of organizational support, schedule conflicts, financial problems, and limited time to study. Domestic challenges, on the other hand, consist of technical problems, limited environment to study, and lack of family support. In addition, program-related challenges are categorized as tutor-related and institutional challenges. Tutor-related challenges comprise low interaction with tutors, low interaction among learners, feeling of isolation, and unsuitable course requirements. Institutional challenges are shown to be constituted by unsuitable learning materials, too difficult or demanding program, and lack of institutional support. These challenges tend to be strongly related with each other and one challenge might become the source of another as independent from their classifications in this study.

The study has several practical implications for distance education administrators, practitioners, and policy makers as well as theoretical implications for the researchers. First of all, each challenge faced by the adults might be individual and contextual. For this reason, the distance education administrators are required to get student feedback in terms of the effectiveness of their distance learning experience in addition to learning about students’ entry characteristics.

The findings related to the internal challenges demonstrate that adult learners’ participation and their persistence in distance education courses and programs can be increased with the provision of some guidance. This guidance can be focused on effective time management and learning strategies as well as how to handle frequently faced technical problems. It can be in the form of orientation programs, student guides, and ongoing guidance and support. It can be argued that administrators have little chances of overcoming the external challenges. However, these challenges can be overcome by providing flexible course and program requirements in addition to developing contextual solutions for each challenge relying on the characteristics of the learners. Student orientation and mentoring can also be useful in overcoming the identified external challenges. Distance education administrators especially can cope with the institutional challenges faced by the adult learners. For the tutor-related challenges, continuing faculty professional development and performance improvement are essential. An accreditation policy can be adopted for faculty before their recruitment in online distance programs. The study findings particularly underline the importance of faculty’s andragogical and pedagogical competencies in addition to their technological literacy. This can be done through such faculty professional development strategies as student feedback, communities of practice, ongoing support, electronic performance support systems, and so on.

The principal theoretical implication of the study is that instructional technologists and practitioners should focus on personal traits of adult online learners and contextual factors instead of one-size-fits-all approach in adult learning design. There is, therefore, a definite need for employing dynamic assessment tools and learning analytics dashboards which can improve learning and optimize online distance learning environments for adults. This might serve to play a key role in both building effective online learning experiences of adult learners and overcoming learning and program-related challenges. In addition, the findings of the study provide insights for the challenges that prevent the adults from engaging in distance education programs. Thus, educational practitioners should make reasonable effort to create flexible learning environments and course content considering the individual differences and challenges of adult learners. It is considered that a detailed examination of these challenges might have a positive influence on adult learners’ dropout decisions.

Limitations and Recommendations for Future Research

The present study has several limitations, which point at a need for future studies. The study was limited to the articles published after 2000. Future research can also draw a more comprehensive picture of the challenges faced by adult learners in distance education programs with the inclusion of more e-databases or educational journals in the search process. Furthermore, the thesis and dissertations on this issue can also be incorporated into the study to provide an understanding of the adult challenges in local or national contexts. Each of the identified challenges implies a call for the intervention studies. Therefore, in further studies, interventions can be designed and implemented to overcome the currently identified challenges.

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• Open access
• Published: 23 May 2023

Covid-19 distance and online learning: a systematic literature review in pharmacy education

• Muhaimin Muhaimin 1 ,
• Akhmad Habibi 2 ,
• Yasir Riady 3 ,
• Turki Mesfer Alqahtani 4 ,
• Anis Yohana Chaerunisaa 1 ,
• Tommy Tanu Wijaya 5 ,
• Tiana Milanda 1 ,
• Farrah Dina Yusop 6 &
• Nour Awni Albelbisi 6  

BMC Medical Education volume  23 , Article number:  367 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

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The Covid-19 outbreak necessitated the implementation of social distancing mechanisms, such as the enforcement of lockdowns in numerous nations. The lockdown has disrupted many parts of everyday life, but this unusual event has particularly affected education. The temporary closure of educational institutions ushered in dozens of new reforms, including a shift into the distance and online learning. This study investigates the transition from traditional education in physical classrooms to online and distance and online learning in pharmacy education during Covid-19, especially about the challenges and benefits of distance and online learning. We did Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) for literature sources between 2020 and 2022 (n.14). The study elaborates on how the transition has influenced teachers and students of pharmacy education. The research also summarizes several recommendations, which may assist in minimizing the adverse impacts of lockdown and encourage streamlined processes to distance and online learning, particularly in pharmacy education.

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Introduction

Covid-19, an infectious illness characterized by the SARS-CoV-2 virus, endangered the world quickly due to its highly infectious nature. As of 6 March 2023, there have been more than seven hudred million confirmed cases were documented, with over six million deaths [ 1 ]. The World Health Organization (WHO) labeled the virus a pandemic in March 2020. The pandemic caused havoc on a variety of activities of daily life, triggering governments worldwide to put in place a series of emergency response mechanisms [ 2 , 3 ]. Country leaders imposed temporary closure and enforced extended isolation time, disrupting educational activity around the globe, reducing infection, and flattening the curve to avoid overburdening healthcare services. This resulted in the temporary closure of educational institutions in various parts of the world. The situation affected teachers, students, and their families [ 4 , 5 , 6 ]. Some academic institutions facing closure gradually reopened and began working under distance and online learning methods to keep students on track academically while also taking steps to mitigate the effects of the present health crisis. In the past, infectious disease epidemics have resulted in widespread school closures, with variable levels of success [ 7 ]. At the most basic level, distance learning refers to taking classes away from the college. Although technically a type of distance learning, online learning is more frequently used to describe programs where the instructors are not present simultaneously as the students [ 8 ].

Institutions have been forced into quickly transitioning to distance and online learning approaches mainly based on technology. Many educational stakeholders, such as teachers, students, and school administration staff, have not prepared to face the transition because of the fast switch to distance and online learning [ 9 ]. This transition to remote learning happened in an unexpected situation, leaving little time for teachers, educational staff, and students to prepare, modify, and adjust the learning. The condition brought several problems to the economy and social life. According to UNESCO, the temporary school closures enacted in response to the Covid-19 pandemic have impacted more than a billion students worldwide. Owing to a lockdown in 2020, students from over 50 nations have been kept out of school, accounting for roughly 18% of total registered students [ 10 ]. Many studies have been conducted to understand the impacts of distance and online learning in education due to Covid-19 [ 11 , 12 , 13 ]. However, literature reviews in a specific field of study are still limited and important to understand the broad effects of distance and online learning [ 7 , 9 , 14 ]. This systematic literature review takes an in-depth look at the studies on the influence of the Covid-19 pandemic on a specific field of education. This research examines how the shift from traditional methods to distance and online learning has affected teachers and students in pharmacy education. The impact of the pandemic-based distance and online learning on pharmacy education should be investigated to improve didactical decisions in the future and bridge the gaps to more adaptable but effective online pedagogical approaches. Initially, the focus areas of the literature review were investigated within pharmacy education. Following the focus areas, the distance and online learning challenges and benefits were assessed and elaborated on. Finally, recommendations of the prior studies included in this meta-analysis were concluded.

Related work

Many governments were under pressure to prevent Covid-19 from spreading. This resulted in the temporary closures of many schools and universities [ 15 ]. Others switched to distance and online learning through technology. Viner et al. [ 16 ] did a systematic evaluation to determine the influence of school closures and other social distance techniques on disease rates and virus spread during crises. It was indicated that educational institution temporary closures play an insignificant role in virus transmission reduction. The minor advantages of such restrictions on the spread reduction might quickly be offset by the severe socio-economic implications [ 16 , 17 , 18 ]. The closure can have effects on individuals, families, and society. Therefore, any decision regarding school closures must carefully consider the potential trade-offs and aim to strike a balance between protecting public health and minimizing the adverse impacts on education, economy, and social well-being. As a result, many academic institutions have chosen the less drastic option of converting to distance and online learning [ 19 , 20 ].

Distance learning refers to online instruction systems to create educational materials, provide teaching, and manage programs [ 21 ]. There are two basic types of distance learning: synchronous and asynchronous [ 22 ]. The main goal of distance and online learning is to replicate regular classroom communication approaches. Live webinars and virtual classes are examples of synchronous distance and online learning. On the other hand, asynchronous learning allows for greater flexibility in terms of timing which does not require real-time engagement; materials are provided online. Video recordings and emails are instances of asynchronous learning.

A comprehensive review and meta-analysis of controlled studies on the efficiency and approval of distance and online learning in medical sciences published between January 2000 and March 2020 evaluated students’ understanding, abilities, and satisfaction levels [ 23 ]. The study reported insignificant differences between traditional and distance and online learning regarding usefulness and objective assessments. Distance and online learning obtained a better approval rating in subjective assessments, suggesting that it was preferred to some degree by learners [ 23 ]. Carrillo & Flores [ 24 ] also reviewed the literature on online teaching and learning practices in teacher development between January 2000 and April 2020 to investigate online learning in teacher development and explain its consequences in the sense of the disease outbreak. The review discussed sociological, intellectual, and pedagogical problems and a comprehensive representation of innovation utilized to enhance teaching and learning [ 24 ].

Daoud et al. [ 25 ] performed a comprehensive review that evaluated the academic benefits of providing internet access at home, focusing on equality surrounding household internet access. It discovered several favorable associations between household internet access and the value of education for qualification, personal character, and social life. However, the relationship was not apparent and did not prove causality. Variables affect the aspects of online behaviors, including how technology is integrated and determine the educational value of household internet use [ 25 ]. Di Pietro et al. [ 26 ] published a report in which they attempted to investigate the consequences of the Covid-19 pandemic on education. It generated projections regarding the influence and future of learning based on pre and during Covid-19 data. The following are the four critical conclusions drawn from the article: (a) learning is likely to experience a stumbling block; (b) the impact on student achievements is likely to differ with economic factors; (c) social-economic disparity expressed in extreme reactions, less-wealthy families are subjected to greater environmental strain; (d) the broadening social inequality could have long-lasting effects [ 26 ].

Some virtual cases of emergency learning methods have been chastised for failing to follow basic pedagogical principles and guidelines [ 27 ]. Several studies have raised concerns regarding the possible negative consequences of rushing to introduce educational technology changes without first assessing their impact [ 27 , 28 ]. Furthermore, the move to online education and distance and online learning technologies has sparked worries about spying and security and influenced students’ lifestyles [ 29 ]. In this research context, selected studies were diverse, from quantitative to qualitatitve approaches [ 30 ]. Because this phenomenon is still new, there is a lack of reflection on the pandemic digital revolution’s direct impact on postsecondary learning and its benefits, drawbacks, and future consequences.

The current research, a systematic literature review, follows the principles outlined in the preferred reporting items for systematic review and meta-analysis (PRISMA) procedures [ 31 , 32 ], which include five stages: search, screening, eligibility, initial inclusion, and inclusion. PRISMA is a standard approach to assist researchers in transparently informing the study, steps, and results within the context of the systematic literature review [ 33 ].

Research questions

This research investigates the effects of Covid-19 distance and online learning on pharmacy education. Four research questions were proposed: (1) what are the focus areas of the literature review? (2) what are the challenges of distance and online learning in pharmacy education? (3) what are the benefits of distance and online learning pharmacy education? (4) what recommendations were made?

The research questions were a basic guideline for determining the most popular search terms. The search includes terms synonymous with or closely linked to the main search phrases. The search was conducted using Science Direct, supported by Google Scholar search. The relevant search terms were used: “Distance learning in pharmacy education Covid 19,” “online education in pharmacy education Covid 19,” and “Technology integration in pharmacy education Covid-19.” The findings varied depending on the phrase combinations. However, in general, 17 to 81 papers (Table  1 ) were obtained each search, with the number growing relevant to the topics. Related phrases were gathered in all publications depending on the search. The terms sued in the search were determined through an in-depth discussion among the authors. We limited the terms so that future researchers can adapt this study for further investigation. The search limit provides narrow results for effective and efficient work for the most relevant answers to the research problems [ 34 ].

Articles published after 2020 were kept in the study. Only works from high-quality journals were included; we selected the articles from indexed journals in Web of Science or Scopus databases. We initially reviewed the selected papers against Elsevier’s abstract and reference repository, Scopus, to verify that they were of top standard and didn’t relate to fraudulent publications. We also double-checked that they were in the Scopus indexation for the SJR, a measure of academic journals’ scientific impact. Furthermore, the publications were evaluated using Beall’s List, a list comprising predatory accessible publications that do not conduct an adequate review process.

PRISMA procedures

A reference list of scholarly papers directly referencing Covid-19 online learning: A comprehensive literature review in pharmacy education was created after merging these lists. After the first search or first phase, 137 scholarly publications were presented (Table  1 ). By removing duplicated results, we were able to screen for them. Microsoft Word was used as a tool in the duplication removal procedure. We went through each repeated title and removed them one by one. The redundancy led to 54 academic papers being sent for additional review, with 83 being deleted. Further, the step included the following elimination process; the articles should address technology integration in pharmacy education during Covid-19 distance learning, inform findings in English, be empirical studies (research articles), and be published from 2020 to April 1st, 2022. From the process, 47 abstracts were dropped, and the remaining 36 articles were for eligibility and inclusion (Fig.  1 ).

PRISMA flow diagram of the study

Following the initial screening, a review-coding method was performed using Macros in Microsoft Words for the abstracts, with the process documented by writing “included” 1st initial inclusion in the review box. After that, we added some information for every abstract, and the coding was done in a new draft where all the initial abstracts were included. The Macros [ 35 , 36 ] were used to encode and extract the selected papers [ 37 ]. Macros were chosen because of their efficiency and functionality [ 35 ]. Tables were created to manage the comments and metadata. The study’s aim, method, study site/ population, and findings are listed in the tables. Four authors discussed and did the coding and combined documents into one before extracting the comments for analysis. The Macros were obtained for free at http://www.thedoctools.com/index.php?show=mt_comments_extract .

In the end, 14 articles were collected, examined, and reviewed. The criteria for inclusion in this systematic review were accessible articles in the context of distance education during Covid-19 in the field of pharmacy education. Meanwhile, the exclusion criteria included articles that were not in the context of Covid-19 (n.6), pharmacy education, and distance and online learning. Besides, inaccessible articles (n.7) and articles with insufficient information (n.9) regarding the topic were also excluded.

Results and discussion

The results of this literature review are presented. The findings of every research topic are examined in depth. The focuse of the reviewed articles is presented in Table  2 .

In the selected investigations, most educational institutions moved to online learning. The quality requirements listed in Table  3 were used to construct 14 studies.

Area of focus

In this study, 14 publications considered the effect of COVID-19 on pharmacy education, specifically the technological change they sparked, distance and online learning challenges and benefits, and the recommendations for future studies. Eight papers discussed students’ and faculty’s experiences with remote learning and the participants’ perspectives on its possible benefits and drawbacks. Besides, four publications provided remote learning solutions or tested the performance of a specific technology. Three articles discussed educational policies considering the pandemic and examined the new approach to teaching and learning activities. Two papers investigated how the closure and subsequent transformation to technology-based education compounded achievement gaps. The gaps were revealed between students from lower-income households who lacked internet access and devices and those from higher-income families with devices and easy access to the Internet.

The key challenges can be summarized in the following points: disparity in accessibility, training insufficiency , lack of communication, technical issues, pressure, work, and confidence, and lack of student involvement, technical knowledge, and performance evaluatio n.

There is a disparity in accessibility for pharmacy students, typically linked to family income [ 42 , 45 , 46 , 51 ], discussed in four articles from the review sources. The shift to distance and online learning worsened the disparities between wealthy and disadvantaged pharmacy students. Students studying pharmacy in less affluent areas have little or no access to supporting devices and the Internet [ 42 , 45 ]. Students from low-income families were reported to have less skill and knowledge of technology than students from high-income families with strong economic backgrounds [ 38 , 41 ]. The inequality goes to institutions located in rural areas, which are under-equipped compared to institutions located in cities or urban areas [ 52 ], resulting in different challenges faced by each type of institution.

While technology can enhance the learning experience, it cannot completely replace it, especially in pharmacy professions requiring hands-on laboratory training that indeed produces training insufficiency [ 44 , 48 ]. The phenomenon is especially true in health-related fields, such as pharmacy. The papers on pharmacy education emphasized the importance of hands-on experience and how secondary knowledge derived through simulation, presentation recordings, or online meetings through video conferencing cannot replace the experience.

Because of the depreciation or lack of physical interaction and the intrinsic vagueness of textual exchanges, forming and maintaining connections and forging communication between students, their classmates, and their teachers became increasingly challenging [ 38 ]. With the inexistence of visible touch and the capacity to observe students in classrooms, teachers and instructors have a more challenging time explaining directions and evaluating student response, involvement, and participation. These lack of communication challenges have been revealed in three articles within this literature review [ 38 , 40 , 45 ].

Technical issues such as Internet or Wi-Fi access, tool malfunctions, and stream stability might obstruct communication [ 42 , 45 , 51 ]. As the pandemic spread over the globe, accessibility to a dependable internet connection became increasingly vital in the last year, and quite enough of day-to-day life shifted from in-person to online. Many students, however, have suffered from technological challenges since the start of Covid 19, and existing disparities have indeed been exacerbated by the lack of consistent accessibility [ 42 , 45 , 51 ].

Pressure, work, and confidence were all impacted by the students’ and teachers’ forced and quick transfer to remote learning. Many pharmacy students and faculty members faced financial and social anxiety due to the lockdown, which indirectly impacted their performance. Academic employees, for example, had to deal with increased or even quadrupled workloads. Extended time without face-to-face social interaction can also harm one’s mental health.

Technical knowledge is the next challenge of the current study [ 42 , 45 , 46 , 51 ]. Many educational institutions, schools, and universities were surprised by this rapid and forced digital change, giving educational leaders limited time to educate their professional personnel. The complex evidence and reality left non-tech-aware teachers and instructors unprepared and unequipped to work with complex technological-based activities. Teachers’ lack of technical expertise and prior experience using online tools are also challenges [ 42 , 51 ]. In many circumstances, the incapacity of faculty members to use technology hampered the success of distance and online learning.

Other difficulties include a lack of student involvement and performance evaluatio n [ 40 , 41 , 42 , 45 , 51 ]. Student engagement was occasionally weak due to dependency on recorded meetings, limitation of intention, and stress produced by using the devices. There was also weariness from staring at screens for long periods, isolated thoughts, and melancholy from a limited personal touch [ 40 , 42 ]. Teachers faced problems revising learning assessments to fairly record student academic performance and achievements [ 51 ], which is challenging during distance and online learning, especially for pharmacy students.

Other challenges might also be faced during distance and online learning due to Covid-19. The quality of online and distance learning in pharmacy education is one of them, and it can be a major issue. The government’s educational policy makes no explicit mention of distance and learning. Lack of quality control, development of e-resources, and content delivery can be present. This issue needs to be addressed in further work, especially in pharmacy education, so that all stakeholders can take advantage of the advantages of high-quality distance and online education. One should consider developing and improving the quality of learning for future pandemics.

This stage highlights the benefits of digital change in pharmacy education for more opportunities in the future of education. There are a number of benefits [ 39 , 41 , 42 , 45 , 47 , 49 , 50 ] informed by sources included in this systematic literature review, namely bridging the gap between time and place, communication effectiveness, information transition, and cost-effectiveness.

Distance and online learning bridge the gap between time and place , that gives pharmacy students and teachers the freedom to listen to academic lectures and speeches from the coziness of their living rooms or from anywhere else [ 42 , 47 , 50 ]. Due to the time, it also enables pupils to self-regulate their education and progress at their own pace. Distance and online learning give students the opportunities to listen to their lectures from the comfort of their own homes or from anywhere else. Because of the adaptability enabled by elements such as recording, distance and online learning also helps students to self-regulate their learning and continue at their speed. Online learning allows for a more modern and practical way of communication [ 39 , 41 , 47 , 49 , 50 ]. Significant debates might be addressed during courses, and participants can profit from these talks by observing or engaging in chat.

Distance and online learning facilitate communication effectiveness because participants shouldn’t have to talk face to face or deal with the anxiety that comes with talking in front of a live audience, which encourages more conversation. Parents of young children can also benefit from online learning by becoming more active in their children’s education [ 39 , 45 , 47 , 49 ]. The pressures of the pandemic to shift to digital and remote educational models in teaching revealed flaws in the approach and compelled lecturers to consider and evaluate present and prior instructional approaches, offering a glimpse into what educational technology could look like, encouraging didactical advancement and accelerating changes in technology-based education. The process can be considered a catalyst for curricular and classroom improvement [ 39 , 49 , 50 ].

The employment of simulations and other approaches for educational goals and the deployment of online learning are seen as beneficial and adequate, if not comprehensive, substitutes for traditional learning [ 39 , 41 , 42 , 45 , 47 , 49 , 50 ]. It met the goal of continuing to provide instruction in the face of the epidemic while also assisting pupils in meeting their expectations. Distance and online learning also help increase information transmission , with additional benefits of cost-effectiveness . Students are exposed to new and relevant technologies by integrating technology into education [ 39 , 45 , 49 ].

Recommendations and suggestions

The solution is raising and sustaining their motivation to promote morale and battle any lockdown-induced stress or worry. Accessible online learning portals are for institutions in pharmacy education. Generating and accepting feedback from learners to ensure the quality of online learning is another piece of advice made by the existing literature in pharmacy education [ 39 , 42 , 43 , 45 , 49 ]. They are examining the outcomes of distance and online learning and commenting on the distinctions between it and traditional education to identify which components are sustainable and fit the expectations placed on pharmacy education in general by the pandemic situation.

The current study also helps lecturers use effective instructional strategies and allows educational institutions to enhance online instructional resources continuously [ 53 , 54 ]. Pharmacy students comprehend the required courses and sense the connection of the study content to the actual world. Teachers must set clear expectations and establish course objectives and the value of the syllabus to accomplish this [ 39 , 49 ]. Early in the academic year, they must also define their roles and duties as instructors and facilitators [ 43 , 45 ]. Furthermore, authorities should aim to assess and prevent any dangers or disadvantages of economic or workload discrepancies because of this rapid transition from traditional learning to distance and online learning during crises like Covid-19 [ 55 ].

Another piece of advice is to reassess and rethink educational practices and formulate guidance to steer the shifts to online and distance learning and make necessary infrastructural improvements [ 56 , 57 ]. The activities are designed to familiarize students and professors with technology, develop their competence, and equip them to deal with technological challenges that may arise during online lectures [ 49 ]. This will also aid in the effective use of technology to fulfill its full potential in online education. Finally, it is critical to provide underequipped pupils with the essential tools to participate in online communications, such as devices and solid internet access [ 39 , 45 ].

Conclusion and future work

Covid-19 has a major effect on the world and how people arrange themselves in the actual world. It has revealed systemic flaws inside institutions and resulted in lengthy changes. This was also true in the educational system. This assessment aimed to examine and assess the impact of these developments on pharmacy education. In total, 14 articles regarding distance and online learning during Covid-19 were discussed. The current study uses the PRISMA approach to outline the findings through 5 steps (search, screening, eligibility, initial inclusion, and inclusion). To fill the gap of prior studies in pharmacy education, we examined the change in learning from traditional methods to distance and online learning, affecting all related stakeholders. The impact of pandemics on pharmacy education should be more elaborated for future research for the betterment of education, especially pharmacy education. In short, we focus the presentation of the study on the focus areas of the literature, benefits, and challenges of distance and online learning during Covid-19 in pharmacy education.

Availability of data and materials

The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

We thank Universitas Padjadjaran, Universitas Jambi, Universitas Terbuka, Beijing Normal University, and Universiti Malaya to support the research.

This research is fully funded by Universitas Padjajaran.

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Conceptualization—MM. contributed to conceptualization. Introduction—MM, TTW, and YR contributed to introduction. Methodology—AH, AC, and TM contributed to methodology. Literature Review—all authors contributed to literature review. Results—AH, TMA, MM, and YR contributed to the results. Data Curation— AH, MM, and YR contributed to data curation. Project Administration—MM, AC, and TM contributed to project administration. Writing (Original Draft)—MM, AH, TMA, TTW, FDY, NAA and YR contributed to writing the original data. AH, FDY, and NAA contirubuted to the revision of the writing.

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Muhaimin, M., Habibi, A., Riady, Y. et al. Covid-19 distance and online learning: a systematic literature review in pharmacy education. BMC Med Educ 23 , 367 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-023-04346-6

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Shifting online during COVID-19: A systematic review of teaching and learning strategies and their outcomes

• Joyce Hwee Ling Koh   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5626-4927 1 &
• Ben Kei Daniel 1  

International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education volume  19 , Article number:  56 ( 2022 ) Cite this article

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This systematic literature review of 36 peer-reviewed empirical articles outlines eight strategies used by higher education lecturers and students to maintain educational continuity during the COVID-19 pandemic since January 2020. The findings show that students’ online access and positive coping strategies could not eradicate their infrastructure and home environment challenges. Lecturers’ learning access equity strategies made learning resources available asynchronously, but having access did not imply that students could effectively self-direct learning. Lecturers designed classroom replication, online practical skills training, online assessment integrity, and student engagement strategies to boost online learning quality, but students who used ineffective online participation strategies had poor engagement. These findings indicate that lecturers and students need to develop more dexterity for adapting and manoeuvring their online strategies across different online teaching and learning modalities. How these online competencies could be developed in higher education are discussed.

Introduction

Higher education institutions have launched new programmes online for three decades, but their integration of online teaching and learning into on-campus programmes remained less cohesive (Kirkwood & Price, 2014 ). Since early 2020, educational institutions have been shifting online in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. Some consider this kind of emergency remote teaching a temporary online shift during a crisis, whereas online learning involves purposive design for online delivery (Hodges et al., 2020 ). Two years into the pandemic, fully online, blended or hybridised modalities are still being used in response to evolving COVID-19 health advisories (Jaschik, 2021 ). Even though standards for the pedagogical, social, administrative, and technical requirements of online learning have already been published before the pandemic (e.g. Bigatel et al., 2012 ; Goodyear et al., 2001 ), the online competencies of lecturers and students remain critical challenges for higher education institutions during the pandemic (Turnbull et al., 2021 ). Emerging systematic literature reviews about higher education online teaching and learning during the pandemic focus on the clinical aspects of health science programmes (see Dedeilia et al., 2020 ; Hao et al., 2022 ; Papa et al., 2022 ). Understanding the strategies used in other programmes and disciplines is critical for outlining higher education lecturers’ and students’ future online competency needs.

This study, therefore, presents a systematic literature review of the teaching and learning strategies that lecturers and students used to shift online in response to the pandemic and their consequent outcomes. The review was conducted through content analysis and thematic analysis of 36 peer-reviewed articles published from January 2020 to December 2021. It discusses how relevant online competencies for lecturers and students can be further developed in higher education.

Methodology

A Systematic and Tripartite Approach (STA) (Daniel & Harland, 2017 ) guided the review process. STA draws from systematic review approaches such as the Cochrane Review Methods, widely used in application-based disciplines such as the health sciences (Chandler & Hopewell, 2013 ). It develops systematic reviews through description (providing a summary of the review), synthesis (logically categorising research reviewed based on related ideas, connections and rationales), and critique (providing evidence to support, discard or offer new ideas about the literature).

Framing the review

The following research questions guided the review:

What strategies did higher education lecturers and students use when they shifted teaching and learning online in response to the pandemic?

What were the outcomes arising from these strategies?

Search strategy

Peer-reviewed articles were identified from databases indexing leading educational journals—Educational Database (ProQuest), Education Research Complete (EBSCOhost), ERIC (ProQuest), Scopus, Web of Science (Core Collection), and ProQuest Central. The following search terms were used to locate articles with empirical evidence of lecturers’ and/or students’ shifting online strategies:

(remote OR virtual OR emergency remote OR online OR digital OR eLearning) AND (teaching strateg* OR learning strateg* OR shifting online) AND (higher education OR tertiary OR university OR college) AND (covid*) AND (success OR challenge OR outcome OR effect OR case OR lesson or evidence OR reflection)

The following were the inclusion and exclusion criteria:

Review period—From January 2020 to December 2021, following the first reported case of COVID-19 (WHO, 2020 ).

Language—Only articles published in the English language were included.

Type of article—In order maintain rigour in the findings, only peer-reviewed journal articles and conference proceedings were included, and non-refereed articles and conference proceedings were excluded. Peer-reviewed articles reporting empirical data from the lecturer and/or student perspectives were included. Editorials and literature reviews were examined to deepen conceptual understanding but excluded from the review.

The article’s focus—Articles with adequate descriptions and evaluation of lecturers’ and students’ online teaching and learning strategies undertaken because of health advisories during the COVID-19 pandemic were included. K-12 studies, higher education studies with data gathered prior to January 2020, studies describing general online learning experiences that did not arise from COVID-19, studies describing the functionalities of online learning technologies, studies about tips and tricks for using online tools during COVID-19, studies about the public health impact of COVID-19, or studies purely describing online learning attitudes or successes and challenges during COVID-19 without corresponding descriptions of teaching and learning strategies and their outcomes were excluded.

A list of 547 articles published between January 2020 and December 2021 were extracted using keyword and manual search with a final list of 36 articles selected for review (see Fig.  1 ). The inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied to the PRISMA process (Moher et al., 2009 ). The articles and a summary of coding are found in Appendix .

Article screening with the PRISMA process

Data analysis

Content analysis (Weber, 1990 ) and thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006 ) were used to answer the research questions. Pertinent sections of each article outlining lecturers’ and/or students’ shifting online strategies were identified, read and re-read for data familiarisation. The first author used content analysis to generate eight teaching and learning strategies. These were verified through an inter-rater analysis where a random selection of eight articles was recoded by a second-rater (22.22% of total articles) and confirmed with adequate Cohen’s kappas (Teaching strategies: 0.88, Learning strategies: 0.78). Frequency counts were analysed to answer research question 1.

For the second research question, we first categorised the various shifting online outcomes described in each article and coded each outcome as “success”, “challenge”, or “mixed”. Successful outcomes include favourable descriptions of teaching, learning, or assessment experiences, minimal issues with technology/infrastructure, favourable test scores, or reasonable attendance/course completion rates, whereas challenging outcomes suggest otherwise. Mixed outcomes were not a success or challenge, for example, positive and negative experiences during learning, assessment or with learning infrastructure, or mixed learning outcomes such as positive test scores but lower ratings of professional confidence. Frequency distributions were used to compare the overall successes and challenges of shifting online (see Tables 1 and 2 of “ Findings ” section). Following this, the pertinent outcomes associated with each of the eight shifting online strategies were pinpointed through thematic analysis and critical relationships were visualised as theme maps. These were continually reviewed for internal homogeneity and external heterogeneity (Patton, 1990 ). To ensure trustworthiness and reliability (Creswell, 1998 ), there was frequent debriefing between the authors to refine themes and theme maps, followed by critical peer review with another lecturer specialising in higher education educational technology practices. Throughout this process, an audit trail was maintained to document the evolution of themes. These processes completed the description and synthesis aspects of the systematic literature review prior to critique and discussion (Daniel & Harland, 2017 ).

Descriptive characteristics

Descriptive characteristics of the articles are summarised in Table 1 .

Table 1 shows that articles about shifting online during the pandemic were published steadily between August 2020 and December 2021. About two-thirds of the articles were based on data from the United States of America, Asia, or Australasia, with close to 45% of the articles analysing shifting online strategies used in the disciplines of Natural Sciences and Medical and Health Sciences and around 60% focusing on degree programmes. While there was an exact representation of studies with sample sizes from below 50 to above 150, the majority were descriptive studies, with close to half based on quantitative data gathered through surveys. About half of the articles focused on teaching strategies, while around 40% also examined students' learning strategies. However, only about 20% of the articles had theoretical framing for their teaching strategies. Besides using self-developed theories, the authors also used established theories such as the Community of Inquiry Theory by Garrison et. al. ( 2010 ), the Interaction Framework for Distance Education by Moore ( 1989 ), self-regulated learning by Zimmerman ( 2002 ) and the 5E model of Bybee et. al. ( 2006 ). Different types of shifting online outcomes were reported in the articles. The majority documented the positive and negative experiences associated with synchronous or asynchronous online learning activities, online learning technology and infrastructure, or online assessment. A quarter of the articles reported data on student learning outcomes and attendance/completion rates, while a minority also described teaching workload effects. Table 2 shows other successes and challenges associated with shifting online. Of the articles that examined online learning experiences, over a quarter reported clear successes in terms of positive experiences while about half reported mixed experiences. Majority of the articles examining technology and infrastructure experiences or assessment experiences either reported challenging or mixed experiences. All the articles examining learning outcomes reported apparent successes but only half of those investigating attendance/completion rates found these to be acceptable. Only challenges were reported for teaching workload.

Teaching strategies and outcomes

Lecturers used five teaching strategies to shift online during the pandemic (see Table 3 ).

Online practical skills training

Lecturers had to create online practical skills training . With limited access to clinical, field-based, or laboratory settings, lecturers taught only the conceptual aspects of practical skills through online guest lectures, live skill demonstration sessions, video recordings of field trips, conceptual application exercises, or by substituting skills practice with new theoretical topics (Chan et al., 2020 ; de Luca et al., 2021 ; Dietrich et al., 2020 ; Dodson & Blinn, 2021 ; Garcia-Alberti et al., 2021 ; Gomez et al., 2020 ; Xiao et al., 2020 ). Only in three studies about forest operations, ecology, and nursing was it possible to practice hand skills in alternative locations such as public parks and students’ homes (Dodson & Blinn, 2021 ; Gerhart et al., 2021 ; Palmer et al., 2021 ).

Outcomes : Online practical skills training had different effects on learning experiences, test scores, and attendance/completion rates. Students can attain expected test scores through conceptual learning of practical skills (Garcia-Alberti et al., 2021 ; Gomez et al., 2020 ; Xiao et al., 2020 ). However, not all students had positive learning experiences as some appreciated deeper conceptual learning, but others felt disconnected from peers, anxious about losing hand skills proficiency, and could not maintain class attendance (de Luca et al., 2021 ; Dietrich et al., 2020 ; Gomez et al., 2020 ). Positive learning experiences, reasonable course attendance/completion rates, and higher confidence in content mastery were more achievable when students had opportunities to practice hand skills in alternative locations (Gerhart et al., 2021 ).

Online assessment integrity

Lecturers had to devise strategies to maintain online assessment integrity , primarily through different ways of preventing cheating (see Reedy et al., 2021 ). Pass/Fail grading, reducing examination weightage through a higher emphasis on daily work and class participation, and asking students to make academic integrity declarations were some changes to examination policies (e.g. Ali et al., 2020 ; Dicks et al., 2020 ). Randomising and scrambling questions, administering different versions of examination papers, using proctoring software, open-book examinations, and replacing multiple choice with written questions were other ways of preventing cheating during online examinations (Hall et al., 2021 ; Jaap et al., 2021 ; Reedy et al., 2021 ).

Outcomes : There was concern that shifting to online assessment had detrimental effects on learning outcomes, but several studies reported otherwise (Garcia-Alberti et al., 2021 ; Gomez et al., 2020 ; Hall et al., 2021 ; Jaap et al., 2021 ; Lapitan et al., 2021 ). Nevertheless, there were mixed assessment experiences. When lecturers changed multiple-choice to written critical thinking questions, it made students perceive that examinations have become harder (Garcia-Alberti et al., 2021 ; Khan et al., 2022 ). Some students were anxious about encountering technical problems during online examinations, while others felt less nervous taking examinations at home (Jaap et al., 2021 ). Students also became less confident about the integrity of assessment processes when lecturers failed to set clear rules for open-book examinations (Reedy et al., 2021 ). While Pass/Fail grading alleviated students’ test performance anxiety, some lecturers felt that this lowered academic standards (Dicks et al., 2020 ; Khan et al., 2022 ). More emphasis on daily work alleviated student anxiety as examination weightage was reduced, but students also perceived a corresponding increase in course workload as they had more assignments to complete (e.g. Dietrich et al., 2020 ; Swanson et al., 2021 ).

Classroom replication

Lecturers used classroom replication strategies to foster regularity, primarily through substituting classroom sessions with video conferencing under pre-pandemic timetables (Palmer et al., 2021 ; Simon et al., 2020 ; Zhu et al., 2021 ). Lecturers also annotated their presentation materials and decorated their teaching locations with content-related backdrops to emulate the ‘chalk and talk’ of physical classrooms (e.g. Chan et al., 2020 ; Dietrich et al., 2020 ; Xiao et al., 2020 ).

Outcomes : Regular video conferencing classes helped students to maintain course attendance/completion rates (e.g. Ahmed & Opoku, 2021 ; Garcia-Alberti et al., 2021 ; Gerhart et al., 2021 ). Student engagement improved when lecturers annotated on Powerpoint™ or digital whiteboards during video conferencing (Hew et al., 2020 ). However, screen fatigue commonly affected concentration, and lecturers had challenges assessing social cues effectively, especially when students turned off their cameras (Khan et al., 2022 ; Lapitan et al., 2021 ; Marshalsey & Sclater, 2020 ). Lecturers tried to shorten class duration with asynchronous activities, only to find students failing to complete their assigned tasks (Grimmer et al., 2020 ).

Learning access equity

Lecturers implemented learning access equity strategies so that those without stable network connections or conducive home environments could continue studying (Abou-Khalil et al., 2021 ; Ahmed & Opoku, 2021 ; Dodson & Blinn, 2021 ; Garcia-Alberti et al., 2021 ; Grimmer et al., 2020 ; Kapasia et al., 2020 ; Khan et al., 2022 ; Marshalsey & Sclater, 2020 ; Pagoto et al., 2021 ; Swanson et al., 2021 ; Yeung & Yau, 2021 ). They equalised learning access by making lecture recordings available, using chat to communicate during live classes, and providing supplementary asynchronous activities (e.g. Gerhart et al., 2021 ; Grimmer et al., 2020 ). Some lecturers only delivered lessons asynchronously through pre-recorded lectures and online resources (e.g. de Luca et al., 2021 ; Dietrich et al., 2020 ). In developing countries, lecturers created access opportunities by sending learning materials through both learning management systems and WhatsApp™ (Kapasia et al., 2020 ).

Outcomes : Learning access strategies maintained some level of student equity through asynchronous learning but created challenging student learning experiences. There is evidence that students could achieve expected test scores through asynchronous learning (Garcia-Alberti et al., 2021 ) but maintaining learning consistency was a challenge, especially for freshmen (e.g. Grimmer et al., 2020 ; Khan et al., 2022 ). Some students found it hard to understand difficult concepts without in-person lectures but they also did not actively attend the live question-and-answer sessions organised by lecturers (Ali et al., 2020 ; Dietrich et al., 2020 ; Gomez et al., 2020 ). Poorly designed lecture recordings and unclear online learning instructions from lecturers compounded these problems (Gomez et al., 2020 ; Yeung & Yau, 2021 ).

Student engagement

Lecturers used two kinds of student engagement strategies, one of which was through active learning. Hew et. al. ( 2020 ) fostered active learning through 5E activities (Bybee et al., 2006 ) that encouraged students to Engage, Explore, Explain, Elaborate, and Evaluate. Lapitan et. al. ( 2021 ) implemented active learning through their DLPCA process, where students Discover, Learn and Practice outside of class with content resources and Collaborate in class before Assessment. Chan et. al. ( 2020 ) used their Theory of Change to support active learning through shared meaning-making. Other studies emphasised active learning but did not reference theoretical frameworks (e.g. Martinelli & Zaina, 2021 ). Many described how lecturers used interactive tools such as Nearpod™, and Padlet™, online polling, and breakout room discussions to encourage active learning (e.g. Ali et al., 2020 ; Gomez et al., 2020 ).

Another student engagement strategy was through regular communication and support, where lecturers sent emails, announcements, and reminders to keep students in pace with assignments (e.g. Abou-Khalil et al., 2021 ). Support was also provided through virtual office hours, social media contact after class hours and uploading feedback over shared drives (e.g. Khan et al., 2022 ; Xiao et al., 2020 ).

Outcomes : Among the student engagement strategies, success in test scores tends to be associated with the use of active learning (Garcia-Alberti et al., 2021 ; Gomez et al., 2020 ; Hew et al., 2020 ; Lapitan et al., 2021 ; Lau et al., 2020 ; Xiao et al., 2020 ). On the other hand, positive learning experiences were more often reported when lecturers emphasised care and empathy through their communication (e.g. Chan et al., 2020 ; Conklin & Dikkers, 2021 ). Students felt this more strongly when lecturers used humour, conversational and friendly tone, provided assurance, set clear expectations, exercised flexibility, engaged their feedback to improve online lessons, and responded swiftly to their questions (e.g. Chan et al., 2020 ; Swanson et al., 2021 ). These interactions fostered the social presence of Garrison et. al.’s ( 2010 ) Community of Inquiry Theory (Conklin & Dikkers, 2021 ). However, keeping up with multiple communication channels increased teaching workload, especially when support requests arrived through social media after work hours (Garcia-Alberti et al., 2021 ; Khan et al. 2022 ; Marshalsey & Sclater, 2020 ).

Learning strategies and outcomes

Students used three learning strategies during the pandemic (see Table 4 ).

Online access

Students had to maintain online access , as institutional support for data and technology was rarely reported (Ahmed & Opoku, 2021 ; Laher et al., 2021 ). Students did so by switching to more reliable internet service providers, purchasing more data, borrowing computing equipment, or switching off webcams during class (Kapasia et al., 2020 ; Mahmud & German, 2021 ).

Outcomes : Unstable internet connections, noisy home environments, tight study spaces, and disruptions from family duties were challenges often reported in students’ learning environments (e.g. Castelli & Sarvary, 2021 ; Yeung & Yau, 2021 ). The power supply was unstable in developing countries and students also had limited financial resources to purchase data. To keep studying, these students relied on materials shared through WhatsApp™ groups or Google Drive™ and learnt using mobile phones even though their small screen sizes affected students’ learning quality (Kapasia et al., 2020 ).

Online participation

Students had to maintain online participation by redesigning study routines according to when lecturers posted lecture recordings, identifying personal productive hours, changing work locations at home to improve focus and concentration, and devising study strategies to use online resources effectively, such as through note-taking (e.g. Abou-Khalil et al., 2021 ; Mahmud & German, 2021 ; Marshalsey & Sclater, 2020 ). Students also adjusted their online communication style by taking the initiative to contact lecturers through email, discussion forums, or chat for support, and learning new etiquette for video conferencing (Abou-Khalil et al., 2021 ; Dietrich et al., 2020 ; Mahmud & German, 2021 ; Simon et al., 2020 ; Yeung & Yau, 2021 ). Students recognised the need for active online participation (Yeung & Yau, 2021 ) but most tended to switch off webcams and avoided speaking up during class (Ahmed & Opoku, 2021 ; Castelli & Sarvary, 2021 ; Dietrich et al., 2020 ; Khan et al., 2022 ; Lapitan et al., 2021 ; Marshalsey & Sclater, 2020 ; Munoz et al., 2021 ; Rajab & Soheib, 2021 ).

Outcomes : Mahmud and German ( 2021 ) found that students lack the confidence to plan their study strategies, seek help, and manage time. Students also lacked confidence and switched off webcams out of privacy concerns or because they felt self-conscious about their appearances and home environments (Marshalsey & Sclater, 2020 ; Rajab & Soheib, 2021 ). Too many turned off webcams and this became a group norm (Castelli & Sarvary, 2021 ). Classes eventually became dominated by more vocal students, making the quieter ones feel left out (Dietrich et al., 2020 ).

Positive coping

Students’ positive coping strategies included family support, rationalising their situation, focusing on their future, self-motivation, and making virtual social connections with classmates (Ando, 2021 ; Laher et al., 2021 ; Mahmud & German, 2021 ; Reedy et al., 2021 ; Simon et al., 2020 ).

Outcomes : Positive coping strategies helped students to improve learning experiences, maintain attendance/completion rates, and avoid academic integrity violations during online examinations (Ando, 2021 ; Reedy et al., 2021 ; Simon et al., 2020 ). However, these strategies cannot circumvent technology and infrastructure challenges (Mahmud & German, 2021 ), while the realities of economic, family, and health pressures during the pandemic threatened their educational continuity and caused some to manifest negative coping behaviours such as despondency and overeating (Laher et al., 2021 ).

Higher education online competencies

This systematic review outlined eight teaching and learning strategies for shifting online during the pandemic. Online teaching competency frameworks published before the pandemic advocate active learning, social interaction, and prompt feedback as critical indicators of online teaching quality (e.g. Bigatel et al., 2012 ; Crews et al., 2015 ). The findings suggest that lecturers’ student engagement strategies aligned with these standards, but they also needed to adjust practical skills training, assessment, learning access channels, and classroom teaching strategies. Students’ online participation and positive coping strategies reflected how online learners could effectively manage routines, schedules and their sense of isolation (Roper, 2007 ). Since most students had no choice over online learning during the pandemic (Dodson & Blinn, 2021 ), those lacking personal motivation or adequate infrastructure had to develop online participation and online access strategies to cope with the situation.

The eight teaching and learning strategies effectively maintained test scores and attendance/completion rates, but many challenges surfaced during teaching, learning, and assessment. Turnbull et. al. ( 2021 ) attribute lecturers’ and students’ pandemic challenges to online competency gaps, particularly in digital literacy or competencies for accessing information, analysing data, and communicating with technology (Blayone et al., 2018 ). However, the study findings show that digital literacy may not be enough for students to overcome infrastructure and home environment challenges in their learning environment. Lecturers can try helping students mitigate these challenges by providing asynchronous resource access through access equity strategies. Yet, students may not successfully learn asynchronously unless they can effectively self-direct learning. Lecturers may have pedagogical knowledge to create engaging active online learning experiences. How these strategies effectively counteract students’ inhibitions to turn on webcams and speak up during class remains challenging. Lectures may also have the skills to set up different online communication channels, but students may not actively engage if care and empathy are perceived to be lacking. Furthermore, lecturers’ online assessment strategies may not always balance academic integrity with test validity.

These findings show that online competencies are not just standardised technical or pedagogical skills (e.g. Goodyear et al., 2001 ) but “socially situated” (Alvarez et al., 2009 , p. 322) abilities for manoeuvring strategies according to situation and context (Hatano & Inagaki, 1986 ). It encompasses “dexterity” or finesse with skill performance (Merriam-Webster, n.d.). The pandemic demands one to be “flexible and adaptable” (Ally, 2019 , p. 312) amidst shifting national, institutional and learning contexts. Online dexterity is needed in several areas. Online learning during the pandemic is rarely unimodal. Establishing the appropriate synchronous-asynchronous blend is a critical pedagogical decision for lecturers. They need dexterity across learning modalities to create the “right” blend in different student, content, and technological contexts (Baran et al., 2013 ; Martin et al., 2019 ). Lecturers also need domain-related dexterity to preserve authentic learning experiences while converting subject content online (Fayer, 2014 ). Especially when teaching skill-based content under different social distancing requirements, competencies to maintain learning authenticity through simulations, alternative locations, or equipment may be critical (e.g. Schirmel, 2021 ). Dexterity with online assessment is also essential. Besides preventing cheating, lecturers need to ensure that online assessments retain test validity, improve learning processes and are effective for performance evaluation (AERA, 2014 ; Sadler & Reimann, 2018 ). Another area is the dexterity to engage in online communication that appropriately manifests care and empathy (Baran et al., 2013 ). Since online teaching increases lecturers’ workload (Watermeyer et al., 2021 ), dexterity to balance student care and self-care without compromising learning quality is also crucial.

Access to conducive learning environments critically affects students’ online learning success (Kapasia et al., 2020 ). While some infrastructure challenges cannot be prevented, students should have the dexterity to mitigate their effects. For example, when disconnected from class because of bandwidth fluctuations, students should be able to find alternative ways of catching up with the lecturer rather than remaining passive and frustrated (Ezra et al., 2021 ). Self-direction is critical during online learning because it is the ability to set learning goals, self-manage learning processes, self-monitor, self-motivate, and adjust learning strategies (Garrison, 1997 ). Students need the dexterity to manage self-direction processes across different courses, learning modalities, and learning schedules. Dexterity to create an active learning presence through using appropriate learning etiquette and optimising the affordances of text, audio, video, and shared documents during class is also essential. This can support students' cognitive, social, and emotional engagement across synchronous and asynchronous modalities, individually or in groups (Zilvinskis et al., 2017 ).

Future directions

Online learning is highly diverse and increasingly dynamic, making it challenging to cover all published work for review. In this study, we have analysed pandemic-related teaching and learning strategies and their outcomes but recognise that a third of the studies were from the United States and close to half from natural or health science programmes. The findings cannot fully elucidate the strategies implemented in unrepresented countries or disciplines. Recognising these limitations, we propose the following as future directions for higher education:

Validate post-pandemic relevance of online teaching and learning strategies

The eight strategies can be validated through longitudinal empirical studies, theoretical analyses or meta-synthesis of literature to establish their relevance for post-pandemic teaching and learning. Studies outside the United States and the natural and health science disciplines are especially needed. This could address the paucity of theoretical framing in the articles reviewed, even with theories developed before the pandemic (e.g. Garrison et al., 2010 ; Moore, 1989 ; Zimmerman, 2002 ).

Demarcate post-pandemic online competencies

The plethora of descriptive studies in the articles reviewed is inadequate for understanding the online competencies driving lecturers’ pedagogical decision-making and students’ learning processes. In situ studies adopting qualitative methods such as grounded theory or phenomenology can better demarcate lecturers’ and students’ competencies for “why and under which conditions certain methods have to be used, or new methods have to be devised” (Bohle Carbonell et al., 2014 , p. 15). A longitudinal comparison of these studies can provide a better understanding of relevant post-pandemic competencies.

Develop dexterity with respect to application of online competencies

Higher education institutions use technology workshops, mentoring, and instructional consultation to develop competencies in technology-enhanced learning (e.g. Baran, 2016 ). However, dexterity to manoeuvre contextual differences may be better fostered through exploration, discovery, and exposure to varied contexts of practice (Mylopoulos et al., 2018 ). Innovative ways of developing dexterity with respect to how online competencies can be applied and the efficacy of these methodologies are areas for further research.

The COVID-19 pandemic has significantly increased the adoption and utilisation of online learning. While the present review findings suggest that the strategies lecturers and students employed to shift online during the pandemic have contributed to maintaining educational continuity and test scores but many outstanding issues remained unresolved. These include failure for students to gain an enhanced learning experience, problems encountered in designing and implementing robust assessment and online examinations, cases of academic misconduct, inequitable access to digital technologies, and increased faculty workload. Lecturers and institutions need to tackle these issues to fully leverage the opportunities afforded by online teaching and learning. Further, our findings revealed that the level of online dexterity for both students and teachers need to be enhanced. Therefore, higher education institutions must understand and develop online dexterity institutional frameworks to ensure that pedagogical innovation through online learning can be continually sustained, both during the pandemic and beyond.

Availability of data and materials

All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article.

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Koh, J.H.L., Daniel, B.K. Shifting online during COVID-19: A systematic review of teaching and learning strategies and their outcomes. Int J Educ Technol High Educ 19 , 56 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-022-00361-7

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• Marion Heyres
• Michael Ratcliff

COVID-19 led to an increase in the provision of online higher education courses. Online academic student support is often provided to students to assist them in developing the skills and knowledge to successfully complete their course. However, it remains unclear whether online academic student support in higher education is successful, and if so, what makes it successful. This systematic literature review seeks to provide an overview of research on online academic student support in higher education. Out of 5385 initially identified publications from 2013 to 2022, 12 papers were included for review; seven studies were quantitative and five were mixed methods. The synthesis of the findings reported outcomes on students’ improved engagement, access to support and usage patterns, satisfaction, academic performance, motivation, creativity, self-efficacy, retention or course completion, and social benefits. This range creates a challenge for higher education providers who are considering implementing best practice in the provision of online academic student support in higher education due to the diversity of approaches. Future research, that is methodologically strong, is needed to demonstrate the impact of online academic student support detailing how higher education providers can improve the quality, learning outcomes, and retention

Copyright (c) 2024 Chris Walsh, Leicha Bragg, Marion Heyres, Ana Yap, Michael Ratcliff

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