homework about weather

Storm clouds, sunshine, snow, and rain adorn these weather worksheets and printable pages that help teach across the curriculum: science projects, plays, math, and informational passages. Rain or shine, you can tie all your lessons together with these weather-themed resources.

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• Weather Worksheets for Kids

Help kids learn about the weather while having fun with our collection of free weather worksheets. We have a variety of educational printables with a weather theme like matching clothes to the weather, today's weather, forecasting the weather, drawing different weather types, unscrambling weather related words, weather word search and much more! Just click on any of the pictures below to view the printable worksheet.

Weather Worksheet

Weather Graphic Organizer

Weather Word Search

Draw the Weather Worksheet

Today's Weather Worksheet

Weather Worksheet - Matching

Monthly Weather Tracking Worksheet

Weather Forecast Worksheet

Weather Worksheet - Picture Matching

Weather Worksheet - Word Scramble

Draw and Write about the Weather

What's the Weather?

Weather Worksheet - Missing Letters

Weather Forecast

Weather Worksheet - Alphabetical Order

Weather Activities Worksheet

Winter Weather Writing Worksheet

Autumn Weather Writing Worksheet

Spring Weather Writing Worksheet

Weather Journal Worksheet

Summer Weather Writing Worksheet

Weather Cut and Paste Worksheet

My Favorite Weather

Describe the Weather Worksheet

My Least Favorite Weather

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General Weather Resources

• Y—Young (PreK-3rd)
• M—Middle (4th-6th)
• O—Older (7th-12th)
• T—Teacher Resources

National Weather Service Education    (Y,M,O,T) All of the National Weather Service’s educational resources in one place. You can find educational websites for kids, science projects, activities, data resources, hand outs, and more.

Weather101 by the National Weather Service    (O,T) "Weather101 is a series of FREE interactive online classes to help the public learn about meteorology, forecasting and the National Weather Service in general." These classes will expound on the NWS's SKYWARN spotter classes offered each spring and fall. Classes are available on Mac, PC, iPad, iPhone, or Android using the free Go-To-Webinar app.

NOAA Resources    (Y,M,O,T) All of the educational resources from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration in one place. Learn about El Niño and La Niña, hurricanes, space weather, tornadoes, weather observation, weather systems and patterns, the climate, and tons more.

NOAA Data in the Classroom    (M,O,T) Interactive tools and materials to help visualize data from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.

NOAA National Severe Storms Laboratory    (Y,M,O,T) Learn all about severe weather from the NOAA NSSL. Included are activities and information on thunderstorms, tornadoes, floods, lighting, hail, damaging winds, and winter weather.

SciJinks: It’s All About Weather!    (Y,M,O,T) SciJinks is an educational website about weather from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. It features information about storms, tides and oceans, the atmosphere, water and ice, satellites and technology, weather forecasting, space weather, and more, as well as games, videos, classroom activities, downloads, and more.

JetStream: An Online School for Weather    (M,O) JetStream is an educational website about weather from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration that includes articles and lesson plans about the atmosphere, the ocean, global weather, clouds, the upper air, upper air charts, meteorology, satellites, Doppler radar, and more.

Climate.gov: Teaching Climate    (Y,M,O,T) From the NOAA, Climate.gov is home to a massive catalog of resources for teaching climate. Included is a teacher’s guidebook, “The Essential Principles of Climate Literacy,” and hundreds of lessons and activities for K-12 students. Topics include Climate Systems, Causes of Climate Change, Measuring Climate, Human Responses to Climate, Nature of Climate Science, Energy Use, Climate Impacts, and tons more.

NASA Climate Kids    (Y,M,O) Climate Kids is an educational website from NASA that is organized by the topics: Weather & Climate, Atmosphere, Water, Energy, and Plants & Animals. Students can find information about the weather and climate, NASA missions and programs, games, activities, videos, graphics, interactives, and more.

UCAR Learning Zone    (Y,M,O,T) The University Corporation for Atmospheric Research has a large collection of articles, games, interactives, activities, lessons, photos, graphics, videos, and other resources for learning about the weather, atmosphere, and climate.

UCAR SkySci for Kids    (Y,M) SkySci for Kids is an educational website from the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research that contains kid-friendly information and games on the weather and climate.

Weather Wiz Kids®    (Y,M) Weather Wiz Kids is an educational website by Crystal Wicker, a television meteorologist for the ABC affiliate in Indianapolis, Indiana. The website contains information on climate, clouds, drought, hurricanes, lightning, rain and floods, sandstorms, sink holes, temperature, thunderstorms, tornadoes, weather forecasting, weather instruments, wind, and winter storms. Also included are experiments, games, flashcards, jokes, career information, and more.

National Weather Museum and Science Center    (Y,M,O,T) The National Weather Museum and Science Center in Norman, Oklahoma, is dedicated to preserving weather artifacts and weather science. If you can’t visit in person, you can find digital exhibits and educational resources on its website.

Wunderground Wundermap    (Y,M,O) Use the Wunderground Wundermap to find weather, atmospheric, and wild fire information about any place on the planet.

Smithsonian Weather Lab    (Y,M,O) The Smithsonian Weather Lab is an interactive tool to help students visualize how ocean currents and air masses interact to form the weather in North America.

National Geographic Weather Resources    (Y,M,O) This collection of weather resources from National Geographic that includes articles, maps, graphics, videos, and interactives covering topics like rain, drought, tornadoes, wind, El Niño, the Jetstream, and more.

PBS NOVA: Cloud Lab    (M) Learn all about different types of clouds, hurricanes, storm prediction, and more in this interactive, educational site from PBS NOVA.

Science Learning Hub Weather Lessons    (Y,M,O,T) The Science Learning Hub | Pokapū Akoranga Pūtaiao is a publicly-funded educational website for science in New Zealand. You can find tons of explainer articles, videos, diagrams, interactives, science projects, and activities on weather, including on lighting, clouds, the water cycle, solar energy, the greenhouse effect, the atmosphere, climate change, and tons more.

Weather & Atmosphere Science Projects    (Y,M,O,T) The Science Buddies website has a large collection of K-12 STEM lessons and science projects on weather and atmosphere. Topics include: Wind meters, ozone depletion, weather prediction, measuring oxygen content, tornadoes, hurricanes, hydrometers, and more.

Science of Weather: 5th Grade Study Guide    (M) This guide from PragmaticMom.com provides an overview of basic weather concepts, including air pressure, clouds, climate, and more.

What Causes the Seasons?    (Y) From NASA Space Place, exploring earth and space! Explanations for students and resources for educators.

NASA Spotlights-Seasons    (Y) NASA Spotlites videos are short (90-120 second) student-produced videos designed to address science misconceptions. The videos are used within classroom-ready 5E lessons that utilize interactive technologies. Lessons foster conceptual change and deeper understanding of scientific vocabulary.

NASA eClips-Seasons    (Y) NASA eClips lesson, students explore how the Earth's relationship with the sun creates seasons and learn new vocabulary to describe this relationship using Frayer Models. This lesson is most appropriate for students in 3rd, 4th, and 5th grade. It is estimated this lesson will take about 45 minutes to complete.

What Are the Causes of the 4 Seasons on Earth?    (Y) From Sciencing.com, a resource for student for all things science related. Offers homework help as well as easy to understand articles that break down science concepts.

Science Projects for Kids: Weather and Seasons    (Y) From TLC's How Stuff Works. This site has a number of science projects for different seasons of the year.

Seasons from neoK12    (Y) The site offers videos about seasons for elementary students. Online games and puzzles, school presentations, and quizzes are also available. Most of the content is subscriber-only, but the videos are free to watch.

Seasons and Days    (Y) The website offers a nice set of worksheets for young learners.

What Is a Solstice and What Is an Equinox (and Why Should I Care)?    (Y,M) "Astronomically, our planet’s seasons change on four particular days each year, two solstices, one in June and one in December, and two equinoxes (one in March and one in September). The particular dates are targeted by scientists at the boundary between our seasons because of a series of factors based upon the relationship between the Earth and the Sun, the tilt in the Earth’s axis and how those factors play out for all of us living here on the third rock from the Sun."

How to Make 6-Pointed Paper Snowflakes    (Y) This step by step guide will teach you how to make SIX pointed paper snowflakes. Most people make (and most how-tos teach) snowflakes with four or eight points. Real snowflakes in nature form with six points

Snowflake Printable    (Y,M,O,T) Twelve free printable snowflake templates to fold and cut into beautiful paper snowflakes.

Bentley Snow Crystal Collection    (Y,M,O,T) A digital library providing a high-quality collection of stunning, un-retouched images of Wilson A. Bentley's original glass slide photographs of snow crystals.

A Guide to Snowflakes    (Y,M,O,T) SnowCrystals.com is an educational website by Kenneth G. Libbrecht, a professor of physics at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech). The site has tons of information and resources to learn about snowflakes. Included are fun facts, snowflake science, activities, photos, videos, diagrams, and more.

Why are snowflakes symmetrical?    (Y,M,O,T) This brief Scientific America articles explains how the ice crystallizing on one arm "knows" the shape of the other arms on the flake.

Make a snowflake    (Y,M) Demonstrate basic principles of chemistry by making a snowflake from borax

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Weather Homework Bundle

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Weathering , Erosion, and Deposition Homework , WarmUp, or Quiz

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French weather worksheet (substitute lesson/revision/ homework )

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French Immersion Weekly Words Homework , Bell Work, Practice 5 - weather

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U4,L9: Weathering , Erosion, Decomposition | Do Now, Classwork, & Homework

Science Homework for Weather and Climate Unit

Calendar Pack (Great for citizenship, weather , homework , etc.)

My Weather Observation Chart Homework

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10 x Weather Wordsearch Puzzle Sheet Keywords Homework Geography Meteorology

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30+ Activities for Teaching Weather Including Tornadoes, Lightning, and Rainbows!

Science is in the air!

Spring is the perfect season to study the weather and get your students outdoors for hands-on activities. From reading and writing about the weather to conducting experiments and more, here’s our list of weather activities for the classroom, perfect for preschool through middle school.

1. Read books about weather

Read-alouds are some of the most simple classroom activities that teach kids about weather. Get your students amped up about studying the weather with a flood of books. Read a few aloud, feature them in your classroom library, and let students study them with partners.

Learn more: 22 Awesome Weather Books for Kids

2. Start a weather journal

What you need: Construction paper, scissors, glue, preprinted labels, crayons, recording pages

What to do: Have students fold a large piece of construction paper in half to make a book cover. Staple a stack of recording pages ( see samples ) into the middle. Use scissors to cut out clouds, the sun, and raindrops, and glue them onto the cover. Draw in snow and fog. Glue labels as illustrated onto the cover. Then allow students a few minutes each day to journal the weather outside.

Learn more: The Curriculum Corner

3. Learn weather vocabulary words

Give your students the words to describe all kinds of weather with these free printable cards. With words like sunny, cloudy, and stormy, as well as blizzard, flood, hurricane, the four seasons, and others, they can be used for many activities, such as helping students fill in their weather journals.

Learn more: PreKinders

4. Make it rain

What you need: Clear plastic cup or glass jar, shaving cream, food coloring

What to do: Fill the cup with water. Squirt shaving cream on top for the clouds. Explain that when clouds get really heavy with water, it rains! Then put blue food coloring on top of the cloud and watch it “rain.”

Learn more: The Happy Housewife

5. Create your own miniature water cycle

What you need: Ziplock bag, water, blue food coloring, Sharpie pen, tape

What to do: Weather activities like this one take a little bit of patience, but they’re worth the wait. Pour one-quarter cup of water and a few drops of blue food coloring into a ziplock bag. Seal tightly and tape the bag to a (preferably south-facing) wall. As the water warms in the sunlight, it will evaporate into vapor. As the vapor cools, it will begin changing into liquid (condensation) just like a cloud. When the water condenses enough, the air will not be able to hold it and the water will fall down in the form of precipitation.

Learn more: Playdough to Plato

6. Use ice and heat to make rain

What you need: Glass jar, plate, water, ice cubes

What to do: Heat water until it is steaming, then pour it into the jar until it is about one-third full. Place a plate full of ice cubes on top of the jar. Watch as condensation builds and water begins to stream down the sides of the jar.

Learn more: I Can Teach My Child

7. Watch the fog roll in

What you need: Glass jar, small strainer, water, ice cubes

What to do: Fill the jar completely with hot water for about a minute. Pour out almost all the water, leaving about 1 inch in the jar. Place the strainer over the top of the jar. Drop three or four ice cubes into the strainer. As the cold air from the ice cubes collides with the warm, moist air in the bottle, the water will condense and fog will form. This is one of those weather activities that will inspire plenty of oohs and aahs!

Learn more: Weather Wiz Kids/Fog Experiments

8. Make a cloud poster

What you need: 1 large piece of construction paper or small poster board, cotton balls, glue, marker

What to do: Using the information guide included at the link, create different types of clouds by manipulating the cotton balls. Then glue them to the poster and label them.

Learn more: Science Spot

9. Crack a few weather jokes

Want to incorporate a little humor into your weather activities? Try some weather-themed jokes! Why is the sun so smart? Because it has more than 5,000 degrees! Bring a little weather humor into your classroom with this collection of jokes and riddles.

Learn more: Listcaboodle

10. Reflect a rainbow

What you need: Glass of water, sheet of white paper, sunlight

What to do: Fill the glass all the way to the top with water. Put the glass of water on a table so that it is half on the table and half off the table (make sure that the glass doesn’t fall!). Then, make sure that the sun can shine through the glass of water. Next, place the white sheet of paper on the floor. Adjust the piece of paper and the glass of water until a rainbow forms on the paper.

How does this happen? Explain to students that light is made up of many colors: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. When light passes through the water, it is broken up into all of the colors seen in a rainbow!

Learn more: Rookie Parenting

11. Predict rain using pine cones

What you need: Pine cones and a journal

What to do: Make a pine-cone weather station! Observe the pine cones and the weather daily. Note that when the weather is dry, the pine cones stay open. When it’s about to rain, the pine cones close! This is a great way to talk about weather prediction with students. Pine cones actually open and close based on the humidity to help seed dispersal.

Learn more: Science Sparks

12. Create your own lightning

What you need: Aluminum pie tin, wool sock, Styrofoam block, pencil with eraser, thumbtack

What to do: Push the thumbtack through the center of the pie tin from the bottom. Push the eraser end of the pencil onto the thumbtack. Place the tin to the side. Put the Styrofoam block on a table. Quickly rub the block with the wool sock for a couple of minutes. Pick up the aluminum pie pan, using the pencil as a handle, and place it on top of the Styrofoam block. Touch the aluminum pie pan with your finger—you should feel a shock! If you don’t feel anything, try rubbing the Styrofoam block again. Once you feel the shock, try turning the lights out before you touch the pan again. You should see a spark, like lightning!

What is happening? Static electricity. Lightning happens when the negative charges (electrons) in the bottom of the cloud (or in this experiment, your finger) are attracted to the positive charges (protons) in the ground (or in this experiment, the aluminum pie pan). The resulting spark is like a mini lightning bolt.

Learn more: UCAR

13. Learn 10 interesting things about air

Even though air is all around us, we can’t see it. So what is air, exactly? Learn 10 fascinating facts that explain the makeup of air and why it is so important for every living thing.

Learn more: Climate Kids

14. Conjure up lightning in your mouth

What you need: A mirror, a dark room, wintergreen Life Savers

What to do: Turn off the lights and have students wait until their eyes have adjusted to the dark. Bite down on a wintergreen candy while looking in the mirror. Chew with your mouth open and you’ll see that the candy sparks and glitters. What’s happening? You are actually making light with friction: triboluminescence. As you crush the candy, the stress creates electric fields, like electricity in a lightning storm. When the molecules recombine with their electrons, they emit light. Why wintergreen candy? It converts ultraviolet light into visible blue light, which makes the “lightning” brighter to see. If students aren’t seeing it in their own mouths, have them watch the video above.

Learn more: Exploratorium

15. Track a thunderstorm

What you need: Thunder, stopwatch, journal

What to do: Wait for a lightning flash and then start the stopwatch immediately. Stop when you hear the sound of thunder. Have students write down their numbers. For every five seconds, the storm is one mile away. Divide their number by five to see how many miles away the lightning is! The light traveled faster than sound, which is why it took longer to hear the thunder.

Learn more: Weather Wiz Kids/Track a Thunderstorm

16. Make a thunderstorm front

What you need: Clear plastic container (size of a shoebox), red food coloring, ice cubes made with water and blue food coloring

What to do: Fill the plastic container two-thirds full with lukewarm water. Let the water sit for a minute to come to air temperature. Place a blue ice cube into the container. Drop three drops of red food coloring into the water at the opposite end of the container. Watch what happens! Here’s the explanation: The blue cold water (representing a cold air mass) sinks, while the red warm water (representing the warm, unstable air mass) rises. This is called convection and the warm air is forced to rise by the approaching cold front, and the thunderstorm forms.

Learn more: Earth Science Week

17. Learn the difference between weather and climate

Share this interesting video with your students to learn the difference between what we call weather and the climate.

18. Swirl up a tornado

What you need: Two 2-liter clear plastic bottles (empty and clean), water, food coloring, glitter, duct tape

What you do: Students always love classic weather activities like this one. First, fill one of the bottles two-thirds full of water. Add food coloring and a dash of glitter. Use duct tape to fasten the two containers together. Be sure to tape tightly so that no water leaks out when you turn the bottles over. Flip the bottles so that the bottle with the water is on top. Swirl the bottle in a circular motion. This will create a vortex and a tornado will form in the top bottle as the water rushes into the bottom bottle.

Learn more: Discovery Express

19. Make a warm and cold front model

What you need: Two drinking glasses, red and blue food coloring, glass bowl, cardboard

What to do: Fill one glass with chilled water and a couple of drops of blue food coloring. Fill the other with hot water and red food coloring. Cut a piece of cardboard so that it fits snugly into the glass bowl, separating it into two sections. Pour the hot water into one half of the bowl and cold water into the other half. Quickly and carefully pull the cardboard separator out. The water will swirl and settle with the cold water on bottom, the hot water on top, and a purple zone where they mixed in the middle!

Learn more: Preschool Powol Packets

20. Do a Blue Sky experiment

Videos are easy to incorporate into your classroom weather activities. This one answers burning questions about weather. Why does our sky look blue? Why does the sun appear to be yellow even though it is a white star? Find out the answer to these questions and more with this informative video.

Learn more: The Action Lab

21. Grow a snowflake

What you need: String, wide-mouthed jar, white pipe cleaners, blue food coloring, boiling water, borax, a pencil

What to do: Cut a white pipe cleaner into thirds. Twist the three sections together in the center so that you now have a shape that looks something like a six-sided star. Make sure the lengths of the star are equal by trimming them to the same length. Tie the flake to the pencil with string. Carefully fill the jar with boiling water (adult job). For each cup of water, add three tablespoons of borax, adding one tablespoon at a time. Stir until the mixture is dissolved, but don’t worry if some of the borax settles at the base of the jar. Add food coloring. Hang the snowflake in the jar. Let sit overnight; remove.

Learn more: Martha Stewart

22. Make magic snowballs

What you need: Frozen baking soda, cold water, vinegar, squirt bottles

What to do: Start by mixing two parts baking soda with one part water to make fluffy, moldable snowballs. Then, pour vinegar into squirt bottles and let kids squirt their snowballs. The reaction between the baking soda and vinegar will cause the snowballs to fizz and bubble. For a snow avalanche, pour vinegar into a tub, then drop a snowball in!

Learn more: Growing a Jeweled Rose

23. Catch the wind

What you need: Paper cut into 6″ x 6″ squares, wood skewers, glue gun, small beads, sewing pins, a thumbtack, needle-nose pliers, scissors

What to do: Make a paper pinwheel! Follow the easy, step-by-step directions in the link below for these colorful and fun weather activities.

Learn more: One Little Project

24. Observe the intensity of the wind

What you need: One large blue recycle bag, one empty plastic container such as a yogurt or sour cream tub, clear packing tape, string or yarn, ribbons or streamers to decorate

What to do: Make a wind sock. Start by cutting the rim off the plastic tub. Wrap the edge of the bag around the rim and secure it with tape. Using a hole punch, make a hole in the bag just below the plastic ring. If you don’t have a hole punch, you can use a pencil. Tie a string through the hole and attach to a post or high railing.

Learn more: The Chaos and the Clutter

25. Determine the direction of the wind

What you need: Paper cup, pencil, straw, pin, paper plate, construction paper scraps

What to do: You’ll be creating a wind vane to detect the direction of the wind! Poke a sharpened pencil through the bottom of a paper cup. Insert a pin through the middle of a drinking straw and into the eraser of the pencil. Make a cut approximately one inch deep on each end of the straw, making sure to go through both sides of the straw. Cut small squares or triangles of construction paper and slip one into each end of the straw. Place your wind vane onto a paper plate or piece of paper with the directions marked.

Learn more: Education.com/Wind Vane

26. Measure wind speed

What you need: Five 3-oz. paper cups, 2 drinking straws, pin, paper punch, scissors, stapler, sharp pencil with eraser

What to do: Take one paper cup (which will be the center of your anemometer) and use a paper punch to punch four equally spaced holes about half an inch below the rim. Push a sharpened pencil through the bottom of the cup so that the eraser rests in the middle of the cup. Push one drinking straw through the hole in one side of the cup and out the other side. Insert the other straw through the opposite holes so that they form a crisscross inside the cup. Push a pin through the intersection of the straws and into the eraser. For each of the other four cups, punch a hole on opposite sides of the cup about half an inch down.

To assemble: Push one cup onto the end of each straw, making sure that all of the cups are facing the same direction. The anemometer will rotate with the wind. It does not need to be pointed in the wind for use.

Learn more: Weather Wiz Kids

27. Measure rain volume

What you need: One 2-liter bottle, Sharpie, stones, water, scissors, ruler, tape

What to do: Create a rain gauge! Start by cutting away the top third of the 2-liter plastic bottle and put it to the side. Pack a few stones at the bottom of the bottle. Pour water in until just above the stone level. Draw a scale on a piece of masking tape with the help of the ruler and paste it on the side of the bottle so you can start counting just above the current water line. Invert the top of the bottle and place it into the bottom half to act as a funnel. Leave the bottle outside to capture rain.

Learn more: News24

28. Create art with the power of the sun

What you need: Photo-sensitive paper, various objects such as leaves, sticks, paper clips, etc.

What to do: Make sun prints! Place the paper, bright-blue side up, in a shallow tub. Place objects you wish to “print” on the paper and leave it in the sun for 2 to 4 minutes. Remove the objects from the paper and the paper from the tub. Soak the paper in water for 1 minute. As the paper dries, the image will sharpen.

Learn more: Mud and Bloom

29. Measure atmospheric pressure

What you need: A dry, empty frozen-juice can or coffee can with lid removed, latex balloon, rubber band, tape, 2 drinking straws, card stock

What to do: This barometer starts by cutting off the stiff band of the balloon. Stretch the balloon over the top of the juice can. Secure a rubber band around the balloon to hold it securely. Tape the end of the drinking straw to the center of the balloon surface, making sure it hangs off to one side. Fold the card stock in half vertically and make hash marks every quarter inch. Set the barometer right next to the measurement card. As the external air pressure changes, it will cause the balloon to bend inward or outward at the center. The tip of the straw will move up or down accordingly. Take pressure readings five or six times a day.

Learn more: All Science Fair Projects

30. Make a DIY thermometer

What you need: Clear plastic bottle, water, rubbing alcohol, clear plastic drinking straw, modeling clay, food coloring

What to do: Fill the bottle about one-quarter full with equal parts water and rubbing alcohol. Add a few drops of food coloring. Put the straw inside the bottle without letting it touch the bottom. Seal the neck of the bottle with the modeling clay to keep the straw in place. Hold your hands on the bottom of the bottle and watch the mixture move up through the straw. Why? It expands when warm!

Learn more: Education.com/Homemade Thermometer

31. Demonstrate a fire tornado

What you need: A lazy Susan, wire screen mesh, small glass dish, sponge, lighter fluid, lighter

What to do: Weather activities like this one are for teacher demonstrations only! Make a cylinder about 2.5 feet tall from the wire screen mesh and set it aside. Place the glass dish in the center of the lazy Susan. Cut the sponge into strips and place in bowl. Soak the sponge with lighter fluid. Light the fire and rotate the lazy Susan. The fire will spin, but a tornado will not be seen. Now, place the wire screen cylinder on the lazy Susan, creating a perimeter around the fire. Give it a spin and watch the tornado dance.

Learn more: Steve Spangler Science

If you liked these weather activities, check out 70 Easy Science Experiments Using Materials You Already Have On Hand .

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ESL Weather Game

You can set this page as a homework task for a group of students; doing so will give you a record of who has completed the task. Visit the teachers' section for more information.

You can share this page by using the link below.

https://www.gamestolearnenglish.com/weather/

This is a game for practicing weather language in English. The target audience is ESL learner; although, young native speaking children may also find it useful. The main aim is to practice weather vocabulary and phrases, specifically to expose students to weather vocab such as "Sunny", weather phrases such as "In England, it will rain" and weather actions such as "When it is hot, she eats and ice cream". The hope is that by exposing students to this language, it will reinforce the language and increase their familiarity with it. A secondary aim for this game is to show students different countries and expose them to simple country name vocabulary. While country vocab is not a primary focus for this game, it is still beneficial for students to see and practice country language in English. ESL students usually have specific modules or chapters in a textbook that covers countries and customs, so I think the country names are worth of study. In terms of this specific game, weather language and countries are quite complimentary and the way the game works really requires country language to be used. Also, I really think that countries on a map of the world is something that students will find somewhat interesting and so I think it will be good for holding their attention.

The content in this game is divided into 4 sets. Each set includes 6 weather vocabulary items, 12 countries and 6 weather related actions. The first set covers the basic weather vocab - "Sunny", "Windy" and etc. Then the remaining sets increase in difficulty to the point where the fourth set includes more obscure weather vocab such as "Forest fire" and Hurricane". Below is a list of the language used.

Set 1 - Europe Sunny, Cloudy, Windy, Snow, Lightning, Rain England, France, Spain, Germany, Italy, Poland, Greece, Holland, Portugal, Ireland, Czechia, Denmark (Lightning is prefered to thunder as the image is visual rather than auditory. Also, Czechia is prefered to The Czech Republic as it is shorter and so fits in the box.)

Set 2 - Asia Hot, Mild, Cold, Boiling, Freezing, Wet China, Japan, India, Vietnam, Korea, Malaysia, The Philippines, Mongolia, Taiwan, Singapore, Hong Kong, Thailand

Set 3 - North America Drizzle, Hail, Storm, Overcast, Rainbow, Tornado the North, the North-East, the East, the South, the West, the middle, Canada, Mexico, California, Texas, Florida, New York

Set 4 - World Volcano, Blizzard, Flood, Forest fire, Air pollution, Hurricane Russia, Turkey, Brazil, Argentina, Australia, Nigeria, South Africa, Colombia, Egypt, Pakistan, Indonesia, The United States

When it is sunny he relaxes on the beach. When it is cloudy they play football. When it is raining she takes an umbrella. When it is snowing they have a snow ball fight. When there is lightning the dog hides under the bed. When it is windy she sails a boat.

When it is hot she eats ice cream. When it is mild he goes for a bike ride. When it is cold she drinks tea. When it is boiling hot she turns on the AC. When it is freezing cold she stays in bed. When it is wet she wears a raincoat.

When there is a drizzle of rain she goes jogging. When it hails he takes care of his dog. When there is a storm he relaxes on the sofa. When it is overcast they play badminton. When there is a rainbow he takes a photo. When there is a tornado he closes the window.

When a volcano erupts he films a video. When there is a blizzard she takes a bath. When there is flood he rows a boat. When there is a forest fire she drives away. When there is air pollution she wears a face mask. When there is a hurricane he flies away.

There are 3 parts to the game. In the first part, you have to drag the vocabulary items to match the images. In the second part, you are show a map and have to drag the weather images to the appropriate country according to the text and audio. Finally, the last part shows a big image and you have to form a sentence to describe what you see.

I hope your students enjoy the game and can practice and improve their English. Leave any comments you like below.

yeah nice game

that look nice

- Trần Nhật Quang

Please let us be friend

Hello I like this game too I want to be friends with you 😊

presentation

- jonnathan salas

Games to Learn English

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What is weather and how does it differ around the world?

Weather is the way the air and the atmosphere feels. It includes the outside temperature, strength of the wind, and whether it is raining, sunny, hailing, snowing, sleeting, foggy, or cloudy. The weather changes regularly and tends to be different during different seasons and across different countries.

We call the general weather trends and the extremes of weather in one place a ‘climate’.

Winters tend to be colder and have more rain, sleet, hail and snow, while summer tends to be warmer and sunnier. Some countries are warm all year round, while others are cold all year round.

The UK has what is called a ‘temperate’ climate. A temperate climate is one that is not too extreme.

Top 10 facts

• The warmth of our Sun drives currents in the atmosphere: they carry air and moisture around our planet, creating our climate and our weather.
• The average weather for a region is called its climate . There are five different classifications of climate: polar, cold, temperate, dry and tropical.
• Different seasons have different weather patterns. The Earth spins as it moves around the Sun; as different parts of it are closer to or further away from the Sun and receive more or less sunlight, we experience spring, summer, autumn and winter.
• Human activity can affect the weather. Pollution from factories and vehicles has led to what is called the greenhouse effect . This has gradually warmed the earth over the past few decades, causing some of the polar ice caps to start melting. It has also damaged the ozone layer which protects us from damaging UV rays from the sun.
• Warm weather can be ‘dry’ or ‘damp’. When warm weather is ‘damp’, or humid it means that the air has a lot of water, or moisture, trapped inside it.
• We describe the direction of winds in terms of where they are coming from. A south westerly wind is blowing in from the south west.
• Clouds are formed when damp air moves upwards, then cools down. The clouds are made up of droplets of water or tiny bits of ice, which fall as rain or hail, or sleet or snow, when the air around the cloud warms up.
• Thunder is one of the loudest noises in nature. It occurs when electricity made inside a cloud shoots towards the ground as lightning and heats the air. It is this heating up of the air that causes the thundering noise.
• Snowflakes are formed in clouds when water vapour freezes around a tiny piece of dirt in the air and becomes so heavy that it falls to the ground. Snowflakes have six sides and can be formed of 200 ice crystals.
• Climate change is a huge, long-term shift in weather patterns and average temperatures on Earth.

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Did you know?

• There are ten different types of cloud (Cirrus, Cirrocumulus, Cirrostratus, Altocumulus, Altostratus, Nimbostratus, Stratocumulus, Stratus, Cumulus, Cumulonimbus)
• A lightning bolt can be hotter than the sun – 30,000 degrees Celsius. The energy in this could keep a lightbulb lit for 3 months!
• The world’s highest weather station is on the top pf Mount Everest
• The biggest snowflake ever recorded was 38cm wide and 20cm thick
• The fastest wind ever recorded in the UK was 142mph on the 13th February 1989 in Scotland – that’s over twice as fast as a cheetah can run!
• The official highest temperature ever recorded on Earth is 56.7°C, measured in July 1913 at Greenland Ranch, Death Valley, California, USA
• The coldest temperature ever recorded was -89° Celsius in Antarctica in 1983
• It takes 8 minutes for sunlight to reach the Earth from the Sun
• The most rain to fall in a week ever recorded was 5 metres – enough to cover a lorry! It fell on Reunion Island in 2007

Look through the gallery below and see if you can spot the following:

• Cumulus clouds
• A wind sock                                           
• Double rainbow
• A hurricane from above and on the ground
• Monsoon rains

Weather is caused when the Earth is heated in an uneven way by the sun. Changes in temperature cause winds to form which then move pockets of warm or cold air around. When air is moved up (vertically) it can cause clouds to form and may result in precipitation (rain) and storms. When air moves around the Earth (horizontally) it moves pockets of warm air from the tropics to more temperate areas. Different winds bring different types of weather. A south westerly wind in the UK is warm, while a northerly wind is cold. That is because the wind coming from the south west is coming from a warmer part of the world, while a northern wind is blowing down from the artic. This would be reversed in a country like Australia . The weather in the UK is warmer when we are closer to the sun in the summer, and when warm winds blow warm air in from the south. Temperatures in the UK tend to reach the high 20s and low 30s degrees Celsius at the height of summer. The warmest temperature ever recorded in the UK was in Kent, England in 2003. The temperature that day rose to 38.5° Celsius. The UK gets very cold snaps when winds from the north blow icy weather down from the Arctic regions. In the winter when the northern hemisphere is furthest from the sun we sometimes we get clear skies with bitterly cold wind, as well as snow. The coldest temperature ever recorded in the UK was in Braemar in Scotland in 1982. The temperature that day dropped to -27° Celsius. Storms generally form when a large section of cold dry air bashes into a large section of warm moist air. Storms tend to have thick dark clouds and strong winds. There is often heavy rain or sleet, hail or snow, and thunder and lightning. Many countries such as those in Asia and North America experience extreme winds and storms such as hurricanes, cyclones, tornadoes . These all have very strong winds which can knock buildings over and rip trees up from the ground. They can also cause flooding. Some countries, such as Brazil , Kenya and Indonesia experience extreme heat, where temperatures reach over 100 degrees. These countries have the Equator running through them and are closest to the sun. They have a tropical climate. People in these countries try to avoid the hottest parts of the day by staying indoors. Extreme temperatures like these can be very dangerous if people are outside for prolonged periods. Countries towards the north and south of the earth have a much colder climate. Parts of Russia and Greenland and parts of Canada are in the polar regions and experience a tundra climate. They have long cold winters and their summers are pretty cold too. Weather stations are dotted all over the place on level ground that is away from trees, buildings and hills or mountains. They are a small area where special equipment is used to record the weather. Equipment includes rain gauges, anemometers, thermometers, barometers and sun gauges. We need to know what the weather is going to be each day so that we know what to wear. On hot sunny days we wear cool light clothes, while on cold, rainy days we need more layers like jumpers and a waterproof coat. Weather is predicted using satellite images of the Earth and weather stations. Specially trained people called meteorologists use computers to help them predict what the weather will be over the next few hours and days.

Words to know:

Temperature – how hot or cold the air is Cloud – water vapour that had condensed in the air Precipitation – any form of water that fall from clouds (snow, sleet, hail, rain) Rain – water droplets that fall from clouds Sleet – a semi-frozen rain Hail – frozen rain UV radiation – harmful rays that come from the sun Climate – the average weather of a specific place over a period of time Microclimate – the climate of a small and specific place (for example a city or a mountain) Blizzard – a swirling snow storm Breeze – a gentle wind Tropical storm – a storm in the tropics Rainbow – the sun shining through droplets of water, in turn splitting the light into is various colour parts Flood – when water lies deep on the ground and doesn’t soak down Weather forecast – a prediction of what the weather will be like over the next few hours and days Wind sock – measure the direction of the wind Weather station – a place where weather measuring equipment is set up Rain gauge – measures rainfall Flash flood – a flood that appears suddenly, rather than building slowly Frost – icy dew Global warming – the effects of the greenhouse effect on gradually increasing the overall temperature of the Earth Greenhouse effect – when pollution in the atmosphere prevents the heat from the Earth escaping and warms the Earth up Lightning – electricity built up in a cloud that jumps to the ground Thunder – the noise created when air warms up suddenly after a bolt of lightning Mist – tiny droplets of water dispersed in the air Relative humidity – the amount of moisture in the air Season – divisions of the year that are often characterised by changing weather patterns Thermometer – measures temperature Wind chill – the effect of the wind on making the temperature feel colder Atmosphere – the air and gases surrounding the Earth Drought – when there is a lack of water Evaporation – when heat turns water into gas Monsoon – very heavy rains in tropical regions Temperate climate – area of the world with moderate changes in weather Tropical climate –  area of the world that experiences high temperatures and heavy monsoon rains Polar climate – area of the world that experiences very cold long winters and cold summers Cold climate - areas of the world that have permanent ice caps and short summers Dry climate – area of the world that experiences hot dry weather and low rainfall Rain gauge – equipment used to measure rainfall Anemometer – equipment used to measure wind speed Barometer – equipment used to measure relative humidity Sun gauge – equipment used to measure the amount and intensity of sunshine

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• Simulate rainbows, hurricanes and precipitation with loads of interactive weather games from Scijinks
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• Try reading meteorological signs and giving your own weather forecast
• How well do your know your clouds? Play a cloud matching game !
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• Do you know these popular sayings? Weather folklore is an established tradition all over the world
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Best children's books about weather

Find out more:

• Watch the BBC Bitesize introduction to weather and climate change
• Learn about the relationship between weather and climate in a video guide for kids
• A video about weather and seasons for KS1 children
• Hurricanes, typhoons and cyclones explained
• All about  hurricanes
• A diagram to explain the greenhouse effect
• Global warming explained for kids
• Information about tornadoes and hurricanes
• Learn to identify different types of clouds
• Find out more about dangerous weather like blizzards, tornadoes and hurricanes
• Learn to identify different cloud types
• A stop-motion animation about clouds and weather
• NASA scientists answer kids' climate and weather questions
• Watch kids' videos about weather , climate change , the difference between weather and climate and the seasons and the length of every day
• Information about climate change over billions of years
• The Beaufort scale  is a measure of wind speed
• Look at some weather diagrams
• Explore a huge number of weather resources from Scijinks

See for yourself

• Watch National Geographic  videos about different types of weather
• See a meteorologist measure rainfall with different gauges and find out why predicting weather is important
• Look at a climate change map
• Consult the World Weather Information Service to see what the weather is like all over the world
• Amazing weather images to look through

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• Biographies
• Compare Countries
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Related resources for this article

• Primary Sources & E-Books

Introduction

The weather concerns everyone and has some effect on nearly every human activity. It occurs within the atmosphere, the mixture of gases that completely envelops Earth. Weather is defined as the momentary, day-to-day state of the atmosphere over any place on Earth’s surface. Climate , on the other hand, refers to weather averaged over a long period. The basic atmospheric conditions that make up the weather include precipitation, humidity, temperature, pressure, cloudiness, and wind.

The air is constantly in movement. There also is a continuous exchange of heat and moisture between the atmosphere and Earth’s land and sea surfaces. These ever-changing conditions can be scientifically analyzed. The science of observing and predicting the weather is known as meteorology .

The Atmosphere and Its General Circulation

Air is compressed by its own weight, so that about half the bulk of the atmosphere is squeezed into the bottom 3.5 miles (5.6 kilometers). The bottom layer of the atmosphere , the troposphere, is the site of almost all the world’s weather. Above its turbulence and storminess is the calmer stratosphere, which has little moisture and few clouds . ( See also Earth, “Atmosphere .”)

Underlying the great variety of atmospheric motions is a pattern of large-scale air movement over Earth. The basic cause of these planetary winds, or general circulation of the atmosphere, is that the Sun heats the air over the Equator more than it does the air over the poles. The heated air over the equatorial regions rises and flows generally poleward—in both the Northern and Southern hemispheres. In the polar regions the air cools and sinks. From time to time it flows back toward the Equator.

The upward movement of air results in a belt of low pressure in the tropical regions astride the Equator. On either side—at about 30° N latitude and 30° S latitude—is a belt of high pressure. It is formed as the upper-level flow of air from the Equator sinks to the surface. From each of these subtropical high-pressure belts, surface winds blow outward, toward both the Equator and the poles. The Coriolis effect —a result of Earth’s rotation—deflects the winds to the right of the winds’ direction of motion in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left of their direction in the Southern Hemisphere. This produces a belt of tropical easterly winds (winds blowing from east to west). It also produces two belts of midlatitude westerly winds (blowing from west to east), one in each hemisphere.

Like the tropical easterlies, or trade winds, the surface winds from the poles are also deflected to the west. Where these polar easterlies meet the westerly winds in each hemisphere—at about 60° latitude—a belt of low pressure girdles Earth.

This arrangement of Earth’s wind and pressure belts varies somewhat with the time of the year. They shift northward during the Northern Hemisphere’s summer . They shift southward during the Southern Hemisphere’s summer. Both the continuity of the pressure belts and the prevailing directions of the winds are also modified greatly by the differing rates at which Earth’s land and water surfaces exchange heat and moisture with the atmosphere.

Very large-scale and long-lasting changes in wind and pressure patterns also sometimes occur. Most of the time, for example, the eastern Pacific Ocean near South America has relatively cool water temperatures and high pressure. The western Pacific near Australia and Indonesia usually has warmer water and lower pressure. This results in dry conditions in Peru and Chile and wetter weather in Indonesia and eastern Australia. In some years, however, the pattern reverses as part of a phenomenon called El Niño /Southern Oscillation (ENSO), which strongly affects weather in most parts of the world. A buildup of warm water in the eastern Pacific then brings heavy rains to Peru, while Australia experiences drought . The easterly trade winds in the Pacific weaken and may even reverse. The warm ocean water also strengthens winter storms that move onshore in the southwestern United States. As a result, there is heavy rain in southern California and much of the southern United States.

Air Masses and Weather Fronts

Air that has acquired a fairly uniform temperature and humidity over a large area of Earth’s surface is called an air mass. Air masses are of four main types depending on where they originate. The types are Arctic (A) or Antarctic (AA), polar (P), tropical (T), and equatorial (E). Air masses are also of either maritime (m) or continental (c) origin. In general, a maritime air mass is relatively moist and has a moderate temperature. A continental air mass is relatively dry and may have a very hot or very cold temperature, depending on the season .

Every winter, immense, cold continental polar (cP) or continental Arctic (cA) air masses accumulate over northern Canada and Siberia. Temperatures may sink as low as –80 °F (–62 °C). Cold waves occur when a cA air mass sweeps southward in the wake of winter storms. Milder maritime polar (mP) air masses accumulate over the North Pacific and North Atlantic oceans. Maritime tropical (mT) air masses move into the United States from over the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea, and the tropical Atlantic Ocean. The moisture in mT air can produce heavy rains.

Other parts of the world are often affected by similar types of air masses, but in different frequencies or combinations. These air masses help determine the particular climates of the regions. For example, Europe is most often affected by mP or mT air masses from the Atlantic, with occasional invasions of cP air from the east or northeast. Australia is affected mainly by rather mild mP or mT air masses and by hot, dry cT air from its own interior. Australia never feels the effect of true cP or cAA air. After such air leaves its source in Antarctica, it is essentially converted to mP air by its long path over water.

Weather fronts are sharp transition zones between different air masses. A cold front, which is the leading edge of a cold air mass, brings a quick drop in temperature and a rapid rise in pressure. It is often accompanied by thunderstorms in summer and snow flurries in winter. It is often followed by clearing skies within a day or so. An advancing warm air mass tends to override the rear portion of the cold air mass ahead of it. The trailing edge of a retreating cold air mass along the ground is known as a warm front. Thickening and lowering cloud layers precede the arrival of the front, usually with widespread, long-lasting precipitation. After the front passes, conditions become warmer and less cloudy.

A stationary front occurs when the boundary between a cold and a warm air mass does not move appreciably in any direction. Cloudiness and precipitation may then persist for many days, especially on the cold side of the stationary front. An occluded front results when a cold front overtakes a warm front on the ground, lifting the warm air entirely aloft.

Weather fronts are formed as part of eastward-moving low-pressure centers known as wave cyclones or frontal cyclones. They are a type of cyclone , or a large system of winds that rotate around a low-pressure area, or low. In the Northern Hemisphere the wind circulation of a cyclone is counterclockwise. In the Southern Hemisphere it is clockwise. Wave cyclones form in the westerly wind belts along the polar fronts that separate polar and tropical air. A wave cyclone develops when a low-pressure area in the upper airflow approaches a stationary front on the ground. This lowers the pressure on the polar front. The polar front then bends to form the typical horizontal wave consisting of a cold front following a warm front. The cold front swings around the equatorial side of the low as it overtakes the slower-moving warm front. As a cold front passes through an area in the Northern Hemisphere, the wind generally shifts from the south or southwest to the northwest. In the Southern Hemisphere, the wind shifts from the north or northwest to the southwest.

Wave cyclones are associated with stormy weather, which may affect an area of more than a million square miles. They usually reach maximum intensity within two days. Storms in North America and Eurasia are usually steered by the upper airflow northeastward into, respectively, the Icelandic or Aleutian lows. These lows are semipermanent features of the low-pressure belt in the high latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere.

Wave cyclones usually occur in groups. As a cyclone matures and moves on, a new one may form along the trailing cold front. When this occurs near an abundant supply of heat and moisture, such as along the Atlantic coast of the United States, the secondary cyclone may exceed the primary one in suddenness, wind velocity, and amount of precipitation.

The Pacific Ocean, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Atlantic Ocean are the main sources of moisture for cyclones in the United States. Lows that enter the United States from these bodies of water, or that form over the western interior, may produce strong winds and heavy precipitation. Such storms occurring with a strong winter high-pressure area may result in a blizzard , with bitter cold and driving snow.

An anticyclone is the reverse of a cyclone. The winds of an anticyclone spiral outward around a high-pressure area, or high. They spin clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. Anticyclones are usually associated with dry weather.

In the Northern Hemisphere anticyclones usually originate in high latitudes and take a southeastward course. Extreme winter cold usually occurs in areas of high pressure, most notably in the semipermanent Siberian High. In North America anticyclones have carried subfreezing air as far south as the Gulf of Mexico and into Florida. In summer the slow-moving oceanic anticyclones may influence inland areas in the central and eastern United States. Cloudless skies, heat waves, and sometimes drought may result. In autumn , stagnating continental anticyclones may bring spells of summerlike weather (Indian summer). The light winds may lead to an accumulation of pollutants.

Weather Elements

The are several primary conditions of the atmosphere, or weather elements. They include wind, temperature, pressure, humidity, clouds, and precipitation.

Wind is the movement of air parallel to Earth’s surface. Were it not for Earth’s rotation, winds would generally blow from areas of high pressure toward areas of low pressure, down what is called the pressure gradient—a sort of “slope” from high pressure to low. The Coriolis effect, however, causes winds to blow at almost right angles to the prevailing pressure gradient, especially in the upper atmosphere. Low-level winds experience more friction with the surface. This changes the balance of forces and allows a flow at an angle to the pressure gradient. Such winds are called geostrophic winds. In the Northern Hemisphere lower pressure is to their left and higher pressure is to their right. The opposite is true in the Southern Hemisphere. At around 30,000 feet (9,000 meters) in altitude these westerly winds may exceed 200 miles (320 kilometers) per hour along narrow zones known as jet streams.

Temperature

Temperature changes may also be associated with wind direction. In the Northern Hemisphere winds from the south usually bring rising temperatures, while northerly winds are normally accompanied by falling temperatures. The opposite is true in the Southern Hemisphere. Under cloudless skies temperatures may vary greatly between night and day, while clouds keep temperatures more uniform.

Atmospheric Pressure

Atmospheric pressure by itself has limited significance in weather forecasting. However, changes in pressure do matter, if a correction is made for normal changes, such as a fall in pressure that usually occurs during the midday hours. Falling pressure generally indicates that a storm is approaching. Rising pressure indicates the approach or continuation of fair weather.

Humidity is the amount of moisture in the air. Water exists in the air in gaseous form, called water vapor. Warm air can contain more vapor than cold air can. The maximum amount of vapor possible at a specific temperature is known as its saturation value. Relative humidity is the proportion of water vapor actually in the air at a given temperature as compared with the maximum amount possible at that temperature. It may vary from almost none over deserts to as much as 100 percent in thick fog or rain. Another very useful humidity measurement is dew point—the temperature at which the relative humidity would reach 100 percent, given the current amount of water vapor present. Higher dew points correspond to greater amounts of moisture.

Clouds often signal an imminent weather change. Rising cloud levels indicate clearing weather. Thickening and lowering clouds signify precipitation. Clouds form when water vapor is cooled below its dew point and condenses into tiny but visible droplets or ice crystals. The cloud base indicates the level at which rising air reaches its dew point. The main cloud types are the high, wispy cirrus, the layered stratus, and the massive, billowy cumulus. The terms alto, meaning “high,” and nimbus, meaning “rain,” further describe clouds.

Fog is a cloud whose base is on the ground. Like clouds, it forms when moist air cools below its dew point. Dew is formed when moist air is in contact with a surface such as grass that has been cooled below the air’s dew point by nighttime radiation. When the temperature is below freezing, frost forms instead of dew.

Precipitation and Storms

When warm, moist air cools to its dew point, condensation occurs if there are dust particles or salt crystals to serve as nuclei of condensation. When moist air is lifted by the collision of warm and cold air masses or by movement up a mountain slope, cooling and condensation may result in precipitation. The tiny water droplets that make up the cloud collide and coalesce into larger droplets. Eventually they may become heavy enough to fall to the ground as raindrops .

If air is lifted above the freezing level aloft, the moisture may form ice crystals. When ice crystals form in a supercooled cloud (a cloud in a temporary condition of having greater than 100 percent humidity), the water vapor condenses on them, forming snow crystals. As a snow crystal falls into lower, warmer air, it joins with other snow crystals and becomes a snowflake.

A hailstone grows like a raindrop but is then carried by strong updrafts into the higher, subfreezing parts of the cloud—sometimes repeatedly. Eventually it falls as solid ice . Sleet (as the term is used in the United States) is frozen rain, having passed through a layer of cold air before reaching the ground. Glaze, or freezing rain, occurs when rain fails to freeze in subfreezing air during its descent but then suddenly freezes on impact with trees, power lines, or the ground. This creates a dangerous coating of ice.

When hot, moist air is carried above the freezing level by the strong updraft in a cumulonimbus cloud, thunder and lightning occur. There are strong gusts of wind, heavy rain, and sometimes hail. This is a thunderstorm .

The powerful rotating cyclones variously called tropical cyclones , hurricanes, or typhoons, generate torrential rains and winds of 74 miles (119 kilometers) per hour or more. These storms originate over tropical seas in late summer and early fall. At those times surface temperatures are highest and tropical air reaches farthest from the Equator. The storms usually track westward and then poleward, carrying large amounts of warm air to high latitudes. Airplanes penetrate hurricanes to gauge their intensity and to plot their courses. In the United States the National Hurricane Center issues warnings and advisories.

A tornado has a narrow, funnel-shaped trunk that reaches down from a dark thundercloud. It whirls at speeds of up to 300 miles (480 kilometers) per hour. A tornado usually moves to the northeast in the Northern Hemisphere and to the southeast in the Southern Hemisphere. Tornadoes appear most frequently in spring and early summer. During those seasons in the United States, for example, cold, dry air flows over the Rocky Mountains and overrides the warm, moist air flowing from the Gulf of Mexico. Turbulence is caused by the sinking cold air and rising warm air.

Weather Instruments

Weather conditions are measured by standard instruments. Surface wind speeds are usually measured by an anemometer. An anemometer consists of three or four wind-driven cups mounted on a vertical axis whose rate of rotation varies with wind speed. Wind direction is indicated by a vane, a pointer that swings with the wind. The vane is mounted on a vertical axis attached to a compass rose. Newer devices with no moving parts use pulses of sound to determine both wind speed and direction.

Atmospheric pressure is measured by an aneroid barometer , a flexible metal vacuum box that expands or contracts with changes in pressure. Atmospheric pressure can also be measured by a mercury barometer. It consists of a glass tube in which the height of a column of mercury varies with pressure.

Temperature is measured by a thermometer . In the past, the most common type was a glass tube in which the height of a column of mercury or alcohol varies with changes in temperature. Various types of electronic thermometers (thermistors and thermocouples) are now often used instead. Even then, the liquid-in-glass type is valuable for calibration and backup.

Humidity data, including relative humidity, vapor pressure, and dew point, is secured with the use of various types of instruments. The instruments are generally known as hygrometers . A commonly used type at government reporting sites is the dew-point hygrometer. In this instrument a polished metal surface is cooled until condensation begins to collect on its surface. Its temperature then indicates the dew point directly. Another accurate type is the psychrometer, consisting of two similar thermometers. The bulb of one thermometer is kept wet, and the other dry. The differences between the temperatures they record are related to the amount of moisture in the air.

The ceiling, or base height of cloud layers, can be measured by an automatic ceilometer. It shines a beam of pulsed light (often a laser) up at the base of clouds, which reflects the light. The ceilometer has a photoelectric telescope to detect this reflection. The ceilometer can measure in the daytime or at night.

The amount of precipitation is usually measured by a rain gauge, an open-mouthed container that catches the rain. A commonly used variation of this is the tipping bucket rain gauge, which automatically empties itself as the rain is measured. Radar is used to measure the intensity of rainfall or snowfall. This information is compiled over time to estimate the total amount in areas with no other data.

Soundings of upper-level pressure, temperature, humidity, and winds are made by radiosondes. A balloon carries a radiosonde aloft to 100,000 feet (30,000 meters) or more. The radiosonde transmits data to ground recorders. The speed and direction of upper winds are obtained by tracking the radiosonde with a radio direction finder. Upper-wind information is also obtained by tracking an ascending balloon visually with a surveying instrument. Data transmitted from commercial aircraft may be incorporated into the analysis as well.

Doppler radar can continuously measure wind speeds by observing microwaves reflected off of particles in the atmosphere, such as raindrops or dust. Doppler profiles record the apparent shift in frequency with respect to the observation point of waves emitted by a moving source. This phenomenon is known as the Doppler effect. A related instrument, the radiometric profiler, observes microwaves emitted by oxygen and water vapor in the air. Careful analysis of the data yields profiles of temperature and humidity at different altitudes.

Weather Forecasting

Through the ages, do-it-yourself weather forecasts were based on local observations made directly by the human senses. Accurate measurements of temperature and atmospheric pressure were not available until after the thermometer and the barometer were perfected in the 17th century. Comprehensive weather forecasting did not become practical until the telegraph was invented in the 19th century. This made possible the rapid collection and dissemination of weather observations.

The first systematic weather observations in the United States date back to 1738. In 1816 the German scientist Heinrich Brandes drew one of the world’s first known weather maps. In 1849 Joseph Henry of the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C., established a telegraphic network of observations for the preparation of daily weather maps.

Government weather forecasts in the United States were first issued in 1870 by the Army. In 1891 the Army’s civilian weather activities were transferred to the United States Weather Bureau. In 1970 the Weather Bureau became part of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and was renamed the National Weather Service.

Civilian weather activities in Canada are directed by the Atmospheric Environment Service, an agency of the Department of the Environment. This agency was first established in 1871 (under another name). Similar government weather services span the globe, from Australia’s Bureau of Meteorology to Zimbabwe’s Meteorological Services Department. Many of them have Web pages. There are also numerous privately owned weather forecasting companies that in some cases provide specialized services not covered by government agencies.

The World Meteorological Organization (WMO), an agency of the United Nations , dates from 1951. With more than 180 member states, the WMO coordinates the worldwide exchange of weather and climate information. It grew out of the International Meteorological Organization, established in 1873.

Methods of Weather Forecasting

One of the most common methods of weather forecasting is synoptic forecasting. It is based on a summary, or synopsis, of the total weather picture at a given time. The development and movement of weather systems is shown on a sequence of synoptic charts, or weather maps. These weather systems are then projected into the future. The weather observations used for the charts are made at thousands of weather stations around the world four times a day—at midnight, 6 am , noon, and 6 pm , Greenwich mean time (GMT). The most common synoptic chart is the surface weather map. Various upper levels of the atmosphere also are charted.

Another method, statistical forecasting, employs mathematical equations based on the past behavior of the atmosphere. Still another, numerical forecasting, uses mathematical models based on the physical laws that describe atmospheric behavior. For forecasts of up to about 10 days, numerical methods are most often used. For somewhat longer periods, statistical methods are more accurate. Beyond about 90 days, weather events can be predicted almost as well through climatological forecasting, using the averages of past weather records.

Until the 1960s weather maps were plotted by hand and analyzed at local weather offices. The future locations of storms, fronts, and other weather phenomena were calculated by manually projecting the movements of weather systems from successive maps. Computer-drawn maps now predict wind, temperature, and humidity patterns for many atmospheric levels. Statistical methods are then used to map probable maximum and minimum temperatures, precipitation, winds, and other weather elements.

The basic weather predictions used in the United States are prepared at the National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP), in Camp Springs, Maryland. Local forecasters modify these centrally produced guidance predictions to account for any local weather peculiarities.

In weather analyses, lines connecting points of equal atmospheric pressure, called isobars, are drawn on a map. Lines on the map may also connect points of equal value for other factors, such as humidity, temperature, or amount of rainfall. Maps for values both at the surface of Earth and at many higher levels of the atmosphere are examined. Analysis is largely done automatically on computers as part of numerical prediction. The computer-drawn maps, along with many other graphical and text products, are distributed electronically to public and private weather forecasting centers. Much of the information is also provided to various universities, which often publish the data—along with further analysis—on the Internet.

Numerical weather prediction is essentially a problem in fluid dynamics. Complete and precise data on the initial state of Earth’s atmosphere, water bodies, and land surfaces, plus a complete understanding of the physical laws describing the transfer of heat and moisture, theoretically could yield near-perfect numerical weather forecasts. Such information, however, is not fully available.

Numerical weather prediction was not practical at all before high-speed computers were developed in the late 1940s. Six basic equations—expressing the three dimensions of motion and the conservation of heat, moisture, and mass—are used in numerical mathematical models. Computers solve these equations to obtain instantaneous changes at thousands of regularly spaced grid points and at dozens of levels of the atmosphere. The changes are repeatedly computed for successive short time intervals for the desired time range of the forecast. This marching forward in time is the essence of numerical prediction.

In the United States the NCEP regularly runs at least three different major computer models, from one to four times per day. The models provide forecasts for periods from two days to two weeks. Some of these cover North America only, but others forecast for the entire planet. Other countries have similar computer models. A particularly notable example is the model run by the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF), a collaboration of more than 25 countries.

Forecasters study the output from the various models, using experience and skill to decide which might be more reliable in a given weather situation. Final forecast decisions are usually human ones, but they are heavily based on the computers’ output.

Collection and Distribution of Weather Data

Weather stations in the United States transmit coded weather data every hour for aviation use. They provide weather data every six hours for general forecasting and daily for climatological records. Surface weather data, much of it gathered by automated stations, is included on precipitation, temperature, pressure, change in pressure, wind direction and speed, humidity, dew point, cloud type, sky cover, visibility, ceiling, and current weather. In addition, volunteer observers at thousands of substations take daily measurements of temperature extremes and precipitation. Other weather networks are operated for warning of specific weather emergencies and for furthering agricultural programs.

In the United States professional weather forecasters communicate directly with the public through newspapers, radio and television broadcasts, and the Internet. A radio network operated by NOAA broadcasts forecasts, conditions, and severe weather watches and warnings 24 hours a day. Special NOAA radios feature alarms that alert the listener even when the radio is otherwise off. On cable television the Weather Channel relates local, regional, national, and selected international weather conditions 24 hours a day to many millions of American households.

An international system of telecommunication networks distributes weather information, largely by satellite . Numerically coded data from around the globe is relayed by collection stations to central processing offices, such as at NCEP in the United States.

Since the 1960s weather surveillance satellites have made it possible to detect weather systems from the time they begin. No longer is a destructive storm larger than a tornado likely to strike without warning.

Weather satellites fall into two main classes, based on their location and time to orbit Earth. Polar-orbiting satellites, first launched in 1966, were the first operational satellite system of the United States. These generally orbit at about 520 miles (830 kilometers) above Earth’s surface along nearly north-south paths. They circle the globe approximately every 100 minutes, so that they pass roughly over each point on Earth twice a day (once heading north and once heading south). Geostationary weather satellites (also first launched in 1966) are at a much greater distance, about 22,300 miles (35,900 kilometers), directly above the Equator. These orbit just about once a day and in the direction of Earth’s rotation. As a result, they appear to hover over a fixed point on Earth.

Many countries now operate weather satellites. The United States has two main GOES, or Geostationary Orbiting Environmental Satellites. One is positioned to view the western United States and eastern Pacific Ocean. The other has good views of the eastern United States and western Atlantic Ocean. These satellites also observe South America. A group of European countries operates the Meteosat geosynchronous satellites. Japan, Russia, China, and India have also operated geostationary satellites. Together, these have provided nearly continuous worldwide coverage.

Polar-orbiting satellites have included the United States’ NOAA series, along with a few Russian and Chinese satellites at times. Polar orbiters get a somewhat closer and more detailed view than the distant geostationary ones. They are also the only satellites capable of obtaining a direct view of the poles. A disadvantage is the lack of continuous coverage, as they can observe a given region only twice a day. Some of these satellites also provide other services, such as support for search and rescue operations.

Most of the information gathered by weather satellites consists of measurements of electromagnetic radiation —such as visible light, infrared, and microwaves. Two basic types of instruments are commonly used: imagers and sounders. Imagers aboard polar-orbiting satellites usually use a rotating mirror to direct light from Earth into a detector. As the satellite orbits perpendicular to the mirror’s scan direction, the two motions combine to form a pattern that can be assembled into a picture. Imagers on geostationary satellites scan in two dimensions to build up the image. The familiar satellite pictures seen on television weather broadcasts or the Internet are usually infrared or visible images from geostationary satellites. These are often combined in a “loop” to display images created about once an hour in the form of a movie covering several hours or more. Visible images require sunlight, but infrared images use heat emitted by the clouds or surface. The infrared images thus show features equally well day and night.

Sounders operate much like imagers, except that resolution (detail) is sacrificed to some extent in favor of simultaneous observation of a large number of different electromagnetic wavelengths, or “channels.” These different wavelengths are emitted by different types of gases, such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, and ozone. Their origin is somewhat specific to different levels of the atmosphere, or to clouds, water, or land. Careful analysis of this information yields temperature and humidity profiles of the atmosphere. The profiles are much like those obtained by weather balloons, but over a much broader area, including remote locations such as the middle of an ocean.

The huge volume of satellite data is handled in the United States by NESDIS (National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service) and in Europe by EUMETSAT, an organization including 30 countries. The data is fed into computer models and has improved the resulting forecast significantly. Satellite data is also used to produce maps of sea surface temperature, snow cover, estimated rainfall, and ozone concentrations.

One of the best devices for continuous detection and tracking of hurricanes, thunderstorms, tornadoes, and other severe storms at distances up to 250 miles (400 kilometers) is radar . In the United States NOAA’s Storm Prediction Center in Norman, Oklahoma, analyzes such data and issues severe storm watches. The watches indicate that conditions over a large area are favorable for the development of such storms. Local National Weather Service offices are responsible for more specific warnings, meaning a storm has been sighted or is imminent. The National Weather Service operates the Weather Surveillance Radar–1988 Doppler (WSR-88D, or NEXRAD), which employs more than 150 radar stations to identify low-level wind shears associated with tornadoes.

Long-Range Weather Forecasting

Numerical weather prediction, such as atmospheric modeling on computers, is one of the most accurate methods of weather forecasting. But no matter what method is used, day-to-day forecasting decreases in reliability as the time range increases. The increase in forecast errors over time is due to the unreliability of measurements of initial atmospheric conditions over many areas, the wide spacing of data points, and an insufficient understanding of why the atmosphere acts as it does. Such errors can cause errors in computer-calculated forecasts. They grow larger as the computations move forward in time until the numerical forecasts become useless. Persistent or systematic errors are reduced by manual corrections. A typical error of atmospheric models is that the weather systems usually move faster than predicted.

In providing public forecasts, weather forecasters take into account this increasing uncertainty with time. The range of predicted temperatures, for example, is increased as the time range increases. Precipitation is usually forecast as a probability percentage.

Continuous weather elements such as temperature can be forecast with greater accuracy than discontinuous ones such as precipitation. Forecasts for the higher levels of the atmosphere, with their smoother patterns, are more accurate than for the surface zones. Beyond about a week, daily weather cannot be accurately predicted. However, average weather departures from normal can be predicted to some extent. Long-range forecasts deal with the total effects of weather systems not yet born, unlike forecasts for up to about a week. But useful inferences can still be made about the future evolution of atmospheric circulations.

The averaging of successive daily flow patterns in the atmosphere smooths and filters out temporary disturbances. This reveals broad westerly wind currents that meander between high and low latitudes. At any one time these currents form three to five large waves around each hemisphere. They move slowly and sometimes remain stationary for long periods, steering lows and highs along preferred tracks. The locations and sizes of these large waves determine the longer-period average weather anomalies such as cold spells, warm spells, and droughts.

In monthly forecasts the future locations of large-scale circulation meanders are estimated by a mixture of different methods. One component is an extended run of a computer model similar to those used for day-to-day weather forecasting. Other methods are largely statistical, using known connections between historical temperature and precipitation patterns and conditions such as soil moisture and sea surface temperature. Trends over the last 10 or 15 years are also considered.

In the United States NOAA’s Climate Prediction Center produces long-range forecasts for periods of up to about a year. These are not specific to the day. Instead, they consist of maps showing probabilities that temperature and precipitation will be above normal, near normal, or below normal for three-month periods. The forecasts are of only a general nature and are only modestly accurate (sometimes only a bit better than chance). Such information is nonetheless quite valuable for many farming and industry applications. Many private companies claim to produce accurate long-range forecasts. Those claiming long-range day-to-day accuracy or “secret” weather predicting formulas should be viewed with great suspicion. Weather patterns are notoriously chaotic, and even the best science can offer only modest long-range results.

Weather Modification

Weather modification can be considered as falling into two categories: intentional and inadvertent. Intentional weather modification includes practical, small-scale efforts such as frost prevention. Large fans can mix warmer air from above with the cold air near the ground on clear, calm nights, and smoke from smudge pots can help trap heat near the surface.

A major breakthrough in weather modification occurred in 1946, when it was discovered that seeding supercooled clouds with dry ice pellets or silver iodide could produce precipitation. These particles provide nuclei for the condensation or freezing of water vapor in the air. Most seeding is done from aircraft. Other means include artillery shells and ground-based generators. Cloud seeding can be used to increase precipitation, but a more practical use is dissipation of low clouds and fog around airports.

Initial excitement regarding cloud seeding waned somewhat after the 1960s. Suggestions that it could weaken hurricanes or significantly increase precipitation in drought areas were undermined by mixed or poor results from experiments along with doubts about some aspects of the theory behind it. Government funding for research in these areas was sharply reduced. Also, legal questions arose. For example, seeding a cloud over the U.S. state of Kansas that was headed for the state of Missouri might rob people in Missouri of rain they might have otherwise received. For these reasons, use of cloud seeding remains rather limited.

Inadvertent weather modification has also stirred a great deal of interest. This involves changes in weather and climate that are brought about by changes in land use and the release of gases and particles into the atmosphere. The building or expansion of cities and the conversion of farmland for industrial use can cause changes in weather, especially by raising nighttime temperatures. Cities may also alter local wind and precipitation patterns somewhat.

Of greater significance is the issue of global warming . It is caused primarily by the release of carbon dioxide from the burning of fossil fuels such as coal and oil, along with smaller effects from the release of other gases, such as methane from rice paddies or livestock. These gases are transparent to visible light and therefore let sunshine through to heat the ground. However, the ground radiates the stored heat in the infrared wavelengths, to which the gases are largely opaque. The gases are warmed by this radiation and in turn radiate infrared back toward the ground, effectively trapping a portion of the energy. This phenomenon is commonly called the greenhouse effect .

Actually, the most important “greenhouse gas” is water vapor. Along with naturally occurring concentrations of the other greenhouse gases (such as carbon dioxide), water vapor keeps Earth’s average temperature about 60 °F (33 °C) warmer than it would otherwise be. The problem is that human activities have increased concentrations of greenhouse gases far above their natural levels, strengthening the greenhouse effect. The result has been global warming—a rise in the average surface temperature over the past one to two centuries. A report released by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change in 2014 forecast that the global mean surface temperature will likely rise by as much as 4.7 to 8.6 °F (2.6 to 4.8 °C) by 2100 unless swift action is taken to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

Any such human-caused warming takes place against a background of natural variations, which could either mask the effect or make it appear larger. While there are large uncertainties about the amount and distribution of the expected warming, there is a strong consensus among scientists that the effect is real and will be significant. Difficult political decisions may lie ahead as society weighs the costs of environmental change against the cost of attempts to limit global warming, such as through reduction of fossil fuel use or by means of technologies aimed at counteracting the warming.

Another issue, commonly confused with global warming, is that of ozone depletion. Ozone is a type of oxygen molecule, but with three atoms instead of the usual two. Near the ground, it is a pollutant that can cause respiratory irritation. High up in the atmosphere, however, it has the very beneficial effect of blocking ultraviolet light from the Sun. By the 1970s it became apparent that ozone concentrations could be reduced by chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)—gases then commonly used as refrigerants and aerosol propellants. In fact, measurable reductions in ozone, especially in the form of a seasonal “hole” over the Antarctic, have been documented. The result is likely increased rates of sunburn and skin cancer in humans, along with damage to plankton in the ocean. The good news is that substitutes for CFCs have been found for most previous applications. Largely through an international agreement of 1987 known as the Montreal Protocol, release of these gases has been sharply reduced. By the early 21st century the rate of ozone depletion had slowed markedly, and scientists thought the ozone layer might begin to “heal” considerably within a couple of decades.

Additional Reading

Bliss, Pamela. Introduction to Weather (National Geographic, 2004). Rupp, Rebecca. Weather! (Storey Kids, 2003). Understanding the Weather (World Almanac Library, 2002). Watts, Alan. Instant Weather Forecasting , 2nd ed. (Adlard Coles Nautical, 2004). Wills, Susan, and Wills, Steven. Meteorology: Predicting the Weather (Oliver Press, 2004).

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