research methodology objectives pdf

• Methodology
• Research Methodology

Fundamentals of Research Methodology

• ISBN: 9788412064391

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Chapter – 1 Nature, Scope, Objectives and Methodology of Research

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• What Is a Research Methodology? | Steps & Tips

What Is a Research Methodology? | Steps & Tips

Published on August 25, 2022 by Shona McCombes and Tegan George. Revised on November 20, 2023.

Your research methodology discusses and explains the data collection and analysis methods you used in your research. A key part of your thesis, dissertation , or research paper , the methodology chapter explains what you did and how you did it, allowing readers to evaluate the reliability and validity of your research and your dissertation topic .

It should include:

• The type of research you conducted
• How you collected and analyzed your data
• Any tools or materials you used in the research
• How you mitigated or avoided research biases
• Why you chose these methods
• Your methodology section should generally be written in the past tense .
• Academic style guides in your field may provide detailed guidelines on what to include for different types of studies.
• Your citation style might provide guidelines for your methodology section (e.g., an APA Style methods section ).

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Table of contents

How to write a research methodology, why is a methods section important, step 1: explain your methodological approach, step 2: describe your data collection methods, step 3: describe your analysis method, step 4: evaluate and justify the methodological choices you made, tips for writing a strong methodology chapter, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about methodology.

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Your methods section is your opportunity to share how you conducted your research and why you chose the methods you chose. It’s also the place to show that your research was rigorously conducted and can be replicated .

It gives your research legitimacy and situates it within your field, and also gives your readers a place to refer to if they have any questions or critiques in other sections.

You can start by introducing your overall approach to your research. You have two options here.

Option 1: Start with your “what”

What research problem or question did you investigate?

• Aim to describe the characteristics of something?
• Explore an under-researched topic?
• Establish a causal relationship?

And what type of data did you need to achieve this aim?

• Quantitative data , qualitative data , or a mix of both?
• Primary data collected yourself, or secondary data collected by someone else?
• Experimental data gathered by controlling and manipulating variables, or descriptive data gathered via observations?

Option 2: Start with your “why”

Depending on your discipline, you can also start with a discussion of the rationale and assumptions underpinning your methodology. In other words, why did you choose these methods for your study?

• Why is this the best way to answer your research question?
• Is this a standard methodology in your field, or does it require justification?
• Were there any ethical considerations involved in your choices?
• What are the criteria for validity and reliability in this type of research ? How did you prevent bias from affecting your data?

Once you have introduced your reader to your methodological approach, you should share full details about your data collection methods .

Quantitative methods

In order to be considered generalizable, you should describe quantitative research methods in enough detail for another researcher to replicate your study.

Here, explain how you operationalized your concepts and measured your variables. Discuss your sampling method or inclusion and exclusion criteria , as well as any tools, procedures, and materials you used to gather your data.

Surveys Describe where, when, and how the survey was conducted.

• How did you design the questionnaire?
• What form did your questions take (e.g., multiple choice, Likert scale )?
• Were your surveys conducted in-person or virtually?
• What sampling method did you use to select participants?
• What was your sample size and response rate?

Experiments Share full details of the tools, techniques, and procedures you used to conduct your experiment.

• How did you design the experiment ?
• How did you recruit participants?
• How did you manipulate and measure the variables ?
• What tools did you use?

Existing data Explain how you gathered and selected the material (such as datasets or archival data) that you used in your analysis.

• Where did you source the material?
• How was the data originally produced?
• What criteria did you use to select material (e.g., date range)?

The survey consisted of 5 multiple-choice questions and 10 questions measured on a 7-point Likert scale.

The goal was to collect survey responses from 350 customers visiting the fitness apparel company’s brick-and-mortar location in Boston on July 4–8, 2022, between 11:00 and 15:00.

Here, a customer was defined as a person who had purchased a product from the company on the day they took the survey. Participants were given 5 minutes to fill in the survey anonymously. In total, 408 customers responded, but not all surveys were fully completed. Due to this, 371 survey results were included in the analysis.

• Information bias
• Omitted variable bias
• Regression to the mean
• Survivorship bias
• Undercoverage bias
• Sampling bias

Qualitative methods

In qualitative research , methods are often more flexible and subjective. For this reason, it’s crucial to robustly explain the methodology choices you made.

Be sure to discuss the criteria you used to select your data, the context in which your research was conducted, and the role you played in collecting your data (e.g., were you an active participant, or a passive observer?)

Interviews or focus groups Describe where, when, and how the interviews were conducted.

• How did you find and select participants?
• How many participants took part?
• What form did the interviews take ( structured , semi-structured , or unstructured )?
• How long were the interviews?
• How were they recorded?

Participant observation Describe where, when, and how you conducted the observation or ethnography .

• What group or community did you observe? How long did you spend there?
• How did you gain access to this group? What role did you play in the community?
• How long did you spend conducting the research? Where was it located?
• How did you record your data (e.g., audiovisual recordings, note-taking)?

Existing data Explain how you selected case study materials for your analysis.

• What type of materials did you analyze?
• How did you select them?

In order to gain better insight into possibilities for future improvement of the fitness store’s product range, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 8 returning customers.

Here, a returning customer was defined as someone who usually bought products at least twice a week from the store.

Surveys were used to select participants. Interviews were conducted in a small office next to the cash register and lasted approximately 20 minutes each. Answers were recorded by note-taking, and seven interviews were also filmed with consent. One interviewee preferred not to be filmed.

• The Hawthorne effect
• Observer bias
• The placebo effect
• Response bias and Nonresponse bias
• The Pygmalion effect
• Recall bias
• Social desirability bias
• Self-selection bias

Mixed methods

Mixed methods research combines quantitative and qualitative approaches. If a standalone quantitative or qualitative study is insufficient to answer your research question, mixed methods may be a good fit for you.

Mixed methods are less common than standalone analyses, largely because they require a great deal of effort to pull off successfully. If you choose to pursue mixed methods, it’s especially important to robustly justify your methods.

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Next, you should indicate how you processed and analyzed your data. Avoid going into too much detail: you should not start introducing or discussing any of your results at this stage.

In quantitative research , your analysis will be based on numbers. In your methods section, you can include:

• How you prepared the data before analyzing it (e.g., checking for missing data , removing outliers , transforming variables)
• Which software you used (e.g., SPSS, Stata or R)
• Which statistical tests you used (e.g., two-tailed t test , simple linear regression )

In qualitative research, your analysis will be based on language, images, and observations (often involving some form of textual analysis ).

Specific methods might include:

• Content analysis : Categorizing and discussing the meaning of words, phrases and sentences
• Thematic analysis : Coding and closely examining the data to identify broad themes and patterns
• Discourse analysis : Studying communication and meaning in relation to their social context

Mixed methods combine the above two research methods, integrating both qualitative and quantitative approaches into one coherent analytical process.

Above all, your methodology section should clearly make the case for why you chose the methods you did. This is especially true if you did not take the most standard approach to your topic. In this case, discuss why other methods were not suitable for your objectives, and show how this approach contributes new knowledge or understanding.

In any case, it should be overwhelmingly clear to your reader that you set yourself up for success in terms of your methodology’s design. Show how your methods should lead to results that are valid and reliable, while leaving the analysis of the meaning, importance, and relevance of your results for your discussion section .

• Quantitative: Lab-based experiments cannot always accurately simulate real-life situations and behaviors, but they are effective for testing causal relationships between variables .
• Qualitative: Unstructured interviews usually produce results that cannot be generalized beyond the sample group , but they provide a more in-depth understanding of participants’ perceptions, motivations, and emotions.
• Mixed methods: Despite issues systematically comparing differing types of data, a solely quantitative study would not sufficiently incorporate the lived experience of each participant, while a solely qualitative study would be insufficiently generalizable.

Remember that your aim is not just to describe your methods, but to show how and why you applied them. Again, it’s critical to demonstrate that your research was rigorously conducted and can be replicated.

1. Focus on your objectives and research questions

The methodology section should clearly show why your methods suit your objectives and convince the reader that you chose the best possible approach to answering your problem statement and research questions .

2. Cite relevant sources

Your methodology can be strengthened by referencing existing research in your field. This can help you to:

• Show that you followed established practice for your type of research
• Discuss how you decided on your approach by evaluating existing research
• Present a novel methodological approach to address a gap in the literature

3. Write for your audience

Consider how much information you need to give, and avoid getting too lengthy. If you are using methods that are standard for your discipline, you probably don’t need to give a lot of background or justification.

Regardless, your methodology should be a clear, well-structured text that makes an argument for your approach, not just a list of technical details and procedures.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Measures of central tendency
• Chi square tests
• Confidence interval
• Quartiles & Quantiles

Methodology

• Cluster sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Thematic analysis
• Cohort study
• Peer review
• Ethnography

Research bias

• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Conformity bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Availability heuristic
• Attrition bias

Methodology refers to the overarching strategy and rationale of your research project . It involves studying the methods used in your field and the theories or principles behind them, in order to develop an approach that matches your objectives.

Methods are the specific tools and procedures you use to collect and analyze data (for example, experiments, surveys , and statistical tests ).

In shorter scientific papers, where the aim is to report the findings of a specific study, you might simply describe what you did in a methods section .

In a longer or more complex research project, such as a thesis or dissertation , you will probably include a methodology section , where you explain your approach to answering the research questions and cite relevant sources to support your choice of methods.

In a scientific paper, the methodology always comes after the introduction and before the results , discussion and conclusion . The same basic structure also applies to a thesis, dissertation , or research proposal .

Depending on the length and type of document, you might also include a literature review or theoretical framework before the methodology.

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.

Reliability and validity are both about how well a method measures something:

• Reliability refers to the  consistency of a measure (whether the results can be reproduced under the same conditions).
• Validity   refers to the  accuracy of a measure (whether the results really do represent what they are supposed to measure).

If you are doing experimental research, you also have to consider the internal and external validity of your experiment.

A sample is a subset of individuals from a larger population . Sampling means selecting the group that you will actually collect data from in your research. For example, if you are researching the opinions of students in your university, you could survey a sample of 100 students.

In statistics, sampling allows you to test a hypothesis about the characteristics of a population.

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Research Methodology: An Introduction

• First Online: 31 March 2018

Cite this chapter

• Vida Davidavičienė 3  

Part of the book series: Progress in IS ((PROIS))

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Digital age brings the most dramatic changes in this study and research discipline as well as in other fields of human activities. Scientific research is known for a very long time, however in comparison with other research fields the business and management researches are a little bit younger. The information technologies and new research methodologies that have recently emerged, dramatically change the nature of the research. Therefore, researchers should be ready to absorb new possibilities and follow basic roles coming from earlier stages of the discipline. The intention of this chapter is to provide a brief introduction to those aspects of pertinent research to beginner researchers. The chapter presents the nature of scientific research so that it may be clearly understood and uses, as its basic approach, the fundamental principles of problem solving. The scope of the research provides an overviews the entire assumptions about reality, knowledge and human nature, key terms of theory and research presented. Main concepts of the research are discussed and all this is oriented to business, management and economic science specific.

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Davidavičienė, V. (2018). Research Methodology: An Introduction. In: Marx Gómez, J., Mouselli, S. (eds) Modernizing the Academic Teaching and Research Environment. Progress in IS. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-74173-4_1

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From Idea to Insight: A 7-Step Market Research Guide

• by Alice Ananian
• September 4, 2024

In today’s fast-paced business world, guesswork is a luxury no one can afford. Enter market research: your secret weapon for making bold, informed decisions that propel your business forward. Whether you’re an ambitious entrepreneur, a savvy small business owner, or a cutting-edge marketing professional, mastering the market research process is the key to unlocking unprecedented growth and staying ahead of the competition.

Ready to transform raw data into golden opportunities? This guide will walk you through seven essential steps that turn the complex art of market research into a streamlined, powerful tool for success. From defining laser-focused objectives to leveraging cutting-edge AI analysis, you’re about to embark on a journey that will reshape how you understand your market, your customers, and your business potential.

The 7-Step Market Research Process: An Overview

Before diving into the details, let’s take a quick look at the seven steps that comprise an effective market research process:

• Define Your Research Objectives
• Develop Your Research Plan
• Collect Relevant Data
• Analyze and Interpret the Data
• Present Your Findings
• Make Informed Decisions
• Monitor and Iterate

Following this structured approach ensures that your market research is comprehensive, focused, and yields valuable insights. It’s worth noting that modern tools, such as AI-powered market research platforms like Prelaunch.com’s AI Market Research feature , can significantly streamline this process, making it more efficient and accessible for businesses of all sizes.

Now, let’s explore each step in detail.

Step 1: Define Your Research Objectives

The first and perhaps most crucial step in the market research process is defining your research objectives. This step sets the foundation for your entire research effort and ensures that you’re asking the right questions to get the information you need.

Identifying the problem or opportunity

Start by clearly articulating the business problem you’re trying to solve or the opportunity you’re looking to explore. Are you considering launching a new product? Trying to understand why sales are declining? Or perhaps you’re looking to enter a new market? Clearly defining the issue at hand will help focus your research efforts.

Setting clear, measurable goals

Once you’ve identified the problem or opportunity, set specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART) goals for your research. For example, instead of a vague goal like “understand customer preferences,” you might set a goal to “identify the top three features that 70% of our target market considers essential in a new product within the next two months.”

Formulating research questions

Based on your goals, develop a set of research questions that will guide your data collection efforts. These questions should be specific and directly related to your objectives. For instance, if your goal is to understand customer preferences, you might ask questions like:

• What features do customers value most in similar products?
• How much are customers willing to pay for these features?
• What unmet needs exist in the current market?

By clearly defining your research objectives, you’ll ensure that your market research efforts are focused and yield the insights you need to make informed business decisions.

Step 2: Develop Your Research Plan

With your objectives clearly defined, the next step is to develop a comprehensive research plan. This plan will serve as your roadmap, outlining how you’ll gather the information needed to answer your research questions.

Choosing research methodologies

Decide whether qualitative research, quantitative research, or a combination of both will best serve your objectives:

• Qualitative research : This method explores the “why” and “how” of consumer behavior through in-depth interviews, focus groups, or observational studies. It’s excellent for gaining deep insights into customer motivations and perceptions.
• Quantitative research : This approach focuses on numerical data and statistical analysis. Surveys and polls are common quantitative methods that can provide measurable data on consumer preferences and behaviors.

Often, a mixed-method approach combining both qualitative and quantitative research can provide the most comprehensive insights.

Determining your target audience

Identify the specific group of people from whom you need to gather information. This could be based on demographics, psychographics, or behavioral characteristics. The more precisely you define your target audience, the more relevant and valuable your research findings will be.

Selecting appropriate data collection methods

Choose the most suitable methods for collecting data from your target audience. Some options include:

• Surveys (online, phone, or in-person)
• Interviews (structured or unstructured)
• Focus groups
• Observational studies
• Secondary data analysis

Consider factors such as cost, time constraints, and the type of information you need when selecting your methods. AI-powered tools like Prelaunch.com’s AI Market Research feature can be particularly helpful in this stage, offering efficient ways to gather and analyze data from various sources.

By developing a thorough research plan, you’ll ensure that your data collection efforts are efficient, targeted, and aligned with your research objectives.

Step 3: Collect Relevant Data

With your research plan in place, it’s time to gather the data that will form the basis of your insights. This step involves implementing the data collection methods you’ve chosen and ensuring that you’re gathering high-quality, relevant information.

Primary research methods

Primary research involves collecting original data directly from your target audience. This can include:

• Conducting surveys: Use online platforms, email, or in-person methods to gather quantitative data from a large sample of your target audience.
• Performing interviews: Engage in one-on-one conversations with key individuals to gain in-depth qualitative insights.
• Organizing focus groups : Bring together small groups of people to discuss your research topics in a moderated setting.
• Observational studies: Watch and record how people interact with products or services in real-world settings.

Secondary research sources

Secondary research involves analyzing existing data from various sources. This can be a cost-effective way to gather background information and supplement your primary research. Sources may include:

• Industry reports and market studies
• Government databases and publications
• Academic research papers
• Competitor websites and annual reports
• Trade association publications

Leveraging AI for efficient data collection

Modern AI-powered tools can significantly enhance your data collection efforts. These tools can:

• Automate the process of gathering and organizing secondary research data
• Analyze large datasets quickly to identify trends and patterns
• Generate survey questions based on your research objectives
• Provide real-time insights as data is collected

By leveraging both traditional methods and advanced AI tools, you can ensure that you’re collecting a comprehensive and diverse set of data to inform your market research.

Step 4: Analyze and Interpret the Data

Once you’ve collected your data, the next crucial step is to analyze and interpret it. This process involves transforming raw data into actionable insights that can guide your business decisions.

Data cleaning and preparation

Before analysis can begin, it’s essential to clean and prepare your data:

• Remove any duplicate or irrelevant entries
• Check for and correct any errors or inconsistencies
• Standardize data formats for easier analysis
• Organize data into a structure that facilitates analysis

Statistical analysis techniques

Depending on the type of data you’ve collected and your research objectives, you may employ various statistical analysis techniques :

• Descriptive statistics: Calculate means, medians, modes, and standard deviations to summarize your data.
• Inferential statistics: Use techniques like hypothesis testing and regression analysis to draw conclusions about larger populations based on your sample data.
• Correlation analysis: Identify relationships between different variables in your dataset.
• Segmentation analysis: Group your data into meaningful segments based on shared characteristics.

Identifying patterns and trends

As you analyze your data, look for patterns, trends, and insights that address your research objectives:

• Compare results across different demographic groups or market segments
• Identify common themes in qualitative data
• Look for unexpected or surprising findings that challenge your assumptions
• Consider how different data points relate to each other and what story they tell together

Remember that the goal of this step is not just to summarize data, but to derive meaningful insights that can inform your business strategy. Be open to unexpected findings and be prepared to dig deeper into areas that seem particularly relevant or intriguing.

Step 5: Present Your Findings

After analyzing your data, it’s time to communicate your findings effectively to stakeholders. The way you present your research can significantly impact how it’s received and acted upon.

Creating clear and visually appealing reports

• Organize your findings logically, starting with an executive summary of key insights
• Use charts, graphs, and infographics to visualize data and make it easier to understand
• Include relevant quotes or case studies from qualitative research to bring your data to life
• Ensure your report is well-structured with clear headings and subheadings

Tailoring presentations to different stakeholders

• Consider the specific interests and needs of your audience (e.g., executives, marketing team, product developers)
• Adjust the level of detail and technical language based on your audience’s expertise
• Focus on the findings most relevant to each stakeholder group

Highlighting key insights and actionable recommendations

• Clearly state the main takeaways from your research
• Connect your findings directly to your initial research objectives
• Provide specific, actionable recommendations based on your insights
• Include potential implications of your findings for different areas of the business

Remember, the goal is not just to share information, but to tell a compelling story with your data that motivates action and informs strategy.

Step 6: Make Informed Decisions

The true value of market research lies in its ability to inform better business decisions. This step is where you translate your research findings into strategic action.

Connecting research findings to business objectives

• Revisit your initial research objectives and evaluate how your findings address them
• Identify which insights are most critical for achieving your business goals
• Consider both the opportunities and potential risks highlighted by your research

Assessing risks and opportunities

• Use your research to evaluate the potential success of new products, services, or marketing strategies
• Identify potential obstacles or challenges that your research has uncovered
• Consider how your findings might impact different scenarios or future market conditions

Developing data-driven strategies

• Create action plans based on your research insights
• Set specific, measurable goals for implementing changes or new initiatives
• Assign responsibilities and timelines for acting on your research findings
• Ensure that all strategic decisions are directly supported by your research data

Remember that while your research should guide your decisions, it’s also important to balance data with experience, intuition, and other business considerations.

Step 7: Monitor and Iterate

The market research process doesn’t end with implementation. Continuous monitoring and iteration are crucial for long-term success.

Implementing decisions based on research

• Put your data-driven strategies into action
• Ensure that all team members understand the research findings and their role in implementing changes

Tracking results and KPIs

• Set up systems to monitor the impact of your decisions
• Track relevant key performance indicators (KPIs) that align with your research objectives
• Regularly review performance against your goals and expectations

Conducting follow-up research for continuous improvement

• Plan for periodic follow-up research to assess the effectiveness of your strategies
• Be prepared to adjust your approach based on new data and changing market conditions
• Consider implementing ongoing research methods, such as customer feedback loops or regular market surveys

By viewing market research as an ongoing process rather than a one-time event, you can ensure that your business remains agile and responsive to market changes.

Mastering the market research process is essential for making informed business decisions in today’s competitive landscape. By following these 7 steps – defining objectives, developing a plan, collecting data, analyzing results, presenting findings, making decisions, and monitoring outcomes – you can gain valuable insights that drive business growth and innovation.

As markets evolve and consumer preferences change, ongoing market research will be key to staying ahead. Embrace this process as a fundamental part of your business strategy, and you’ll be well-equipped to make decisions that resonate with your target audience and drive your business forward.

Alice Ananian

Alice has over 8 years experience as a strong communicator and creative thinker. She enjoys helping companies refine their branding, deepen their values, and reach their intended audiences through language.

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New study finds 'lengthened supersets' can lead to 43.3% more muscle growth

Get results with this newly studied, cutting-edge method

The methods

The results, the conclusion, what this means for us.

From DOMS to concentric and eccentric exercises , fitness lingo is a minefield. The latest terms to have gained attention? 'Stretch-mediated hypertrophy ' and 'long-length partials'. Nope, you haven't landed in a foreign country - these concepts are the topic of the moment for bodybuilders and evidence-based fitness influencers, as emerging research is shedding light on the benefits of training muscles at longer lengths for optimised muscle growth .

Now, a new pre-print study adds to this growing body of evidence, suggesting that training muscles in these extended positions could significantly enhance hypertrophy (i.e. muscle growth) without the need to completely overhaul your existing workout routine.

We break down how a simple tweak at the end of your sets could help you train past failure and maximise hypertrophy.

The study (pre print) conducted by Larsen et al investigated the effects of different training techniques on muscle hypertrophy, specifically focusing on the medial gastrocnemius muscle – a part of the calf . The main objective of the study was to determine whether performing Smith machine calf raises to dorsiflexion (with your foot in a backward bending position, toes flexed towards you) would lead to greater muscle hypertrophy compared to performing the same exercise to plantarflexion (pointing your foot downwards).

The researchers were interested in whether this extended (dorsiflexion) lengthened position during the calf raises would lead to greater muscle growth than the shortened (plantarflexion) position.

Lasting 12 weeks, the study followed a within participant design with 23 untrained men taking part:

• Each participant had their right and left limb randomly allocated to one of two conditions: momentary failure (complete muscular failure) reached in peak plantarflexion range of motion, or volitional failure (no motivation to finish set) reached in peak dorsiflexion range of motion.
• All participants performed standing calf raises using a Smith machine with an individualised range of motion.
• One familiarisation session was performed to introduce the participants to the techniques.
• Between weeks 2 and 5, participants trained each leg with 3 sets per workout. In weeks 6 to 11, all participants performed 4 sets during each workout.
• During the pre- and post- training analysis sessions, medial gastrocnemius (calf) muscle thickness was assessed via ultrasonography.

In this study, participants performing Smith machine calf raises to dorsiflexion lifted their toes upward toward their shins while lowering their heels. This movement lengthens the calf muscle, resulting in a deeper stretch compared to the plantarflexed position, where the toes are pushed downward and the heel is raised off the ground

The results of the study revealed a significant difference between the two training techniques. The group that performed calf raises to dorsiflexion experienced greater increases in muscle thickness of the calf compared to the group that performed calf raises to plantarflexion.

The stretched position led to 43.3% greater relative muscle growth in the medial gastrocnemius.

The researchers concluded that calf muscle hypertrophy was greater when Smith machine calf raises were performed to dorsiflexion compared with plantarflexion. When the goal is to increase calf muscle hypertrophy, they suggest performing Smith machine calf raises in peak dorsiflexion.

This is another compelling study supporting the efficacy of long-length partial reps or training muscles in the lengthened position for muscle growth. So, if the evidence is clear that we should be using lengthened supersets to gain more muscle, how do we do them?

While it's not a traditional superset, according to an Instagram post from one of the researchers, Dr. Milo Wolf : 'You can do a regular set with full ROM until you reach the target RPE . Then, without rest, do another set to the target RPE — but only do the more lengthened half or so of the full range of motion. Make sure you accurately assess range of motion during the second set, or you might push too hard.'

This could look like:

• Performing all your sets of calf raises to full range of motion.
• When you get to failure, or close to, perform partial reps of the exercise.
• This means you perform the bottom half of calf raises to, or close to failure.

Dr. Wolf adds that, 'out of all the techniques [e.g pre-exhaust, regular supersets, etc.] I think this one has the potential to be one of the best ones. I’d surmise that it would be most helpful for body parts that usually don’t get trained very well in the lengthened positions [back, biceps and side/rear delts jump to mind].'

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Kate is a fitness writer for Men’s Health UK where she contributes regular workouts, training tips and nutrition guides. She has a post graduate diploma in Sports Performance Nutrition and before joining Men’s Health she was a nutritionist, fitness writer and personal trainer with over 5k hours coaching on the gym floor. Kate has a keen interest in volunteering for animal shelters and when she isn’t lifting weights in her garden, she can be found walking her rescue dog.

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Positive energy districts: fundamentals, assessment methodologies, modeling and research gaps.

1. Introduction

State of the art on positive energy districts, 2. methodology.

• Setting: a café-like environment with small, round tables, tablecloths, colored pens, sticky notes and any interaction tool available.
• Welcome and Introduction: the host offers a welcome, introduces the World Café process, and sets the context.
• Small-Group Rounds: three or more twenty-minute rounds of conversations occur in small groups. Participants switch tables after each round, with one person optionally remaining as the “table host” to brief newcomers.
• Questions: each round starts with a context-specific question. Questions may remain constant or be built upon each other to guide the discussion.
• Harvest: participants share their discussion insights with the larger group, often visually represented through graphic recording.
• Objectives of the workshop and preparation. The first step of the World Café approach is to identify the main objectives. For this workshop, there was the need to investigate the current landscape of PED research, as well as to have a benchmark and collect feedback on the current research activities within Annex 83. Questions were structured in order to frame the current state-of-the-art understanding of the topic. A mapping of the potential different stakeholders in the PED design and implementation process was carried out at this stage. As a result, municipalities, community representatives, energy contractors, real estate companies and commercial facilitators, as well as citizens, were identified as main target groups. Later, the follow-up discussions were built around these main actors. Further, the mapping of the stakeholders’ involvement was carried out for better understanding the complexity of relationships, roles and synergies as well as the impact on the design, implementation and operation stages of PEDs.
• Positive Energy Districts’ definitions and fundamentals ( Section 3.1 ).
• Quality-of-life indicators in Positive Energy Districts ( Section 3.2 ).
• Technologies in Positive Energy Districts: development, use and barriers ( Section 3.3 ).
• Positive Energy Districts modeling: what is further needed to model PEDs? ( Section 3.4 ).
• Sustainability assessment of Positive Energy Districts ( Section 3.5 ).
• Stakeholder engagement within the design process ( Section 3.6 ).
• Tools and guidelines for PED implementation ( Section 3.7 ).

3.1. Positive Energy Districts Definitions and Fundamentals

3.2. quality-of-life indicators in positive energy districts, 3.3. technologies in positive energy districts: development, use and barriers, 3.4. positive energy districts modeling: what is further needed to model peds, 3.5. sustainability assessment of positive energy districts, 3.6. stakeholder engagement within the design process, 3.7. tools and guidelines for ped implementation, 4. conclusions, author contributions, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

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Kozlowska, A.; Guarino, F.; Volpe, R.; Bisello, A.; Gabaldòn, A.; Rezaei, A.; Albert-Seifried, V.; Alpagut, B.; Vandevyvere, H.; Reda, F.; et al. Positive Energy Districts: Fundamentals, Assessment Methodologies, Modeling and Research Gaps. Energies 2024 , 17 , 4425. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17174425

Kozlowska A, Guarino F, Volpe R, Bisello A, Gabaldòn A, Rezaei A, Albert-Seifried V, Alpagut B, Vandevyvere H, Reda F, et al. Positive Energy Districts: Fundamentals, Assessment Methodologies, Modeling and Research Gaps. Energies . 2024; 17(17):4425. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17174425

Kozlowska, Anna, Francesco Guarino, Rosaria Volpe, Adriano Bisello, Andrea Gabaldòn, Abolfazl Rezaei, Vicky Albert-Seifried, Beril Alpagut, Han Vandevyvere, Francesco Reda, and et al. 2024. "Positive Energy Districts: Fundamentals, Assessment Methodologies, Modeling and Research Gaps" Energies 17, no. 17: 4425. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17174425

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• Published: 02 September 2024

Propaganda in focus: decoding the media strategy of ISIS

• Yuanbo Qi   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9541-8220 1  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  11 , Article number:  1123 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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• Cultural and media studies
• Politics and international relations

This investigation employs the analytical framework established by Braddock and Horgan to conduct a comprehensive content analysis of 79 official English-language propaganda videos disseminated by ISIS, with the objective of quantifying the thematic composition and the evolutionary trajectory of ISIS’s international media operations and propaganda machinery from 2014 to 2017. The findings reveal that a predominant portion of the videos articulate narratives extensively centred around themes of the adversary and religious discourse, with the Sharia (Islamic law) emerging as the most prevalent theme. This research concludes that at a global scale, the propaganda apparatus of ISIS has orchestrated an intricate narrative, incorporating adversarial, theological, and emotional elements, thereby delineating the advanced sophistication of ISIS’s global propaganda endeavours.

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Introduction.

Between 2014 and 2017, pivotal years in the trajectory of the Islamic State (ISIS), the group witnessed a meteoric rise and subsequent decline in territorial control (al-Lami, 2019 ; Barnard and Saad, 2017 ; Chulov, 2019 ; Curry, 2014a ; Damon et al. 2017 ; Gilsinan, 2014 ; Phippen, 2017 ). Throughout this period, ISIS strategically utilised media, particularly through its official English-language videos, to propagate its message worldwide. Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi’s proclamation of a caliphate at Mosul’s al-Nuri Mosque marked a significant milestone for ISIS, symbolically hearkening back to a perceived Islamic golden age and galvanising Muslims to join their cause (al-Lami, 2019 ; Chulov, 2019 ). The extreme measures employed by the group, along with the global military response, accentuated the multifaceted nature of contemporary extremist movements (Curry, 2014b ; Gilsinan, 2014 ; Malik, 2014b ).

Understanding ISIS’s media strategy is a vital piece of the puzzle in the broader fight against global terrorism. The English-language videos produced by ISIS from 2014 to 2017 underscore not just the group’s media acumen but also their ideological engagement with a global audience. These videos aimed to intimidate adversaries, recruit sympathisers, and affirm the group’s narrative, showcasing a new dimension of digital terrorism that manipulates psychological, rhetorical, and theological elements to wield influence (Dearden, 2015 ).

This study examines ISIS’s video propaganda to decode its key narratives, rhetoric device, and implications for counter narratives. The increased reliance of ISIS on propaganda as their territorial grasp expanded underscores the imperative to scrutinise and interpret their communicative strategies. By delving into the content of these videos, this research seeks insights into how ISIS’s messaging evolved in response to military setbacks, territorial losses, and shifts in the geopolitical landscape.

This enquiry is of paramount importance for scholarly exploration and practical counter-terrorism measures. Recognising the patterns, themes, and shifts in ISIS’s propagated content enables security analysts and policymakers to anticipate and counteract the tactics of ISIS and similar entities. The insight derived from this study has the potential to inform counter-narratives and deconstruct extremist messaging strategies, thus curtailing the reach and impact of jihadist propaganda on a global scale (Gerges, 2019 ).

The confines of this study are set strictly within the official English-language video propaganda disseminated by ISIS from 2014 to 2017, a period marking the zenith of the group’s influence (al-Lami, 2019 ; Barnard and Saad, 2017 ; Chulov, 2019 ; Curry, 2014a ; Damon et al. 2017 ; Gilsinan, 2014 ; Phippen, 2017 ), thus permitting an analysis of its narrative amidst changing geopolitical realities. By focusing solely on these materials, the research delves into the intricacies of ISIS’s marketing strategies and the ideological underpinnings aimed at a global, primarily English-speaking, audience. The study’s deliberate temporal and linguistic boundaries enable a concentrated examination of the group’s communication tactics during a critical juncture of its existence. The study posits the following specific inquiries:

What intrinsic narrative motifs emerge with the greatest prominence in the videos?

The lens of the videos’ intrinsic narratives, in what manner is the worldview inherent to ISIS ideology articulated and represented?

How does the thematic distribution within these videos reflect an evolution or transformation in the period from 2014 to 2017, and what does this shift signify about ISIS media strategy?

A thorough examination of the corpus of research reveals a trend of tactical and thematic complexity in ISIS’s English-language propaganda (Colas, 2017 ; Winter, 2015 ; Winter, 2018 ). First, many studies do not differentiate their examination of ISIS propaganda between Arabic and English-language content, thereby overlooking the group’s nuanced and targeted messaging aimed at reaching a global audience (Abrahms et al. 2017 ; Fisher, 2015 ; Lakomy, 2021a , 2021b ; Salem et al. 2008 ). Assessments like those by Qi ( 2020a , 2020b ) focus on English-language propaganda, primarily highlighting production aspects or performed speech acts without exploring the thematic richness of the content (Colas, 2017 ). Secondly, there is a lack of studies documenting how these themes have evolved in response to the group’s changing circumstances and the global environment. The thematic evolution within the English text remains unexplored (Al-Rawi, 2018 ; Colas, 2017 ; Fisher, 2015 ; Kuznar, 2017 ; Qi, 2020b ; Winter, 2018 ). By providing a detailed study of the themes and substance found in ISIS’s English-language videos, this research bridges the gaps by analysing how these videos have changed to reflect global dynamics and the group circumstances. This study narrows its focus to provide a necessary perspective on ISIS’s strategic use of English-language materials aimed at global audiences, highlighting the specificity of their media strategy and deliberate use of language in terrorist propaganda.

Literature review

The evolution of isis media strategy and its historical context.

ISIS, also known as the Islamic State, surged to global prominence under the leadership of Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, who proclaimed a caliphate in 2014, with the ambition of restoring what they considered the golden age of Islam and calling for global Jihad (al-Lami, 2019 ; Chulov, 2019 ). This group quickly gained infamy for its brutal tactics, including the persecution of minorities and conducting high-profile terror attacks, while seizing vast territories in Syria and Iraq (Curry, 2014b ; Gilsinan, 2014 ; Malik, 2014a , 2014b ). By 2017, concerted military efforts significantly diminished ISIS’s territorial control, leading to the loss of their critical strongholds, Mosul and Raqqa (Barnard and Saad, 2017 ; Chulov, 2019 ; Damon et al. 2017 ; Phippen, 2017 ). Despite their territorial defeat and the declaration of the caliphate’s end in 2019, ISIS continues to represent a threat through dispersed networks and sleeper cells globally (Forrest, 2019 ). For instance, nearly a decade after the 2015 terror attacks in Paris, an ISIS affiliate, known as the Islamic State Khorasan Province (ISIS-Khorasan), claimed responsibility for a devastating attack at the Crocus City concert hall in Moscow, which killed 137 people in 2024 (Roth and Sauer, 2024 ; Schmitt, 2024 ). The persistence of the group’s radical ideology suggests that, without addressing the root causes of its emergence, the potential for resurgence remains (Gerges, 2019 ). The transformation of ISIS into a more diffuse entity, which inspires global violence through its propaganda, underscores the enduring challenge of neutralising its impact (al-Lami, 2019 ; Votel et al. 2017 ).

ISIS’s media strategy has a complex history that has developed over time due to strategic adjustments and technology breakthroughs (Gerges, 2016 ). ISIS has recognised the power of the media from the beginning, using it as a recruiting tool and a psychological warfare weapon (Atwan, 2015 ). Their activities at first resembled conventional jihadist communication channels, but they quickly changed into an advanced media machine that made use of social media and excellent video production.

ISIS propagandised mostly in Arabic in the phases, focusing on the local populace as well as the larger Middle East. There was a noticeable change, though, as the group looked to broaden its international appeal and attract members from Western nations. The group’s magazine “Dabiq,” and subsequently “Rumiyah,” as well as a number of videos meant for Western audiences, signalled the appearance of English-language material (Milton, 2020 ). The deliberate change in strategy to add English-language content indicated that the campaign was intended to be multinational.

In addition to being linguistic, the shift from local to international media was both thematic and stylistic. In their analysis of the narrative structures and cinematic devices used in these videos, Venkatesh et al. ( 2020 ) highlight how the “Cinemas of Attraction” and “Pornography of violence” models were created with the intention of shocking as well as attracting viewers. Meanwhile, Sweeney et al. ( 2020 ) emphasised the positive relationship that exists between ISIS’s ability to govern territory and the complexity of the media that it produces, directly connecting the group’s perceived legitimacy and power to the calibre of its output.

ISIS media strategy analyses have changed in tandem with the group’s output. According to Kruglova ( 2020 ), ISIS propaganda utilised narrative advertising by appropriating marketing research, especially on social media platforms. This change is especially significant in light of the group’s deliberate use of stories to elicit strong feelings from the audience; these stories are made much more engaging when they are told in the language of the intended audience. Furthermore, an examination of how the group’s employment of cutting-edge tactics, such as drone images, improved the perceived power and legitimacy of the ISIS brand in these propaganda operations was presented (Archambault and Veilleux-Lepage, 2020 ).

A crucial element in the development of ISIS’s tactics is the interaction between the medium and message content. Toguslu ( 2019 ) examined the ways in which ISIS propaganda—particularly that seen in their magazines—constructs and presents storylines to support their ideology. ISIS’s media activities have seen a substantial metamorphosis with the conversion of these tales into video format and English translation (Fisher, 2015 ). These kinds of materials aim to appeal to Western audiences, frequently imitating Western media styles to give the propaganda a more recognisable sentiment (Qi and He, 2023 ).

The development of ISIS’s media strategy demonstrates a purposeful and strategic shift from local Arabic material to a more inclusive, wider media strategy that aims to interact with English-speaking viewers. This shift highlights how terrorist organisations are adaptable in the digital era and emphasises how crucial it is to thoroughly examine their media outputs to comprehend their influence and reach. Even if they are comprehensive, the earlier studies on ISIS’s media tactics have gaps that need for more research, especially when it comes to the topic of English-language video propaganda and its peculiar characteristics (Cottee and Cunliffe, 2020 ). Comprehending this evolutionary process is essential to crafting counter-narrative tactics and reducing the group’s impact on vulnerable English-speaking communities.

ISIS Propaganda’s thematic and tactical development

The tactical strategies and subject matter of ISIS’s English-language propaganda videos evolved significantly as their media apparatus grew (Winter, 2015 ). After analysing these themes, academics found recurring themes including victimisation, cruelty, utopianism, martyrdom, and apocalypse, all of which were intended to accomplish certain tactical goals (Johnston, 2022 ; Lakomy, 2020 ; Price and Mooney, 2022 ; Winter, 2015 ).

Early examination of the content of ISIS revealed a duality between images of horror and utopia—a dualism meant to arouse and terrify. The contrast of violent activities against the backdrop of an Islamic utopia promised was noticed by Venkatesh et al. ( 2020 ). ‘Cinematic charms’ combined with pictures of a dreamy caliphate lifestyle were intended to justify violence by painting it as a means of achieving a holy purpose.

In their investigation of the “Theatre of Terror,” Sweeney et al. ( 2020 ) and Qi ( 2020b ) contended that the staged violence in ISIS films was a deliberate strategy to represent authority and engender terror rather than being merely for spectacular. According to their study, those videos demonstrated the group’s ability to avenge its adversaries and were an example of a low-cost, high-effect tactic that maximised the symbolic value of violence and self-justification.

This topic was expanded upon by Kruglova ( 2020 ) to include the marketing-like techniques employed in these videos. She emphasised how skilled ISIS is at using social media as a platform to attract and radicalise potential recruits by creating narratives that play on emotions and identity. ISIS was able to connect with a larger audience by using English to tell a compelling tale that spoke to the needs and grievances of those who were remote from the fighting.

Milton ( 2020 ) looked into another facet of ISIS’s propaganda, which involved the deliberate manipulation of pictures. Using a dataset of 1700 ISIS images, he concluded that violent images, especially those of adversaries, greatly boosted attention. In addition to showcasing the group’s military might, the carefully chosen video also showed ISIS government and everyday life, appealing to viewers’ feeling of order and community.

With time, there was a noticeable change in the quality of ISIS propaganda—from widely circulated messages to more specialised information. In their audience perception research, Cottee and Cunliffe ( 2020 ) brought to light ISIS’s acute comprehension of its Western audience. ISIS’s English-language videos were an effective recruiting tool because they were crafted with tales that spoke to certain frustrations or ideological inclinations.

Qi and He ( 2023 ) has conducted an evaluation of English-language videos with an emphasis on their production and semantic attributes. These studies provide insight into how the videos’ production value and thematic distribution strategies have changed over time, despite criticism for their cursory presentation of the subject matter. This kind of study is essential to comprehending how, despite its military decline on the ground, ISIS managed to stay relevant and active in the digital sphere.

By concentrating on the performative element of ISIS narratives, Toguslu ( 2019 ) exposed the group’s deft use of religious texts to justify its crimes. ISIS attempted to provide its supporters with a spiritual purpose and a theological rationale for their atrocities by utilising passages from the Quran and Hadith in their propaganda.

ISIS propaganda’s thematic and tactical growth demonstrates a deliberate progression that aims to shock and persuade. By skilfully utilising English-language videos, the group was able to reach a wider audience and have a more profound effect, appealing to deeper themes of identity, religion, and political grievances than the surface-level appeal of violence. Therefore, analysing these advancements offers crucial insights into the workings of contemporary terrorist propaganda and serves as a foundation for developing potent counterstrategies.

Theoretical framework

In this study, we adopt the theoretical framework of content analysis as outlined by Braddock and Horgan ( 2016 ), which serves as a methodological cornerstone for dissecting the narratives utilised by extremist groups like ISIS. This framework builds upon the understanding that these groups use specific communicative strategies, including narratives imbued with extremist ideologies, values, and beliefs, to achieve strategic objectives and potentially foster radicalisation (Braddock and Horgan, 2016 ; Braddock and Dillard, 2016 ). The persuasive power of extremist media, and its role in radicalisation, has been acknowledged in various studies (Horgan, 2014 ; Jackson, 2007 ), highlighting the urgency of crafting counter-narratives based on a profound understanding of terrorist narratives.

Braddock and Horgan ( 2016 ) advocate for content analysis as a pivotal tool for this endeavour, enabling researchers to identify themes central to an extremist group’s ideology through a detailed examination of their media productions. Their proposed method includes both quantitative assessments of overt message characteristics and a more nuanced thematic analysis aimed at uncovering underlying values, views, and ideologies (Krippendorff, 2012 ). This approach facilitates the recognition of patterns within texts, serving as a crucial step in understanding extremist narratives.

Following the analytic procedures suggested by Braddock and Horgan ( 2016 , pp. 387–388), our study undertakes a systematic exploration of ISIS and other jihadi groups’ narratives. This involves multiple readings of the narratives to grasp their theme, style, and meaning; generating and consolidating codes that reflect the terrorist group’s ideology; sorting codes into overarching themes to identify higher-order concepts; and quantifying these thematic elements to ascertain the most prevalent themes. Such a structured analysis allows for a comprehensive understanding of the narratives, supported by a pilot-coding to ensure objectivity (Boyatzis and E, 1995 ; Patton, 2002 ).

Sampling rationale

Since there has been a substantial quantity of ISIS media production (Atwan, 2015 ; Colas, 2016a ; Cottee, 2015 ; Stern and Berger, 2016 ; Winkler et al. 2016 ; Winter, 2015 ; Zelin, 2015 ), there must be a feasible solution for sampling the data into a manageable corpus (Colas, 2016a ). Through the existing literature, it is observable that, first, studies have largely focused on the written texts, even though empirical studies on ISIS media output have clearly shown that ISIS relies more on visual propaganda than on written propaganda (Zelin, 2015 ). Second, the corpus might need to vary chronologically in terms of release dates to comprehend the evolution and changing dynamics of ISIS media in response to real-world events (Kuznar, 2017 ). Third, English is the second most commonly used language next to Arabic in ISIS propaganda and is the most commonly used foreign language (Fisher, 2015 ). Finally, in its intentional use of such a worldwide, accessible language, the official English-language video, from the organisation’s perspective, represents ISIS’s global ambitions and central strategies. This, in turn, sheds light upon ISIS’s worldview, how ISIS sees itself, and how ISIS wishes to be seen (Colas, 2016a ; Fisher, 2015 ). Ultimately, this fourfold rationale that leads to the sampling criteria sharpens data into a manageable size while remaining quantifiable and comparable with others’ studies of ISIS media production, leading to a more comprehensive, if counter-intuitive, study.

Sampling criteria

The 79 official English-language videos from ISIS were selected based on the following criteria: (1) timing: the video productions must have been released from April 2014 to July 2017, a timeframe that fully captures the Fall and the Liberation of Mosul (10 June 2014–10 July 2017), which symbolises the geographic controllability and territorial power of ISIS (Burke, 2017 ; Forrest, 2019 ; Gamal-Gabriel and Dunlop, 2017 ); (2) language: the video must either be narrated in English or have subtitles in English; (3) sources [for selecting those that represent official ISIS material]: the video productions must be from official ISIS media centres or from provincial-level centres accredited by official media centres. The criteria were implemented to collect English-narrated/subtitled videos released within the established time period that were produced/recognised by the official media centres at al-Hayat , al-Furqan , and al-I’tisam (Barr and Herfroy-Mischler, 2017 ; Zelin, 2015 ). To ensure that the English-language used in the videos released from provincial media centres was officially authorised by ISIS, as opposed to being a private translating effort from pro-ISIS supporters, the videos must have been promoted by the video series Selected 10 and Featured 3 , both of which represent or highlight periodic exaltations of exemplary provincial videos productions by al-Hayat media centre.

The criteria of timing in this study might be worth particular attention to further clarify. The designation of 2014 to 2017 as the peak period of ISIS activities is substantiated by a detailed examination of their territorial control and pivotal events, with a significant focus on the strategic city of Mosul. This era marks ISIS’s swift territorial expansion, reaching its apogee in 2014, characterised by the capture of Mosul, a major urban centre that symbolised their operational and administrative capabilities (Chulov, 2019 ; Curry, 2014b ; Gilsinan, 2014 ). The occupation of Mosul not only demonstrated ISIS’s military prowess but also established a geographical and ideological centre for the caliphate (al-Lami, 2019 ; Boffey and Jalabi, 2014 ; Dearden, 2014 ).

The subsequent decline of ISIS, leading to the liberation of Mosul in July 2017, underscores the importance of this timeframe. The battle for Mosul, which began in October 2016, represented a turning point in the international effort to dismantle ISIS’s territorial hold, highlighting a concerted counter-terrorism strategy that significantly diminished their control and influence (Barnard and Saad, 2017 ; Chulov, 2019 ; Damon et al. 2017 ; Phippen, 2017 )). The liberation of Mosul is widely regarded as a critical indicator of ISIS’s waning power, marking the end of their most significant territorial possession (Burke, 2017 ; Forrest, 2019 ).

Given these considerations, the period between 2014 and 2017 is selected as the focal point of this study, reflecting the zenith and subsequent reduction of ISIS’s territorial and operational command. This timeframe is crucial for understanding the dynamics of ISIS’s rise and fall, providing a comprehensive overview of their impact and the global response to their activities (Burke, 2017 ; Forrest, 2019 ).

Data collection

It is worth noting the distinction between the period of data collection (October 2015 to August 2017) and the video release date criteria (April 2014 to July 2017) for the sake of clarity. This study collected data between 1 October 2015, and 1 August 2017, leveraging Jihadology.net , a renowned repository for jihadi primary materials. During this period, MP4 files of ISIS videos were gathered from digital archives curated by scholars. The collection prioritised anonymity in sourcing to safeguard security while ensuring the authenticity and reliability of the data through cross-verification. Among a broad dataset of 1025 videos, 79 official English-language ISIS videos were chosen based on stringent criteria. Empirical evidence supports data collection via digital media, establishing them as promising research channels for the social sciences (Okereka et al. 2024 ).

Analytical procedure

Extremist organisations use varied communication strategies, including crafting narratives to embed ideologies and values (Braddock and Horgan, 2016 ). The effectiveness of these media in radicalisation is debated. Certain studies suggest narrative exposure can be persuasive, while others see no consistent link (Hong and Park, 2012 ; Peracchio and Meyers-Levy, 1997 ). However, it’s recognised that extremist narratives might potentially lead to radicalisation (Horgan, 2014 ).

Braddock and Horgan focus on developing counter-narratives to extremist ideologies. Understanding terrorist narratives is crucial for crafting effective counter-narratives and strategic communication to prevent radicalisation. These narratives, complex in ideological and emotional content, fulfil several roles: identity, justification for violence, and presenting a skewed reality that influences behaviour. Dissecting them is key to understanding their resonance and potential to foster extremist ideologies.

Development of the coding instrument

The initial phase of the analytical process was the development and enhancement of the coding scheme, which serves as the backbone for thematic analysis. This began with the construction of a provisional list of codes, which are essentially interpretative tags assigned to segments of the meaningful organisations within the videos. These segments to which the codes are applied could vary in length, thereby providing the flexibility to code discrete elements or broader sections of the narrative as necessary.

The analyst used their expertise and preliminary observations to form an initial list of themes present in the videos. This list was dynamically refined to align with established thematic frameworks in extremist propaganda research, ensuring a scholarly foundation for the coding instrument.

Relevant literature, including works by Winter ( 2015 ), Pelletier et al. ( 2016 ), and Gråtrud ( 2016 ), contributed established thematic codes to the analysis. This comparative approach refined the coding list, eliminating redundancy and ensuring a robust, comprehensive coding structure.

The analysis then shifted to a quantitative phase, systematically applying the refined codes to the video narratives. This quantification measured the frequency and prominence of themes, providing empirical insights into ISIS’s strategic messaging priorities during the study period. This approach moved the analysis beyond subjective interpretation towards a data-driven understanding of the thematic content in the ISIS videos.

Application of codes and content analysis

The analytical stage for examining ISIS videos involved a detailed and systematic coding process. The analyst analysed 79 videos, totalling 915 min, by breaking them down into one-minute increments, resulting in 915 distinct units for granular analysis.

Each minute unit was scrutinised using a set of thematic codes, identifying, and recording occurrences of specific themes, termed ‘segments.’ This led to the cataloguing of 799 segments of varying lengths. The prevalence of themes was assessed by calculating the cumulative duration of these segments, quantifying both the frequency and the temporal span of themes in the dataset. The total duration of all segments was 1707 units. Themes with a significance level of 0.06 or higher, roughly equivalent to 100 units or more, were considered substantially prevalent.

Additionally, the analysis explored the ‘asymmetric nature’ of ISIS media operations. This involved using the SKEW function, a statistical measure of distribution asymmetry, to understand the uneven thematic distribution over time, highlighting the dynamic nature of ISIS’s propaganda focus.

The outcome was a comprehensive thematic overview, showing both the frequency and variability of themes in ISIS’s video propaganda. The results were then visually represented in tables and graphs for clearer interpretation and discussion. At the conclusion of this rigorous process, the analyst had at their disposal a comprehensive list of themes, along with detailed insights into the frequency and changing patterns of these themes within ISIS’s video propaganda. The findings from this stage of analysis were then translated into tables and graphs, which facilitated a clear visual representation of the data, allowing for more accessible interpretation and discussion of the results.

Inter-coder reliability

The methodology for analysing ISIS video narratives involved enhancing reliability through an independent expert coder’s review, aligning with Schreier’s ( 2012 ) conflict resolution guidelines. The initial thematic categorisation has been scrutinised to ensure balanced and accurate coding. Braddock and Dillard’s ( 2016 ) methodical evaluation approach guided the determination of theme presence, with coder reviews forming the basis of final decisions.

To verify coding consistency, a pilot test aimed for at least 0.80 inter-coder reliability, following Cohen’s ( 1960 ) benchmark for high reliability. This standard reduces subjective bias, ensuring systematic and replicable coding. After pilot testing and discussions, two significant coding instrument revisions were made, leading to a final list of 26 thematic codes. This process established the credibility and rigour of the analysis.

The research includes three appendices in its online archive for transparency and replication. Appendix 1 details the data collection sources, Appendix 2 presents the final 26 thematic codes, and Appendix 3 contains example tables showing segment cataloguing and duration calculations. These appendices underpin the methodology and analysis, offering detailed insights into the study’s mechanics and coding process.

Thematic dissection of ISIS propaganda: enemy, religious, and emotive narratives

Figure 1 in the study categorises primary narratives in ISIS’s English-language videos into three groups: enemy, religious, and emotive, based on 26 thematic elements.

This figure presents the statistical compositions of the narratives identified in ISIS English-language videos, detailing the specific prevalence of each associated theme.

Figure 2 shows the ‘enemy’ narrative, comprising 40.83% of the content, focuses mainly on portraying ISIS at war (9.02%), captives confessing ‘sins’ (7.26%), and depicting the West as aggressive and oppressive (6.09%). It also highlights Western failures (4.22%) and alliances against ISIS (2.69%), with lesser emphasis on terror attacks (1.52%) and domestic vice and punishment (1.17%).

This figure illustrates the statistical thematic distribution of the enemy narrative within ISIS English-language videos, showing the relative frequency of each theme.

Figure 3 indicates the ‘religious’ narrative forms a substantial portion, led by themes of Sharia law enforcement (9.31%). Other key themes include incitement for jihad (6.39%), Islamic references (6.27%), and calls for emigration (4.16%). Lesser themes include allegiance to the leader (1.29%) and apocalypse (1.05%).

This figure shows the statistical thematic distribution of the religious narrative in ISIS English-language videos, highlighting the prevalence of each associated theme.

Figure 4 signifies the ‘emotive’ narrative, at 21.15%, highlights ‘happiness’ living within ISIS territory (5.74%) and victories at battlefield (4.98%). It also covers martyrdom and Muslim suffering (3.81%; 2.46%; 2.05%), with infrequent mentions of restoring honour of Islam (1.23%) or feelings of humiliation (0.88%).

This figure depicts the statistical thematic distribution of the emotive narrative in ISIS English-language videos, indicating the frequency of different themes.

Prevalent themes in ISIS propaganda: a detailed thematic breakdown

In the detailed analysis of ISIS English-language videos, ‘sharia and governance’ was the most prevalent theme, accounting for 9.31% of the content. This was followed by ‘combat’ (9.02%), ‘captives and confession’ (7.26%), ‘jihad’ (6.39%), ‘support from Quran and Sunnah’ (6.27%), and ‘Western malevolence’ (6.09%). Other notable themes included ‘happiness and wellbeing’ (5.74%), ‘strength and victory’ (4.98%), and ‘execution’ (4.45%).

Figure 5 in the study ranks these 26 themes based on their segment duration in the video corpus. Themes with a significance level of 0.06 or higher, such as ‘sharia and governance’, ‘combat’, and ‘captives and confession’, are highlighted, indicating their central role in ISIS propaganda.

This figure ranks the prevalence of 26 individual themes according to the total duration of segments in 79 ISIS English-language videos, presenting the relative importance of each theme.

Temporal shifts in ISIS narrative focus: analysing the stability of thematic content

The temporal analysis of ISIS English-language videos from 2014 to 2017 reveals fluctuating narrative themes, with six—‘vice and punishment’, ‘terror attack’, ‘apocalypse and prophecy’, ‘support from scholars’, ‘combat’, and ‘obedience to God’—showing significant variability. For example, ‘Terror attack’ was minimal until mid-2015, then became frequent, peaking in January 2016 and coinciding with portrayals of the November 2015 Paris attacks in ISIS videos.

However, as represented by Fig. 6 , themes like ‘jihad’, ‘West colluding with enemies’, ‘happiness and wellbeing’, ‘captives and confession’, ‘support from Quran and Sunnah’, and ‘sharia and governance’ remained stable and recurrent, reflecting ISIS’s core ideological appeals.

This figure displays the skewness in the distribution of the 26 themes in ISIS English-language videos. From left to right, the figure ranks the themes based on their instability, from the highest to the lowest.

Binary worldviews and theological legitimacy in ISIS propaganda

The prevalence of enemy narratives in ISIS propaganda creates a stark ‘us versus them’ dichotomy. Gerges ( 2009 , 2016 ) and Mahood and Rane ( 2016 ) discuss how ISIS portrays itself as the ‘good’—upholders of Sharia and the true path of jihad—while anyone opposing them is depicted as the ‘evil’ doomed to fail due to their disbelief. The narrative is given legitimacy by anchoring it in the historical and contemporary experiences of Muslims. Such binary opposition is a classic psychological warfare technique, fostering a collective identity among ISIS followers and justifying the group’s violent actions (Cantey, 2017 ; Gråtrud, 2016 ).

ISIS ideologues use theological language to assert that the group is on a divine mission, with violent jihad being the sole path to rectify the world (Mahood and Rane, 2016 ). They claim to be guided by a ‘prophetic methodology,’ deriving their understanding from the Quran and Sunnah, and present their jihadists as ‘lions of the caliphate’ and ‘warriors in upholding the rules of God’ (Gerges, 2016 ; Mahood and Rane, 2016 ). This religious narrative is fundamental in legitimising ISIS’s actions and in recruiting followers by weaving theological justifications into its narrative framework.

The strategic use of emotive content in ISIS propaganda is discussed as being less prevalent compared to the enemy and religious narratives. This strategic choice could indicate a focus on ideological and combative aspects, particularly in content aimed at Western audiences (Colas, 2016b ; Spier, 2018 ). However, when emotive content is utilised, it is designed to resonate with feelings of injustice and discrimination, appealing to a sense of identity and grievance (Mahood and Rane, 2016 ; Olidort and McCants, 2015 ).

The discussion further situates ISIS’s propaganda strategy within the broader debate on the role of Islam in its ideology, referencing Graeme Wood’s influential essay (Wood, 2015 ) that contends ISIS is intrinsically Islamic, sparking a debate on the relationship between Islamism and terrorism (Cottee, 2017a ). This debate pits those who view ISIS as representing true Islam (Ali et al. 2020 ) against those who vehemently disagree (Coles, 2015 ; Hasan and Mehdi, 2015 ; Tharoor, 2016 ). This ongoing argument examines whether the violence enacted in the name of religion is inherently religious or if it is politically motivated and sometimes can be secular in character.

Wood’s essay challenges the notion that ISIS’s violence is purely psychopathic, suggesting instead that it is rooted in early medieval Islamic ideology (Remnick, 2014 ). Meanwhile, critics like Coles ( 2015 ) argue that ISIS’s interpretation of Islam is a deviation, and others like Coolsaet ( 2016 ) and Roy ( 2016 ) attribute the violence to political rather than religious motivations.

The empirical evidence from this study, which shows a significant emphasis on religious narrative in ISIS’s English-language videos, adds a critical dimension to this debate. The frequent recurrence of themes such as sharia law and violent jihad in official media suggests that ISIS’s theological underpinnings are significant and that the group’s ideological foundations are vital to understanding its allure and the motivations of its adherents (Makdisi and John, 1985 ; Mutahhari, 2014 ).

The integration of empirical findings with the broader discourse on ISIS’s propaganda strategies provides a more comprehensive understanding of how the group uses enemy and religious narratives to construct a worldview that legitimises its actions, while also participating in a broader debate about the role of religion in political violence. This complex narrative strategy serves multiple functions within the group’s ideological battle, solidifying its identity, justifying its violent actions, and recruiting followers.

Strategic emphasis and media diversity in ISIS’s propaganda narrative

The findings in ISIS’s English-language videos, as identified in the study, affirm the thematic elements highlighted in other research on ISIS’s propaganda (Gråtrud and Henrik, 2016 ; Kuznar, 2017 ). Emotive language, moderately employed in ISIS’s videos, is a common thread throughout jihadist propaganda, which is also prevalent among groups like the Taliban, Al-Qaeda, and its affiliates AQIM and AQAP. However, ISIS’s unique emphasis on certain themes distinguishes its propaganda from others (Abrahms et al. 2017 ; Gendron and Angela, 2016 ; Salem et al. 2008 ).

The study supports Kuznar’s observation that the thematic elements of ISIS propaganda are present in other jihadi propaganda but emphasises that ISIS has a distinctive approach to these themes. While the general message across ISIS’s various media formats—magazines, leaders’ speeches, public statements, and Nasheeds —remains coherent, the intensity with which certain themes are highlighted varies. ISIS’s English-language videos, in particular, consistently emphasise religious and enemy narratives in line with ‘Dabiq,’ the group’s official English-language magazine, while emotive narratives are less pronounced (Colas, 2016a ).

In contrast, the leaders’ speeches seem to focus more on emotion-provoking themes, suggesting a strategic use of emotional appeal to strengthen the group’s core narratives, with religious and enemy narratives taking a secondary role (Spier, 2018 ). Gråtrud’s analysis suggests that the effectiveness of ISIS’s media, such as Nasheeds , could be attributed to its emphasis on a select number of broadly appealing themes. This targeted approach likely extends beyond Nasheeds to other media productions, indicating a nuanced strategy to engage with various target audiences effectively.

When we consider these findings alongside the comparative analysis of other extremist groups, it becomes evident that ISIS has carved out a unique space in jihadist media strategy. While the shared use of recruitment, indoctrination, enemy construction, religious justification, and calls to action are common jihadist media narratives, ISIS’s distinct approach lies in its media production quality, modern communication tool utilisation, apocalyptic messaging, and tailored language use.

The thematic emphasis and diversity in ISIS’s media productions, juxtaposed with the broader landscape of jihadist propaganda, underscore the group’s sophisticated media strategy. ISIS’s ability to maintain thematic consistency across different media forms while varying the intensity of certain themes reveals an intention to optimise the impact of its messaging. This adaptability and tailored emphasis not only differentiate ISIS’s propaganda from other groups but also potentially enhance its effectiveness in recruitment and ideological dissemination.

By understanding these nuances, counter-terrorism efforts can be better tailored to address the specific strategies employed by ISIS and other extremist groups, acknowledging the shared tactics while targeting the unique aspects of each group’s propaganda approach.

Adaptive themes and consistent ideology in ISIS propaganda

The research of Pelletier et al. ( 2016 ) aligns with the findings from this study, suggesting that jihadist groups like AQAP and ISIS exhibit major thematic shifts in response to real-world events while maintaining a consistent overarching thematic structure. In the case of ISIS, the primary and most fundamental themes—those at the core of ISIS’s ideology—tend to remain stable over time. Conversely, the less recurrent themes display more dynamism, often aligning with specific geopolitical or operational developments that ISIS encounters.

For example, the theme of ‘Terror Attack’ in ISIS videos became more prominent following high-profile attacks that ISIS claimed responsibility for, such as the Paris attacks in November 2015. Foster ( 2014 ) notes the depiction of the perpetrators as heroes in ISIS’s narrative, which marked a peak in the terror attack theme’s prominence. The ‘Apocalypse and Prophecy’ theme’s activity aligns with the group’s control over the town of Dabiq, believed to be a prophesied battlefield, and its eventual loss of the town in 2016 (Withnall, 2016 ). These shifts illustrate how ISIS’s media strategy is interwoven with its operational successes and setbacks, using thematic content to reflect and amplify its real-world narrative.

Despite the responsiveness to events, the more recurrent themes, particularly those propagating violent jihad and Islamic law—pillars of the ISIS ideology—remained consistent. These themes are critical for maintaining a steady ideological message for recruitment, indoctrination, and asserting the group’s identity.

However, the theme of ‘Combat’ presents an interesting case. Although it is one of the most recurrent themes, it exhibited significant instability. The two major peaks in this theme’s prominence not only reflect specific events but also disproportionately affect the theme’s overall statistical stability. This instability may serve a strategic purpose, as Zelin ( 2015 ) indicates, potentially highlighting the asymmetric nature of ISIS media operations. The aim could be to project an image of ongoing struggle and resilience despite real-world setbacks, thereby maintaining morale and commitment among its followers.

The skewness in the distribution of themes across ISIS’s videos supports the notion of an asymmetric media strategy. This asymmetry is not arbitrary but appears to be a calculated response to real-world events. Themes that exhibit significant shifts correspond to specific incidents, underscoring ISIS’s intent to manipulate media narratives in line with operational objectives and challenges.

Counter-terrorism strategies implications

Counter-narrative campaigns are crucial in combating the binary enemy narratives that ISIS propagates. ISIS frames the world in terms of black and white, good and evil, believers and non-believers. To counter this, it’s important to develop narratives that showcase the complexity and diversity of Muslim identities and the peaceful, pluralistic nature of Islamic teachings. Educational initiatives can play a pivotal role in this area, as they can foster a more nuanced understanding of Islam that goes beyond the simplistic and extremist interpretations offered by ISIS (Gerges, 2016 ; Mahood and Rane, 2016 ).

By highlighting the rich tapestry of Islamic scholarship and the diversity of interpretations that have coexisted within Islamic history, these campaigns can undermine the theological foundations upon which ISIS builds its legitimacy. It is also essential to promote voices within the Muslim community that speak to the religion’s core messages of peace and compassion, drawing on both historical and contemporary sources of Islamic thought (Makdisi and John 1985 ).

ISIS has demonstrated an ability to adapt its messages in response to changing circumstances, be they losses on the battlefield or shifts in geopolitical alliances. A successful counter-terrorism approach must be equally flexible, employing real-time intelligence to detect and respond to changes in ISIS’s narrative strategies (Pelletier et al. 2016 ). Developing predictive models based on this intelligence can help anticipate the group’s future shifts in narrative and allow counter-terrorism efforts to stay one step ahead.

At its core, radicalisation often stems from socio-political factors such as alienation, discrimination, and injustice—elements that ISIS exploits to recruit and radicalise individuals. Counter-terrorism efforts must, therefore, also focus on the root causes of radicalisation. This involves creating inclusive policies that address unemployment, provide educational opportunities, and promote social cohesion within marginalised communities (Coolsaet, 2016 ; Roy, 2016 ). Programs that target these areas can reduce the susceptibility of individuals to extremist ideologies by improving their socioeconomic conditions and fostering a sense of belonging within their societies.

In summary, ISIS has created a complex global propaganda apparatus comprising comprehensive narrative themes that span adversarial, theological, and emotional artefacts. The primary conclusion is fourfold: first, within the scope of ISIS propaganda, the extent to which ISIS emphasises certain themes is distinctive from that of other media releases; second, the two most important narratives for ISIS propagandists are the enemy and religious narratives, which reflect a binary worldview of ISIS ideology. ISIS represents the ‘good’ whereas those who oppose ISIS are its enemies and the ‘evil’; third, the ratio of the religious narrative in ISIS English-language videos elucidates one of the hottest debates regarding ISIS’s Islamic nature by supporting and reinforcing the arguments that the religious artefacts of ISIS are important and cannot be neglected if the narrative and underlying ideologies are to be understood (Pelletier et al. 2016 ; Wood, 2015 ); finally, the most fundamental themes promoted by ISIS remain consistent over time whereas the least recurrent themes are more dynamic and might shift significantly in response to a series of real-world events that ISIS faces on the ground.

However, this study is merely the first step. There have been some limitations and many other research trajectories of which future studies might be aware. Most apparently, due to the resource restraints and unstable circumstances in the region, it has been difficult to claim the complete collection of ISIS-produced videos has been archived in this field. Second, this study does not account for the audience perception of ISIS videos – it demands a separate study, although some research in this domain is already underway, and such work is beneficial for our understanding of ISIS propaganda (Cottee, 2017b ). Third, the effectiveness of ISIS narratives might not only depend on what the narrative contains but also on the style in which the content is vividly presented (O’Keefe, 1997 ). Further studies could provide another perspective by, for instance, examining cinematography or semiotics. Finally, the use of content analysis might restrain our understanding of the sophistication of ISIS rhetoric and reasoning devices; further research could offer an interpretation of ISIS English videos beyond locution and thematic analysis of extremists’ messages. For example, ISIS’s use of language as a means to achieve objectives through words and deeds.

Nevertheless, contributing significantly to the discourse on jihadist media strategy, this study undertakes a detailed examination of narrative motifs found in the official English-language videos of ISIS. It renders an original, comprehensive content analysis of ISIS’s propaganda, and facilitates a highly inclusive range of thematic elements that are also applicable to other extremists’ visual texts. Dissecting these videos’ narrative constructs enables a deeper counterpoint to the narratives that have found traction in jihadist online propaganda. By doing so, insights into the group’s strategic narrative constructions and worldviews are gleaned. These insights are crucial for demystifying ISIS: discerning its self-image, presentation style, and desired perception among international audiences. Moreover, this research augments existing studies on ISIS’s global media reach by providing an exhaustive analysis of its official English-language videos and adopts a dynamic perspective on the group’s media offerings, tracking how ISIS tailored its propagandist responses to various global events during the important period. The methodological rigour applied herein lays the groundwork for future explorations into the propaganda of other terrorist organisations. Exposure to jihadist propaganda might not be a sole radicalising force; rather, it is the confluence of ideological currents within broader social, political, and cultural frameworks that is critical (Winter, 2015). ISIS’s media arsenal, encompassing literature, videos, social platforms, and discussion forums, is curated to mirror these undercurrents. The analytical method developed through this study’s examination of ISIS’s videos paves the way for scrutinising a broader array of extremist communications.

Data availability

The dataset generated during and/or analysed during the current study is submitted as a supplementary file and can also be obtained from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

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Qi, Y. Propaganda in focus: decoding the media strategy of ISIS. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 11 , 1123 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03608-y

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