research paper about biodiversity in the philippines

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Emergence of environmental consciousness, effective actions: implementing conservation through civil society, progress in protected areas and resource management, research and returns from the grave, networking conservation, issues and challenges, conclusions, acknowledgements, references cited.

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Hope for Threatened Tropical Biodiversity: Lessons from the Philippines

Mary Rose C. Posa (e-mail: [email protected] ) is an instructor at the Institute of Biology, University of the Philippines, Diliman, and a graduate student at the National University of Singapore (NUS). Arvin C. Diesmos is a researcher at the National Museum of the Philippines (Manila) and a graduate student at NUS. Navjot S. Sodhi is a professor at NUS working on biodiversity conservation in Southeast Asia. Thomas M. Brooks is a conservation biologist with the Center for Applied Biodiversity Science at Conservation International in Arlington, Virginia, and the World Agroforestry Center at the University of the Philippines; he also holds a visiting position at the University of Tasmania.

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Mary Rose C. Posa, Arvin C. Diesmos, Navjot S. Sodhi, Thomas M. Brooks, Hope for Threatened Tropical Biodiversity: Lessons from the Philippines, BioScience , Volume 58, Issue 3, March 2008, Pages 231–240, https://doi.org/10.1641/B580309

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The Philippines is a megabiodiversity country, but it is also often seen as a country of ecological ruin whose biodiversity is on the verge of collapse. Decades of environmental neglect have pushed ecosystems to their limit, often with deadly repercussions for the human population. Is conservation in the Philippines a lost cause? We review current conservation efforts in the Philippines, considering the actions of academics, field researchers, local communities, nongovernmental organizations, the government, and other sectors of society. Remarkably, however precarious the present situation may seem, there have been some recent positive gains and signs of hope. Although there is no room for complacency, we conclude that the diversity of available indicators suggests that conservation in the Philippines, against many odds, shows signs of success, and thus deserves greater attention and increased investment.

The loss and degradation of tropical ecosystems throughout the planet are threatening numerous species with extinction and thereby driving a biodiversity crisis with serious consequences for human well-being. In Southeast Asia, the threat is greatest where human populations are dense, impoverished, and rapidly increasing ( Sodhi et al. 2004 ). The Philippines exemplifies this critical situation. It is one of the most biologically rich regions in the world, with exceptionally high levels of endemism for a country of its size. Nearly half of its approximately 1100 terrestrial vertebrates are unique to the islands, and estimates of endemism for vascular plants range from 45% to 60% ( Heaney and Mittermeier 1997 ). The archipelago is also a center of nearshore animal diversity, most notably of corals, reef fish, marine snails, and lobsters ( Roberts et al. 2002 , Carpenter and Springer 2005 ). However, widespread environmental destruction has made this unique and megadiverse biota one of the most endangered in the world. The country is repeatedly cited as a global conservation priority—a top hotspot for both terrestrial and marine ecosystems—and there are fears that it could be the site of the first major extinction spasm ( Heaney and Mittermeier 1997 , Myers et al. 2000 , Roberts et al. 2002 ).

Exploitation of many vital habitats has brought the Philippines to the brink of ecological ruin. The archipelago was once almost completely covered by forest, but the harvesting of timber and agricultural expansion during the Spanish colonization, followed by rapid and extensive commercial logging in the 20th century ( Kummer 1992 , Bankoff 2007 ), reduced forest cover to less than a quarter of the land area ( figure 1 ). Although primary forest cover has been reported at a mere 3% of the land area ( FAO 2005 ), this figure is most likely an underestimate because pristine montane forests may cover an additional 3% to 5% ( Alcala 1998 ). Rates of annual forest loss continue to be high, at approximately 1.9% ( WRI 2003 ). Between 1918 and 1994, land covered with mangroves declined from half a million hectares (ha) to about 12,000 ha as a result of clearing and conversion to fishponds ( Primavera 2000 ). The archipelago's extensive coral reefs are threatened by harmful fishing practices (e.g., use of dynamite and poison) and siltation, with only 5% retaining 75% to 100% of live coral cover ( Gomez et al. 1994 ). As a consequence, the country has a high number of species at risk of extinction. Of the 1007 Philippine vertebrate species assessed for the 2006 IUCN (World Conservation Union) Red List, nearly 21% are classified as threatened, as are 215 of the 323 plants evaluated.

The advanced state of environmental degradation has had serious repercussions for the human population as well. The loss of soil fertility, pollution from large-scale mining operations, and reduced productivity of fisheries affect the livelihood of millions of rural inhabitants ( Pineda-Ofreneo 1993 ). Erosion from deforestation is blamed for frequent flooding and massive landslides, which claim many lives every year ( Vitug 1993 ).

Efforts to preserve biodiversity are hampered by socioeconomic and political problems. Entrenched corruption, weak governance, uneven distribution of wealth, and opposition by small but powerful interest groups make it difficult to change and implement sound environmental policies ( Vitug 1993 , Utting 2000 ). Remaining natural resources are continually under pressure from an increasing human population (78.6 million in 2002, and growing at a rate of 2.3% per year; WRI 2003 ), and national funds are constrained by external debt servicing and rarely diverted into conservation efforts ( Pineda-Ofreneo 1993 ).

Against this backdrop, it is unsurprising that some researchers, notably Terborgh (1999) , have suggested a “triage” strategy that writes off the possibility of conservation of biodiversity in the Philippines. Over the last two decades, however, mounting evidence has indicated that there is still hope for such conservation in the country. Here we review some of the evidence for this revisionary perspective and assess the implications for conservation elsewhere in the already severely degraded, but still mega-diverse, tropics.

Conservation in the Philippines is inextricably linked to social and political issues. The country was long under colonial rule, and its natural resources were traditionally controlled by the elite and powerful, whose unsustainable and inequitable exploitation devastated the environment and marginalized the poor ( Broad and Cavanagh 1993 , Pineda-Ofreneo 1993 ). People in the countryside who depended on these resources, but gained little or no economic benefit from their commercial extraction, were the first to suffer from the impacts of environmental plunder. By the 1970s, members of some communities started to actively oppose developments that threatened local ecosystems, blocking logging trucks and protesting the construction of large dams ( Broad and Cavanagh 1993 ).

After the 1986 overthrow of Ferdinand Marcos, the revived democracy saw government agencies previously identified with corrupt practices adopt fundamental reforms. The change in political climate fostered the emergence of diverse civil society groups (e.g., nongovernmental organizations [NGOs] and people's organizations) concerned with environmental management and sustainable development. The government became more open to an agenda that emphasizes the participation of these groups. Today, the involvement of civil society in the planning, development, and implementation of environmental policies and programs has become a salient feature of conservation in the Philippines ( Utting 2000 ). Through lobbying, civil society groups can influence government agencies to adhere to their agenda for conservation and to pursue continuity in policy ( Broad and Cavanagh 1993 ).

At least on paper, considerable progress in environmental protection legislation has been made, driven in part by public advocacy. Of particular significance to biodiversity conservation are the National Integrated Protected Areas System (NIPAS) Act of 1992, the establishment of protected areas, and the 2002 Wildlife Resources Conservation and Protection Act. At the international level, the Philippines is among the signatories to the Convention on Biological Diversity and other agreements such as the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna, and the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands. A National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan and a National Wetland Action Plan were formulated to satisfy part of the country's obligations under these agreements. Representatives from various sectors came together to produce these comprehensive conservation action plans, which were subsequently endorsed by the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) and the president. Of course, enactment and ratification of such laws and conventions will not by themselves ensure the conservation of Philippine biota; failure to properly design, implement, and enforce policies could render them impotent. They are, however, evidence of the growing appreciation of the value of biodiversity in the country, and they prove that sustainable development and environmental protection have become integrated into political consciousness.

Another shift in environmental governance was seen in the devolution of authority over terrestrial and marine resources from the central government, which has limited resources and reach to tackle a multitude of concerns nationwide, to local governments. Through the Local Government Code of 1991, local governments began to share the responsibilities of maintaining ecological balance and enforcing regulations within their territorial jurisdictions. This change improves the chances that actions will be effective on the ground, because management options are given to those familiar with local environmental contexts and issues. Of course, devolution carries its own risks, such as possible abuses of power ( Utting 2000 ). On the other hand, organized communities can directly benefit from controlling their own resources, and strong support from local governments can be instrumental to the success of conservation programs.

The Philippine environmental movement gets much of its momentum from committed people who belong to civil society groups. In most cases, these groups are small nonprofit organizations that tackle the multifarious facets of biodiversity conservation. Social issues, such as land tenure and poverty alleviation through alternative livelihood, are often addressed concurrently with the actual protection of biodiversity. Laudably, a number of efforts by local communities and NGOs have made direct impacts on conserving species and habitats.

One program that has achieved remarkable success to date involves work with the endemic Philippine cockatoo Cacatua haematuropygia . Considered a critically endangered species, it was historically known from 45 islands, but is now extirpated or rare throughout much of its range as a result of habitat loss and poaching for the pet trade ( Collar et al. 1999 ). An integrated conservation program that was initiated in the early 1990s, led by government agencies and academic institutions, resulted in the formation of the Katala Foundation, an NGO that implements the Philippine Cockatoo Conservation Program. Key strategies of the program include awareness and education campaigns, nest protection, monitoring, captive breeding, and ecological research. The program recruited former poachers and trained them to be wardens, and the export of birds was restricted, which led to a decline in the illegal trade in wild birds ( Boussekey 2000 , Widmann et al. 2006 ). The local government endorsed the creation of the Rasa Island Wildlife Sanctuary in 1997 to protect and manage a resident cockatoo population. Since then, there have been clear signs of recovery ( figure 2 ). Similar schemes are being implemented in additional areas, and there are indications of recovering populations on Palawan and Polillo Islands (Indira Lacerna-Widmann, Katala Foundation, Palawan, Philippines, personal communication, 21 November 2007).

The Philippine Endemic Species Conservation Project (PESCP) is undertaking a similar initiative to protect the critically endangered Visayan wrinkled hornbill Aceros waldeni on the island of Panay. A decade ago, the estimated population of this species was 60 to 80 breeding pairs across its range ( Collar et al. 1999 ). Since starting a nest-protection program with 32 nests in 2002, the PESCP has monitored and protected an increasing number of nest holes, reporting 502 successfully fledged broods in 2006 ( Curio 2007 ). Aside from its work with the hornbill as a flagship species for conservation on Panay, the PESCP lobbies to have essential forest habitats declared as protected areas, supports enforcement actions to reduce illegal logging, and studies the island's other endemic and endangered wildlife.

Another emerging success story is the in situ conservation of the critically endangered Philippine crocodile Crocodylus mindorensis . Past efforts had focused on captive breeding, but the discovery of a small wild population in the municipality of San Mariano at the foot of Luzon's Sierra Madre range led to a conservation program that prompted the local government to establish a sanctuary and ban the killing of crocodiles, with positive results ( figure 3 ; van der Ploeg and van Weerd 2004 ). Education and information campaigns were designed to change negative perceptions of crocodiles and engage the community in their protection. The Mabuwaya Foundation runs the Crocodile Rehabilitation, Observance, and Conservation Project, with the goals of scaling up efforts and expanding the work to include other areas in the Sierra Madre with known crocodile populations ( van der Ploeg and van Weerd 2006 ).

One of world's most threatened birds, the critically endangered Philippine eagle Pithecophaga jefferyi , has long been a flagship species for Philippine conservation. Since initiatives to protect the eagle began in the 1980s, critical information on the species' biology and ecology has been gathered ( Miranda et al. 2000 , Salvador and Ibanez 2006 ). Recent re-analyses of population estimates using new data suggest that the species may have a larger population, and confirmed records from new localities indicate a much wider distribution ( Collar et al. 1999 ). Populations remain highly fragmented, however, and are severely threatened by continuing habitat loss and poaching ( Bueser et al. 2003 ). Actions by the Philippine Eagle Foundation, including conservation breeding, education, field research, and community-based initiatives ( Salvador and Ibanez 2006 ), have had moderate success. An alliance of major local and international conservation organizations and government agencies was formed to pool resources and coordinate groups working to conserve the Philippine eagle. The recent expansion of the Peñablanca Reserve, which links several protected areas in the Sierra Madre range, is good news—the eagle's survival in situ will be secure only if forests are protected.

Such success stories are encouraging, and without the efforts of concerned groups, these species' prospects for survival would certainly have deteriorated rather than improved, but these species remain endangered. Elsewhere in the country, a number of other NGOs are playing crucial roles by providing services to, or acting on behalf of, different sectors of society involved in conservation. By forging links among the government, funding agencies, and local communities, and serving as project implementers, facilitators, trainers, and researchers, the NGOs can be catalysts for effective action. Their work is often local in scale but nonetheless important, providing enormous potential for replication in conserving other highly threatened species.

Although parks had been established in the Philippines under the 1932 National Parks Law, a restructuring of the country's existing protected areas came with the enactment of the NIPAS Act in 1992. The act designates protected areas to secure the perpetual existence of all native plants and animals in a comprehensive and integrated system. Among its aims are the assessment of the biodiversity value of existing parks and the establishment of new marine and terrestrial protected areas of biological significance. It incorporates scientific, cultural, and socioeconomic dimensions in its framework, and it exemplifies a participatory process by guaranteeing stakeholder representation in site-specific Protected Area Management Boards (PAMBs). More than 300 parks of various categories are now included or are being evaluated for inclusion in the protected-areas system ( DENR-PAWB 2003 ). Of these, 160 (roughly 8% of the Philippine land area) fall under IUCN categories I–V for terrestrial protected areas ( WDPA 2007 ).

Although the NIPAS Act and its policy framework are necessary and progressive measures for conserving natural areas for their biodiversity, their actual implementation has been convoluted and problematic ( Custodio and Molinyawe 2001 ). Implementing government agencies are often strapped for funding, resources, and technical capability. Bureaucratic red tape and political maneuverings by interest groups create conflicts in the management of areas and prolong the process of conferring protected status. Above all, because sites are rarely free of inhabitants who are dependent on limited natural resources, the establishment of protected areas can cause controversy ( Urich et al. 2001 ). Consequently, effective management becomes more than a problem of simple environmental education or “fences and fines” enforcement ( Custodio and Molinyawe 2001 , White et al. 2002 ). Collaborative approaches to protected-area management through the PAMB or other partnerships involving resource users, although complex and time-consuming, seem to provide the best resolution to these conflicts.

Perhaps the best examples of the integration of human resource use and conservation are the community-based marine protected areas (MPAs) managed by coastal communities across the Philippines. Pioneered in the 1970s at Sumilon and Apo islands, reserves are designed with sections of reef designated as “no-take” zones, and local fishers become responsible for enforcing restrictions ( Russ and Alcala 1999 ). No-take marine reserves both protect near-shore habitats and enable local residents to use resources in a sustainable manner ( Russ and Alcala 1999 ); the reserves also have been shown to increase fish biomass ( figure 4 ). This template has been highly accepted by fishing communities, with local governments implementing ordinances under the Local Government Code, Fisheries Code, or the NIPAS Act. Such strong stakeholder involvement is an essential element of their success ( White et al. 2002 ), and more than 600 MPAs have been established. A survey of 156 MPAs reported that 44.2% had good to excellent management ( Alcala and Russ 2006 ). Ultimately, however, small and scattered MPAs, even if they are successful, cannot protect biodiversity and sustain fisheries nationally in the Philippines. Recognizing these limitations, there have been calls for larger programs to build upon the success of MPAs by integrating them into larger, more holistic coastal management programs ( White et al. 2002 , 2005 ).

Understanding site-specific circumstances and adjusting to them can be key to an effective management plan, even for larger protected areas. An example of a tailored approach is the management of the Tubbataha Reef National Marine Park, a reef complex in the Sulu Sea and a UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) World Heritage Site. The unique characteristics of the park—its remote marine location, lack of inhabitants, tourism potential, and a stakeholder community composed of local and international fishing groups—require a high-level, dedicated collaboration among the governmental, nongovernmental, and private sectors. Activities of tourists and scuba divers, monitored to prevent damage, generate revenue to support the administration of the park. Management and protection measures, such as a ban on destructive fishing practices, have greatly improved living coral substrate cover ( White et al. 2002 ) and restored the park's value as one of the last secure breeding and roosting areas for rare seabirds (Arne Erik Jensen, Wild Bird Club of the Philippines, Manila, Philippines, personal communication, 22 January 2008).

In Mount Kitanglad Range Natural Park (MKRNP), the first area protected by law after the NIPAS Act, significant progress has been made to assemble elements of an effective social contract to protect biodiversity. The MKRNP, the ancestral domain of indigenous tribes, is part of a major watershed spanning several municipalities in the province of Bukidnon. It was critical to harmonize the interests of the DENR, local government units, NGOs, and indigenous peoples by involving them in the decision-making process regarding the park's management. The PAMB assisted tribes in establishing a Council of Elders to serve as advisers and representatives on the board ( Saway and Mirasol 2004 ). There was a revival of traditional guards (Kitanglad Guard Volunteers), who, in addition to enforcing tribal justice systems, are instrumental in enforcing policies against prohibited acts in the park; moreover, they are front-runners in suppressing forest fires ( Sumbalan 2001 , Saway and Mirasol 2004 ). NGOs in the MKRNP promote sustainable livelihood systems (including tree planting in the buffer zones), which have led to a dramatic decline in violations committed inside the park ( Catacutan et al. 2000 ). Such moves for community development enhance the awareness and foster the participation of people in surrounding areas beyond the park jurisdiction, helping to alleviate encroachment. The management experience in the MKRNP demonstrates that sensitivity, recognition of cultural tradition and local knowledge, strong enforcement, and flexibility to negotiate with various stakeholders can sustain many local initiatives ( Sumbalan 2001 ).

The concept that communities themselves are often in the best position to manage and protect their resources is also the backbone of the government's social forestry initiatives. The community-based forest management program was adopted in 1995 as a strategy to achieve ecological stability and social equity. In this scheme, local communities are entrusted with the responsibility for forest rehabilitation, protection, and conservation. Tree planting can have various management goals, such as biodiversity protection, forest regeneration, and agroforestry. The right to use forest resources and the right to tenure security are intended to be incentives to plant trees and defend forestland against illegal logging ( Lasco and Pulhin 2006 ).

Chokkalingam and colleagues (2006) reviewed forest rehabilitation in the Philippines and found that forest cover increased in 28 of 46 sites that had significantly reduced human pressures and continued maintenance and protection. Rehabilitation efforts, especially those in which mixed species are planted and undergrowth regeneration is allowed, appear to contribute to biodiversity enhancement and to increase faunal diversity ( Chokkalingam et al. 2006 , Lasco and Pulhin 2006 ). Forestry programs that are showing positive outcomes include sites at Alcoy in Cebu, the Makiling Forest Reserve in Laguna, an initiative of the local government unit in Nueva Vizcaya, and the Landcare movement on Mindanao ( Chokkalingam et al. 2006 , Lasco and Pulhin 2006 ). Forest area under plantation was reported to increase by 5% between 1990 and 2000 ( WRI 2003 ). However, although considerable funding and effort have been expended, much uncertainty remains regarding the long-term survival and growth of plantations. In addition, their effectiveness for biodiversity conservation and their impacts on soil and water properties need to be evaluated.

The environmental movement in civil society has been paralleled in academia by renewed interest in biodiversity research. Studies in areas such as biogeography, systematics, and phylogenetics have greatly broadened understanding of processes that affect diversity in the archipelago. A search of three ISI Web of Knowledge databases (Biosis Previews, Web of Science, and Zoological Records) for the period 1985 to 2006 reveals an increasing number of publications pertaining to biodiversity and conservation ( figure 5 ). Labors of frontline field researchers contribute considerably to knowledge of Philippine biota. Nearly a hundred new species of mammals, reptiles, and amphibians are currently being described; these descriptions are expected to increase tetrapod diversity and endemism by 8% and 50%, respectively (Lawrence R. Heaney, Field Museum, Chicago, personal communication, 21 October 2007; Rafe M. Brown, University of Kansas, Lawrence, personal communication, 7 October 2007; Angelo C. Alcala, Silliman University, Dumaguete City, Philippines, personal communication, 15 October 2007); even species as conspicuous as Rafflesia are still being discovered ( Barcelona et al. 2006 ).

Along with the continuing discovery and descriptions of new species, there have also been exciting rediscoveries of species feared to have become extinct. As early as the 1900s, ornithologists noted that the island of Cebu had lost most of its original forest cover ( Bankoff 2007 ). In 1959, a paper by Rabor reported the disappearance of the Cebu flowerpecker ( Dicaeum quadricolor ) and eight other avian subspecies endemic to the island. As the Cebu flowerpecker had not been recorded since 1906, it was considered extinct until its rediscovery in 1992 in a small patch of limestone forest at Tabunan ( Dutson et al. 1993 ). Although clearance has reduced the size of Tabunan forest over the last 15 years, subsequent surveys have revealed the species' presence in other patches of forest, and conservation efforts on the island, such as those being undertaken by the Cebu Biodiversity Conservation Foundation, have been revived. Field surveys also unexpectedly uncovered populations of the Philippine bare-backed fruit bat ( Dobsonia chapmani ), a cave-dwelling species not recorded since 1964 despite intensive searches. In 2001, three of these bats were netted in an agricultural clearing at Carmen on Cebu ( Paguntalan et al. 2004 ), and two years later, another five were found at Sipalay, on nearby Negros Island, in degraded karst habitat ( Alcala et al. 2004 ). The Philippine parachute gecko Ptychozoon intermedium , described from a single specimen collected in 1912 that was destroyed during World War II, was found again in 1993 ( Brown et al. 1997 ). Similarly, the Philippine forest turtle Siebenrockiella leytensis had been considered extinct from the island of Leyte for more than 80 years, until natural populations were found on Palawan ( Diesmos et al. 2005 ).

A valuable lesson can be drawn from these rediscoveries: the uncritical acceptance of a species' extinction may lead researchers to give up on the species prematurely, and thus the assumption of its demise may become self-fulfilling ( Collar 1998 ). The rediscoveries also underscore the value of basic bio-diversity surveys. However, the state of deforestation in the Philippines means that these species, with their typically small populations, are far from out of danger of extinction and require urgent conservation action to ensure their survival. In addition, there are many other “lost” and poorly known species, and fieldwork is necessary to ascertain their status ( WCSP 1997 ).

As the amount and quality of biodiversity information increases, some evidence has emerged that certain endemic species are less extinction-prone than feared. For instance, some mammals are more abundant and widespread than previously thought (e.g., the Mindanao gymnure Podogymnura truei ), and other mammals maintain good populations even in disturbed habitats, (e.g., the Philippine tarsier Tarsius syrichta and the Philippine flying lemur Cynocephalus volans ) ( WCSP 1997 ). Robust data for birds, however, show no consistent pattern in connection with the growth of knowledge about conservation status ( figure 6 ). The first conservation status assessment of the world's birds listed 43 Philippine species as threatened ( Collar and Andrew 1988 ). The second listed 86 ( Collar et al. 1994 ), of which 26 were downlisted from threatened status by the third ( BirdLife International 2000 ). Most of these changes involved new information; only two relate to genuine negative changes in status ( Butchart et al. 2004 )—increasing threat to the blue-winged racquet-tail Prioniturus verticalis in the early 1990s and to the Philippine duck Anas luzonica in the late 1990s. Since then, knowledge of the conservation status of Philippine birds appears to have stabilized, with 69 species considered threatened in the most recent assessment ( BirdLife International 2006 , IUCN 2006 ).

Cooperative interactions between sectors involved in Philippine biodiversity conservation are on the rise. Echoing the participatory legislative framework, programs often seek to address various facets of conservation, and sharing of knowledge is now moving to the synthetic level. Researchers have drawn attention to previously overlooked biodiversity-rich areas for designation as protected areas, and their knowledge of faunistic and floristic distribution has been critical in pinpointing a comprehensive set of key biodiversity areas as priority targets for inclusion in the NIPAS ( Mallari et al. 2001 , CI-Philippines et al. 2006 ). Organizations such as the World Agroforestry Centre are assessing the policy support, potentials, and constraints in current management arrangements to develop better environmental service payment schemes benefiting rural people with ecologically sound practices ( Boquiren 2004 ).

One of the most important positive signs is the increasing number of professional scientists, conservationists, and volunteer groups that are actively promoting conservation education, research, and advocacy work. The Wildlife Conservation Society of the Philippines is a professional organization formed in 1992 to advance wildlife research and conservation in the country. Today, it has a diverse membership from academia, government, NGOs, and people's organizations ( WCSP 1997 ). Participation in its yearly biodiversity symposium, which provides a unique forum for interaction across sectors, has grown steadily in attendance and membership ( figure 7 ). The Philippine Association of Marine Science also holds a well-attended symposium on marine biology. Another pioneer organization is the Haribon Foundation ( www.haribon.org.ph ), which started out as a bird-watching club in 1972 and is now one of the largest conservation NGOs in the country. More recently formed, the Wild Bird Club of the Philippines ( www.birdwatch.ph ) is the country's first group to regularly conduct bird-watching activities in important bird areas, bringing thousands of urbanites in direct contact with avian biodiversity in native habitats.

Other sectors are also putting the environment on their agendas. Working for environmental media advocacy, Bantay Kalikasan is the environmental arm of the ABS-CBN Broadcasting Corporation's sociocivic foundation. In addition to creating environmental themed series and broadcasting public service messages, Bantay Kalikasan has undertaken the rehabilitation of the La Mesa watershed, which supplies potable water to millions of residents in Metro Manila, the nation's capital. Similarly, the Center for Environmental Awareness and Education ( www.ceae.org ) is producing Filipino nature documentaries and training educators. Large companies, such as the Ayala Corporation, have created foundations for corporate social responsibility that support conservation efforts as well. The Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism has published a sourcebook to encourage environmental reporting, recognizing that this is no longer a “soft” issue for the press ( Severino 1998 ). With the private sector and media beginning to take environmental concerns more seriously, we can expect that more Filipinos will embrace biodiversity conservation.

Throughout this article, we have highlighted cases of positive progress attained through efforts to conserve the threatened biodiversity of the Philippines. Immense challenges and obstacles remain, however, and we discuss some of them in this section.

Political will is needed from the central government to enforce environmental laws. There is a need to harmonize and clarify policies and resolve inconsistencies or contradictions that create conflicts, such as overlapping responsibilities and a lack of coherency between environmental and economic strategies ( Chokkalingam et al. 2006 ). Bureaucratic malpractice and pressure from politically influential commercial interests continue to undermine legislation ( Utting 2000 ). Major threats to the environment, such as pollution and climate change, must be addressed at the national level, and so must poverty and overpopulation, which are the ultimate drivers of environmental exploitation.

Globalization has stimulated a large Philippine diaspora in recent decades, with roughly 9% to 10% of the national population now living or working outside of the country ( Hugo 2007 ). International migration can result in a decline in rural populations and a reduction of local pressure on natural resources, as remittances from emigrants may provide non -agricultural income and reduce reliance on subsistence farming ( Carr et al. 2005 ). However, the dynamics of emigration and environment in the Philippines have not been evaluated, and the potential of remittances to be harnessed for community development has not been realized ( Hugo 2007 ).

Effectiveness of community-based conservation depends to a large degree on adequacy of knowledge and capabilities of the communities ( Utting 2000 ). Community organization and social preparation are essential for gaining support from the stakeholders and cultivating responsibility for resources ( Utting 2000 , Boquiren 2004 , Alcala and Russ 2006 ). Stakeholders must be further empowered to plan, implement, enforce, and monitor their own programs ( Sodhi et al. 2008 ). To be truly sustainable, community-based approaches must provide tangible benefits and be financially stable. Market support for sustainable-use practices and the products of social forestry is necessary, if these are to become viable, income-generating alternatives to direct exploitation ( Chokkalingam et al. 2006 ).

Social forestry and rehabilitation can reduce pressures on remaining forests, but the establishment of well-managed nature reserves where biodiversity is high remains imperative. There is still a long way to go before the goals of the NIPAS Act are fully realized. Many parks are legally designated on paper, but resources allocated by the central government are insufficient to maintain them. The process of declaring protected areas remains cumbersome and protracted, and should be expedited for identified priority sites ( Mallari et al. 2001 , CI-Philippines et al. 2006 ). Other available instruments, such as designation of critical habitats as provided for by the Wildlife Act, should be harnessed. Full enforcement of even the most basic policies is lacking; for instance, illegal logging still takes place in national parks, often with the collusion of local officials ( Vitug 1993 ). Finally, connecting smaller, community-managed protected areas into networks, such as incorporating MPAs into integrated coastal management programs, may enhance their overall value for biodiversity protection.

Scientific knowledge of Philippine biota has taken great steps forward in recent years; however, much remains to be learned. Basic biological information for many species is poor, and many areas still need to be surveyed. Moreover, the apparent ecological flexibility of some species, including rare endemics, indicates that attention should also be directed to degraded habitats. Scientists must become more involved in projects to better inform management plans and evaluate outcomes. Fostering collaborations with international organizations and developing strong links among institutions of learning would enrich the capability of local scientists and conservation workers to conduct biodiversity research. There is much untapped data in “gray literature” ( Lacanilao 1997 ), and available information is poorly distributed to the wider community. In this regard, one resource that is underutilized is the Internet, which can serve as a powerful tool for data sharing.

Funding continues to be a limiting factor in conservation efforts at all scales, inhibiting the ability to sustain small but effective conservation projects and maintain the value of many larger protected areas. Continued support from the global conservation community can have an enormous impact, especially for local initiatives whose costs are relatively low. Investments must be made over the long term because short timescales and “contractual culture” often produce ineffective and unsustainable results ( Utting 2000 ). Alternative revenue-generating mechanisms must be actively explored and developed—for instance, prospects are good for scaling up payment schemes and markets for environmental services to finance the management of important biodiversity areas across the country ( Boquiren 2004 ). Greater participation from the private sector should be fostered, not just through donations but also through genuine corporate social responsibility.

It could be said that the Philippine environmental movement was born out of necessity. Greater environmental advocacy and changes in policy have coincided with the near destruction of essential habitats and ecosystems. Progress has been generally slow over the past three decades of active conservation efforts in the Philippines, and as measured by many quantitative indicators, such as a reduction in the number of threatened species or an increase in forest area, still fares poorly. However, significant developments have been made in other, less quantifiable areas, such as capacity building. Moreover, despite flaws and challenges, much knowledge has been gained, and mechanisms for resource management and biodiversity protection are now in place. Committed conservation groups can be found throughout the country, striving to salvage the hotspot from its precarious environmental position.

As the Philippines had done, other countries in Southeast Asia are pursuing economic progress at the expense of bio-diversity ( Sodhi et al. 2004 ). With a biodiversity crisis looming throughout the region, it is crucial to evaluate which strategies are effective in conserving species and habitats. In the Philippines, greater involvement, organization, and networking of the stakeholders from many sectors have resulted in encouraging trends for conservation. Ensuring the future of tropical ecosystems hinges on finding the balance between diverse and often conflicting interests; different contexts will require different solutions. Nevertheless, that positive progress has been made—despite immense obstacles—in a country seen as a worst-case scenario suggests that grounds for optimism remain for biodiversity conservation both in the Philippines and in tropical countries worldwide.

The authors are greatly indebted to Danilo Balete, David Bickford, Rowena Boquiren, Rafe Brown, Nigel Collar, Jayson Ibañez, Philip Godfrey Jakosalem, Arne Jensen, Indira Lacerna-Widmann, Rodel Lasco, Aldrin Mallari, William Oliver, Perry Ong, Lisa Marie Paguntalan, Anabelle Plantilla, Jurgenne Primavera, Jan van der Ploeg, Merlijn van Weerd, and Peter Widmann, who provided materials and suggestions that greatly improved this article. We also thank Lawrence Heaney and two anonymous reviewers for their comments on the manuscript. This study was supported by the National University of Singapore (RP-154-000-264-112).

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Mean number (left column for each year) and mean biomass (right columns, in kilograms) of large predatory reef fish per 1000 square meters in the Sumilon and Apo Reserves from 1983 to 1993. Number estimated by visual census. Sumilon Reserve had been protected from fishing for almost 10 years in 1983; protection in Apo Reserve began in 1982. Solid arrows indicate when fishing in Sumilon began (1984 (1992), and the open arrows indicate when fishing in the reserves ceased (1983 (1987). Source: Modified from Russ and Alcala (1999) .

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Attendance at the annual symposium on biodiversity by the Wildlife Conservation Society of the Philippines.

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Systematic review of ecological research in Philippine cities: assessing the present status and charting future directions

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• Published: 04 March 2024
• Volume 2 , article number  14 , ( 2024 )

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• Anne Olfato-Parojinog   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8176-8032 1 &
• Nikki Heherson A. Dagamac   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5155-5415 1 , 2 , 3  

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Developing countries such as the Philippines have an increasing urbanization rate, resulting in both the positive and negative effects of socioeconomic growth, including environmental degradation. Thus, the emergence of research on the ecological interactions in urban ecosystems has been given more attention throughout the years. This systematic review gathered relevant studies from research platforms such as Web of Science, ScienceDirect, SpringerLink, and Google Scholar to assess the trends in urban ecology research based on publication date, study area, number of citations, methods employed, and most used keywords. 105 were recorded from 1982 to 2023, with 2022 having the most published studies. Most studies were conducted in Metropolitan Manila, Luzon Island, a region with high population density and economic activity. Employing survey questionnaires (21.4%), GIS and remote sensing techniques (16.8%), and biodiversity assessments (18.3%) were the methods that were mainly used in the studies recorded. The thematic analysis has subdivided the studies into urban landscape, urban systems, bio-ecological, and human ecology-based approaches in the context of the Philippines. Science-based solutions integrated each fundamental disciplines of urban ecology in studying Philippine cities can address the gaps exhibited. Although the country's scientific knowledge in urban ecology has evolved, this comprehensive review exposes the knowledge gaps in a temporal manner, especially in further studying Visayas and Mindanao islands and smaller peri-urban areas. Expanding to multidisciplinary approaches is recommended for more thorough understanding of Philippine urban ecology, which will help in decision-making toward a more sustainable future for Philippine cities.

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1 Introduction

The interaction between humans and the environment has undergone significant changes over the years due to urbanization. Developing nations, characterized by rapid population growth, have also experienced notable economic development strides. However, this rapid development and human amplification has also cause both socio-economic and environmental issues such as the increased effects of climate change, environmental quality degradation, land conversion, and deforestation, which were mainly found in urban centers in the world [ 1 , 2 ]. The drastic changes in urban ecosystem fueled the need for multi-disciplinary approaches in studying the complex interactions between socio-economic and the environmental factors, as urban areas were also considered to be the frontlines of both environmental and sociological changes, making the research on understanding the mechanism of ecological processes in the cities significant [ 3 , 4 , 5 ].

In the founding years of urban ecology pioneered by Park et al. [ 6 ], the field was developed as part of human ecology, delving into the relationship of people and the urban environment. It was also considered as a broad body of knowledge encompassing urban changes in the perspective of human influences [ 7 ]. As the concept of contemporary urban ecology emerged [ 8 ], it became an approach that cuts across a wider perspective looking into social sciences, sociology, geography, social ecology, and urban planning, emphasizing on the interdependence of each component of the urban ecosystems. Throughout the years, each aspect of urban ecology has been further delineated to new and clearer approaches, composed of human behavior and organization in cities (human ecology-based approach), distribution of plants and animals (bio-ecology), ecosystem-wide perspective with natural and socioeconomic components (urban systems approach), and spatial heterogeneity and dynamics of urban ecosystems (urban landscape approach) [ 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 ]. As urban ecosystems are complex dynamic of biological-physical-social entities, ecological studies have emerged as an interdisciplinary field wherein researchers in multiple fields come together for the growing knowledge of the society ranging from the field of sociology, economics, and environmental sciences) [ 3 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 ]. In light of the continuous growth of urban areas, the illumination of research studies in urban ecology is the gateway for the more profound understanding of urban ecosystems and science-based solutions for sustainable urban development, as urban ecology is not limited to the discovery of ecological patterns, but also supporting the ecosystem services for the benefit of urban residents and a path towards biodiversity-friendly in urban areas [ 21 , 22 , 23 ].

In Southeast Asian countries such as the Philippines, tourism, urbanization, and globalization are the main drivers of economic growth. However, biodiversity hotspots such as the country are more prone to the profound effects of the increase in urban areas, as alterations of natural disturbance regimes and processes can be detrimental to ecological communities, leading to reduction of floral and faunal density, which in turn have consequences to the ecosystem services for humans [ 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 ]. As economic development is mainly focused on the urban areas in the country, studies have shown that an increasing percentage of the Philippine population resides in the cities compared to rural areas, which is also projected to increase in the next few years [ 29 ]. Such urban migration of people from the rural areas of the country has led to the increasing urban sprawl in many regions of the Philippines [ 30 , 31 ], alarming increase in urban heat islands [ 32 ], deterioration of air and water quality, pollution, conversion of land and water bodies, increase in human population, and increased risk for human health [ 20 ] and a decrease in biodiversity due to the loss of green spaces in many parts of the metro. Mitigating strategies have been implemented to prevent the continued detriments in Philippine urban cities through the development of urban ecology.

As an archipelago composed of more than 7000 islands with a surface area of approximately 300,000 square kilometers, and home of complex geologic positions and history, the Philippines is as country of rich biodiversity yet one of the most environmentally threatened in the world. In addition, the archipelago houses a wide variation of habitats such as coastal plains, mountain ranges, volcanic areas, a rainforest, making it a home for an estimate of 20 percent of the world’s known species of both flora and fauna [ 31 , 32 , 33 ]. Amidst the rich biodiversity and ecosystem services offered by the archipelago, the country faces anthropogenic threats such as deforestation, agricultural expansion, and increasing rate of urbanization which resulted to the drastic alteration of the land cover [ 34 , 35 ]. Similar to other developing countries such as India, Thailand and Vietnam, the rapid urbanization in the Philippines is accompanied with major challenges when it comes to urban environment management and socioeconomic issues such as poverty, transport system, sewage and sanitation, supply of basic needs, and lack of prioritization in urban development [ 36 ]. Moreover, the urbanization in the country is mainly concentrated in the national capitals, which in turn creates both an environmental and socioeconomic imbalance instead of a gradation from rural to urban areas. Specifically, the rate of urbanization was centralized in Metropolitan Manila, Metropolitan Cebu, and Metropolitan Davao which house most of the countries’ population amidst the limitations on their surface area [ 37 ].

As the nation continues to experience the effects of rapid urbanization, the urgent need in assessing and synthesizing the existing studies can serve as critical foundation for an evidence-based decision-making and formulation of policies, fostering the coexistence of increased human population and the urban ecosystem. Since the emergence of urban ecology, the enhancing of knowledge on how ecological communities respond to urban pressures can address the questions that may arise in terms of urban biodiversity [ 38 ]. As the first comprehensive review of urban ecology in the Philippines, this paper aims assess the current scientific knowledge in the country in the field, identify the knowledge gap and potential target research efforts and facilitate the integration of ecological principles into urban development planning and strategies. By means of shedding light into the interplay of biodiversity, urban residents, and the urban environment in the Philippines, this review serves as a tool in advancing the knowledge in urban ecology in the country. Hence, to determine the status and progress of urban ecology research in the country, this study aims to review all published papers related to Philippine urban ecology. Specifically, this paper determined and analyzed the prevailing spatial and temporal patterns and trends in urban ecology in the Philippines. Consequently, the methodologies that were employed in studying urban ecology in a local context were enumerated. Through the synthesis of the current available studies, the knowledge gaps in the field were highlighted to serve as a guide for potential priority areas needed to be studied. This paper also discusses the major themes in Philippine urban ecology encompassing landscape ecology, environmental quality, biodiversity, socioecological studies, and sustainable development. With these, this comprehensive review can provide a concrete assessment of the current state of urban ecology studies in the Philippines, which in turn can help future researchers, stakeholders, and policymakers in decision-making processes based on science-based approaches and prospective fields to study further.

2 Materials and methods

To assess the current state of urban ecology research in the Philippines, and how the knowledge in Philippine cities emerged throughout time, revisiting previous research and findings must be conducted. In this paper, a systematic review is conducted to synthesize what has been known about the field and the future directives of urban ecology by means of identifying trends and research gaps. Since systematic reviews primarily aid in summarizing the results in a quantitative and qualitative approach through a comprehensive literature review, they can further deepen the understanding regarding the topic of interest [ 39 , 40 ]. By principle, systematic reviews follow the necessary steps: research question formulation and identification of review scope, data collection and filtering, and summarization or synthesis of all the research studies gathered.

2.1 Data acquisition

Four primary databases were used to gather relevant papers for data analysis: Scopus and Web of Science, ScienceDirect, and Google Scholar. For article extraction, the keywords inputted were “Urban Ecology in the Philippines,” “Urban Ecology,” AND “Philippines.” The inclusion criteria were the following: (1) articles must be written in the English language, (2) studies must be conducted in the Philippines or included in the Philippines in the scope, (3) the research abstract must contain at least any of the keywords, and (4) must be a published research article in a non-predatory journal. A total of 2487 articles were retrieved from the databases. The articles acquired were from the years 1982 to 2023. All records were retrieved using the PRISMA methodological framework (Fig.  1 ).

The PRISMA framework

2.2 Data screening and eligibility

In terms of the screening process, the extracted studies from the databases were scanned for duplicates. In total, 17 duplicates were found. Consequently, the research articles were screened according to the established inclusion and exclusion criteria. Out of 2487 articles, a total of 105 articles were included in the analysis, which were reviewed, categorized, and synthesized. The research studies included were by the criteria set. They were in line with the primary theme of the systematic review, which is studies focusing on different areas of urban ecology in the Philippines.

2.3 Data analysis

A descriptive and thematic analysis was conducted to analyze the acquired articles comprehensively. For a more detailed summary of the data acquired, descriptive analysis can be an efficient tool for detecting data characteristics in simple percentages shown in visual summaries, which may influence the study’s conclusions [ 41 ]. For the descriptive analysis, the most cited studies, the year of publication, the scope of study areas, and the methodology used were taken into consideration.

Thematic analysis is mainly utilized in analyzing qualitative data, wherein the determination of patterns and trends in the dataset can result in a more comprehensive understanding, contributing to the results’ robustness [ 42 ]. Thus, thematic analysis was used to deal with categorizing the included studies into the major themes or areas of interest in the concept of urban ecology. Through familiarization, generation of themes, and reporting formed themes, researchers can segregate based on the focal concepts of the studies. After familiarizing and managing the records in Excel sheets, a more intricate and critical literature review was conducted to summarize and sort the articles into specific themes. Results and recommendations were formulated according to the gaps and challenges identified based on the descriptive and thematic analysis [ 43 ].

3 Results and discussion

3.1 descriptive analysis.

Through monitoring the progression of studies in urban ecology, an understanding of the dynamic relationship between urbanization and the environment can be achieved [ 21 , 44 , 45 , 46 ]. As Philippine cities are continuously growing and evolving, tracking how urban ecology research evolves throughout enables the adaptation of strategies for sustainable urban development, biodiversity conservation, and the well-being of urban inhabitants. In terms of the annual number of publications, detailed analysis of how studies have grown over the period has been exhibited through a linear graph (see Fig.  2 ). It has been exhibited that the annual number of publications on urban ecology in the Philippines has increased along with time. The first published study relating to the field was on urban dominance, ecology, and community well-being in a Philippine region [ 47 ], which observed trends in the effect of ecological differences on the socio-economic status of a peri-urban population in urban communities. Although there has been an evident decrease in the published studies in 2021, during the peak of the COVID-19 pandemic, the continuous increase in urban ecological studies in the countries implies a growing interest in the field throughout the years. It has also been observed that there is a significant decrease in the number of studies in the current year of review, 2023, as the year has yet to conclude. Although there has been a growing emergence of urban ecology studies in the country, the variations of methods and limitations of scope areas is still for improvement.

Number of annual research papers on urban ecology in the Philippines

As the development of urban ecology research in the Philippines continuously emerges, looking into the topmost cited papers serves a significant role as the fundamental principles, methods, and findings of these studies serve as sources of the interplay of urbanization and ecological dynamics in the country. Based on the data obtained as of August 2023 (see Table  1 ), the most cited studies dealt with urban landscape ecology and the effects of urbanization on the landscape, which encompasses issues such as land use and land cover changes and the increasing temperatures in urban areas, otherwise known as the Urban Heat Island Effect (UHI Effect) [ 48 , 49 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 ]. In coherence with the results, studies have shown that studying urban ecosystems in a landscape scale as it provides framework in understanding urban ecosystems in consideration of whole cities in a regional context; in this manner the elements of sustainability science is perceived more comprehensively and effectively [ 54 , 55 ]. The changes in the ecosystem services along with urbanization have also been highlighted by the study of Estoque & Murayama [ 56 ], which brought light to the relevance of building sustainable cities. Based on the most cited studies, the scales of studies are either in a regional sense, whether it be Southeast Asian countries or the whole Philippines as models. Few studies have focused on a city-specific scale and were conducted in the most known cities such as Metropolitan Manila, Baguio City, and Subic Bay. Although these cities vary in terms of geographic features, Manila being in the lowlands, Baguio City in the highlands, and Subic Bay as a representation of cities located along the coastline, giving more attention to not just mainland Luzon will be plausible for the representation of both geographical and sociological conditions of the islands in Visayas and Mindanao.

As cities or urban centers are considered complex ecosystems with varying characteristics that are altered spatiotemporal, the continuous expansion of knowledge and urban ecology comes with a comprehensive investigation of urban areas [ 21 , 57 ].To be able to detect what type of studies and where urban ecology research were conducted, the distribution of urban ecology studies in the Philippines were subdivided into four major themes in accordance with the fundamentals of urban ecology studies, namely: urban landscape (landscape ecology), urban systems (environmental assessments), bio-ecological (biodiversity studies) and human ecology-based approach (socio-ecological dynamics). These themes are further described in the thematic analysis. Among the 149 cities in the Philippines, 21 cities were identified as urban ecology research study areas (Fig.  3 a).

Distribution map of urban ecology studies in the ( a ) Philippines and ( b ) Metro Manila

Twelve studies were conducted from a country-wide perspective, and most of the studies were conducted within Metropolitan Manila (Fig.  3 b), mainly studying the socio-ecological dynamics of the cities. The top studied cities were Quezon City, Manila City, Baguio City, Cebu City, and Davao City. These areas are the socio-economic centers of the country, ranging from Northern and Central Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. The Laguna de Bay was also one of the top study sites in terms of urban ecology, with a total of 9 studies included, as the lake is the largest freshwater body and most economically significant lake in the country, which expands through multiple provinces namely Rizal, Laguna, Batangas, Cavite, and Metro Manila [ 58 ]. Although the lake has been a significant water source for industries such as agriculture, aquaculture, transportation, recreation, and domestic use, its water quality has continuously deteriorated due to land conversion and anthropogenic activities, highlighting its significance for further research [ 59 ]. As observed, urban ecological studies were primarily done in the mainland Luzon, making the available information for grasp the country’s condition regarding urban ecosystem conditions inadequate, highlighting further assessments such as producing baseline information on the cities found in other islands of the archipelago. An insufficiency of available studies was exhibited in the islands of Visayas and Mindanao, wherein urban areas were also established, as each island has a city or urbanized capital. Although assessments of urban forests and parks are essential, giving light to informal green spaces is often neglected and must be addressed, as it also contribute to the overall environmental condition of urban ecosystems [ 60 ]. Thus, employing further studying cities in various spatial scales enables researchers to grasp the principles of how landscape size, configuration, and composition can indicate the need to employ urban ecological models in a multi-scalar perspective [ 55 ].

Scientific methods have been the primary guiding principle in the growth of research as they primarily prescribe activities that will yield the validity of studies and give a unifying concept of the approaches in the investigation of any field of natural sciences [ 61 ]. Urban ecology is a heterogeneous and multidisciplinary science encompassing environmental, biological, and sociological sciences with variable research approaches [ 21 ]. As urban ecosystems are primarily human-dominated, the history of the development of cities, the influencing factors, and the potential effects must be considered, which is vital for a deeper understanding of the nature of urban ecosystems [ 62 ].

Regarding the methodologies employed (Fig.  4 ), using survey questions and conducting interviews with stakeholders, management, and the general public were the most used methods (21.4%), as urban ecology mainly involves human activities and perceptions. Taxonomic surveys (18.3%), the profiling of species identity by means of looking at their biological and ecological characteristics, is related to studying ecology in describing ecological patterns, community structure, and the vital interactions and functions between organisms. Moreover, molecular approaches were also applied in studying urban ecology. As observed in the studies obtained, only a few significant studies have employed molecular techniques such as DNA fingerprinting, genomic surveillance, and isolation of microorganisms (4.6%). As taxonomic surveys provide essential data on the state of biodiversity of urban ecosystems, further exploring different taxonomic groups. With further taxonomic assessments, wider and more extensive data can be obtained. On the other hand, human surveys can go together with biological surveys as it helps assessing the socio-ecological dynamics in different cities as both environmental factors and socioeconomic factors are found to be influencing the species richness within urban communities [ 63 , 64 , 65 , 66 , 67 ].

Distribution map of the number of urban ecology studies in the ( a ) Philippines and ( b ) Metro Manila

As urban ecology requires multifaceted approaches to understand both the biotic and abiotic dynamics in the environment, looking into a landscape perspective enables a more comprehensive understanding of the ecosystem. An emerging technology utilizing GIS and remote sensing is a breakthrough in urban landscape ecology (16.8%). The science of acquiring information through non-contact, geospatial technology enables researchers to obtain spatial information encompassing large spatial and temporal extents, which is instrumental in analyzing how landscapes are modified through time. However, the remote sensing applications that were primarily utilized focused on indices such as Land Use Land Cover Change detection and the changes in Land Surface Temperatures in urban areas. In fact more landscape characteristics can be assessed with the use of remote sensing in urban areas such as assessing the vegetation and greenspaces available [ 68 , 69 , 70 ], monitoring the air quality and pollution rate [ 71 , 72 , 73 ], planning transportation and infrastructure systems [ 74 , 75 ], socioeconomic studies [ 76 , 77 ], disaster management and resilience planning [ 78 , 79 ] and even urban ecological modeling. As abiotic factors also play an essential role in urban ecology as they directly affect the environmental tolerances of organisms and the health of the residents, environmental monitoring in the form of chemical assessments of aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems has also been conducted (7.6%). However, environmental monitoring requires continuous temporal assessments as urban ecosystems may have drastic changes depending on the intensity of anthropogenic effects towards cities. An efficient method on employing continuous environmental monitoring is through employing an inclusive and solution-orientated community-based monitoring, as community members can also play a role in collaboration with the researchers for the communities’ deeper understanding of human–environment interaction [ 80 ].

Qualitative field observations (5.3%) were also done to monitor the state of urban areas focusing on primary issues addressed in urban areas, such as looking into the vulnerability and resilience of cities froRegardinghange effects, socio-economic state of agricultural and aquacultural industries, and the urban management frameworks and practices to maintain the overall environmental well-being of cities all over the country [ 81 , 82 , 83 , 84 ]. Lastly, Literature reviews (6.9%) have also included the country to assess the current state of Philippine cities mainly conducted in Metro Manila and Baguio City, both located in mainland Luzon, regarding socio-ecological dynamics, sustainable development, and significant health concerns concerning what is occurring in neighboring countries encountering similar challenges [ 85 , 86 , 87 , 88 ]. As qualitative methods were observed to have the least attention among all the methodologies employed, integration of more qualitative urban traits can expand the understanding on socio-ecological dynamics, which includes looking into the landscape and the sociological history of more cities in the country, for researchers to fully compare the state of the Philippine cities with neighboring countries.

3.2 Thematic analysis

Categorizing the studies gathered under different themes enables a generalized yet more comprehensive view of the country’s critical factors and aspects of urban ecology studies. Each of the papers was scrutinized, evaluated, and classified into four themes: urban landscape, urban systems, bio-ecological and human ecology-based approach.

3.2.1 Philippine urban landscape ecology

In the science of landscape ecology, a more interdisciplinary and holistic approach has emerged, integrating the theories of ecology and geography into the history, planning, conservation, and management of landscapes, along with human interactions that primarily use the landscape as living spaces. Moreover, this field of ecology generally investigates the interactions between spatial patterns and the ecological process from a broader perspective, primarily conducted regionally. It also delves into the concept of landscape heterogeneity, which focuses on defining landscape characteristics, which can be beneficial knowledge for landscape planning and urban sustainable development. For urban landscapes, studying how spatial heterogeneity changes or develops through time, along with the continuous alterations in both biotic and abiotic factors, is a vital field, especially if studies were made as a collaborative work between landscape ecology and urban planners. Compared to other fields, such as socio-ecological dynamics, landscape ecology treats human activities as part of the system rather than as a separate factor to the issues addressed.

Significant repercussions of urbanization were also highlighted in some landscape pattern studies highlighting issues such as urban sprawl, pollution, public transportation, increase in carbon emissions, and increasing temperature in urban centers due to the UHI effect mainly in the megacities in the country [ 48 , 52 , 53 , 89 ]. In the urban landscape studies in the Philippines, researchers have highlighted the changes in land use and land cover of developing areas all around the country and related these landscape changes to the implications of current environmental management, ecosystem services, and habitat availability for the remaining biodiversity within the area, which are conducted in various areas such as coastal and highland cities such as Manila and Baguio City, consecutively [ 49 , 56 , 89 , 90 , 91 , 92 ]. With the integration of mathematical modeling and machine learning to GIS and remote sensing, researchers have also predicted future urban expansion and landscape changes based on the existing as a form of foreseeing for sustainable development planning to avoid the detrimental effects detected previously [ 59 , 93 , 94 ]. As the cited studies were only centralized in the urbanization effects in the megacities, additional analyses can also be done in the developing peri-urban cities as drastic changes may also occur throughout time. To make landscape ecology studies in urban ecosystems, landscape fragmentation can also be assessed to examine how urbanization can affect the connectivity of corridors, green spaces, and distribution of the suitable habitats to determine the flow of ecological processes in the landscape. The involvement of the residents through conducting social surveys and participatory mapping may also be integrated in landscape ecology studies for researchers and decision-makers can supplement social perceptions on future landscape planning and monitoring. Additionally, the use of GIS and remote sensing can also be applied in the identification of how environmental stressors are distributed in urban areas to identify priority areas in conservation and management.

3.2.2 Urban systems approach in studying Philippine cities

As the development rate of urban areas is continuously rising, its effect on socio-economic sustainability and environmental issues has been significantly evident, such as increasing demands for energy and natural resources [ 95 , 96 ] increase in impervious [ 97 , 98 ] surfaces further causing the UHI, degradation of soil, water, and air due to pollution and loss of vegetation [ 99 , 100 , 101 , 102 ] and lastly, the drastic decline of biodiversity due to reduction of natural habitats [ 103 ]. Thus, incorporating assessments to examine environmental quality can be utilized to be able to understand the interactions between various factors that can either negatively or positively affect the environment.

Water pollution is a significant concern for highly urbanized areas and any community as it is utilized in the household, industries, and as a source of livelihood such as fisheries. As water is the most crucial environmental component, as if it is a source of life and irreplaceable, sources such as lakes and rivers must be protected from pollutants and conserved to avoid future generations’ scarcity [ 104 , 105 ]. However, the amount of waste disposed in water bodies results in contamination composed of various pollutants such as nutrients, pathogens, chemical and plastic products, and even industrial wastes, bringing the water supply and quality down [ 106 ]. In the Philippines, the detection of heavy metals and microplastics in water bodies nearby cities has been a significant concern raised from recent studies as it can affect the biodiversity of both freshwater and marine species and can also affect the health of the consumers [ 107 , 108 , 109 , 110 , 111 ]. It has been observed that most contaminations were specifically located near cities, most specifically from the untreated wastes from waterways connected to the lakes [ 110 ]. Aside from nutrient, physicochemical, and microbial analyses, the integration of molecular methods such as environmental DNA (eDNA) can also detect the presence of aquatic diversity. Hydrological modeling and remote sensing can also be conducted in understanding water dynamics, including how pollutants and water quality change in the gradient from the pollutant sources. Moreover, as some urban communities in the country are along water bodies, integrating citizen science in water quality monitoring can improve both the data acquisition and the awareness and involvement of urban residents in aiding the deterioration of water quality.

Aside from water quality deterioration, soil pollution can also significantly affect the urban ecosystem, which is due to the accumulation of solid and liquid wastes, industrial activities, and bioaccumulation of toxic chemicals, which poses a severe risk to biodiversity and human health, specifically acquisition of pathogens, carcinogens, and mutagens [ 112 ]. Quantification of metal concentrations in soil and plant samples were also done in Philippines cities to elucidate relationships between the property of soil substrates and the concentration of heavy metals in various land use classifications, which indicated that anthropogenic activities and disturbance brought about by rapid urbanization have caused increase toxic amounts in terrestrial environments [ 113 ]. To mitigate or eradicate these ecological risks, further studies and environmental assessments, in the form of either EIAs (Environmental Impact Assessments) or Strategic Environmental Assessments (SEA), can be useful for a higher level of decision-making and incorporating the data for sustainable development plans [ 114 ].

3.2.3 Philippines in a bio-ecological perspective

The biodiversity in a human-dominated system such as highly urbanized areas is considered a unique case as the introduction of exotic species was normalized due to the environmental tolerances of native species. Thus, species composition in artificial or modified ecosystems such as these can differ from those in rural areas. In addition, drastic environmental changes can significantly affect the species composition as anthropogenic activities and climatic conditions play a significant role in the distribution of various groups of organisms [ 115 ]. Nevertheless, a significant challenge in conducting biological assessments in urban environments emphasizes the requirement for additional data regarding urban habitats and the gathering of information on the presence of various species [ 116 ].

Recording and assessing the biodiversity in urban areas has long been conducted in the Philippines. These surveys encompass groups of organisms ranging from fungi, plants, insects, birds, mammals, and aquatic macroinvertebrates, investigating their food sources, spatial patterns, diversity, and how abiotic factors influence their occurrences in regions such as cities in Northern and Southern Luzon, Western Visayas, Metropolitan Manila, Metropolitan Cebu, Metropolitan [ 34 , 117 , 118 , 119 , 120 , 121 , 122 , 123 , 124 , 125 , 126 , 127 , 128 , 129 , 130 , 131 , 132 , 133 , 134 ].In addition to mere taxonomic surveys, some of the studies, as mentioned earlier, utilized biodiversity indices as using biodiversity metrics such as species richness and evenness, which can be utilized to compare communities or populations either spatially or temporally, which highlights the importance of specific areas for environmental monitoring and conservation. However, continuous, and more comprehensive monitoring of the changes in species composition in relation to the increasing effects of urbanization still needs prioritization. In this manner, researchers and concerned organizations can implement improved strategies in conserving and protecting the natural flow of urban ecosystems. Employing formulation of a mechanistic framework in identifying the urban ecological processes, to shed light on the effects of urbanization to ecological interactions in the city centers of the country [ 135 ].

In coherence with taxonomic surveys, the use of DNA barcoding was also utilized in identifying ant species in urban areas [ 134 ]. In addition, the use of DNA fingerprinting and microbial isolations were also utilized to be able to assess the conditions of both aquatic and terrestrial environments through looking into both biotic and abiotic components [ 136 , 137 ]. As health is also a significant concern in highly urbanized areas such as in Metro Manila, the use of molecular methods was also applied in pathogen monitoring such as dengue virus and pollen allergens [ 138 , 139 , 140 ]. Although ample biodiversity studies have been conducted, it has only been recorded in a few major cities in the country, mostly centralized in the metropolitan areas such as Metro Manila, Metro Cebu, Metro Davao and Baguio City as the most urbanized in Northern Luzon. It has yet to be conducted regularly to detect composition changes throughout time. Thus, more well-rounded assessments must be conducted for researchers and urban planners to understand further the natural and human-controlled processes that alter urban biodiversity, not just in the metropolitan cities, but also the emerging urban areas in island capitals.

3.3 The current state of human ecology-based research in the Philippines

Urban environments are considered heterogeneous landscapes, composed of socio-economic and ecological features, making a human-to-nature dynamic. This is where the concept of socio-ecological systems came into context, as it is an integrated system wherein human aspects such as their political, cultural, institutional, technological, and socio-economic characteristics play a significant role in the interaction with natural ecosystems, or simply the interaction between social systems with biogeophysical unit off the environment [ 141 , 142 ]. As complex environmental problems also need complex forms of solution, studying the socio-ecological dynamics has been increasingly important in both scientific and policy communities, as researchers need to deal with a more integrative and interdisciplinary approach in studying both social and ecological systems [ 143 ].

Studying human perception and understanding were primarily utilized to perceive the communities’ standpoint on the current implementation, governance, and challenges in managing urban ecosystems [ 144 , 145 ]. As urban centers also encounter socio-economic problems such as waste management, food supply, health concerns, overpopulation, and flooding, understanding the challenges faced by residents is also vital in studying the socio-ecological dynamics [ 146 , 147 , 148 ]. In acquiring direct information regarding the socio-economic status of the residents in the urban areas, primary aspects of socio-ecological systems can be detected such as their resilience, adaptability, vulnerability to environmental and economic changes, and lastly, the type of governance among communities, which are interrelated concepts in an ecological and sociological perspective [ 149 ]. Moreover, surveys were also conducted for socio-cultural and ecosystem valuation to be able to determine the significance of ecosystems in terms of their benefits in regulating, supporting, provisioning, and cultural services, which can be an instrument for strengthening conservation strategies in these areas [ 150 , 151 , 152 ]. Thus, to improve the understanding towards the flow of ecological communities in cities, the demographic, culture, and economic activities must be considered, looking into the approach of urban ecology in a sociological approach, as human behavior and social organization of cities play a significant role in urban ecosystems as a whole.

3.4 The potential and future directives of Philippine urban ecology towards sustainable development

As previous studies have addressed significant issues regarding the current state of urban ecosystems and how urban ecology research progresses, each of the studies has envisioned growth and further improvement in the field and the practices that must be implemented for more sustainable development of Philippine cities. In this systematic review, recommendations from all the studies gathered were synthesized targeting different aspects of urban ecology, specifically restoration, conservation, and protection of environmental quality; improvement of the human health system in urban areas; prioritization of urban biodiversity conservation; and solutions and practices towards sustainable development. Given the fundamentals of urban ecology, encompassing various disciplines such as bio-ecological, sociological, landscape, and ecosystems approaches, the Philippine urban ecology has a potential for widening its horizon, making a holistic understanding of the discipline.

As urbanization was observed to significantly impact the environment's quality, improving or sustaining these ecosystems is vital as it affects the quality of life [ 153 ]. If urban ecosystems are not sustained, it can cause serious concerns affecting all life forms. Thus, further exploration of approaches in urban systems can result into deeper understanding on the relation of natural and socioeconomic aspects. Continuously monitoring environmental quality through evaluating risks can be a scientific basis for policymaking and implementing improvement and rehabilitation programs [ 111 , 136 ]. Addressing water quality and quantity concerns and determining the effects of climate change and pollution in water bodies will also serve as the fundamental basis for a decision support system, which can be done in major water bodies in urban areas not only in Laguna De Bay and other aquatic systems in the Metropolitan Manila, but in other urban aquatic systems across the country [ 110 , 154 ]. To address this, restoration and protection of waterways, such as improving wastewater treatment facilities and rehabilitation programs, can improve the water quality in urban areas [ 113 ]. As water pollution in urban areas are greatly affected by human activities, the use of hydrological modeling and geospatial analysis can also be utilized to map and trace the flow of water within urban areas and for identification of contamination hotspots and priority areas to restore. Microbiological assessments can also be conducted aside from biological assessments of macroinvertebrates, as testing the presence of water contaminants such as bacteria and viruses can greatly affect both the residents and other organisms along and within water bodies. In terms of water quality remediation, techniques such as assessing how construction of bioretention systems, and permeable pavements can aid in treatment of water pollutants.

In a human-dominated environment, one of the major concerns in terms of the urban ecosystems approach are correlated with the protection of human health and disease control. Through further studying the abiotic factors that can affect disease transmission, such as the spread of allergens, pathogens, and the ecology of vector-borne diseases, the concerned institutions can anticipate and prepare for potential outbreaks, avoiding detrimental health problems in the future [ 139 , 155 ]. Pertinent control programs will also be applicable for diseases such as dengue, leptospirosis, and rabies to increase public awareness regarding the transmission and prevention of these diseases [ 156 ]. Thus, further research into urban ecosystems is crucial for thorough knowledge regarding how the environmental conditions of cities can impact public health, which in turn allowing for evidence-based policy implementation and potential urban planning looking both into the environmental quality and the safety of residents against urban-related diseases. To further improve urban environmental and health research, increasing interdisciplinary collaborations such as including medical professionals, sociologists, and decision-makers, conducting more comprehensive and long-term data collection for monitoring enables the community to address environmental justice problems ensuring that there will be equitable health for the residents of Philippine cities.

Another factor contributing to making cities beneficial for human health and well-being is the biological diversity in urban areas, giving importance to conservation measures. Merging bio-ecological and ecosystems approach can serve as an efficient method in assessing how urban biodiversity generate and support ecosystem services that benefit residents and other living organisms. However, if not conserved, it may cause destabilization of ecological communities, resulting in more detrimental effects on urban ecosystems. Maintaining vegetation is beneficial to conserving species and mitigating climate change effects such as climate amelioration, erosion control, watershed protection, and controlling the rate of carbon emissions and pollutants in the air [ 157 ]. Thus, studies have suggested strengthening the maintenance and conservation of quality habitats, developing more forest patches in the form of urban green spaces and forest parks, and further intensifying the protection of the remaining forests and their biodiversity in urban areas [ 34 , 117 , 129 , 132 , 158 ]. Biological invasion is also a prevalent concern causing further imbalances in the dynamics of species. Thus, ecological replacement can be done in order to manage invasive populations, such as replacing invasive plants with native species that can thrive in urban environments [ 109 ].

Although bio-ecological assessments have been conducted in the megacities such as the Metropolitan Manila, Cebu, Davao, further monitoring of biodiversity and the ecological factors affecting species distribution was highly recommended. Future initiatives may be composed of looking into factors such as habitat complexity, noise pollution level, spatiotemporal patterns, and determination of habitat associations, which can be done employing site observation, direct surveys, and mixed-method approaches [ 122 , 129 , 150 ]. Employing and strategizing novel methods for efficient and continuous monitoring and assessment of species can also help to develop an understanding of urban environment [ 134 ]. Looking into the spatial heterogeneity and patch dynamics of Philippine cities can provide insights for urban landscape approach. This includes understanding the impact of land use and land cover changes, heat indices, and landscape connectivity in relation to biodiversity can be helpful in assessing habitats that are altered by human activities [ 125 ].

In addressing the sustainable growth of cities, the involvement, knowledge, and awareness of the general public account for the majority of the progress. Thus, the human ecology based approach integrating of the population concerns, environmental education, citizen participation towards sustaining green infrastructures and spaces, and investigating management strategies have the capacity in strengthening the current knowledge on how human behaviors and organization in cities affect the urban environment [ 86 , 151 , 159 , 160 ].

As social organizations and management plays a significant factor in sustaining urban ecosystems, delving into anthropogenic studies can supplement the gaps in binding human–environment relations. Strategic urban planning and design must be implemented by the local government units, including establishment and conservation of green spaces, ecological planning of urban and agricultural land areas, and taking into account the reduction of density of urban impervious spaces [ 79 , 89 , 123 ]. Increasing the adaptive capacity and resilience of urban areas, such as the production of hazardscapes and the integration of an effective solid waste management system, can also reduce the detrimental effects of climate change and natural disasters [ 82 , 161 ]. Lastly, studies have also highlighted further improvement of studying the governance system in urban areas, looking into both the socio-economic and ecological well-being of cities. Such practices include strengthening the collaboration between public and private sectors, access to livelihoods opportunities and social services for the marginalized sector, enhancement of connectivity plan, residual management in industries, the establishment of monitoring offices for sustainable development, and implementation of solid policy on conservation serving as legal protection to ensure the long-term sustainable flow ecosystem services [ 86 , 126 , 150 , 162 ].

The future of urban ecology research in the Philippines has ample potential for a better understanding of how urbanization can transform cities and all the inhabitants of these ecosystems. Through further analysis and monitoring of the interplay between social, economic, and ecological aspects, future studies will address not just the current state of Philippine cities but also what could be done to sustain a quality life in a human-dominated environment, bringing sustainable development, adaptability, and resilience into context.

4 Conclusion

In developing urban ecology in the Philippines, this paper has addressed the status and progress in the field through a systematic review of the published papers in major repositories and databases. The prevailing patterns and trends in the studies were determined and analyzed according to the publication date, themes, scope of study areas. The methodologies employed in each study were also highlighted to give attention to the current techniques used in studying urban ecosystem dynamics. Regarding the methodologies employed, looking into the varying levels of biodiversity within cities is yet to be explored, as it can serve a pivotal role in protecting urban ecosystems. Studies such as the assessment of intra-urban and urban–rural gradients, can address how species vary in terms of habitat gradients as patch areas and corridors are found to have the strongest positive impact on the biodiversity [ 163 ]. Multi-species and multi-trophic interactions in a spatiotemporal analysis can also be explored through integration of more phylogenetic, trait-based, and even remote sensing analyses to look at urban biodiversity in different perspective aside from the traditional field assessments conducted. Similar to the gaps acknowledged by Rega-Brodsky et al. [ 38 ], further studies must be conducted for a wider variety of taxonomic groups and urban ecosystems, most especially in biodiversity hotspots such as the Philippines, which can enable future researchers to go towards a multidisciplinary approach in addressing urban biodiversity.

In terms of the geographic distribution of urban ecological studies, as research studies that have been conducted were mainly conducted in metropolitan or larger cities, urban ecological knowledge regarding the smaller cities in other islands such as in Northern Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao must also be explored. As the effects of urbanization have altered species composition and ecosystem processes, this phenomenon regarding urban ecosystems may also apply to the less populated but developing peri-urban regions in developing countries [ 23 , 164 , 165 ]. In progressing toward a more efficient conservation of urban ecosystems, the unfamiliarity regarding urban landscapes must first be addressed, which can be done through identifying and incorporating the distinctive elements of the urban areas to be explored [ 166 ]. Distinctive elements such as size, the overall area of green spaces, and the socioeconomic context of the region are vital considerations to fully understand and plan the conservation of ecosystem assemblages at a city-scale, which deserves more research attention as humans are considered as primary drivers of urban biodiversity [ 38 , 167 ]. This can be done by looking into finer spatial extents and temporal dynamics in urban areas and comparing urban and rural composition as a multi-scale approach in landscape ecological models [ 55 ].

As urban sprawl is fueled by anthropogenic drivers, acquiring more knowledge on the root cause of ecosystem changes must also be given more research attention, as urban ecology depends on both human ecology and urban sociology. Through further studies on the social and spatial differences of cities, and the socio-economic and cultural backgrounds of the urban communities, we can look at urban systems holistically, envisioning as a single ecosystem looking into multifaceted principles in ecology and sociology [ 15 , 60 , 168 ]. Employing a more integrated science by means of integrating additional disciplines and quantification of targets for development, researchers can inform decision-makers and stakeholders for a better understanding of the interplay among the ecological, socio-economic, and infrastructure systems, which can advance the evolution of urban ecology research that can support the aim of the community towards more sustainable cities, conservation of urban biodiversity, and improving the residents’ quality of life [ 21 , 28 , 168 ]. As this systematic review have highlighted the need for further research and evidence-based action towards coping with the fast-paced urbanization in Philippine cities, giving importance to ecosystem management, sustainable planning for the mitigation of future environmental challenges, and ensuring that the coexistence of urban population and the environmental remain harmonious for future years to come is the pathway towards livable cities.

Data availability

The data that supports the findings of this study are available upon request from corresponding author.

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AOP would like to extend her gratitude to the Department of Science and Technology (DOST)- Accelerated Science and Technology Human Resource Development Program (ASTHRDP) for her scholarship grant. NHAD acknowledges the DOST- Philippine Council for Agriculture, Aquatic and Natural Resources Research and Development (PCAARRD) for the Balik Scientist Engagement.

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Olfato-Parojinog, A., Dagamac, N.H.A. Systematic review of ecological research in Philippine cities: assessing the present status and charting future directions. Discov Environ 2 , 14 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s44274-024-00040-6

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Revisiting the state of philippine biodiversity and the legislation on access and benefit sharing.

 As a megadiverse country, the Philippines is recognized with its rich biodiversity. It has the most diverse life forms on a per unit area. Its biodiversity, composed of various flora and fauna, provides resources to meet basic needs for human survival, promotes economic development and offers environmental services. However, the unsustainable use and management of the country’s biodiversity may lead to its destruction. The country has been tagged as one of the world’s biodiversity hotspots and a top priority in terms of conservation.  Policies have been initiated to protect and conserve biodiversity in the country which cover legislations on access and benefit sharing.

INTRODUCTION

The Philippines is considered as one of the world’s megadiverse countries with almost 75% of the world’s biodiversity found in the country. However, in recent years, the country has faced great challenges in protecting, conserving and developing its biodiversity. In fact, there has been continued destruction of the country’s resources and increase in the number of endangered plant and animal species, reaching a total of more than 700 threatened species. These include the Philippine eagle ( Pithecophaga jefferyi ), Philippine freshwater crocodile ( Crocodylus mindorensis ), tamaraw ( Bubalus mindorensis ), yakal ( Shorea astylosa ) and waling-waling ( Vanda sanderiana ), among others.

Biodiversity, however, is more than just the number of unique flora and fauna species found in a country. It refers to the variety of life on Earth, it includes all organisms, species and populations; the genetic variation among these; and their complex assemblages of communities and ecosystems (UNEP, 2010). It is described as the most complex and very vital feature of Earth (Carrington, 2018). This is because humanity relies so much on the resources and services offered by biodiversity such as food, medicines, wood products, ornamental plants and breeding stocks, among others. Moreover, the world benefits from ecosystem services such as water provision, soil protection, nutrient storage and recycling, pollution breakdown, ecotourism, carbon offset, flood prevention and fishery and crop production. Nevertheless, these resources and services may not last forever especially if their utilization and management is not sustainable. Along with the decline is the lessening of the benefits mentioned above, thus the need for biodiversity protection and conservation from threats such as overexploitation, habitat loss, climate change, pollution and invasive alien species, among others.

Policy is a key area where initiatives on protection, conservation and development of biodiversity can be in place. The Philippines has been one of the first countries to regulate the utilization of biodiversity resources. Yet, overexploitation of the biological and genetic resources is still rampant in the country. There are several reports of smuggling, abuse of traditional uses, and biopiracy.

For the purpose of understanding the country’s initiatives on biodiversity conservation and development, this paper presents the status, trend and issues in the Philippine biodiversity. It also reviews the history of legislations and current initiatives on access and benefit sharing in the country.

THE PHILIPPINE BIODIVERSITY

Overview of the status, trends and issues

The Philippines is among the countries with the richest biodiversity in the world. Indeed, almost two-thirds of the earth’s biodiversity is concentrated in the country. Comparing the geographical area of all the countries on earth, the Philippines is considered to have the most number of diverse life forms on a per unit area basis (Convention on Biological Biodiversity (CBD), n.d.; Aquino-Gayao et al., 2014; Biodiversity Management Bureau (BMB), 2016).

The country houses an estimated total of 53,000 described species (composed of almost 15,000 plant species and 38,000 animal species), of which more than half is considered endemic and hence, cannot be found in any other place in the world (BMB, 2016). The country actually ranks fifth in terms of the number of plant species with at least 25% of the world’s plant genera endemic to the country (CBD, n.d.). It is also considered to be a center of animal diversity with an estimated total of 1,437 terrestrial wildlife, of which almost 49% is endemic (BMB, n.d.; CBD, n.d.). Based on the data of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR), the Philippines has an estimated 207 terrestrial mammals (133 are endemic), 691 birds (239 endemic), 419 reptiles (241 endemic) and 120 amphibians (98 endemic) (BMB, 2016).

Meanwhile, the country ranks third in terms of marine biodiversity and is considered part of the Coral Triangle (World Wildlife Fund, 2010).  It hosts almost 10,000 marine species which is equivalent to nearly one-fifth of the world’s marine species. It has 1,700 reef species and at least 3,214 (121 are endemic) fish species (BMB, 2016; CBD, n.d.). These number, however, might be underestimated and are subject to changes since there is very high rate of species discovery in the country.

Despite the great number of new discoveries, the country is tagged as one of the world’s biodiversity hotspots and a top global conservation area, together with the Caribbean, Western Ghats and Sri Lanka, Sunderland, Brazil’s Atlantic Coast, coastal forest of Kenya and Tanzania, Madagascar and Indo-Burma. This implies that large number of the Philippine plant and wildlife species are experiencing alarming rate of destruction brought about by habitat loss, human activities and climate change, among others (Facts and details, 2019).

Currently, the country has more than 700 threatened plant and animal species based on the national list of DENR. This includes 42 species of terrestrial mammals, 127 birds, 24 reptiles, 14 amphibians and 76 fish species. Some of the identified critically endangered species are tamaraw ( Bubalus mindorensis ), dugong (Dugong dugon), Philippine eagle, Philippine pond turtle ( Siebenrockiella leytensis ) and Philippine crocodile, among others (CBD, n.d.; DENR, 2017a). On the other hand, for plants, there are 99 critically endangered, 187 endangered, 176 vulnerable and 64 other threatened species. These include yakal ( Shorea astylosa ), giant orchid ( Grammatophyllum speciosum ), waling-waling ( Vanda sanderiana ), staghorn fern ( Platycerium ) ,  among others, which are considered critically endangered (CBD, n.d; DENR, 2017b).

A primary threat considered is the continuous destruction of ecosystems and habitats that support and provide shelter to the country’s biodiversity. The Philippines has already lost almost 93% of its original forest cover since 1990s. Similarly, the marine biodiversity and inland water biodiversity are deteriorating which is evident in the decreasing quality of water and fish in Laguna de Bay, the Philippine largest lake. Also, in the early 1900s, there was significant decrease in the country’s total mangrove cover from 450,000 ha to 140,000 ha. Meanwhile, 53% of the coral reef covered was already in poor condition (CBD, n.d.; Aquino-Gayao  et al ., 2014).

Habitat loss, one of the reasons for deteriorating biodiversity, can be attributed to several factors as identified in the Philippine Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (PBSAP). These include forest degradation, unsustainable mineral extraction and human activities and practices, among others. Rampant forest degradation is associated with the indiscriminate logging and deforestation as well as conflicting land use. Most of the Philippine protected areas and ancestral lands sit on where the country’s mineral reserve such as gold, copper, nickel, chromite, marble and limestone are located. Also, the growing human population in the country induces conversion of forest areas to either residential and/or agricultural land. There seems to be a weak integration of biodiversity concerns in the landscape planning of the country (Aquino-Gayao  et al ., 2014). Meanwhile, for the marine and inland water biodiversity, the major threats are pollution and fishing operations (CBD, n.d.).

Other identified threats to biodiversity are the introduction of invasive alien species, degradation from climate change, overexploitation, biopiracy, weak enforcement and management and under-valuation of the country’s natural resources, among others (Aquino-Gayao  et al ., 2014; BMB, n.d.).

It cannot be denied that the Philippines is benefitting a lot from its biodiversity and the provided services. The country derives water from watersheds, which also prevent soil erosion and siltation of coasts and water bodies. The coastal and marine ecosystem, on the other hand, provides for fishery production and ecotourism. It also supports the coral reef and mangrove ecosystem. Furthermore, the marine organisms found in the country have exceptional economic potential for medical use and fuel production. Aside from timber and fuelwood production, the forest ecosystem plays a vital role in water provision, carbon offset, flood prevention, and agroforestry activities, among others (CBD, n.d.; Aquino-Gayao  et al.,  2014).

Based on the compilation done by Aquino-Gayao et al. (2014), the estimated economic value of the ecosystem services in the Philippines totaled PhP 2,309.49 billion (US$ 52.02 billion) [1] , which includes timber and fuelwood production, water provision, ecotourism, carbon offset, flood prevention, soil erosion, fishery production, crop production, coral reef, and mangrove. This does not account yet for the value of the mere existence of the endemic flora and fauna found in the county.

Because of undervaluation, many of the Filipino people might underestimate and underappreciate the importance of the country’s genetic resources. This may lead to overexploitation and unsustainable use of these resources, which includes both production and consumption for trade and domestic use. Also, it somehow gives way to either legal or illegal collection of genetic resources by local or foreign companies, also known as biopiracy.

Even if a genetic resource was discovered, identified and developed by a local scientist, local community and indigenous people (IPs), some local and foreign companies and corporations patent these resource or knowledge without properly acknowledging the sources. These companies could earn a lot from commercialization of a resource and its by-product, and not be obliged to provide share to the source. Some of the resources which originated in the Philippines but were patented by foreign organizations include Philippine yew tree ( Taxus sumatrana ), ilang-ilang ( Cananga odorata ), banaba ( Lagerstroemia speciosa L. ), saluyot ( Corchorus olitorius ), sambong ( Blumea balsamifera ), lagundi ( Vitex negundo ) and takipkuhol ( Centella asiatica L. ) (Aquino-Gayao  et al ., 2014).

Clearly, there is a problem on access and benefit sharing in the country. The current legislations in the country do not include a sustainable and effective system of tracking and monitoring the utilization of genetic resources. It also fails to regulate the innovation, pre-commercialization and commercialization stages. The country also lacks studies and investments with regard to the further identification and/or evaluation of these resources and its potentials (BMB, n.d.). Likewise, there was a low budget for biodiversity conservation for the past years. According to the BIOFIN, the annual spending for conservation from 2008 to 2013 averages to PhP 4.9 billion (US$ 110.37 million) which is equivalent to 0.08% of the gross domestic product (GDP) and 0.31% of the national budget during that time. This implies 80% financing gap based on the required level of spending for the conservation of biodiversity (Aquino-Gayao  et al ., 2014).

Legislations on access and benefit sharing

Despite the issues in the management and utilization of genetic resources, it is undeniable that the Philippines has long been recognizing the importance of conserving and protecting its resources. Some regulations were already in place even before 1995. Indeed, the Philippines is the first country in the world to introduce a legislation on the collection, use and development of genetic resources, also known as bioprospecting, and related activities (Swiderska, 2001; Smagadi, 2005).

The first agency to be involved in supervising bioprospecting activities is the National Museum of the Philippines which was established in the early 1900s. The responsibility was later assumed by DENR as the lead agency in conserving, managing, developing and properly using the country’s environment and natural resources. A specific bureau, Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau (PAWB), was created for this purpose in 1987. In 1990, the Philippines also had a kind of permitting system for the collection of biological samples in the form of a memorandum of agreement titled “Guidelines for the Collection of Biological Specimens in the Philippines”. However, this system seemed to be ineffective mainly because of limited scope and lack of teeth to enforce the policies indicated (LEAD as cited by Smagadi, 2005).

In May 1993, the country ratified the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), which is an international treaty to sustain the diversity of life on Earth. It has three principal objectives - conservation of biodiversity; sustainable use of biodiversity; and fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the use of genetic resources (Molinyawe 1999). CBD requires its signatories to devise legislations or policy measures that will ensure sustainable use and equitable sharing of benefits from the use of genetic resources, and knowledge and/or practices of indigenous communities (Swiderska  et al ., 2001).

In accordance with the CBD, the Philippines drafted the Executive Order No. 247 or the law Prescribing Guidelines and Establishing a Regulatory Framework for the Prospecting of Biological and Genetic Purposes, and for other Purposes, which was signed by former President Fidel V. Ramos in 1995. Its implementing rules and regulations (IRR) was issued in 1996 through the DENR Administrative Order (AO) No. 96-20 (Molinyawe, 1999).

EO 247 is considered the first law on access and benefit sharing (ABS) in the world. It specifically aims to regulate the research, collection and use of biological and genetic resources so that such resources are conserved, used sustainably and benefit the national interest and promote the development of local capability in science and technology (Swiderska, 2001). EO 247 covers all biological and genetic resources in the public domain and natural-growing plants to be used by either foreign or national individuals, entities, or government or private organizations for pharmaceutical development, agricultural and commercial applications (Swiderska, 2001; LEAD as cited by Smagadi, 2005).

Moreover, EO 247 has the following basic elements in regulating bioprospecting and other related activities, as cited in Molinyawe, 1999:

• A system of mandatory research agreements between collectors and the government with minimum terms on providing information and samples, technology cooperation and benefit sharing;
• An Inter-Agency Committee to consider, grant, monitor, and enforce compliance with research agreements and to coordinate further institutional, policy and technology development;
• A requirement of and minimum process standards for prior informed consent (PIC) from local and indigenous communities where collecting materials is carried out; and
• Minimum requirements to conform to environmental protection laws and regulations.

Research agreement is the primary legal instrument used under EO 247 to authorize bioprospecting in the country. There are two types of research agreement – academic and commercial. Academic research agreement is issued to academic, research and other recognized institutions for academic and scientific purposes while the commercial is issued to private individuals or corporations for direct or indirect commercial uses (Molinyawe, 1999).

Unsurprisingly, as the first ABS legislation, the implementation of EO 247 is not flawless. Several difficulties were encountered with regard to the scope and coverage, processing of PIC and research agreements and fair and equitable benefit sharing. As pointed by Molinyawe (1999), the EO’s definition of bioprospecting is broad such that it also involves the conservation activities of academic and scientific institutions and the government entities. Some even asserted that it regulates bioprospecting to a much higher degree than required by the CBD (Smagadi, 2005).  Another issue is the processing of research agreements and PIC, described as time-consuming and tedious. This is seen as barrier to the growth of R&D in the country. On the other hand, some scientists argued that the conditions for fair and equitable benefit sharing are too demanding and adversely affect the confidentiality of their work (Molinyawe, 1999).

Particularly, in relation to the issues on scope and coverage, EO 247 does not explicitly regulate use of traditional knowledge of indigenous cultural communities (ICCs) and local communities. In further recognition of the need to protect and preserve traditional knowledge, the Indigenous Peoples Rights Act (IPRA) was enacted in 1997. IPRA aims to recognize, protect and promote the rights of ICCs and IPs over their traditional knowledge. It states that ICCs/IPs must have the full ownership and control and protection of their cultural and intellectual rights. In particular, they can control, develop and protect their science, technologies and cultural manifestations, seeds, traditional medicines and health practices, vital medicinal plants, animal and minerals, indigenous knowledge systems and practices, knowledge of properties of fauna and flora, oral traditions, literature, designs and visual and performing arts. The use of these resources and indigenous knowledge shall be granted to the third party if and only if a PIC is secured from the ICCs and IPs. This PIC has provisions and conditions to ensure that benefits from the use of traditional knowledge are shared to the concerned ICCs and IPs (LEAD as cited by Smagadi, 2005; Molinyawe, 1999; Swiderska, 2001).

In July 2001, the Wildlife Resources Conservation and Protection Act was introduced to address the problems on the broad scope of EO 247 and other issues related to the procedures for securing PIC. It was followed by the issuance of the IRR through the joint AO 20 of DENR and the Philippine Council for Sustainable Development (PCSD) in May 2004. These laws repealed all conflicting provisions with EO 247 (Medaglia, 2014; LEAD).

The Wildlife Resources Conservation and Protection Act, also known as the Wildlife Act, primarily aims to conserve and ensure the sustainability of all wildlife resources and habitats in the country. It limits the definition of bioprospecting to research, collection and utilization of biological and genetic resources for purposes of applying the knowledge derived there solely for commercial purposes (as cited by Medaglia, 2014).  It has provided a more specific and uniform procedure for granting access to biological and genetic resources and evaluating bioprospecting activities.

Through this act, a bioprospecting activity/project will be allowed only if the interested party/proponent will enter into a Biopropecting Undertaking (BU) and declare its willingness to comply with the terms and conditions set by the Secretary of DENR and/or the Secretary of the Department of Agriculture (DA). BU still requires the proponent to secure a PIC from IPs, protected area management boards (PAMBs) and local government units (LGUs) or other private or public agencies having special jurisdiction over specific areas.

The Wildlife Act, however, has introduced some changes in the course of applying for PIC. The proponent should write a letter of intent to inform the concerned agency or the affected community of their intention to conduct bioprospecting activities. They should also provide summary or outline of research proposal, written in a language or dialect that can be understood by the affected community. Nonetheless, the Act has simplified the processing of PIC such that it provides a uniform format for requesting and submitting PIC. It has also shortened the number of days given to a concerned agency/ affected community to issue a PIC certificate. Moreover, during the process, the concerned agency or the affected community can negotiate the benefit-sharing terms such that the details like mandatory bioprospecting fee, royalty payments, up-front payments and other non-monetary benefits are already specified.

Strengthening the national policy on access and benefit sharing

As discussed earlier, overexploitation of the biological and genetic resources is still rampant in the Philippines. There are several reports of smuggling, abuse of traditional uses and biopiracy. This can be attributed to lack of an effective monitoring mechanism, holistic management system and support to R&D with regard to the utilization and protection of its biodiversity (Aquino-Gayao, 2014).

That being said, initiatives have been made to improve and strengthen the country’s ABS legislation. In 2016, House Bill (HB) 2163, also known as the “Philippine Genetic Resources and Access and Benefit Sharing (PGRABS) Bill” authored by Cong. Josephine Ramirez-Sato has been filed. The bill generally aims to institute reforms in the existing policy to address the issue of unequal sharing of benefits derived from the use of genetic resources and traditional knowledge in the country. The bill has the following key provisions, as enumerated by BIOFIN:

• Strengthen the country’s rules and regulations on access to Philippine genetic resources and the indigenous knowledge systems and practices;
• Generate funds for the attainment of Aichi Biodiversity Targets and Sustainable Development Goals;
• Enable the country to avail the benefits of the Nagoya Protocol; and
• Take into account customary laws and community protocols of ICCs and IPs in the discussion on ABS.

Along with the bill, an EO version, titled “Strengthening the National Policy on Wealth Generation from Access and Benefit Sharing and from Utilization of Philippine Genetic Resources” was drafted through the efforts of BIOFIN, DENR and Cong. Sato. A recent version of the EO states that the order shall cover, not just the genetic resources found in the country, but also the imported resources brought to the country for development and utilization. It primarily provides for the creation of an Inter-Agency Committee on Genetic Resources and Traditional Knowledge, which is tasked to coordinate national efforts to harmonize, integrate, enhance, implement and monitor compliance with treaty, statutory and regulatory provisions on ABS and utilization of Philippine genetic sources. The Inter-Agency Committee will be composed of DENR, Department of Agriculture (DA), Department of Science and Technology (DOST), Department of Health (DOH), Department of Foreign Affairs (DFA), Department of Justice (DOJ), Department of the Interior and Local Government (DILG), National Commission on Indigenous People (NCIP), Intellectual Property Office of the Philippines (IPOPHL), National Museum and the UP System. The committee has the power to craft rules and guidelines on ABS and related activities. Both of these proposed legislations are yet to be enacted and still subject for reviews and consultations.

Current achievements and progress in biodiversity conservation

In the recent years, Philippines have reported several accomplishments as it strives to bring its best effort in biodiversity conservation and protection, along with its legislative initiatives on access and benefit sharing. DENR provided update on the state of the Philippine environment, particularly the achievements in 2010 to 2015. This includes efforts in reforestation, stopping illegal logging, fighting illegal wildlife trade, protecting endangered species, promoting protected areas, assessing hazards, and delineating boundaries, among others.

The National Greening Program (NGP), the government’s reforestation program that aims to plant 1.5 billon trees in 1.5 million hectares by 2016, have so far planted a total of 1.807 billion trees in 2.141 million hectares as of December 2019. With the increase in the forest stock of the country brought by NGP, it is expected that the capacity to absorb carbon dioxide will also increase (Cervantes, 2019). There was also reduction in the rate of illegal logging in the country as the number of illegal logging hotspots decreased from 197 in 2011 to 23 in 2015. In relation to this, 211 cases were filed against illegal logging operations, which also led to the increase in the number of convicted persons to 197 in 2015. Moreover, the number of forested lands overtook the number of denuded areas in 2015 – 8.14 million hectares of forested lands versus 7.66 million hectares of denuded areas. On the other hand, the recorded number of illegally-traded wildlife confiscations also reached 144 in 2010 to 2014. Another good news was the increase in the number of some endangered species - 10 more sightings of the critically endangered Philippine Eagle, and increase in the number of Philippine tamaraw from 274 to 382. Nesting sites for the Pawikan sea turtles also increased from 14,035 to 17,593. Furthermore, just recently, Davao's Mt Hamiguitan joined the list of UNESCO World Heritage site. Mt. Hamiguitan is decribed as by UNESCO World Heritage as a property showcasing and inhabiting “terrestrial and aquatic habitats at different elevations, and threatened and endemic flora and fauna species, 8 of which are found only at Mt. Hamiguitan” (Ranada, 2015).

CONCLUSION AND WAYS FORWARD

The Philippine biodiversity, one of the world’s most diverse and unique, since many can only be found in the country. This rich biodiversity has provided millions of Filipinos resources and services for food, medicines, wood and plant products, as well as breeding stocks, among others. It has also given significant ecosystem services such as water provision, soil protection, pollution breakdown ecotourism, flood control and prevention and crop and fisheries production. Despite the recognized importance of protecting and conserving biodiversity in the country, issues on overexploitation of the biological and genetic resources are still rampant.

Policies or regulations to protect and conserve biodiversity of the country have been in placed as early as 1900s. Agencies to regulate and manage the use and access of the country’s biodiversity have been established. During the 17th Congress, both the Lower and Upper Houses, filed the bill to manage the utilization of genetic resources in the country.  To date, the 18 th  Congress, has filed similar bills in the Lower House authored by Hon. Cong. Josephine Ramirez-Sato. HB 260 or the “Act An Act Strengthening The National Policy On Access, And Benefit-Sharing From The Utilization Of Philippine Genetic Resources” provides for the policy to ensure the fair and equitable share of benefits from genetic resources in the country. In addition, Cong. Sato also authored HB 268 or the “Act Providing for the Collection, Characterization, Conservation, Protection, Sustainable Use of and Access to and Benefit Sharing of Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, Appropriating Funds Therefor and for Other Purposes,” better known as the “Plant Genetic Resources Sustainable Use and Protection Act.” While these legislations serve as recognition of the importance of biodiversity in the country, its enactment should be ensured and that its provisions be strongly implemented and monitored.

Aquino-Gayao, G., et al. (2014). The Biodiversity Finance Initiative – BIOFIN Philippines: Policy and Institutional Review.

Biodiversity Management Bureau (BMB) (n.d.). Concept Note on Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS). Retrieved from:  https://info.undp.org/docs/pdc/Documents/PHL/93474%20Concept%20Note%20on%20Access%20and%20Benefit%20Sharing.pdf .

Biodiversity Management Bureau (BMB) (2016). “Status of the Philippine Biodiversity.” BMB Official Website. Retrieved from:  http://bmb.gov.ph/388-protection-and-conservation-of-wildlife/facts-and-figures/786-status-of-the-philippine-biodiversity .

Cervantes, F. (2019). “Recto to DENR: Show us actual greenery of tree program.” Philippine New Agency. Retrieved from:  https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1086035 .

Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) (2017a). “List of Threatened Species.” DENR Administrative Order (DAO) No. 2004-15 and Cites as of 2017.

DENR (2017b). “Updated National List of Threatened Philippine Plants and their Categories.” DAO No. 2017-11.

Draft Executive Order (EO) on Strengthening the National Policy on Wealth Generation from Access, Benefit-Sharing and Utilization of Philippine Genetic Resources.

Convention on Biological Biodiversity (CBD) (n.d.). “Philippines – Country Profile.” Convention on Biological Diversity. Retrieved from:  https://www.cbd.int/countries/profile/default.shtml?country=ph#facts .

Carrington, D. (2018). “What is biodiversity and why does it matter to us?” The Guardian. Retrieved from:  https://www.theguardian.com/news/2018/mar/12/what-is-biodiversity-and-why-does-it-matter-to-us .

Dirzo, R. and E. Mendoza (2008). “Biodiversity.” Encyclopedia of Ecology. Elsevier. Retrieved from:  https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780080454054004602 .

Medaglia, J., F. Perron-Welch and F. Phillips (2014). Overview of national and regional measures on access to genetic resources and benefit-sharing: challenges and opportunities in implementing the Nagoya Protocol. Montreal: Montreal Center for International Sustainable Development Law.

Molinyawe, N. (1999). The Philippines’ approach to access and benefit sharing for genetic resources and indigenous knowledge. Retrieved from:  http://www.biodiversityasia.org/books/abs/Chapter%2012.pdf .

Hays, J. (2015). “Biodiversity, Rainforests and Rare Animals in the Philippines.” Facts and Details. Retrieved from:  http://factsanddetails.com/southeast-asia/Philippines/sub5_6h/entry-3926.html .

House of Representatives. “An Act Instituting Reforms in the Existing Policy on Access and Benefit-Sharing from the Utilization of Philippine Genetic Resources and for Other Purposes.” House Bill No. 2163.

House of Representatives. “An Act Strengthening The National Policy On Access, And Benefit-Sharing From The Utilization Of Philippine Genetic Resources.” House Bill 260. Retrieved from  http://www.congress.gov.ph/legisdocs/basic_18/HB00260.pdf

House of Representatives. “An Act Providing for the Collection, Characterization, Conservation, Protection, Sustainable Use of and Access to and Benefit Sharing of Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, Appropriating Funds Therefor and for Other Purposes.” House Bill 268. Retrieved from  http://www.congress.gov.ph/legisdocs/basic_18/HB00268.pdf

Ranada, P. (2015). “State of PH environment: Good conservation efforts, bad air quality.” Rappler. Retrieved from:  https://www.rappler.com/science-nature/environment/90645-state-philippine-environment-2015 .

Smagadi, A. (2005). “National Measures on Access to Genetic Resources and Benefit Sharing-The Case of the Philippines.” Law Environment and Development Journal Vol. 1/1

Swiderska, K., E. Daño and O. Dubois (2001). Developing the Philippines’ Executive Order No. 247 on Access to Genetic Resources. International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) 3, Endsleigh Street, London, WC1H 0DD, UK. Retrieved from:  https://www.cbd.int/doc/case-studies/abs/cs-abs-order-ph-en.pdf .

World Wildlife Fund. 2010. A Biodiversity Hotspot in the Philippines. Retrieved from  https://www.worldwildlife.org/blogs/good-nature-travel/posts/a-biodiversity-hotspot-in-the-philippines

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State of biodiversity documentation in the Philippines: Metadata gaps, taxonomic biases, and spatial biases in the DNA barcode data of animal and plant taxa in the context of species occurrence data

Associated data.

The following information was supplied regarding data availability:

The Rscripts used for the analysis and preparation of the figures are available at GitHub: https://github.com/miaberba/2021_PH_BiodiversityAssessment and https://github.com/dinmatias/GeneBankParse .

The data inputs for the Rscripts are available at Zenodo: Berba, Carmela Maria P., & Matias, Ambrocio Melvin A. (2022). State of biodiversity documentation in the Philippines: Metadata gaps, taxonomic biases, and spatial biases in the DNA barcode data of animal and plant taxa in the context of species occurrence data [Data set]. Zenodo. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6153441 .

All data used in the analyses are publicly available at: (1) GenBank and Barcode of Life Data System for barcode data; (2) Global Biodiversity Information Facility for species occurrence data; (3) Philippines Statistics Authority (PSA) for the Philippine Standard Geographic Code database; and (4) Humanitarian Data Exchange of the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs Office for the Philippines-Subnational Administrative Boundaries, originally sourced from the PSA and National Mapping and Resource Information Authority.

Anthropogenic changes in the natural environment have led to alarming rates of biodiversity loss, resulting in a more urgent need for conservation. Although there is an increasing cognizance of the importance of incorporating biodiversity data into conservation, the accuracy of the inferences generated from these records can be highly impacted by gaps and biases in the data. Because of the Philippines’ status as a biodiversity hotspot, the assessment of potential gaps and biases in biodiversity documentation in the country can be a critical step in the identification of priority research areas for conservation applications. In this study, we systematically assessed biodiversity data on animal and plant taxa found in the Philippines by examining the extent of metadata gaps, taxonomic biases, and spatial biases in DNA barcode data while using species occurrence data as a backdrop of the ‘Philippines’ biodiversity. These barcode and species occurrence datasets were obtained from public databases, namely: GenBank, Barcode of Life Data System and Global Biodiversity Information Facility. We found that much of the barcode data had missing information on either records and publishing, geolocation, or taxonomic metadata, which consequently, can limit the usability of barcode data for further analyses. We also observed that the amount of barcode data can be directly associated with the amount of species occurrence data available for a particular taxonomic group and location–highlighting the potential sampling biases in the barcode data. While the majority of barcode data came from foreign institutions, there has been an increase in local efforts in recent decades. However, much of the contribution to biodiversity documentation only come from institutions based in Luzon.

Introduction

Biodiversity is the product of the interactions between many physical and biological processes across time ( Boero & Bonsdorff, 2007 ; van der Plas, 2019 ). Unfortunately, recent anthropogenic activities have significantly impacted biodiversity resulting in its rapid decline ( Halpern et al., 2008 , 2015 ). If left unabated, this alarming biodiversity loss can potentially impair the capacity of ecosystems to support and sustain life over time ( Ayyad, 2003 ; Butchart et al., 2010 ; Cardinale et al., 2012 ; Reich et al., 2012 ; Worm et al., 2006 ). Due to these anthropogenic impacts on biodiversity, conservation efforts have been implemented to mitigate biodiversity loss and to promote the recovery of affected ecosystems and species. These initiatives include prioritization and management of key areas that best represent biodiversity or the processes ( i.e ., ecological and evolutionary) sustaining it ( Beger et al., 2014 ; Herrick, Schuman & Rango, 2006 ; Hoffmann & Sgró, 2011 ; Moritz, 2002 ; Richardson & Whittaker, 2010 ; Selig et al., 2014 ; Sgrò, Lowe & Hoffmann, 2011 ). However, efforts to conserve biodiversity could potentially be ineffective, or even counterproductive, if there is a lack of understanding of the fundamental processes underlying biodiversity ( e.g ., Hoveka et al., 2020 ; Santangeli et al., 2013 ). Thus, an understanding of biodiversity and the processes underpinning it is necessary in order to improve the efficacy of conservation efforts.

Because biodiversity is organized at different levels ( i.e ., ecosystems, species, and genes), making inferences about biodiversity-generating processes that are relevant to conservation will require documentation and analysis of biodiversity at various levels ( Laikre et al., 2010 ; Purvis & Hector, 2000 ; Sarkar & Margules, 2002 ). Although significant progress has been made regarding biodiversity documentation, there has always been a tendency for biodiversity data to be spatially and taxonomically biased. These biases are often in contrast with the natural patterns and distribution of biodiversity ( Titley, Snaddon & Turner, 2017 ; Troudet et al., 2017 ). For example, globally, biodiversity documentation is biased towards developed countries within temperate regions despite the tropical regions being relatively more diverse ( Meyer et al., 2015 ; Newbold, 2010 ; Titley, Snaddon & Turner, 2017 ). At regional scales, spatial bias is also prominent primarily because many biodiversity documentations are results of scientific research focused on answering specific questions. Consequently, sampling is associated with certain geographical features related to the research question ( e.g ., near or within protected areas). This bias potentially leads to the under-representation of many key habitats in biodiversity documentation ( Fisher-Phelps et al., 2017 ; Newbold, 2010 ). Current knowledge on biodiversity is further biased towards more charismatic organisms ( i.e ., mostly plants and vertebrates) leaving significantly more diverse taxonomic groups, such as invertebrates, understudied ( Titley, Snaddon & Turner, 2017 ; Troudet et al., 2017 ). Overall, the extent of biases in biodiversity documentation reflects the insufficient data in many regions and taxa, which are likely due to limited research topics brought by various historical, social, economic, and practical factors ( dos Santos et al., 2020 ; Troudet et al., 2017 ).

The various spatial and taxonomic biases in biodiversity data can potentially affect key inferences about biodiversity-related processes ( e.g ., Keyse et al., 2014 ; Matias & Riginos, 2018 ). Because these inferences are explicitly being incorporated in conservation, these biases can potentially lead to poorly-advised decisions that may contribute to biodiversity decline. Moreover, conservation entails costs at various stages of its implementation ( i.e ., opportunity, acquisition, management, and maintenance), and providing for this cost involves allocation of highly-constrained resources such as time and money ( Margules & Pressey, 2000 ; Possingham & Wilson, 2005 ). Thus, mitigating the impact of these biases can benefit conservation efforts by making them cost-effective in the use of those valuable resources, particularly for countries where such resources are limited but where conservation is in demand.

One example of countries that will benefit greatly from cost-effective conservation efforts is the Philippines. This country is a tropical developing country that has been considered as one of 17 megadiverse nations worldwide ( Mittermeler & Mittermeler, 1997 ), largely due to its rich diversity and endemism. It has been estimated that there are more than 38,000 species of vertebrates and invertebrates in the country ( Catibog-Shinha & Heaney, 2006 )–a likely conservative number given the variability in estimates across groups. For example, as new species are being discovered, some reports have predicted that Philippine arthropod species would eventually reach 50,000 to 100,000 in number ( Gapud, 2002 ). For plant taxa, around 14,000 species are found in the Philippines (Madulid, 1985 as cited in Lagunzad, Co & Navarro (2002) ) along with 35 of 54 mangrove species (Tomlinson, 1986 as cited in Primavera (2002) ), more than 1,000 seaweed species ( Fortes, 2002a ), and 16 seagrass species (M. Fortes, 1986 as cited in Fortes (2002b) ). Among the animal and plant species that have been described so far, more than half of them are said to be endemic to the Philippines ( Ong, 2002 ).

Despite the number of species that have already been described in the Philippines, there are still a lot of uncertainties regarding the estimated biodiversity in the country. Moreover, there is also growing threats on the local environment as the Philippines becomes one of the “hottest” biodiversity hotspots in the world due to the amount and rate of loss and degradation in various habitats ( Halpern et al., 2015 ; Harvey et al., 2020 ; Myers et al., 2000 ). These threats to biodiversity have increased the need for conservation. Yet, the gaps in biodiversity documentation in the country can potentially constrain these efforts. Addressing this problem will require the identification of biases present in biodiversity records. Thus, a comprehensive and systematic assessment of the current biodiversity data is needed to ensure the efficacy of future conservation efforts based on such information.

Previous works that have examined biases and gaps in biodiversity data have utilized publications collected from search engines such as the Web of Science ( dos Santos et al., 2020 ; Titley, Snaddon & Turner, 2017 ) or certain biodiversity records obtained from public databases. For example, DNA barcode data from GenBank identified through published work has been used to examine the extent of DNA barcoding in the Philippines ( Fontanilla et al., 2014 ). Similarly, for many works, species occurrence data from the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) is used ( Fisher-Phelps et al., 2017 ; Meyer et al., 2015 ; Oliveira et al., 2016 ; Troudet et al., 2017 ). Importantly, in these previous examinations, species occurrence and DNA barcode data are typically examined separately for biases and gaps. However, given that the components of biodiversity and its underlying processes are fundamentally intertwined ( e.g ., genetic data shedding light on cryptic species diversity), it becomes critical that species and genetic data are examined side by side. This approach can potentially help identify common patterns of biases and gaps in the documentation of biodiversity at both levels.

In this study, public databases are leveraged to systematically examine potential gaps and biases present in current records and gain a better understanding of the state of biodiversity documentation in the country. The study specifically focuses on public biodiversity data of animal and plant taxa found in the Philippines that are accessible in three online databases, namely: the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF), GenBank, and Barcode of Life Data System (BOLD). These databases represent large repositories of biodiversity records that are widely used among the scientific community–as well as citizen scientists mainly in the case of GBIF ( Petersen et al., 2021 )–to publish data. Because these datasets are readily accessible, they represent records more frequently processed and analyzed to generate inferences for policymaking and conservation planning ( Ball-Damerow et al., 2019 ). Thus, examining biodiversity data from these databases will not only identify biases in the current data but can also mitigate the risks posed by these biases to conservation efforts. Although both species and genetic data will be utilized, the analyses in this study will mainly focus on the genetic data with species data serving as a background. Because species data from public database have prominent biases (some inherent with citizen science and its opportunistic nature of collection), its comparison with genetic data can potentially highlight biases in genetic data as well ( Amano, Lamming & Sutherland, 2016 ; Petersen et al., 2021 ; Troudet et al., 2017 ). To systematically assess both datasets, species and genetic data are examined for the following: (1) metadata gaps in relation to the completeness of biodiversity records; (2) taxonomic biases at the species and genetic levels; and (3) spatial biases in terms of sampled locations and origin of leading contributors. These assessments are done to identify potential knowledge gaps present in Philippine biodiversity documentation. This approach is a key step in addressing biases to generate more accurate inferences and develop better strategies on how to move forward in future efforts in biodiversity documentation and conservation.

Materials and Methods

Collecting and parsing of biodiversity data.

In examining Philippine biodiversity data, we limited our collection of data to three databases that are widely used and easily accessible. Thus, our study represents information that is likely to be used by many researchers or even policymakers. We obtained species occurrence data directly from the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF, https://www.gbif.org/ ) on October 18, 2020 ( GBIF.org, 2020a , 2020b ). The search was filtered by country (“Philippines”), occurrence states (“Present”), and taxonomic key (“Animalia” and “Plantae”). The barcode data was obtained directly from two separate databases, namely: GenBank ( https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genbank/ ) on November 1 and 3, 2020 and Barcode of Life Data System (BOLD, http://v4.boldsystems.org/ ) on November 3, 2020. In GenBank, searches were conducted using different sets of keywords to obtain barcode data based on the gene marker of interest. The gene markers actively searched for in GenBank were the following: cytochrome oxidase c subunit I (using the keywords, “COI OR co1 OR cox1 OR coxI OR cytochrome oxidase OR cytochrome c oxidase AND Philippines”); cytochrome b (using the keywords, “cytb OR cyt-b OR cyt b OR cytochrome b OR cytochrome-b AND Philippines”); ribulose-1,5-biphosphate carboxylase (using the keywords, “ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase OR rbcl OR rubisco OR ribulose-bisphosphate carboxylase AND Philippines”); maturase K (using the keywords, “matk OR MaturaseK OR maturase K AND Philippines”); and lastly, internal transcribed spacer two (using the keywords, “internal transcribed spacer 2” OR ITS2 OR ITS AND Philippines”). Prior to downloading data from GenBank, the results of each search were filtered based on species to only include “Animals” and “Plants”. It is important to note that the data obtained may have included entries labelled as “unverified” since our searches were unfiltered for verification. In BOLD, several searches were conducted in the Public Data Portal system based on geography (keyword, “Philippines”) and taxonomy (using all taxonomic groups listed under animals and plants in BOLD’s Taxonomy Browse– http://v4.boldsystems.org/index.php/TaxBrowser_Home ).

We mainly utilized the data.table R package ( Dowle & Srinivasan, 2020 ) to manage and parse through the data we obtained. However, in the case of GenBank data, the downloaded data had to be processed into more readable files for each data entry. We used our own set of R functions–specifically made to parse through individual GenBank files–to pull out as much information as possible and organize it into a more workable data frame. We created seven functions that obtained the following information: (1) taxonomy of the specimen; (2) publishing author; (3) publishing institution; (4) year submitted; (5) metadata associated with the “source”; (6) gene marker; and (7) barcoding sequence (made available in github.com/dinmatias). We also conducted additional cleaning and fixing on the information pulled out from the GenBank files on BOLD cross-reference, taxonomy, publishing institution, gene marker, and sampling location. For the taxonomy information, we created a database derived from the unique species found in GBIF to obtain only the information on phylum/division, class, order, family, and genus while other taxonomic ranks were disregarded. To obtain the publishing institution, we manually parsed through the unique publishing entries and narrowed down the information to two columns that contained the name of the main institution involved (labelled as PublishingInstitution) as well as the country where it is based (labelled as PublishingCountry). For the BOLD data, an additional column was added for the country where the storing institution, copyright institution, and sequencing center are based. Some of the gene markers entries initially pulled out were unclear or vague due to the varying ways the information was laid out in the individual GenBank files and how the markers were named ( e.g ., full name or different abbreviations). For these reasons, these entries were manually parsed to standardize the names of the gene markers used. While the coordinate entries for the sampling information required minimal cleaning, the descriptive information on the locality where the specimen was sampled required intensive manual parsing. This editing was done not only for GenBank data but also for BOLD data to obtain the specific information on province, municipality, and/or barangay based on a location database derived from the Philippine Standard Geographic Code (PSGC) ( Philippine Statistics Authority, 2020 ). During the parsing and cleaning process, sampling information was categorized based on the kind of issues encountered during the parsing (if any) that made them vague or inconclusive (see Table S1 ). Moreover, the descriptive information provided for the sampling locality in the GBIF data was parsed through and cleaned such that it was organized into province, municipality, and/or barangay.

After parsing and cleaning the data, we obtained the subsets of the main datasets containing the metadata associated with the following categories: records ( i.e ., entry ID and collection date), taxonomy ( i.e ., phylum/division, class, order, family, genus, species), geolocation ( i.e ., coordinates and administrative units where the specimen was sampled), and publication ( i.e ., submission date, publishing institution, and country) (see Table S2 ). For taxonomy, we recognize that there are differences between animal and plant taxonomy, particularly with regards to the taxonomic ranks lower than kingdom– e.g ., phylum for animal taxa and division for plant taxa. However, phylum and division were placed in the same taxonomic metadata in the species and genetic databases we collected from–generally being categorized as “phylum”. Hence, in this study, phylum and division were treated as one classification in the analyses. For the downstream analyses, the GenBank and BOLD datasets were combined into one barcode dataset after selecting the metadata of interest. In combining these two datasets, we ensured that the columns (variables) were analogous between the two databases. We further filtered our two main working datasets ( i.e ., species occurrence and barcode data) by excluding the following entries: duplicates in barcode data based on accession number; gene markers that were not part of the five markers actively searched for; barcode specimen sampled from foreign countries; and species occurrence and barcode data on Homo sapiens and H. luzonensis . Additionally, a substantial number of barcode records with missing information on the country of collection was observed despite having filtered the searches based on geography. Because this number was substantial, two sets of analyses were conducted: (1) one where NA was excluded and (2) another where NA was included in the dataset. While it is likely that the latter approach may have included a few sequences that are not actually from the Philippines, the results were generally the same between the two sets of analyses. Thus, the results from the latter approach were mainly presented.

Examining for metadata gaps

To assess the completeness of the metadata associated with the barcode data, we quantified the number of records with missing information on the following categories: publication and records, sampling location, and taxonomy. In the publication and records category, the number of records that lacked information on the copyright institution, collection year, and submission year were counted. In the sampling location category, we counted the number of records that lacked coordinates ( i.e ., latitude and longitude) and within this data subset, the proportion of records with (or without) additional information on the sampling locality was examined. Additionally, we determined the frequency of each kind of issue encountered while manually parsing through the descriptive information on the sampling locality–with those having more than one issue being categorized as “mixed”.

In the taxonomy category, we first assessed the entries that had information on the species level but lacked information on one or more higher taxonomic ranks. Here, the original entries for the species information that included the keywords, “sp.” and “gen.” were marked as NA since the true species identity was not provided. For records with identified species but incomplete taxonomic data, we attempted to fill in the missing entries using the same database we derived from the taxonomy of unique species in GBIF. Because barcode data is mainly used as a reference in “species identification”, the use of sequences that are not identified to species level is not maximized. Hence, to identify and examine the taxonomic groups with barcode data with low species identification, we plotted the percent of identified species in barcode data against the percent of species with available barcode records that are represented in species occurrence data. This was done separately for animal and plant records at the phylum/division, class, order, and family levels.

Examining for taxonomic biases

To compare the extent of species and genetic documentation among taxonomic groups, we plotted the number of available records per taxon in barcode data against that of species occurrence data. The data was first transformed using logarithmic function prior to plotting. Similar to the previous section on taxonomic metadata gaps, this was done separately for animal and plant records at the phylum/division, class, order, and family levels. Additionally, quantiles–specifically, the 5 th and 95 th percentile–of both datasets were incorporated in the plots to highlight taxonomic groups on the extreme 10% of the distribution of these two variables. Here, the occurrence record was used as a measure of the commonness of a taxonomic group in examining how well commonly recorded taxonomic groups are being barcoded.

Examining for spatial biases

To assess the sampling distribution of barcode and species data, we first obtained shapefiles of the Philippine administrative boundaries, specifically, the Philippines-Subnational Administrative shapefile ( https://data.humdata.org/dataset/philippines-administrative-levels-0-to-3 ). Using this database, the province information of a given coordinate entry was determined based on which defined boundaries of the administrative level 2 ( i.e ., province boundary) it falls under. In the case of marine specimens with coordinates that do not fall within any province boundary (because the boundary is based on land), the nearest province to them was assigned as their province information. The nearest province was determined by first identifying the “centroid” of each province and then measuring the distance of a data point to the centroid. The province with the shortest distance from the data point was assigned as its province. For records without any coordinates, only records with information on the province where the specimen was sampled were included. These filtered datasets were then used to generate separate heatmaps for the sampling distribution of barcode and species occurrence data. Moreover, we also plotted the number of records per province in barcode data against that of species occurrence data, with the data transformed logarithmically prior to plotting and the 5 th and 95 th percentiles incorporated.

To examine the distribution of global contribution to Philippine barcode data, we focused on the countries where the institutions that submitted or, in the case of BOLD, held the copyright to the image data are from ( i.e ., copyright_institutions). Another metadata column in BOLD that was considered to be examined for contribution was the institute that served as the storage place of the voucher ( i.e ., institution_storing); however, the entries of the two columns were generally the same. We quantified the number of barcode records published per country and visualized their spatial distribution through the wrld_simpl shapefile from the maptools R package ( Bivand & Lewin-Koh, 2021 ). Additionally, the contribution of local and foreign efforts in generation barcodes across time was compared. For this comparison, barcode records were categorized as contributed by either “Foreign” or “Philippines” based on the copyright country. This information was summarized into two plots showcasing the barcoding activity through time in terms of year of collection (starting from the 1990s) and year of submission/publication (starting from the 2000s). Note that we presented the barcoding activity across the year by “smoothened” curved obtained through local regression ( i.e ., loess regression).

We then examined the contribution to barcode data at the national level–meaning different institutes based in the Philippines. For each barcode record, we assigned the “processing center” ( i.e ., region where the institute holding the copyright is located) and “region sampled” ( i.e ., region where the specimen was collected). The total number of barcode records generated by each “processing center” from a specific “region sampled” was used as its contribution per “region sampled”. The local contribution data was then summarized via a correlation matrix heatmap, which plotted the region of sampling against the region of local institutions. In this matrix, the regions were sorted according to their proximity to provide spatial context. We utilized the following R packages to conduct our spatial analyses: sp ( Bivand, Pebesma & Gomez-Rubio, 2013 ; Pebesma & Bivand, 2005 ), raster ( Hijmans, 2020 ), rgdal ( Bivand, Keitt & Rowlingson, 2021 ), and RColorBrewer ( Neuwirth, 2014 ).

Initial processing of biodiversity data

From the initial database searches conducted in late October to early November 2020, a total of 31,163 barcode records–18,094 from GenBank and 13,069 from BOLD–and 1,557,709 species occurrence records were retrieved. Upon parsing through the raw datasets, duplicates, unwanted gene markers, and foreign samples in the barcode data as well as records involving H. sapiens and H. luzonensis in both barcode and species data were excluded. This initial filtering resulted in 20,482 barcode (16,719 excluding NA entries for country sampled) and 1,557,374 species records available for downstream analyses. For the barcode data, the majority of the records obtained are based on the COI gene marker (see Fig. 1A ). This may be linked to the significantly higher number of animal records analyzed in comparison to the number of plant records (a trend also observed in the available species occurrence data, see Table S3 ) since gene markers are often utilized for certain organisms ( e.g ., COI for animals then rbcL and matK for plants).

For graph A, the genetic summary of the available barcode records focuses on the gene markers of interest used in the examination for metadata gaps, taxonomic biases, and spatial biases in DNA barcode data on animal and plant taxa sampled in the Philippines were the following: cytochrome b (CYTB), cytochrome oxidase c subunit I (COI), internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS2), ribulose-1,5-biphosphate carboxylase (rbcL), and maturase K (matK). For graph B, the geolocation issues resulted in the descriptions of the sampling location (particularly in terms of administrative units) being unclear or in some cases, inconclusive. The categories include misspelled (incorrect spelling), none (no major issue), mixed (more than one issue), unspecified (somewhat informative but still vague), unknown (completely not informative), multiple (provided more than one location), and mismatch (discrepancies between the administrative units provided). This dataset includes the records with NA entries for country sampled (for A and B) and those that had additional information on the geolocation other than the coordinates (for B only).

Metadata gaps in Philippine barcode data

Most of the barcode data used in the analyses were observed to have incomplete information in one or more categories of metadata. For the gaps in the records and publishing metadata, among the barcode data, 72.52% lacked information on the year of collection (66.73% excluding NA entries for country sampled), 22.01% on the year of submission (26.93% excluding NA entries for country sampled), and 18.51% on the publishing or copyright institution (22.64% excluding NA entries for country sampled). For the gaps in the geolocation metadata, approximately 65.78% had no coordinates (58.10% excluding NA entries for country sampled) and within that subset of data, more than half lacked any additional descriptive information on the sampling locality such as province, municipality, and barangay. Overall, 46.68% of barcode records lacked any kind of metadata on the sampling location (34.69% excluding NA entries for country sampled). Records that did have metadata on the sampling locality in terms of administrative units were relatively difficult to parse through. Majority of them were vague in varying degrees depending on the kind of major issue encountered–with most being unspecified (see Fig. 1B ). Additionally, there were several records wherein “Philippines” was indicated as the country sampled but upon further inspection of the description of the specific locality sampled, a mismatch was found. Such entries were labelled as foreign and excluded from the analyses.

For the gaps in the taxonomic information, 3,793 records had no information on the specific group in one or more taxonomic ranks despite the specimen being identified at the species level. Using a taxonomic database derived from the species occurrence data, these gaps were filled in at the phylum/division, class, order, and family levels, narrowing down the number to 706 records with incomplete taxonomic information. The proportion of identified animal and plant species was also assessed in relation to the proportion of barcoded species per taxon at a specific taxonomic rank–namely, phylum/division, class, order, and family (see Fig. 2 ). At the phylum/division level, most of the taxa exhibited more than 50% species identification except for Annelida and Rotifera (see Fig. 2A ). However, at lower taxonomic ranks, there were more taxa that had the majority (more than 50%) of their records unidentified at the species level (see Figs. 2B to ​ to2D). 2D ). Moreover, while more taxa were being sampled, the rate at which these groups were barcoded remains relatively low. Evidently, only a few groups exhibited a high percentage of identified and barcoded species. It is important to note, however, that the identity of the species was based on the information provided by the contributors who published the barcode records. It was not verified if the species identities matched with the barcode sequences associated with them. Additionally, in evaluating the proportion of barcoded species at the order and family level, several taxa returned an undefined value ( NaN ). These were likely the result of the absence of species occurrence records associated with those taxa despite having barcode records available. There were eight (8) orders resulting in NaN , labelled as the following: “Labriformes”, “Ovalentaria”, “Gobiiformes”, “Trachiniformes”, “Pristiformes”, “Pulmonata”, “Vetigastropoda”, and “Sebdeniales”. On the other hand, there were five (5) resulting NaN families, labelled as: “Pentanchidae”, “Chilodontidae_gas”, “Choristellidae”, “Sebdeniaceae”, and “Areschougiaceae”.

This relationship was evaluated for each known animal (orange) and plant (green) taxonomic group represented in the Philippine barcode data at the phylum/division (A), class (B), order (C), and family (D) levels. This dataset includes the records with NA entries for country sampled.

Taxonomic biases in Philippine barcode data

Examination of the taxonomic distribution of records collected revealed a general increasing trend between the amount of barcode and species occurrence data for a particular taxon (see Fig. 3 ). At the phylum/division level, the group with the highest record in both barcode and species data was Chordata and accompanying it in the areas of either high genetic data or high species data were Arthropoda, Mollusca, and Tracheophyta (see Fig. 3A ). On the other hand, the groups that had particularly low biodiversity records, particularly in terms of barcode data, were Rotifera, Ctenophora, and Marchantiophtya. There were several taxa that had species occurrence data but lacked barcode data, namely: Anthocerotophyta, Brachiopoda, Bryozoa, Cephalorhyncha, Chaetognatha, Charophyta, Entoprocta, Hemichordata, Nematomorpha, Phoronida, Sipuncula, and Xenacoelomorpha. Assessing the trends further down the taxonomic hierarchy, it could be observed that while more groups had been sampled in terms of species occurrence, many of them had little to no barcode records available (see Figs. 3B to ​ to3D). 3D ). Furthermore, groups that remained at or above the 95 th percentile of genetic and species data at the class, order, and family levels mostly belonged to Phylum Chordata.

This relationship was evaluated for each known animal (orange) and plant (green) taxonomic group represented in the Philippine barcode data at the phylum/division (A), class (B), order (C), and family (D) levels. Values were transformed logarithmically prior to plotting however, taxa with zero (0) records in either genetic or species data were assigned the value of negative one (−1). Dashed lines represent the 5 th and 95 th percentiles for genetic (horizontal) and species (vertical) data. This dataset includes the records with NA entries for country sampled.

Spatial biases in Philippine barcode data

Examination of the spatial distribution of records obtained showed a high similarity between the sampling distributions of barcode and species occurrence data, particularly in terms of the provinces wherein sampling was most and least concentrated (see Figs. 4A and ​ and4B). 4B ). In both genetic and species data, the province that had been relatively more sampled (above the 95 th percentile) was Palawan. These similarities in sampling distribution meant that the amount of barcode data could be directly related to the amount of species occurrence records sampled per province (see Fig. 4C )–similar to the previous section on taxonomic bias. Furthermore, several provinces were observed to fall under the 95 th percentile of either dataset. For barcode data, in particular, the provinces with the highest records (above 95 th percentile) were Siquijor, Cavite, Bohol, Aurora, and Palawan while the ones with the lowest records (below 5 th percentile) were Tarlac, Basilan, Maguindanao, Zamboanga Sibugay, and Northern Samar.

For both maps (A – barcode data and B – species occurrence data), records on marine specimens were assigned to a specific province based on which corresponding centroid has the shortest distance from the given sampling coordinates (if available). Also, values presented in the maps represent the number of records in the thousands. In the scatter plot (C), values were transformed logarithmically and provinces with zero (0) records in either genetic or species data were assigned the value of negative one (−1). Dashed lines represent the 5 th and 95 th percentiles for genetic (horizontal) and species (vertical) data. The barcode dataset includes the records with NA entries for country sampled.

Examination of the institutions contributing to the barcode data revealed that in provinces where barcode sampling was most concentrated, the majority of the records were generated by foreign institutions. A notable exemption was Pangasinan, the seventh most sampled location in terms of barcoding data, majority of which were contributed by local institutes (~70.42% of the records). A similar trend of high contribution by foreign institutions to barcoding was observed when all barcode data were examined. While the Philippines had the most contribution to its barcode records compared with other countries (see Fig. 5A ), a comparison of the foreign and local contributions showed that the Philippines had contributed only about 30.00% of the overall barcode data on Philippine animal and plant biodiversity.

For map A, contribution was based on the institution that holds the copyright to the image associated with the records while for the graphs, it was based on the collection of samples, starting from the 1990s (B) and submission of barcode data, starting from the 2000s (C) by foreign countries (violet) and the Philippines (red). Trendlines in the graphs represent the average, “best” fitted line. This dataset includes the records with NA entries for country sampled.

When foreign and local contribution of barcode data were examined across time–specifically, the time of collection and submission–it was revealed that the Philippines had increasingly collected and submitted more records by 2005. Moreover, at some point, the Philippines had even surpassed the activity of foreign institutions (see Figs. 5B and ​ and5C). 5C ). Additionally, though not represented in Fig. 5B , many of the specimens used by foreign institutes in generating barcode data had been collected before the 1990s, even as far back as 1915, highlighting the importance of sample preservation in documenting not only species but potentially genetic diversity as well.

Within the Philippines, there was a substantial discrepancy in contributions of local institutions to barcode data (see Fig. 6 ). When the regions of barcode-generating institutions (termed as the “Processing Center”) were compared with regions where sampling was conducted, it was apparent that only six of seventeen regions were able to generate barcode data for their local biodiversity (diagonals in Fig. 6 ). Furthermore, most local contributions were from institutions found in the regions of Metro Manila and Central Luzon, and these institutes sampled the most either within their local area or in nearby regions, which were situated mainly in Luzon. It is important to note, however, that this analysis was based on the local institutions that hold the copyright to the records, and collaborations with other local institutions were not considered.

There are officially seventeen regions in the Philippines, represented by the Philippine map (A), with non-numerical regions labelled as follows: ca , Cordillera Administrative Region (CAR); mm , National Capital Region (NCR or also referred to as Metro Manila); and br , Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (BARMM). Regions are also divided based on their island groups – namely Luzon (red), Visayas (yellow), and Mindanao (blue). For matrix B, contribution was based on the institution that holds the copyright to the image associated with the records. Regions along the x- and y-axis are sorted to provide spatial context, with the map as a reference. The diagonal line represents the “ideal” scenario wherein the region serving as the processing center of barcode data can sufficiently sample its own local area. This dataset includes the records with NA entries for country sampled.

In this study, biodiversity records on animal and plant taxa found in the Philippines were systematically assessed by examining the extent of metadata gaps, taxonomic biases, and spatial biases in barcode data while using species occurrence data mainly as a baseline. Results show that much of the barcode data had missing information on records and publishing, geolocation, or taxonomic information. Moreover, it was observed that the amount of barcode data can be directly associated with the amount of species occurrence data available for a particular taxonomic group and sampling locality. Lastly, the results also reveal that majority of the barcode data came from foreign institutions and while local barcoding efforts have increased in the recent decades, much of it is due to Philippine institutions being based within Luzon.

Incompleteness of metadata in barcode data

Biodiversity records have been used in various fields of study to further understand the underlying processes that influence biodiversity. Barcode data, in particular, have broad applications in various fields– e.g ., in understanding the processes affecting regions with high diversity ( Crandall et al., 2019 ; Matias & Riginos, 2018 ), in assessing the quality and authenticity of food products sold in markets ( Barbuto et al., 2010 ; Maralit et al., 2013 ; Pazartzi et al., 2019 ), in conservation ( Deichmann et al., 2017 ), and in battling illegal wildlife trade ( Hartvig et al., 2015 ). Despite the various uses of barcode data, its overall utility can be reflected by the completeness of its metadata. Publishing and records information, for instance, would be useful in finding relevant references for future research and examining the global, national, or local state of biodiversity documentation. For example, in a similar study that focused on animal barcoding in the Philippines, they found that only about 20% of records on native species could be traced back to local institutions ( Fontanilla et al., 2014 ). With this kind of information, it would be easier to objectively assess the progress of a particular institution or country in contributing to DNA barcoding or, more generally, to biodiversity documentation. Additionally, while metadata may not directly contribute new knowledge on biodiversity and its processes, it can provide context on the records being generated–particularly in terms of who, when, and possibly why they were published for a particular taxon and/or locality. As previously discussed, many of the available barcode records have missing metadata. It might be possible to manually retrieve this information from journal publications linked to these records but when dealing with a large amount of data, this approach could become challenging.

Another example of highly useful metadata is geolocation. By providing this metadata, barcode records could then be used for studies that examine the role of geography in biodiversity–such as the case of biogeographic research. For example, existing barcode records made it possible to examine the processes behind the rich marine diversity in the Indo-Pacific region, particularly at the molecular level ( Crandall et al., 2019 ; Matias & Riginos, 2018 ). These inferences would not have been possible without the information on the location where the specimens were collected. It is important to note that there is, however, a concern for accuracy when dealing with this kind of information. In this study, two kinds of geolocation information were encountered: the numerical coordinates and the descriptive information on the locality. Evidently, coordinates are relatively more accurate compared to descriptive information since they could be easily standardized and used in spatial analysis. However, most barcode records that were examined lacked coordinates. Contributors could have intentionally refrained from including such information in their records or restricted access to it in the database since coordinates–and geolocation in general–are considered to be “sensitive” data. Sensitive data is any kind of information that, if made public, would cause an ‘adverse effect’ ( e.g ., illegal or excessive collection, risk of disturbance) on the associated taxon or living individual ( Chapman, 2020 ; Environmental Resources Information Network, 2016 ). Several governments–such as in Australia ( Andrews, 2009 ; Environmental Resources Information Network, 2016 ) and Canada ( AMEC Earth & Environmental, 2010 )–have implemented legal policies that deal with sensitive information of vulnerable species ( e.g ., plants and sessile animals, threatened or rare species). These policies would then largely influence the guidelines of public databases–such as GBIF ( Chapman, 2020 )–on managing the accessibility of sensitive metadata. With many records lacking coordinates, the provinces pulled out from the descriptive information were utilized for the analysis. Descriptions of the locality could also be informative. However, this highly depends on how detailed and standardized they are which in turn, may depend on how familiar the contributors were with the names and administrative units associated with the areas being sampled. This may explain why the majority of entries with descriptive information (with or without coordinates) were relatively more difficult to parse through (see Fig. 1B ), with some being unclear or inconclusive, while others were more informative.

While barcoding is a growing technique that has much potential in biodiversity studies, one of its more popular applications is in species identification ( Hebert & Gregory, 2005 ). Thus, metadata on taxonomic information would prove essential for the DNA barcodes to be used as an effective database, particularly for applications where organisms are not sampled ( i.e ., environmental DNA). While the results show that many taxonomic groups (see Fig. 2 ) had incomplete taxonomic information or low species identification, they also identified potential taxa for further taxonomic studies. Additionally, as the knowledge on taxonomy and evolutionary relationships between different taxa grows, there is always a possibility for the classification of a particular taxon to change. For examples, minor and major revisions have recently been made in angiosperm ( i.e ., at the order and family levels) and annelid classification ( i.e ., whole evolutionary tree) ( Chase et al., 2016 ; Zrzavý et al., 2009 ). These changes in the taxonomic classification may explain the anomalies observed in evaluating the percent of barcoded species, as represented by the NaN orders and families. Upon further inspection, these taxa mainly contained marine species, most of which were given the status of “Accepted” in the World Register of Marine Species ( https://www.marinespecies.org/ ). Moreover, the barcode records associated with these NaN taxa were obtained specifically from BOLD. The current taxonomic metadata of these records may also need to be updated. However, it is unclear whether this responsibility falls with the contributors or the curators of the biodiversity data.

Overall, there were significant metadata gaps present in the current barcode records on Philippine biodiversity that were retrieved from GenBank and BOLD–particularly, the information on the sampling location and identity of the species. Regardless of whether these kinds of information are being collected by researchers, if they are not included in the submission to these public databases, they can be perceived as missing. In this study, due to the extent of missing information, not all barcode records were deemed useful in some of the analyses. This does not necessarily imply that barcode records with incomplete metadata are unusable but highlights how the completeness of metadata allows these records to be used in various kinds of analyses. Because of the importance of metadata, its collection and publication have been strongly advocated and have inspired the creation of a database for metadata ( Deck et al., 2017 ). Thus, researchers and contributors need to acknowledge the importance of metadata and be aware that in order to increase the utility of current biodiversity records, there is a need to also increase the availability of metadata by collecting and properly sharing this information with public databases. With regards to sensitive data ( e.g ., coordinates of vulnerable species), it may be possible to acquire authorization from the contributors to access the metadata ( Chapman, 2020 ). Otherwise, the sampling locality description may be a sufficient substitute for coordinates, provided that the entries are more standardized and informative up to the province level, at least.

Barcode data favoring commonly documented taxa

In examining for taxonomic biases, it was observed that the rate of barcoding of taxa was associated with how commonly they were observed (see Fig. 3 ). Given that species occurrence records are largely opportunistic in nature ( Petersen et al., 2021 ), the strong association between species and genetic datasets may indicate certain biases that are inherent to barcode data as well. Other than commonness, other factors might contribute to the variability in barcoding effort across taxonomic groups in the Philippines. For example, popular research likely influenced interest in barcoding of specific taxonomic groups. These topics include high endemism of vertebrates and vascular plants, and the high marine biodiversity in the Philippines, which led to efforts of barcoding vertebrates, endemic plants, and reef fishes, respectively ( Carpenter & Springer, 2005 ; Ong, 2002 ; Posa et al., 2008 ). The limited number of experts available in the Philippines could potentially contribute to the observed taxonomic bias ( Arayata, 2019 ; Senate of the Philippines, 2017 ). This lack of expertise is evident, for example, in the online roster of experts provided by the Department of Environment and Natural Resources–Biodiversity Management Bureau ( https://bmb.gov.ph/index.php/resources/roster-of-experts ), where it is evident that not all plant and animal taxa are well-represented. Furthermore, in relation to the findings on spatial bias, most DNA barcoding is processed in institutions based in Metro Manila. Each of these universities has a limited number of researchers with research interest focused only on certain taxa. Although there may be local experts specialized in less-represented groups, these experts may be based in regions where there is limited access to molecular approaches. In this case, collaborations become essential in providing these experts access to molecular facilities. Due to these factors, more attention in Philippine barcoding may have been given to certain groups belonging to the following phyla/divisions: Chordata, Arthropoda, Mollusca, and Tracheophyta.

Some exceptions were observed from the general trend that high genetic data can be expected with high species data. For example, there is currently no barcode data for the Family Ceratobatrachidae (Phylum Chordata, Class Amphibia) despite more than 20 species of limestone-forest frogs ( Platymantis ) recorded in the Philippines ( Siler et al., 2009 ). Given the high endemicity and potential cryptic species diversity among this group ( Siler et al., 2009 ), DNA barcode data can prove valuable in documenting the diversity within this taxon. Among plants, the Family Dipterocarpaceae (Division Tracheophyta, Class Magnoliopsida) is an example of a taxon that lacks barcode data. This family contains ecologically important yet exploited and endangered tree species. Examples are species of the genus Parashorea , Shorea , and Hopea , which largely contribute to the tree diversity and richness in many Philippine forests such as Mt. Apo Natural Park and Rajah Sikatuna Protected Landscape ( Aureo et al., 2020 ; Zapanta et al., 2019 ). Unfortunately, some species in this family have become vulnerable to exploitation brought by logging, leading to some being critically endangered ( Aureo et al., 2020 ; Zapanta et al., 2019 ). The lack of barcode data for these animal and plant taxa translates to missed opportunities in obtaining valuable information for this group–information that could be used in understanding the diversity of these groups and in the conservation of vulnerable species.

Barcode data favoring areas with high species documentation & foreign contributors

In examining for spatial biases, a similar trend was observed with the taxonomic biases. Specifically, examination of location information showed that barcode sampling is more likely conducted in areas where documentation of species is commonly done (see Fig. 4 ). The results revealed that the five provinces with the highest barcode sampling were Siquijor, Cavite, Bohol, Aurora, and Palawan. Three of these provinces are found in Luzon making them accessible to institutes that had the capacity to barcode. This accessibility however does not only pertain to proximity to barcoding institutions, but also to protected areas as well as the availability of routes to sampling locations ( Fisher-Phelps et al., 2017 ; Oliveira et al., 2016 ). Indeed, in the Philippines, local biodiversity more frequently sampled are situated in provinces with more developed travel routes (or relatively near to urban areas). Security and safety are also linked to accessibility of an area. Governments often provide travel advisories that restrict access to certain areas due to the high risk of threats such as disease outbreaks, natural disasters, civil unrest, or terrorist attacks ( Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office, 2013 ). For instance, foreign researchers, who have been observed to generate a large portion of Philippine barcode data, are often strongly advised against travelling to many provinces in Mindanao due to “crime, terrorism, civil unrest and kidnapping” ( Government of Canada, 2021 ; U.S. Department of State, 2021 ). As a result, provinces that are deemed to have lower risks to local and foreign researchers are more likely to be sampled compared to other provinces.

Another aspect of spatial bias examined in this study was the origins of contributors. It must be noted, however, that in this study, institutions holding the image copyright (specifically for BOLD entries with images associated with them) were assumed to be the submitter of the barcode data. In contrast to BOLD, submitter information is more explicitly indicated in GenBank entries. From a global perspective, most of the current barcode data of Philippine biodiversity was generated by foreign institutions with researchers from the United States being the most active contributors (see Fig. 5A ). The high contribution of foreign institutions is likely due to their high research capacity, especially in terms of funding and barcoding facilities. For example, there exists a grant known as the “PIRE: Centennial Genetic and Species Transformations in the Epicenter of Marine Biodiversity” that enables researchers from various institutes based in the United States to conduct marine expeditions in the Philippines ( Carpenter et al., 2017 ). Moreover, foreign institutions may also have access to more extensive specimen collections. For example, the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History houses over 126 million specimens in their catalog. Additionally, the United States has about 1,500 other institutions that may also house a significant number of cataloged specimens but often with restricted access ( Page et al., 2015 ). It is likely that many of their specimens, not exclusive to the United States, had been sampled even during the early years of exploration, which may explain why there are several barcode records generated from older samples.

Examination of contribution to barcode data across time showed that Philippines has become more active in barcoding in recent decades, particularly in terms of collecting samples and submitting barcode data (see Figs. 5B and ​ and5C). 5C ). The upward trend in both collection of samples and submission of barcode data seemed to have started between 2005 and 2010, around the time DNA barcoding was slowly being adopted in the Philippines. For example, the UP-Diliman Institute of Biology initiated the creation of a public DNA barcode database in 2008 and several years later, partnered with the Department of Environment and Natural Resources, to use DNA barcoding against illegal wildlife trade ( Encarnacion, 2019 ).

While local contributions to barcode data have increased over the years, spatial bias was still prominent when the origins of contributors were examined from a national perspective. Specifically, there was a mismatch between the localities producing (or processing) the barcode data and the areas that were being sampled. This mismatch is likely due to the limited number of local institutions with the capacity to process and generate barcode data, whether in terms of facilities, funding, equipment, or expertise. Most of the local contributions are processed by a small group of institutions located in the regions of Metro Manila and Central Luzon (see Fig. 6 )–many of which, if not all, have their own well-equipped DNA barcode laboratories. In line with this, it may be possible to increase the capacity of local institutions found in regions where there is currently minimal to no processing of barcode data by establishing the appropriate facilities and conducting professional training. While this will require funding and time, it could empower more local institutions to take initiative in barcoding their own local biodiversity–particularly those based in regions that remain relatively unexplored. This would be ideal as these local institutions are in the best position to sample their local biodiversity. Alternatively, collaborations with other local institutions ( e.g ., local government agencies, non-governmental organizations, etc.) can facilitate barcoding of local biodiversity. Indeed, many of the current barcode records are a product of collaborations between institutions based in Metro Manila and various local groups across the Philippines. While these may be indicated in the publications linked to these records, there is no clear metadata information on collaborative works provided on the raw barcode data obtained. The present limitation in the contributor metadata of these public databases potentially under-represents the role of local institutions in the documentation of Philippine biodiversity. For barcoding in particular, it is essential to acknowledge that both sampling and barcode generating efforts are equally important. Hence, institutions who contributed to either or both efforts in collaborations must also be credited equally–whether in publications or databases. Thus, a more explicit acknowledgment of the roles of local collaborators in the metadata associated with barcode data would increase the visibility of these local institutes, which could potentially foster further collaborations in biodiversity documentation.

Conclusions

By conducting a systematic assessment of the barcode data on animal and plant taxa, the state of barcoding in the Philippines was examined, giving insight on the extent of metadata gaps, taxonomic biases, and spatial biases present in current records. In analyzing the data, many barcode records were found to have missing information for publishing, records, geolocation, or taxonomic metadata. These gaps resulted in the exclusion of those records in some of the analyses, demonstrating that incompleteness of metadata can limit the usability of barcode data for different kinds of analyses. Also, the presence of metadata gaps makes biodiversity data more tedious to work with. Philippine barcoding is more often conducted on taxa and provinces that are associated with high documentation of species occurrence, with most records generated by foreign countries with generally high research capacity. Moving forward with the findings of this study, future contributors of barcode data are encouraged to increase the availability of metadata by collecting and sharing this information to online databases upon submission to maximize the potential utility of these records in various kinds of analyses. Additionally, future barcoding efforts should prioritize areas where biodiversity documentation is currently lacking such as documenting taxa and sampling regions that are under-represented in Philippine biodiversity data. This approach of sampling under-represented taxa and regions may be done by collaborating with institutions active in DNA barcoding and biodiversity experts specializing in less-represented animal or plant taxa and by conducting field sampling in locations that currently have limited data. Furthermore, it is essential to highlight the importance of empowering more local institutions to take part in Philippine barcoding whether by increasing their capacity to generate barcode data or collaborating with groups from different regions in the Philippines. For future studies on the biases and gaps in biodiversity data, collaborations with data scientists are also recommended to mitigate the tedious work involved in processing large amounts of data.

Supplemental Information

Supplemental information 1.

This file contains the different the supplementary tables for the manuscript and the supplementary figures, which are the same figures presented in the main text but using different data.

Acknowledgments

We would like to acknowledge and thank the UP Institute of Biology–with special mention of Sir Adrian U. Luczon–for providing support through feedback and consultation.

Funding Statement

The authors received no funding for this work.

Additional Information and Declarations

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Carmela Maria P. Berba performed the experiments, analyzed the data, prepared figures and/or tables, authored or reviewed drafts of the paper, and approved the final draft.

Ambrocio Melvin A. Matias conceived and designed the experiments, performed the experiments, analyzed the data, prepared figures and/or tables, authored or reviewed drafts of the paper, and approved the final draft.

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Mt. Hamiguitan Range Wildlife Sanctuary is one of the biodiversity hotspots in the Mindanao faunal region, which is home to about 21 species of mammals. This study provides data on mammal assemblage and assessment on the added value of the ca. 2.99 km2 MHRWS expansion sites to the already protected zone. Faunistic inventory and assessment documented 19 species of mammals belonging to 16 genera, eight families and five orders. This adds nine species to the previously reported mammals of Mt. Hamiguitan range making it a home to 30 species. Relatively low diversity of mammals (H’=0.615) in the expansion sites is attributed to poor soil resulting to low forest productivity and habitat loss due to mining, logging and shifting cultivation. This unique assemblage of vulnerable and endemic species of bats and mammals in Mt. Hamiguitan Range Wildlife Sanctuary expansion sites calls for more sampling effort and conservation strategies to maintain its bat and mammal assemblage.

Mariano Roy Duya , phillip alviola

National Museum of the Philippines: Journal of Natural History, 1:61-86

Danilo S Balete

"We conducted a survey of non-volant small mammals in 2006 - 2008 in four areas of the Bicol Peninsula: Mt. Labo (peak 1544 m), Mt. Malinao (peak 1548 m), Saddle Peak (peak 1003 m), and Caramoan National Park (475 m). In 11,227 trap-nights we documented nine species, of which six were native and three were introduced. The native species consisted of one shrew and five rodents; the exotic species included one shrew and two rodents. Species diversity was comparatively low overall, with each mountain supporting from three to four species. None of the four species previously documented on Mt. Isarog (Archboldomys luzonensis, Batomys sp., Chrotomys gonzalesi, and Rhynchomys isarogensis) were present in these newly surveyed areas; the Chrotomys from Saddle Peak and Rhynchomys from Mt. Labo are of uncertain identity. We did not record any species of large Apomys (subgenus Megapomys), which are abundant in central and northern Luzon, indicating that these forest mice are absent on the Bicol Peninsula. We captured the exotic rodents only in heavily disturbed forest and subsistence farms in the lowlands; we found the introduced Asian house shrew, Suncus murinus, only in montane forest on Mt. Labo, ca. 1335 - 1413 m. Relative abundance of the native species was low overall, ranging from 0.32 to 3.31 individuals/100 trap-nights. The presence of the two possibly new species of Chrotomys and Rhynchomys, in addition to the four species endemic to Mt. Isarog, highlight the uniqueness of the Bicol mammal fauna. We recommend that Saddle Peak be designated and managed as a protected area similar to the other areas we surveyed for its importance as a watershed for the municipalities of Camarines Sur surrounding it and as habitat of endemic mammals."

National Museum of the Philippines: Journal of Natural History

ABStrAct We conducted a survey of non-volant small mammals in 2006-2008 in four areas of the Bicol Peninsula: Mt. Labo (peak 1544 m), Mt. Malinao (peak 1548 m), Saddle Peak (peak 1003 m), and Caramoan National Park (475 m). In 11,227 trap-nights we documented nine species, of which six were native and three were introduced. The native species consisted of one shrew and five rodents; the exotic species included one shrew and two rodents. Species diversity was comparatively low overall, with each mountain supporting from three to four species. None of the four species previously documented on Mt. Isarog (Archboldomys luzon-ensis, Batomys sp., Chrotomys gonzalesi, and Rhynchomys isarogensis) were present in these newly surveyed areas; the Chrotomys from Saddle Peak and Rhynchomys from Mt. Labo are of uncertain identity. We did not record any species of large Apomys (subgenus Megapomys), which are abundant in central and northern Luzon, indicating that these forest mice are absent on the Bicol Peninsula. We captured the exotic rodents only in heavily disturbed forest and subsistence farms in the lowlands; we found the introduced Asian house shrew, Suncus murinus, only in montane forest on Mt. Labo, ca. 1335-1413 m. Relative abundance of the native species was low overall, ranging from 0.32 to 3.31 individuals/100 trap-nights. The presence of the two possibly new species of Chrotomys and Rhynchomys, in addition to the four species endemic to Mt. Isarog, highlight the uniqueness of the Bicol mammal fauna. We recommend that Saddle Peak be designated and managed as a protected area similar to the other areas we surveyed for its importance as a watershed for the municipalities of Camarines Sur surrounding it and as habitat of endemic mammals.

Fieldiana Life and Earth Sciences

Lawrence R Heaney , Melizar V. Duya

Mammalian Biology, 74:456 – 466

Danilo S Balete , Maria Josefa Veluz

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Assessing the impacts of agriculture and its trade on philippine biodiversity.

1. Introduction

1.1. impacts of intensive agriculture on the environment, 1.2. research focus, 2. materials and methods, 2.1. agricultural data, 2.2. biodiversity data, 3.1. overview of relevant philippine policies, 3.2. regional production and trade analysis, 3.3. interactions with biodiversity, 4. discussion, 4.1. opportunities and conflicts with policy, 4.2. impacts on threatened species, 4.3. driving pressures from agricultural trade in philippine banana and pineapple production, 4.4. the increasing role of international trade in biodiversity impacts, 5. conclusions, supplementary materials, author contributions, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

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Ortiz, A.M.D.; Torres, J.N.V. Assessing the Impacts of Agriculture and Its Trade on Philippine Biodiversity. Land 2020 , 9 , 403. https://doi.org/10.3390/land9110403

Ortiz AMD, Torres JNV. Assessing the Impacts of Agriculture and Its Trade on Philippine Biodiversity. Land . 2020; 9(11):403. https://doi.org/10.3390/land9110403

Ortiz, Andrea Monica D., and Justine Nicole V. Torres. 2020. "Assessing the Impacts of Agriculture and Its Trade on Philippine Biodiversity" Land 9, no. 11: 403. https://doi.org/10.3390/land9110403

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The Economics of Biodiversity Loss

We explore the economic effects of biodiversity loss by developing an ecologically-founded model that captures how different species interact to deliver the ecosystem services that complement other factors of economic production. Aggregate ecosystem services are produced by combining several non-substitutable ecosystem functions such as pollination and water filtration, which are each provided by many substitutable species playing similar roles. As a result, economic output is an increasing but highly concave function of species richness. The marginal economic value of a species depends on three factors: (i) the number of similar species within its ecosystem function, (ii) the marginal importance of the affected function for overall ecosystem productivity, and (iii) the extent to which ecosystem services constrain economic output in each country. Using our framework, we derive expressions for the fragility of ecosystem service provision and its evolution over time, which depends, among other things, on the distribution of biodiversity losses across ecosystem functions. We discuss how these fragility measures can help policymakers assess the risks induced by biodiversity loss and prioritize conservation efforts. We also embed our model of ecosystem service production in a standard economic model to study optimal land use when land use raises output at the cost of reducing biodiversity. We find that even in settings where species loss does not reduce output substantially today, it lowers growth opportunities and reduces resilience to future species loss, especially when past species loss has been asymmetric across functions. Consistent with these predictions of our model, we show empirically that news about biodiversity loss increases spreads on credit default swaps (CDS) more for countries with more depleted ecosystems.

Stefano Giglio, Theresa Kuchler, Johannes Stroebel and Olivier Wang declare that they have no conflicts of interest to disclose. The views expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Bureau of Economic Research.

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Biodiversity Hotspots: The Philippines Research Paper

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Introduction

Hotspots definition, causes of extinction, philippines as a hotspot, summary and conclusion.

Each and every country has something unique that differentiates it from others. These are special areas that do require special protection because of the different roles they play. These biodiversity hotspots in certain countries act as tourist attraction sites. In so doing, these regions earn the country foreign exchange that is vital in the growth of different sectors of a country. In many countries, these areas are under serious destruction from human activities.

As a result, there is a need for protection of these biodiversity hotspots. This paper explores biodiversity hotspots, the case of Philippines. This entails defining the term biodiversity hotspot and offer solutions on the global efforts aimed at curbing biodiversity loss. The solutions are based on the latest developments in the protection of endangered areas.

A biodiversity hotspot refers to one of the 34 areas that have been designated world wide. These areas are rich biologically and are normally characterized by high levels of plant endemism. Here, cases of high loss of habitat are of serious concern. Consequently, such regions are the most endangered hence they require conservation actions to be directed towards them.

For any region in the world to be considered as a biodiversity hotspot, it has to contain at least 1,500 species of vascular plants which have to be endemics. Additionally, such a region should have endured a high level of habitat loss. Normally, a hotspot must have experienced 70% loss in the original habitat. In many cases, there is only 1.4% of land that remains whereas this is to support 60% of the world’s reptiles, plants, amphibians, birds and mammals (Conservation International, 2005).

According to the Australian Government’s Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities (2009), these areas do support natural ecosystems which are mainly in their natural state with a well representation of native species, as well as communities. Biodiversity hotspots, thus, have a diverse range of endemic species which are local and are not easily found in those areas that are outside the specific hotspot.

In case there are no any conservation management strategies put in place to control continued destruction of the diversity, then any current, as well as planned human activities risk these areas. However, natural values of hotspots are mainly intact. This essentially means that all efforts directed at maintaining the values ought to provider value for money. This is in the contribution of efforts aimed at biodiversity conservation in the biodiversity hotspots.

The International Conservation has classified the Philippines as one of the biodiversity hotspots in the world. The country is made up of over 7,100 islands making it a biologically rich country. In Philippines, many of the endemic species are found in forest fragments that currently cover 7% of the original hotspot that existed hitherto.

The remaining species here are more than 6,000 plants plus various bird species like the Philippine cockatoo, wrinkled hornbill, the enormous Philippine eagle, the Cebu flowerpecker and the Visayan. Further more, there is a high amphibian endemism that boosts of species like the panther flying frog. Additionally, the country is said to be one of the areas that are endangered in the world.

This is essentially due to the fact that over time, there have been many cases of logging reported in the country. Currently, there is deforestation as people forests for agricultural purposes. Moreover, these forests are being cleared in order to pave the way for accommodation facilities to cater for the high population in the country (Conservation International, 2007).

According to the US Department of State (2011), Philippines measure an area of 300,000km 2 (117,187sq. mi.). Its capital city is Manila with a population of 11.55 million people. The country has a mountainous terrain with 65% of the surface being mountainous. It also has narrow coastal lowlands. Additionally, the Philippines has a tropical climate characterized by astride typhoon belt. In the Philippines, more than 40% of total land area is under arable farming.

Despite the country being a rich agricultural land, a number of factors do limit the productivity gains in the country. These include poor infrastructural facilities, financial constraints and government policies. However, agricultural products are used for consumption, as well as export. Only a third of the population is employed in the agricultural sector. It is worthy noting that agricultural productivity does not even contribute a fifth of the country’s GDP.

The country has experienced deforestation in many parts. Over years, there has been continued uncontrolled logging, as well as farm clearing for agricultural purposes.

This has resulted into serious implications in terms of the ecological balance. Government efforts aimed at reducing deforestation have not been effective. Essentially, cases of deforestation are still a serious problem in Philippines. Global warming has been said to represent a major threat to the biodiversity in Philippines.

An increase in the concentrations of carbon dioxide affects both plants and animals. The carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere a result of numerous human activities. Studies undertaken show that many unique habitats are likely to be lost, as a result of changes brought about by climate. An increase in the carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere results into the rise in temperatures.

Consequently, it is estimated that the rise in temperature is likely to eliminate over 56,000 plants and 3,700 endemic animal species in the biodiversity hotspots in the world, the Philippines included. Geographical limitations restrict migration options for many of the endangered species in the Philippines. As a result, many species in this region become vulnerable to effects of climate change (Alave, 2011).

Philippines is one the major threatened hotspots in the world. The country has remarkable levels of species endemism. However, only seven percent of its original forest still exists as a result of massive destruction. In the lowland regions, only three percent of the forests do exist.

In case conservation measures would have been instituted, then many areas would have been able to experience regeneration in the long run. Thus, the major cause of extinction in the tree species in the Philippines is high deforestation rates (The Utrecht Faculty of Education, 2011).

A number of factors have contributed to the high rates of deforestation experienced in the Philippines currently. The principal issue here is the high population in the country. Currently, according to the BBC (2011), the Philippines has a population of 93.6 million people. This was from the 2010 UN estimate. The annual population growth rate as per 2007 was estimated to be at 2.04%. The livelihoods of all these people are dependent on natural resources in the country.

Rural areas are said to experience severe poverty. Further more, a high population density estimated at more than 273 people per km 2 has been a burden on the only remaining forests in the country. People began using timber a long time ago, for instance the Spanish who used the timber in constructing their fleet. By the year 1945, forest cover was estimated at two-thirds of the country (Australian Government, 2009).

Contrary, proceeding years saw acceleration in the logging rates in the Philippines. The Conservation International (2007), states that about 2,000km 2 of trees that constituted the country’s natural forest cover were logged on an annual basis. The rate at which the logging occurred was three times the rate at which tropical forests were being converted in the rest of the world.

However, there has been a reduction in logging in the country due to the current state of forests. Many of the forests have been depleted meaning people cannot undertake such activities again. More so, there has been increased community awareness. This is in an effort to teach communities involved in logging on the importance of forests.

This has been done by government agencies, as well as non-governmental organizations involved in environmental conservation efforts. Despite what has been witnessed and achieved so far, it has not been rosy. As it was witnessed in 2004 when landslides occurred in Philippines, there are still numerous logging activities which are going on in the country’s forests that still remain (Guerero, 2007).

Forests, which are part of Philippines’ biodiversity hotspots, have been on the decline due to land conversion and mining. As per the Conservation International (2007), by 1997, one-quarter of the Philippines was under mining activities.

To make the destruction case serious, these mining activities were taking place in more than half of the primary forests that were remaining in the country. Land conversion has seen construction of infrastructural facilities which are not in harmony with the country’s set goals on biodiversity conservation.

These infrastructural facilities include irrigation projects, ports and harbors, development of road networks, energy and power projects. During the construction of these facilities, there is massive clearing of vegetation cover in order to create space (U.S Department of State, 2011).

Campaigns for rectifying this trend have included the introduction of exotic species to what already existed. This has not been working especially in the wetlands, with lots of negative impacts experienced. Some of the species which include fish like the giant catfish and black bass, water fern, toads, water hyacinth and frogs. However, immediate action is needed in order to avoid a looming crisis in the Philippines region.

Without intervention measures in place, then the whole region would most likely become extinct. The government has been issuing conservation concessions but these are yet to take effect. Logging has continued especially in the lowland forests. This has reduced these forests to a very tiny fraction of what existed initially.

Despite protected areas and national parks being very crucial in the conservation efforts in the Philippines’ biodiversity, only 11 percent of the country’s total land area is currently protected. This is approximated to be around 32,000km 2 out of the total land area of the whole country (300,000km 2 ) (Conservation International, 2007).

Currently, there is no clear demarcation of the national park boundaries. Further more, government agencies involved in enforcement are doing little when it comes to matters of conservation. As a result, there is even a raging debate on the number of national parks existing in the country at the moment.

Already two-thirds of the national parks have been converted into human settlements whereas one-quarter of the national parks’ lands have been disturbed in one way or the other. For instance, many of the land areas have been converted and are being used for agricultural activities in the country. Other land areas supposed to be for national parks have been cleared for creating space to accommodate the ever increasing human population in the country (Conservation International, 2007).

On the other hand, a number of positives can be drawn from the conservation measures being undertaken in the Philippines. In the year 2002, the government of Philippines managed to reclaim five new protected areas. More over, the expansion of the Penablanca Protected Landscape and Seascape in the year 2003 was a big step towards concerted conservation measures in the country.

The expansion programme saw the area increase from 4,136 hectares to 118,108 hectares. In the recent past, the president issued a decree that saw the establishment of the Quirino Protected Landscape that covers 206,875 hectares in the northern Luzon area of Philippines (Conservation International, 2007).

There is a need to ensure that the already existing network of protected areas is able to conserve biodiversity in an adequate manner. This can be achieved through the government, as well as other stakeholders ensuring that Key Biodiversity Areas (KBAs) are conserved in an adequate way.

Other areas that do require intervention in terms of conservation include those with populations which are globally threatened by human activities. Further more, areas that have species which are geographically restricted should be conserved to protect these species.

In this case, KBAs are special biological areas set aside for endangered species. By so doing, these species of global conservation concern are able to be managed as a single unit within a given location. It is commendable that something is being done to conserve KBAs in the Philippines. For instance, a number of organizations are collaborating in an effort to identify and delineate all the KBAs found in Philippines.

These organizations are the Field Museum from Chicago, Conservation International-Philippines, Haribon Foundation, as well as other partners involved in the conservation of biodiversity hotspots in Philippines. The work of conservation undertaken by these organizations is to refine a number of broad-scale priorities that had been identified during the Biodiversity Conservation Priority-Setting Process held in the Philippines in the year 2000.

This work of biodiversity conservation receives much of support from CEPF. The Haribon Foundation had earlier identified 117 Important Bird Areas (IBAs) in 2001 where most of the conservation efforts are directed. Normally, IBAs are areas that contain congregatory species which are threatened world wide with a restricted-range. Consequently, they offer these organizations a starting point when it comes to the collection of vital data that is used in the identification of KBAs.

Research is being undertaken on ways of conserving these biodiversity hotspots in Philippines. This research is vital in supporting efforts already underway in the creation of protected areas and support conservation activities.

The research has resulted into the discovery of new endemic species providing information that has to be directly fed into the refining and prioritization of KBAs. In addition, numerous activities are also being carried out concerning conservation in Philippines.

One of the organizations that is fully involved in conservation is the Philippine Cockatoo Conservation Program on Palawan. This organization has been involved in efforts aimed at reducing theft of eggs of the endangered species. The Cebu Biodiversity Conservation Foundation Program is involved in the protection of the last areas of forests that remain in the country.

The activities of this organization have been more pronounced especially after the rediscovery of species of the Cebu flowerpecker that had earlier been assumed to be extinct. By providing grants, organizations do support the conservation efforts that are on-going in the Philippines (The Utrecht Faculty of Education, 2011).

Some of the organizations which have been on the forefront in providing funds to conservation efforts include the Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund and the Haribon Foundation. These organizations provide grants through organizing special programs, for instance, the Threatened Species Program.

However, long term measures are vital in the Philippines in order to include the conservation of landscape and the seascape. This ensures that there is complete conservation of the biodiversity hotspots in Philippines. Efforts have been on-going to ensure long term conservation of the endangered species in Philippines. Collaborations between organizations have been evident to this end.

Some of the targeted areas in these efforts include Palawan, Eastern Mindanao and Sierra Madre regions. Work in these regions has been coordinated by Conservation International in collaboration with the Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund. Additionally, there has been the establishment of the Philippine Eagle Alliance charged with coordinating works undertaken by conservation groups operating in the country (The Utrecht Faculty of Education, 2011).

Philippines is one of the richest countries in the world in terms of diversity and hence biodiversity hotspot. In 2000, the country was considered to have 52,177 species of flora and fauna. Out of this, 418 were listed as being endangered, a third of 9,000 species of flora are said to be endemic. Of the 165 mammal species, 121 are only found in this region of the world. From this data, it is therefore clear that many of the species in the country are threatened. There are a number of species which have been lost in the Philippines over time.

Rhinoceros and Elephants

In the past few years, different animal fossils have been discovered in the Philippines. These fossils have made scientists believe that animals like rhinoceros and elephants used to live in Philippines. Additionally, the scientists have been able to identify two species of elephants and one of rhinoceros that live during yesteryears. The elephant species were Elaphas beyeri and Elaphas cf. namadicus whereas the rhinoceros was called Rhinoceros philippinensis (Conservation International, 2007).

Monkey-eating eagles

Scientists believe these are some of the largest eagles ever to live on earth. Its scientific name is Pithecophaga jefferyi and is believed to be living in the rainforests of Samar, Mindanao, Isabela and Leyte.

The eagle feeds on hornbills, large snakes, civet cats, monkeys, and flying lemurs. The eagle creates nests over 39 meters the ground. Currently, scientists estimate that there are about 100 to 300 meaning that they are like to be extinct.

Philippines hence has to protect these remaining species so that they do not become extinct. These eagles included Sulu hornbill, Philippine cockatoo, Palawan peasant pheasant, Cebu black shama and the Mindoro imperial pigeon. However, the Philippine Eagle is a symbol of the efforts by Egyptians in environmental conservation. It represents the decision of the people regarding the conversation of forests and country (Conservation International, 2007).

Flying Lemur

The Flying Lemur is the most distinct creatures which still exist in Philippines. In a single leap, this creature can glide around 100 meters. This creature only moves around at night, just like the lemurs of Asia. The creature has a head that resembles a frog. On the other hand, the body of the Lemur is like that of a Canadian flying squirrel.

The creature is called kagwang in the Mindanao region. World wide, the creature is referred to as the flying lemur (colugo). The creature consists of two species namely the Cynocephalus variegates. A mature lemur is 1 to 1.7 kilograms whereas its length ranges from 14 to 17 inches. Additionally, the species which has small ears, wide flat head with big eyes has its 12-inch tail connected by way of a patagium.

The continuous destruction of tropical forests in Philippines is such a big threat to the existence of kagwang. Some of the common areas for this creature were Leyte, Mindanao, Samar, Basilan and Bohol. Currently, there are no records which can tell the exact number of kagwang remaining in the country (Conservation International, 2007).

It is said that there are at least 56 bat species in Philippines. The smallest and largest bat species out f the 1,000 species available are found in Philippines. In the world, the smallest bat species is the Philippine bamboo bat (vespertilionid). The bat, found in Philippines, belongs to the family of vespertilionid. Its length is about 4 centimeters whereas its widespan is 15 centimeters. Its weight is expected to be around 1.5 grams.

On the other hand, the largest bat species stays mostly in the thick forest around Bataan and Subic Bay. The largest bats are the golden crown flying fox ( Pteropus vampyrus ) and the giant flying fox ( Acerodon jubatus ). These bats have for years been living in the Subic Forest National Protected Area.

This is 10,000 hectare area acting as the biggest roosting site for bats world wide. However, a giant flying fox weighs 1.1 kilograms, making it heavier than the golden crown flying fox. The golden crown has a wingspan of six feet, hence making it the largest among all bats. It is worthy noting that the two species are just among the 15 bats species that exist in the Philippines.

On the other hand, bat species that used to inhabit other parts of the Philippines are believed to be extinct. These species include the Panay fruit bat or Acerodon Lucifer and bare-backed fruit bat or Dobsonia chapmani. The only highly endangered bat species in the country currently the Nyctimene rabori, also known as the Philippine tube-nosed bat. There have been warnings that this species has to be protected (Conservation International, 2007).

Last Remnants of Dinosaur Age

The only living remnants of the dinosaur age are said to sea turtles. However, if there are no efforts to protect these turtles, they are likely to follow the dinosaurs into extinction. In the world, there are over 220 species of turtles. Of these species, seven species are considered marine.

There are five species of turtles in the Philippines. These include Hawksbill ( Eretmochelys imbricata ), Leatherback turtles ( Dermochelys coriacea ), Green ( Chelonia mydas ), Loggerhead ( Caretta caretta ) and Olive Ridley ( Lepidochelys olivacea ). Typically, a Philippine Sea Turtle’s weight ranges between 180-210 kilograms, making it hard for it to retract its head, as well as limbs under its streamlined shell.

The Green Sea Turtle is the most common species in Philippines growing to upto 1.5 meters long and weighing 185 kilograms. Further more, growing to more than two meters in length, the Leatherback Turtle is thus the largest species in the world (Conservation International, 2007).

Smallest Hoofed Mammal

The Philippine mouse deer (Tragalus nigricans) is the smallest hoofed mammal in the world. This mammal resides in the South of Palawan on the Balabac Island. The mammal is only 40 centimeters. However, in the other countries, the mammal is referred to as Chevrotain.

Contrary to the real deer, the male species does not have antlers. In self-defence, the mammal, therefore, uses its canine teeth. Other mouse deer species in the world include the African water chevrotain and the Malay mouse deer (napu). These species are can be found in India, Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka.

The World Conservation Union is worried because of the alarming rate at which these mouse deer species were disappearing. Consequently, the organization, in the year 1996, did declare these mouse deer species as an endangered species (Conservation International, 2007).

Most Endangered Deer

In the dwindling forest of Panay Island in the Philippines, there lives one of the mammals considered the world’s rarest. Considered the most endangered deer in the world, this mammal is the Philippine spotted deer ( Cervus alfredi ). This mammal is 80 centimeters. Over years, these species have been reducing in number making them to be declared endangered.

In many cases, these deer species have had their habitats damaged, reduced or altered hence risking their existence. A survey done in 1985 showed that only a small population of the original number of the Philippine spotted deer was found (Conservation International, 2007).

Calamian Deer

In the Calamian Islands, there lives a deer species that is not found anywhere else in the world. Consequently, scientists decided to refer to it as the Calamian deer in order to distinguish it from all other hog deer species in the world. Ordinarily, one Calamian deer measures 105 to 115 centimeters long and 60 to 65 centimeters high.

Additionally, they weigh 36 to 50 kilograms. Compared to other hog deer species, the Calamian deer has longer and darker legs. Their populations have been dropping since the early 1940s to levels described as being “dangerously low” in the 1970s. For instance, by 1996, the population had dropped to only 900. This prompted conservationists to declare the Calamian deer as an endangered species (Conservation International, 2007).

Largest Endangered Animal

In the early 1900s, there used to be about 10,000 heads of pygmy water buffalos that were unique in the island of Mindoro, in the Philippines. Currently, these water buffalos are not anymore. There are fears that these water buffalos may be extinct meaning that Mindoro might lose its only symbol of pride.

These water buffalos ( Bubalus mindorensis ), also known as the Tamaraws are believed to be the largest land animal that is endangered in the Philippines at the moment. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) declared the Tamaraws as one of the ten most endangered species world wide in the year 1996. Currently, there are only about 20 heads of Tamaraws still existing from the 10,000 heads that were there in the early 1900s (Conservation International, 2007).

Endangered Cockatoos

Some of the most exotic birds in the world are found in the Philippines. Scientists have been able to document 577 bird species that live in the Philippine archipelago. 185 of these species are endemic to the Philippines. Consequently, the Bird Life International has listed 116 of these bird species as being threatened.

The most endangered species of them all is the Philippine cockatoo ( Cacatua haematuropygia ). This bird species belong to the parrot’s family with a capacity to live for over 50 years. Known for mimicking human voices, they are 33 centimeters long weighing 0.29 kilograms. Only about 1,000 to 4,000 of this species remain and is restricted to the Pandanan Island and El Nido Marine Reserve (Conservation International, 2007).

World’s Largest Fish

In the town of Sorsogon in the Philipines, there is a group of 40 whale sharks ( Rhincodon typus). This fish species is considered as being the largest fish in the world. They are 18 to 35 feet long weighing 20 tons.

Given their special features, the Philippine government declared this shark species as being endangered in 1998. This meant that it was illegal to exploit them. Responsibility for promoting eco-tourism aimed at protecting the shark species has been transferred to the Department of Tourism in the region of Donsol (Conservation International, 2007).

World’s Smallest Fish

The smallest freshwater fish in the world is found in the Philippines. Measuring 1.2 centimeters, the dwarf goby ( Pandaka pygmaea ) is said to be the tiniest vertebrate alive on earth. It was discovered by American Ichthyologist Albert Herre in 1925 in the Malabon River. Additionally, there is the sinarapan ( Mistichthys luzonensis ) which is said to be the smallest commercial fish in the world. The Sinarapan is 1.25 centimeters. Uncontrolled fishing in the Philippines threatens the survival of this species (Conservation International, 2007).

World’s Smallest Monkey

Measuring only 12 centimeters, the Philippine tarsier ( Tarsius syrichta ) is said to be the smallest primate in the world. The monkey has two big eyes which cannot move and it has no protective cover for the eyes. In order to survive, the monkey has learned to turn its head 180 degrees. It weighs between 117 and 134 grams.

These monkey species are found in the islands of Bohol, Samar, Mindanao and Leyte. Currently, only 1,000 species of the monkey exist in the Philippines. The government has formed the Philippine Tarsier Foundation Inc. which is mandated to ensure that these monkeys are conserved (Conservation International, 2007).

Endemic Plants

There are over 9,000 tree species in the Philippines. Out of these, 200 are fruit trees. Some of the endemic fruit trees found in the Philippines include the mabolo, durian, bignay and pili. The Bignay tree ( Antidesa bunius ) grows upto a height of 10.6 meters. The fruit diameter ranges between 8 and 10 millimeters. The tree has medicinal value in that its leaves are used in the treatment of snakebite.

Biodiversity hotspots are vital as they support the livelihoods of plant and animal species that are endangered. In this case, conservation of such areas is critical as they provide habitats to some species that are of benefit to human beings. Students who may be far ought to be concerned about hotspots as these are areas that support lives of interesting species in the world. It is, therefore, crucial that international support be provided to conservation efforts. These areas are vital in scientific research and, therefore, should be conserved at all times.

This support from the international community should be in the form of grants directed towards conservation efforts. Laws and regulations should be instituted to guard exploitation of these species. Poachers and those engaged in overfishing ought to be prosecuted. Policies to control population growth rates should be formulated. This is to guard against population explosion that leads into clearing of forest reserves for accommodation and agricultural purposes.

Alave, K. L. (2011). Hottest’ of biodiversity hot spots found in Philippines. Web.

Australian Government. (2009). Biodiversity hotspots . Web.

BBC. (2011) . Philippines country profile . Web.

Conservation International. (2005). Biodiversity Hotspots . Web.

Conservation International. (2007). Biodiversity Hotspots . Philippines . RWeb.

Guerero, L. (2007). The Philippines: A Climate Hotspot. Climate Change Impacts and the Philippines. Web.

The Utrecht Faculty of Education. (2011). The Philippines . Web.

U.S Department of State. (2011). Background Note: Philippines . Web.

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Study: Veterinary diagnostic labs played key role in COVID-19 response

As the need for severe acute respiratory syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) testing increased, veterinary diagnostic laboratories across the country rose to the occasion. Photo: Carol Jennings/CVM

Veterinary diagnostic laboratories across the United States had a substantial positive effect on human health during the COVID-19 pandemic, according to a study from researchers at the Cornell University College of Veterinary Medicine. The paper, published June 25 in PLOS One , shows the benefits of mobilizing such facilities for population-level testing and timely, informed public health interventions.

“Many veterinary diagnostic laboratories continuously evaluate domestic and wild animal populations for evidence of disease, including diseases that affect humans. They were key in supporting the robust testing capacity necessary for public health agencies to respond to the pandemic,” said Lorin D. Warnick, D.V.M., Ph.D. ’94, the Austin O. Hooey Dean of the College of Veterinary Medicine and senior author on the paper. “We experienced this firsthand through the Cornell COVID-19 Testing Laboratory, established by our Animal Health Diagnostic Center in collaboration with Cayuga Health Systems, a human health care provider based in Ithaca, New York. This paper describes the work and impact of our laboratory and many others across the country.”

As the need increased for severe acute respiratory syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) testing, veterinary diagnostic laboratories across the country rose to the occasion. Some laboratories, however, faced significant administrative obstacles when applying for the Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments (CLIA) certification required to conduct human diagnostic testing.

“It is important to reduce hurdles before the next major public health emergency. Doing so will enhance access to testing resources overall and ultimately improve population health,” said the paper’s first author Nia Clements, a public health graduate student.

The authors analyzed survey results, interviews and public information. Survey invitations were sent to 76 veterinary diagnostic laboratories conducting SARS-CoV-2 testing on animals and/or human samples, of which 38 (50%) responded. Most respondents (79%) operated within a university. Among the 24 laboratories conducting human SARS-CoV-2 testing, 58% did so for a university population, 29% for the general community and 13% for both. The most common reason for human sample testing was to increase university testing capacity (71%), followed by increasing testing capacity for the local community (25%) and testing to decrease turnaround time (21%). Over 8,250,000 human samples were tested by surveyed laboratories participating in this study.

More than 60% of human infectious diseases have a zoonotic origin, which underscores the urgent need to promote animal and human diagnostic collaboration under the One Health umbrella in preparation for future pandemics. — Nia Clements, first author and public health graduate student

Some of the university testing programs that offered testing services to nearby institutions and satellite campuses performed a large proportion of their state’s total tests. One laboratory’s daily testing capacity of 18,000 samples corresponded to 20% of all daily testing completed in that state, and to an estimated 1.5–2.5% of all SARS-CoV-2 daily samples tested nationwide. Another laboratory conducted 25% of its state’s total tests, testing four times as many SARS-CoV-2 samples than the state’s public health laboratories and more than any other laboratory in the state.

The authors write that it is imperative for human health agencies and federal regulators to recognize these contributions and readily collaborate with and call on the expertise and resources of the veterinary community and diagnostic centers as new public health threats emerge.

“More than 60% of human infectious diseases have a zoonotic origin, which underscores the urgent need to promote animal and human diagnostic collaboration under the One Health umbrella in preparation for future pandemics,” Clements said.

The contributions of veterinary diagnostic laboratories to the COVID-19 response are an example of how One Health — the premise that the well-being of wildlife, domestic animals, people and the environment are inextricably linked — can serve as a model for the future. For Cornell, a close collaboration with a local human health care provider provided the most efficient path to meet regulatory requirements while benefitting from veterinary diagnostic expertise to establish a high-quality, high throughput laboratory. A hallmark of the program was fast turnaround of test results, which sped up contact tracing and enabled a rapid response from health care providers, according to another study published with the journal Viruses last summer.

By contrast, labs needing to work more independently in some instances faced difficulties in obtaining regulatory approval. Current regulations exclude experience with non-human samples, including animal testing, from the required experience for CLIA certification, posing an unnecessary hurdle for veterinary laboratory participation. For example, according to the study, one state’s veterinary laboratory diagnosticians “were called upon to train human health professionals to perform the testing that they themselves were not certified to perform” as participants in the COVID-19 testing program.

“Ensuring we have swift, efficient mechanisms to respond to the next pandemic doesn’t necessarily mean creating those processes from scratch,” Warnick said. “A One Health perspective helps identify intersections between areas of expertise. It can help save lives, as the work of veterinary laboratory contributions to the COVID-19 response shows.”

Additional authors on the study include Dr. Diego Diel, who led the Cornell COVID-19 Testing Laboratory and directs the Virology Laboratory at the Animal Health Diagnostic Center (AHDC); Dr. François Elvinger, executive director of the AHDC; Dr. Gary Koretzky ’78, vice provost for academic integration, professor of medicine at Weill Cornell Medicine and one of the leaders of Cornell’s COVID-19 response; and Julie Siler, technician in the Department of Public and Ecosystem Health at the College of Veterinary Medicine. 

Written by Melanie Greaver Cordova

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Nepal’s shifting biodiversity research landscape: Interview with Karan Bahadur Shah

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• Veteran Nepali researcher Professor Karan Bahadur Shah highlights the shift from manual data recording and fieldwork in the past to the ease and efficiency of modern digital tools, though he notes increased competition and focus on quantity over quality.
• There are more complex and extensive funding opportunities now, with advanced technology like satellite tags improving research capabilities. However, misuse of technology, such as spreading false information and manipulating data, is a growing concern.
• He argues that attributing events to climate change is challenging due to the lack of long-term data in Nepal. He believes that Nepal’s forests and lack of large polluting industries may reduce its vulnerabilities to climate change.

KATHMANDU — Professor Karan Bahadur Shah is a distinguished researcher from Nepal, renowned for his extensive work in herpetology, the study of amphibians and reptiles. His career spans several decades and includes significant contributions to the understanding of Nepal’s rich biodiversity.

Shah’s academic journey began at Tribhuvan University in Kathmandu, where he earned his Zoology degrees and later became a faculty member. His interest in herpetology led him to conduct pioneering research on the amphibians and reptiles of Nepal. Over the years, he has discovered and documented numerous species, contributing valuable knowledge to science.

In addition to his academic and research accomplishments, Shah has been actively involved in various conservation initiatives. He has worked with various national and international organizations to promote the conservation of Nepal’s wildlife. Currently, he serves as the president of the NGO Bird Conservation Nepal.

Throughout his career, Prof. Shah has also been dedicated to education and outreach. He has trained numerous students and young researchers, many of whom have gone on to make their own contributions to biodiversity research and conservation. His passion for teaching and mentorship has helped to build a new generation of scientists and conservationists in Nepal.

Mongabay’s Abhaya Raj Joshi talked to Shah about biodiversity research in Nepal, its past, present and future.

Mongabay: Let’s start by reflecting on biodiversity research in Nepal before the digital age. How were things different back then compared with now?

Karan Bahadur Shah: These days, things are much easier, but back then, recording data took time and effort. People were more honest, and many were very knowledgeable, sticking closely to their work. There was a strong sense of duty influenced by religious beliefs.

For example, even hunters were taught not to kill female animals, and experienced hunters would avoid eating certain meats. The population was smaller, and needs were minimal. Now, there’s a greater passion for discovery, while in the past, it was more about duty. Law enforcement was stricter back then, and society reacted strongly to crimes. Today, there are more facilities and competition, with everyone wanting to be an “expert,” even if they don’t fully understand the term. There’s more focus on quantity over quality now.

Mongabay: How have funding opportunities for research evolved?

Karan Bahadur Shah: Funding is more complex and extensive now. When we started, places like Chitwan didn’t have advanced tools like satellite tagging. We used radio transmitters from institutions like the Smithsonian. Radio collars had to be operated manually, and if animals moved to remote areas, we lost the signal. Now, satellite tags can be monitored remotely from Kathmandu, greatly improving the process. Technology and funding opportunities have significantly advanced, enhancing research capabilities. However, technology can also be misused.

Mongabay: Can you give an example of technology misuse?

Karan Bahadur Shah: Misuse includes spreading false information and manipulating data. When people control information, they can mislead others. Good work gets reported and published, but some people publish research without actually conducting it. In the past, it took years to publish an article in a reputable journal, often taking two years of effort.

Now, some online journals might charge for publication and publish poorly conducted research or fabrications. Research ethics have declined due to the financial incentives, leading to cut-throat competition. But ethical researchers still exist.

Good journals take time to publish articles. For instance, a student of mine worked on a bat project and submitted it to a reputable journal, which required 4-5 rounds of revisions before publication. I also review research from other countries, like Pakistan and Israel, mostly voluntarily.

Mongabay: What motivates you to review others’ papers without monetary benefit?

Karan Bahadur Shah: Reviewing papers from places like Pakistan on human-leopard conflict or salamanders in Israel helps me learn about global scientific advances and expand my knowledge. Sometimes, it even inspires further research.

Mongabay: What qualities define good research?

Karan Bahadur Shah: That’s tough to answer. Let me give an example. A researcher claimed to study the impact of the 2015 earthquake on an animal but never actually visited the field.

In academia, like journalism, peers often know what others are working on. So, domain knowledge and staying updated are crucial to assess research quality. Unfortunately, journalists don’t always have access to this information but should critically evaluate research and ask questions.

Mongabay: You’ve been saying there’s a tendency to attribute many things to climate change these days. Is that so?

Karan Bahadur Shah : The problem with attributing things to climate change is the lack of written records. Human memory is unreliable over long periods. Sometimes people remember winter rainfall; sometimes they don’t. It’s hard to attribute events to climate change in Nepal. I’m not denying climate change on a global scale, but we lack data in Nepal. Animals and plants adapt well to gradual changes. While some say Nepal is highly vulnerable to climate change, I believe our forests and lack of large polluting industries reduce our vulnerabilities.

Mongabay: When discussing gradual temperature increases, we often use the example of a frog in a saucepan with water. As the temperature rises slowly, the frog doesn’t realize it until it’s too late. Does this apply to other animals and plants?

Karan Bahadur Shah: In my decades of studying frogs, I’ve never heard that example. I don’t think the frog would stay and die. Their thin skin can sense slight temperature changes. Extreme weather events may have lasting impacts, but nature adapts to gradual changes.

Mongabay: Let’s talk about the focus on charismatic species in research.

Karan Bahadur Shah: Comparing a tiger with a frog, both deserve protection. Tigers are now limited to a few countries, while frogs are everywhere. Conservation investors prefer tigers because they’re rare and admired. People fund tiger initiatives due to their likability. Gharials [ Gavialis gangeticus ] and Bengal floricans [ Houbaropsis bengalensis ] are more endangered than tigers, but they don’t receive as much attention or funding.

Mongabay: What’s the most encouraging development for researchers in Nepal?

Karan Bahadur Shah: The recognition researchers are getting is encouraging. Four people, including this year’s winner Raju Acharya, have won the Whitley Award. Other species like pangolins [ Pholidota ], red pandas [ Ailurus fulgens ] and owls are also getting global recognition, not just tigers.

Mongabay: Any final words?

Karan Bahadur Shah: Research in Nepal is changing rapidly, with more people engaging and bringing in international funds. But there’s a clear challenge in maintaining ethical practices and contributing quality research. We need to uphold the ethics we valued in the past. Technology evolves, but the fundamentals of research should remain constant.

Banner image: Two common male rat snakes in Chitwan National Park, Nepal. Image by ChillionaireRohitgiri via Wikimedia Commons ( CC BY-SA 4.0 ).

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OECD launches pilot to monitor application of G7 code of conduct on advanced AI development

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The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) announced a pilot phase to monitor the application of the Hiroshima Process International Code of Conduct for Organisations Developing Advanced AI Systems . This initiative will test a reporting framework intended to gather information about how organisations developing advanced artificial intelligence (AI) systems align with the Actions of the Code of Conduct and is a significant milestone under the G7's ongoing commitment to promoting safe, secure and trustworthy development, deployment and use of advanced AI systems.  

The G7 Hiroshima AI Process, launched in May 2023, delivered a Comprehensive Policy Framework that included several elements: the OECD’s report Towards a G7 Common Understanding of Generative AI , International Guiding Principles for All AI Actors and for Organisations Developing Advanced AI Systems, the International Code of Conduct for Organisations Developing Advanced AI Systems, and project-based co-operation on AI. Under Italy’s current G7 Presidency, G7 members have focused on advancing these outcomes.  

The pilot phase of the reporting framework, available until 6 September 2024, marks a critical first step towards establishing a robust monitoring mechanism for the Code of Conduct as called for by G7 Leaders . The draft reporting framework was designed with input from leading AI developers across G7 countries and supported by the G7 under the Italian Presidency. It includes a set of questions based on the Code of Conduct’s 11 Actions. A finalised reporting framework will facilitate transparency and comparability around measures to mitigate risks of advanced AI systems and contribute to identifying and disseminating good practices. 

Organisations developing advanced AI systems are welcome to participate in the pilot . Responses provided during this period will be used to refine and improve the reporting framework, with the aim of launching a final version later this year. A common framework could improve the comparability of information available to the public and simplify reporting for organisations operating in multiple jurisdictions. 

The OECD has been at the forefront of AI policy making since 2016. The OECD Recommendation on AI , adopted in 2019 as the first intergovernmental standard on AI and updated in 2024, serves as a global reference for AI policy. The OECD has a track record for global intergovernmental collaboration on an equal footing to tackle challenging public policy issues that transcend national borders. 

Media queries should be directed to Reemt Seibel in the OECD Media Office (+33 1 45 24 97 00). 

Working with over 100 countries, the OECD is a global policy forum that promotes policies to preserve individual liberty and improve the economic and social well-being of people around the world.