research bibliography methodology

How to Write a Bibliography for a Research Paper

Do not try to “wow” your instructor with a long bibliography when your instructor requests only a works cited page. It is tempting, after doing a lot of work to research a paper, to try to include summaries on each source as you write your paper so that your instructor appreciates how much work you did. That is a trap you want to avoid. MLA style, the one that is most commonly followed in high schools and university writing courses, dictates that you include only the works you actually cited in your paper—not all those that you used.

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• If your assignment calls for a bibliography, list all the sources you consulted in your research.
• If your assignment calls for a works cited or references page, include only the sources you quote, summarize, paraphrase, or mention in your paper.
• If your works cited page includes a source that you did not cite in your paper, delete it.
• All in-text citations that you used at the end of quotations, summaries, and paraphrases to credit others for their ideas,words, and work must be accompanied by a cited reference in the bibliography or works cited. These references must include specific information about the source so that your readers can identify precisely where the information came from.The citation entries on a works cited page typically include the author’s name, the name of the article, the name of the publication, the name of the publisher (for books), where it was published (for books), and when it was published.

The good news is that you do not have to memorize all the many ways the works cited entries should be written. Numerous helpful style guides are available to show you the information that should be included, in what order it should appear, and how to format it. The format often differs according to the style guide you are using. The Modern Language Association (MLA) follows a particular style that is a bit different from APA (American Psychological Association) style, and both are somewhat different from the Chicago Manual of Style (CMS). Always ask your teacher which style you should use.

A bibliography usually appears at the end of a paper on its own separate page. All bibliography entries—books, periodicals, Web sites, and nontext sources such radio broadcasts—are listed together in alphabetical order. Books and articles are alphabetized by the author’s last name.

Most teachers suggest that you follow a standard style for listing different types of sources. If your teacher asks you to use a different form, however, follow his or her instructions. Take pride in your bibliography. It represents some of the most important work you’ve done for your research paper—and using proper form shows that you are a serious and careful researcher.

Bibliography Entry for a Book

A bibliography entry for a book begins with the author’s name, which is written in this order: last name, comma, first name, period. After the author’s name comes the title of the book. If you are handwriting your bibliography, underline each title. If you are working on a computer, put the book title in italicized type. Be sure to capitalize the words in the title correctly, exactly as they are written in the book itself. Following the title is the city where the book was published, followed by a colon, the name of the publisher, a comma, the date published, and a period. Here is an example:

Format : Author’s last name, first name. Book Title. Place of publication: publisher, date of publication.

• A book with one author : Hartz, Paula.  Abortion: A Doctor’s Perspective, a Woman’s Dilemma . New York: Donald I. Fine, Inc., 1992.
• A book with two or more authors : Landis, Jean M. and Rita J. Simon.  Intelligence: Nature or Nurture?  New York: HarperCollins, 1998.

Bibliography Entry for a Periodical

A bibliography entry for a periodical differs slightly in form from a bibliography entry for a book. For a magazine article, start with the author’s last name first, followed by a comma, then the first name and a period. Next, write the title of the article in quotation marks, and include a period (or other closing punctuation) inside the closing quotation mark. The title of the magazine is next, underlined or in italic type, depending on whether you are handwriting or using a computer, followed by a period. The date and year, followed by a colon and the pages on which the article appeared, come last. Here is an example:

Format:  Author’s last name, first name. “Title of the Article.” Magazine. Month and year of publication: page numbers.

• Article in a monthly magazine : Crowley, J.E.,T.E. Levitan and R.P. Quinn.“Seven Deadly Half-Truths About Women.”  Psychology Today  March 1978: 94–106.
• Article in a weekly magazine : Schwartz, Felice N.“Management,Women, and the New Facts of Life.”  Newsweek  20 July 2006: 21–22.
• Signed newspaper article : Ferraro, Susan. “In-law and Order: Finding Relative Calm.”  The Daily News  30 June 1998: 73.
• Unsigned newspaper article : “Beanie Babies May Be a Rotten Nest Egg.”  Chicago Tribune  21 June 2004: 12.

Bibliography Entry for a Web Site

For sources such as Web sites include the information a reader needs to find the source or to know where and when you found it. Always begin with the last name of the author, broadcaster, person you interviewed, and so on. Here is an example of a bibliography for a Web site:

Format : Author.“Document Title.” Publication or Web site title. Date of publication. Date of access.

Example : Dodman, Dr. Nicholas. “Dog-Human Communication.”  Pet Place . 10 November 2006.  23 January 2014 < http://www.petplace.com/dogs/dog-human-communication-2/page1.aspx >

After completing the bibliography you can breathe a huge sigh of relief and pat yourself on the back. You probably plan to turn in your work in printed or handwritten form, but you also may be making an oral presentation. However you plan to present your paper, do your best to show it in its best light. You’ve put a great deal of work and thought into this assignment, so you want your paper to look and sound its best. You’ve completed your research paper!

Back to  How To Write A Research Paper .

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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY: A BIBLIOGRAPHY

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What is a Bibliography?

What is an annotated bibliography, introduction to the annotated bibliography.

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• the authors' names
• the titles of the works
• the names and locations of the companies that published your copies of the sources
• the dates your copies were published
• the page numbers of your sources (if they are part of multi-source volumes)

Ok, so what's an Annotated Bibliography?

An annotated bibliography is the same as a bibliography with one important difference: in an annotated bibliography, the bibliographic information is followed by a brief description of the content, quality, and usefulness of the source. For more, see the section at the bottom of this page.

What are Footnotes?

Footnotes are notes placed at the bottom of a page. They cite references or comment on a designated part of the text above it. For example, say you want to add an interesting comment to a sentence you have written, but the comment is not directly related to the argument of your paragraph. In this case, you could add the symbol for a footnote. Then, at the bottom of the page you could reprint the symbol and insert your comment. Here is an example:

This is an illustration of a footnote. 1 The number “1” at the end of the previous sentence corresponds with the note below. See how it fits in the body of the text? 1 At the bottom of the page you can insert your comments about the sentence preceding the footnote.

When your reader comes across the footnote in the main text of your paper, he or she could look down at your comments right away, or else continue reading the paragraph and read your comments at the end. Because this makes it convenient for your reader, most citation styles require that you use either footnotes or endnotes in your paper. Some, however, allow you to make parenthetical references (author, date) in the body of your work.

Footnotes are not just for interesting comments, however. Sometimes they simply refer to relevant sources -- they let your reader know where certain material came from, or where they can look for other sources on the subject. To decide whether you should cite your sources in footnotes or in the body of your paper, you should ask your instructor or see our section on citation styles.

Where does the little footnote mark go?

Whenever possible, put the footnote at the end of a sentence, immediately following the period or whatever punctuation mark completes that sentence. Skip two spaces after the footnote before you begin the next sentence. If you must include the footnote in the middle of a sentence for the sake of clarity, or because the sentence has more than one footnote (try to avoid this!), try to put it at the end of the most relevant phrase, after a comma or other punctuation mark. Otherwise, put it right at the end of the most relevant word. If the footnote is not at the end of a sentence, skip only one space after it.

What's the difference between Footnotes and Endnotes?

The only real difference is placement -- footnotes appear at the bottom of the relevant page, while endnotes all appear at the end of your document. If you want your reader to read your notes right away, footnotes are more likely to get your reader's attention. Endnotes, on the other hand, are less intrusive and will not interrupt the flow of your paper.

If I cite sources in the Footnotes (or Endnotes), how's that different from a Bibliography?

Sometimes you may be asked to include these -- especially if you have used a parenthetical style of citation. A "works cited" page is a list of all the works from which you have borrowed material. Your reader may find this more convenient than footnotes or endnotes because he or she will not have to wade through all of the comments and other information in order to see the sources from which you drew your material. A "works consulted" page is a complement to a "works cited" page, listing all of the works you used, whether they were useful or not.

Isn't a "works consulted" page the same as a "bibliography," then?

Well, yes. The title is different because "works consulted" pages are meant to complement "works cited" pages, and bibliographies may list other relevant sources in addition to those mentioned in footnotes or endnotes. Choosing to title your bibliography "Works Consulted" or "Selected Bibliography" may help specify the relevance of the sources listed.

This information has been freely provided by plagiarism.org and can be reproduced without the need to obtain any further permission as long as the URL of the original article/information is cited. 

How Do I Cite Sources? (n.d.) Retrieved October 19, 2009, from http://www.plagiarism.org/plag_article_how_do_i_cite_sources.html

The Importance of an Annotated Bibliography

An Annotated Bibliography is a collection of annotated citations. These annotations contain your executive notes on a source. Use the annotated bibliography to help remind you of later of the important parts of an article or book. Putting the effort into making good notes will pay dividends when it comes to writing a paper!

Good Summary

Being an executive summary, the annotated citation should be fairly brief, usually no more than one page, double spaced.

• Focus on summarizing the source in your own words.
• Avoid direct quotations from the source, at least those longer than a few words. However, if you do quote, remember to use quotation marks. You don't want to forget later on what is your own summary and what is a direct quotation!
• If an author uses a particular term or phrase that is important to the article, use that phrase within quotation marks. Remember that whenever you quote, you must explain the meaning and context of the quoted word or text. 

Common Elements of an Annotated Citation

• Summary of an Article or Book's thesis or most important points (Usually two to four sentences)
• Summary of a source's methodological approach. That is, what is the source? How does it go about proving its point(s)? Is it mostly opinion based? If it is a scholarly source, describe the research method (study, etc.) that the author used. (Usually two to five sentences)
• Your own notes and observations on the source beyond the summary. Include your initial analysis here. For example, how will you use this source? Perhaps you would write something like, "I will use this source to support my point about . . . "
• Formatting Annotated Bibliographies This guide from Purdue OWL provides examples of an annotated citation in MLA and APA formats.

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A Beginner’s Guide to Citations, References and Bibliography in Research Papers

As an academician, terms such as citations, references and bibliography might be a part of almost every work-related conversation in your daily life. However, many researchers, especially during the early stages of their academic career, may find it hard to differentiate between citations, references and bibliography in research papers and often find it confusing to implement their usage. If you are amongst them, this article will provide you with some respite. Let us start by first understanding the individual terms better.

Citation in research papers:  A citation appears in the main text of the paper. It is a way of giving credit to the information that you have specifically mentioned in your research paper by leading the reader to the original source of information. You will need to use citation in research papers whenever you are using information to elaborate a particular concept in the paper, either in the introduction or discussion sections or as a way to support your research findings in the results section.

Reference in research papers:  A reference is a detailed description of the source of information that you want to give credit to via a citation. The references in research papers are usually in the form of a list at the end of the paper. The essential difference between citations and references is that citations lead a reader to the source of information, while references provide the reader with detailed information regarding that particular source.

Bibliography in research papers:

A bibliography in research paper is a list of sources that appears at the end of a research paper or an article, and contains information that may or may not be directly mentioned in the research paper. The difference between reference and bibliography in research is that an individual source in the list of references can be linked to an in-text citation, while an individual source in the bibliography may not necessarily be linked to an in-text citation.

It’s understandable how these terms may often be used interchangeably as they are serve the same purpose – namely to give intellectual and creative credit to an original idea that is elaborated in depth in a research paper. One of the easiest ways to understand when to use an in-text citation in research papers, is to check whether the information is an ongoing work of research or if it has been proven to be a ‘fact’ through reproducibility. If the information is a proven fact, you need not specifically add the original source to the list of references but can instead choose to mention it in your bibliography. For instance, if you use a statement such as “The effects of global warming and climate changes on the deterioration of environment have been described in depth”, you need not use an in-text citation, but can choose to mention key sources in the bibliography section. An example of a citation in a research paper would be if you intend to elaborate on the impact of climate change in a particular population and/or a specific geographical location. In this case, you will need to add an in-text citation and mention the correct source in the list of references.

Now that you have understood the basic similarities and differences in these terms, you should also know that every journal follows a particular style and format for these elements. So when working out how to write citations and add references in research papers, be mindful of using the preferred style of your target journal before you submit your research document.

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• Harvard Style Bibliography | Format & Examples

Harvard Style Bibliography | Format & Examples

Published on 1 May 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on 7 November 2022.

In Harvard style , the bibliography or reference list provides full references for the sources you used in your writing.

• A reference list consists of entries corresponding to your in-text citations .
• A bibliography sometimes also lists sources that you consulted for background research, but did not cite in your text.

The two terms are sometimes used interchangeably. If in doubt about which to include, check with your instructor or department.

The information you include in a reference varies depending on the type of source, but it usually includes the author, date, and title of the work, followed by details of where it was published. You can automatically generate accurate references using our free reference generator:

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Formatting a harvard style bibliography, harvard reference examples, referencing sources with multiple authors, referencing sources with missing information, frequently asked questions about harvard bibliographies.

Sources are alphabetised by author last name. The heading ‘Reference list’ or ‘Bibliography’ appears at the top.

Each new source appears on a new line, and when an entry for a single source extends onto a second line, a hanging indent is used:

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Reference list or bibliography entries always start with the author’s last name and initial, the publication date and the title of the source. The other information required varies depending on the source type. Formats and examples for the most common source types are given below.

• Entire book
• Book chapter
• Translated book
• Edition of a book

Journal articles

• Print journal
• Online-only journal with DOI
• Online-only journal without DOI

• General web page
• Online article or blog
• Social media post

Newspapers and magazines

• Newspaper article
• Magazine article

When a source has up to three authors, list all of them in the order their names appear on the source. If there are four or more, give only the first name followed by ‘ et al. ’:

Sometimes a source won’t list all the information you need for your reference. Here’s what to do when you don’t know the publication date or author of a source.

Some online sources, as well as historical documents, may lack a clear publication date. In these cases, you can replace the date in the reference list entry with the words ‘no date’. With online sources, you still include an access date at the end:

When a source doesn’t list an author, you can often list a corporate source as an author instead, as with ‘Scribbr’ in the above example. When that’s not possible, begin the entry with the title instead of the author:

Though the terms are sometimes used interchangeably, there is a difference in meaning:

• A reference list only includes sources cited in the text – every entry corresponds to an in-text citation .
• A bibliography also includes other sources which were consulted during the research but not cited.

In Harvard referencing, up to three author names are included in an in-text citation or reference list entry. When there are four or more authors, include only the first, followed by ‘ et al. ’

In Harvard style referencing , to distinguish between two sources by the same author that were published in the same year, you add a different letter after the year for each source:

• (Smith, 2019a)
• (Smith, 2019b)

Add ‘a’ to the first one you cite, ‘b’ to the second, and so on. Do the same in your bibliography or reference list .

To create a hanging indent for your bibliography or reference list :

• Highlight all the entries
• Click on the arrow in the bottom-right corner of the ‘Paragraph’ tab in the top menu.
• In the pop-up window, under ‘Special’ in the ‘Indentation’ section, use the drop-down menu to select ‘Hanging’.
• Then close the window with ‘OK’.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the ‘Cite this Scribbr article’ button to automatically add the citation to our free Reference Generator.

Caulfield, J. (2022, November 07). Harvard Style Bibliography | Format & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 5 August 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/referencing/harvard-bibliography/

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• Samuel Sorkhi 4 ,
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• Mahadevan Raj Rajasekaran 5  

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This chapter describes the fundamental principles and practices of referencing sources in scientific writing and publishing. Understanding plagiarism and improper referencing of the source material is paramount to producing original work that contains an authentic voice. Citing references helps authors to avoid plagiarism, give credit to the original author, and allow potential readers to refer to the legitimate sources and learn more information. Furthermore, quality references serve as an invaluable resource that can enlighten future research in a field. This chapter outlines fundamental aspects of referencing as well as how these sources are formatted as per recommended citation styles. Appropriate referencing is an important tool that can be utilized to develop the credibility of the author and the arguments presented. Additionally, online software can be useful in helping the author organize their sources and promote proper collaboration in scientific writing.

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Reddy, R., Sorkhi, S., Chawla, S., Rajasekaran, M.R. (2023). How to Create a Bibliography. In: Jagadeesh, G., Balakumar, P., Senatore, F. (eds) The Quintessence of Basic and Clinical Research and Scientific Publishing. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-1284-1_39

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Research Process: Bibliographic Information

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What is a bibliography?

A bibliography is a list of works on a subject or by an author that were used or consulted to write a research paper, book or article. It can also be referred to as a list of works cited. It is usually found at the end of a book, article or research paper. 

Gathering Information

Regardless of what citation style is being used, there are key pieces of information that need to be collected in order to create the citation.

For books and/or journals:

• Author name
• Title of publication 
• Article title (if using a journal)
• Date of publication
• Place of publication
• Volume number of a journal, magazine or encyclopedia
• Page number(s)

For websites:

• Author and/or editor name
• Title of the website
• Company or organization that owns or posts to the website
• URL (website address)
• Date of access 

This section provides two examples of the most common cited sources: a print book and an online journal retrieved from a research database. 

Book - Print

For print books, bibliographic information can be found on the  TITLE PAGE . This page has the complete title of the book, author(s) and publication information.

The publisher information will vary according to the publisher - sometimes this page will include the name of the publisher, the place of publication and the date.

For this example :  Book title: HTML, XHTML, and CSS Bible Author: Steven M. Schafer Publisher: Wiley Publications, Inc.

If you cannot find the place or date of publication on the title page, refer to the  COPYRIGHT PAGE  for this information. The copyright page is the page behind the title page, usually written in a small font, it carries the copyright notice, edition information, publication information, printing history, cataloging data, and the ISBN number.

For this example : Place of publication: Indianapolis, IN Date of publication: 2010

Article - Academic OneFile Database

In the article view:

Bibliographic information can be found under the article title, at the top of the page. The information provided in this area is  NOT  formatted according to any style.

Citations can also be found at the bottom of the page; in an area titled  SOURCE CITATION . The database does not specify which style is used in creating this citation, so be sure to double check it against the style rules for accuracy.

Article - ProQuest Database

Bibliographic information can be found under the article title, at the top of the page. The information provided in this area is  NOT  formatted according to any style. 

Bibliographic information can also be found at the bottom of the page; in an area titled  INDEXING . (Not all the information provided in this area is necessary for creating citations, refer to the rules of the style being used for what information is needed.)

Other databases have similar formats - look for bibliographic information under the article titles and below the article body, towards the bottom of the page. 

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Online Guide to Writing and Research

Academic integrity and documentation, explore more of umgc.

• Online Guide to Writing

Types of Documentation

Bibliographies and Source Lists

What is a bibliography.

A bibliography is a list of books and other source material that you have used in preparing a research paper. Sometimes these lists will include works that you consulted but did not cite specifically in your assignment. Consult the style guide required for your assignment to determine the specific title of your bibliography page as well as how to cite each source type. Bibliographies are usually placed at the end of your research paper.

What is an annotated bibliography?

A special kind of bibliography, the annotated bibliography, is often used to direct your readers to other books and resources on your topic. An instructor may ask you to prepare an annotated bibliography to help you narrow down a topic for your research assignment. Such bibliographies offer a few lines of information, typically 150-300 words, summarizing the content of the resource after the bibliographic entry.   

Example of Annotated Bibliographic Entry in MLA Style

Waddell, Marie L., Robert M. Esch, and Roberta R. Walker. The Art of Styling         Sentences: 20 Patterns for Success. 3rd ed. New York: Barron’s, 1993.         A comprehensive look at 20 sentence patterns and their variations to         teach students how to write effective sentences by imitating good style.

Mailing Address: 3501 University Blvd. East, Adelphi, MD 20783 This work is licensed under a  Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License . © 2022 UMGC. All links to external sites were verified at the time of publication. UMGC is not responsible for the validity or integrity of information located at external sites.

Table of Contents: Online Guide to Writing

Chapter 1: College Writing

How Does College Writing Differ from Workplace Writing?

What Is College Writing?

Why So Much Emphasis on Writing?

Chapter 2: The Writing Process

Doing Exploratory Research

Getting from Notes to Your Draft

Introduction

Prewriting - Techniques to Get Started - Mining Your Intuition

Prewriting: Targeting Your Audience

Prewriting: Techniques to Get Started

Prewriting: Understanding Your Assignment

Rewriting: Being Your Own Critic

Rewriting: Creating a Revision Strategy

Rewriting: Getting Feedback

Rewriting: The Final Draft

Techniques to Get Started - Outlining

Techniques to Get Started - Using Systematic Techniques

Thesis Statement and Controlling Idea

Writing: Getting from Notes to Your Draft - Freewriting

Writing: Getting from Notes to Your Draft - Summarizing Your Ideas

Writing: Outlining What You Will Write

Chapter 3: Thinking Strategies

A Word About Style, Voice, and Tone

A Word About Style, Voice, and Tone: Style Through Vocabulary and Diction

Critical Strategies and Writing

Critical Strategies and Writing: Analysis

Critical Strategies and Writing: Evaluation

Critical Strategies and Writing: Persuasion

Critical Strategies and Writing: Synthesis

Developing a Paper Using Strategies

Kinds of Assignments You Will Write

Patterns for Presenting Information

Patterns for Presenting Information: Critiques

Patterns for Presenting Information: Discussing Raw Data

Patterns for Presenting Information: General-to-Specific Pattern

Patterns for Presenting Information: Problem-Cause-Solution Pattern

Patterns for Presenting Information: Specific-to-General Pattern

Patterns for Presenting Information: Summaries and Abstracts

Supporting with Research and Examples

Writing Essay Examinations

Writing Essay Examinations: Make Your Answer Relevant and Complete

Writing Essay Examinations: Organize Thinking Before Writing

Writing Essay Examinations: Read and Understand the Question

Chapter 4: The Research Process

Planning and Writing a Research Paper

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Ask a Research Question

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Cite Sources

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Collect Evidence

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Decide Your Point of View, or Role, for Your Research

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Draw Conclusions

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Find a Topic and Get an Overview

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Manage Your Resources

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Outline

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Survey the Literature

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Work Your Sources into Your Research Writing

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Human Resources

Research Resources: What Are Research Resources?

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found?

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Electronic Resources

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Print Resources

Structuring the Research Paper: Formal Research Structure

Structuring the Research Paper: Informal Research Structure

The Nature of Research

The Research Assignment: How Should Research Sources Be Evaluated?

The Research Assignment: When Is Research Needed?

The Research Assignment: Why Perform Research?

Chapter 5: Academic Integrity

Academic Integrity

Giving Credit to Sources

Giving Credit to Sources: Copyright Laws

Giving Credit to Sources: Documentation

Giving Credit to Sources: Style Guides

Integrating Sources

Practicing Academic Integrity

Practicing Academic Integrity: Keeping Accurate Records

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material - Paraphrasing Your Source

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material - Quoting Your Source

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material - Summarizing Your Sources

Types of Documentation: Bibliographies and Source Lists

Types of Documentation: Citing World Wide Web Sources

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - APA Style

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - CSE/CBE Style

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - Chicago Style

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - MLA Style

Types of Documentation: Note Citations

Chapter 6: Using Library Resources

Finding Library Resources

Chapter 7: Assessing Your Writing

How Is Writing Graded?

How Is Writing Graded?: A General Assessment Tool

The Draft Stage

The Draft Stage: The First Draft

The Draft Stage: The Revision Process and the Final Draft

The Draft Stage: Using Feedback

The Research Stage

Using Assessment to Improve Your Writing

Chapter 8: Other Frequently Assigned Papers

Reviews and Reaction Papers: Article and Book Reviews

Reviews and Reaction Papers: Reaction Papers

Writing Arguments

Writing Arguments: Adapting the Argument Structure

Writing Arguments: Purposes of Argument

Writing Arguments: References to Consult for Writing Arguments

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Anticipate Active Opposition

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Determine Your Organization

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Develop Your Argument

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Introduce Your Argument

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - State Your Thesis or Proposition

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Write Your Conclusion

Writing Arguments: Types of Argument

Appendix A: Books to Help Improve Your Writing

Dictionaries

General Style Manuals

Researching on the Internet

Special Style Manuals

Writing Handbooks

Appendix B: Collaborative Writing and Peer Reviewing

Collaborative Writing: Assignments to Accompany the Group Project

Collaborative Writing: Informal Progress Report

Collaborative Writing: Issues to Resolve

Collaborative Writing: Methodology

Collaborative Writing: Peer Evaluation

Collaborative Writing: Tasks of Collaborative Writing Group Members

Collaborative Writing: Writing Plan

General Introduction

Peer Reviewing

Appendix C: Developing an Improvement Plan

Working with Your Instructor’s Comments and Grades

Appendix D: Writing Plan and Project Schedule

Devising a Writing Project Plan and Schedule

Reviewing Your Plan with Others

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Generate accurate Chicago citations for free

• Knowledge Base
• Chicago Style
• Creating a Chicago Style Bibliography | Format & Examples

Creating a Chicago Style Bibliography | Format & Examples

Published on September 23, 2019 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on April 9, 2024.

A Chicago style bibliography lists the sources cited in your text. Each bibliography entry begins with the author’s name and the title of the source, followed by relevant publication details. The bibliography is alphabetized by authors’ last names.

A bibliography is not mandatory, but is strongly recommended for all but very short papers. It gives your reader an overview of all your sources in one place. Check with your instructor if you’re not sure whether you need a bibliography.

Always make sure to pay attention to punctuation (e.g., commas , quotation marks , parentheses ) in your citations.

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Table of contents

Chicago style bibliography examples, formatting the bibliography page, author names in the bibliography, bibliography vs reference list, frequently asked questions about the chicago bibliography.

Bibliography entries vary in format depending on the type of source . Templates and examples for the most common source types are shown below.

• Book chapter
• Journal article

• The edition is always abbreviated (e.g. 2nd ed. or rev. ed.).
• Only include the URL for books you consulted online.

• Use this format to cite a chapter in a multi-authored book. If all the chapters in a book were written by the same person, reference the whole book.
• Begin the citation with the author of the chapter. The editor who compiled the book is listed later.

• The page range identifies the location of the article within the journal issue.
• For articles accessed online, include a DOI (digital object identifier) where available, and a URL if not.

• If the author is unknown, list the organization or website name as author, and don’t repeat it later in the citation.
• If no publication date is listed, include an access date instead.
• The website name is not italicized, unless it is an online version of a newspaper or magazine .

Receive feedback on language, structure, and formatting

Professional editors proofread and edit your paper by focusing on:

• Academic style
• Vague sentences
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See an example

The bibliography appears at the end of your text. The heading Bibliography is bolded and centred at the top of the page.

Unlike the rest of a Chicago format paper, the bibliography is not double-spaced. However, add a single line space between entries.

If a bibliography entry extends onto more than one line, subsequent lines should be indented ( hanging indent ), as seen in the example below. This helps the reader to see at a glance where each new entry begins.

There are further guidelines for formatting a Chicago style annotated bibliography , in which you write a paragraph of summary and source evaluation under each source.

Author names in the bibliography are inverted: The last name comes first, then the first name(s). Sources are alphabetized by author last name.

If a source has no named author, alphabetize by the first word of the title or organization name that starts the entry. Ignore articles (“the,” “a,” and “an”) for the purposes of alphabetization.

Sources with multiple authors

For sources with more than one author, only the first author’s name is inverted; subsequent names are written in the normal order.

For texts with up to 10 authors, all the authors’ names should be listed in the order they appear in the source, separated by commas .

If there are more than 10 authors, list the first seven, followed by “ et al. ”

Multiple sources by the same author

If you include multiple works from the same author, only include the author name in the first entry. In subsequent entries, replace the name with three em dashes , followed by the rest of the citation formatted as normal. List the entries in alphabetical order by title.

A reference list is mandatory in Chicago author-date style , where you cite sources in parentheses in the text. The only differences between a Chicago bibliography and a reference list are the heading and the placement of the date.

The reference list is headed “References.” In reference list entries, the publication date is placed immediately after the author’s name. This allows the reader to easily find a reference on the basis of the corresponding in-text citation.

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In a Chicago style footnote , list up to three authors. If there are more than three, name only the first author, followed by “ et al. “

In the bibliography , list up to 10 authors. If there are more than 10, list the first seven followed by “et al.”

The same rules apply in Chicago author-date style .

To automatically generate accurate Chicago references, you can use Scribbr’s free Chicago reference generator .

In a Chicago footnote citation , when the author of a source is unknown (as is often the case with websites ), start the citation with the title in a full note. In short notes and bibliography entries, list the organization that published it as the author.

In Chicago author-date style , treat the organization as author in your in-text citations and reference list.

When an online source does not list a publication date, replace it with an access date in your Chicago footnotes and your bibliography :

If you are using author-date in-text citations , or if the source was not accessed online, replace the date with “n.d.”

• A reference list is used with Chicago author-date citations .
• A bibliography is used with Chicago footnote citations .

Both present the exact same information; the only difference is the placement of the year in source citations:

• In a reference list entry, the publication year appears directly after the author’s name.
• In a bibliography entry, the year appears near the end of the entry (the exact placement depends on the source type).

There are also other types of bibliography that work as stand-alone texts, such as a Chicago annotated bibliography .

In Chicago author-date style , your text must include a reference list . It appears at the end of your paper and gives full details of every source you cited.

In notes and bibliography style, you use Chicago style footnotes to cite sources; a bibliography is optional but recommended. If you don’t include one, be sure to use a full note for the first citation of each source.

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Caulfield, J. (2024, April 09). Creating a Chicago Style Bibliography | Format & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved August 5, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/chicago-style/bibliography/

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• USC Libraries
• Research Guides

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

Bibliography.

• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Reading Research Effectively
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Applying Critical Thinking
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Research Process Video Series
• Executive Summary
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tiertiary Sources
• Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Insiderness
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Generative AI and Writing
• USC Libraries Tutorials and Other Guides

In addition to the sources cited in the individual text boxes of this writing guide, listed below are books about how to effectively write and organize a college-level research paper or dissertation [which frequently have good advice on writing, regardless of their purpose]. Enter the title of the book in the USC Libraries' search engine to check the availability of these or any other books on college-level writing and research. If the library does not own a particular title, you can request to borrow the book free of charge from the USC Libraries' interlibrary loan department .

• Abbott, Andrew. Digital Paper: A Manual for Research and Writing with Library and Internet Materials . Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2014.
• Anders, Marian. The Practical Grammar Handbook for College Writers . 2nd edition. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press, 2015.
• Aveyard, Helen. Doing a Literature Review in Health and Social Care: A Practical Guide . 3rd edition. New York: McGraw-Hill Education, 2014.
• Axelrod, Rise B. and Charles Raymond Cooper. The St. Martin's Guide to Writing . 10th edition. Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martins, 2013.
• Badke, William. Research Strategies: Finding Your Way through the Information Fog . 5th edition. Bloomington, IN: iUniverse, LLC, 2014.
• Ballenger, Bruce P. The Curious Researcher: A Guide to Writing Research Papers . 8th edition. Boston, MA: Pearson, 2015.
• Barnet, Sylvan, Pat Bellanca, and Marcia Stubbs. A Short Guide to College Writing . 5th edition. Boston, MA: Pearson, 2013.
• Becker, Lucinda. Writing Successful Reports and Dissertations . Los Angeles, CA: Sage, 2014.
• Birkenstein, Cathy and Gerald Graff. “They Say/I Say”: The Moves That Matter in Academic Writing . 4th edition. New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 2018.
• Cahn, Steven M. and Victor Cahn. Polishing Your Prose: How to Turn First Drafts Into Finished Work . New York: Columbia University Press, 2013.

Carter, Caron, editor. Successful Dissertations: The Complete Guide for Education, Childhood and Early Childhood Studies Students . New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2018.

• Channell, Carolyn. Engaging Questions: A Guide to Writing . 2nd edition. New York: McGraw-Hill Higher Education, 2016.
• Cioffi, Frank L. The Imaginative Argument: A Practical Manifesto for Writers . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2017.
• Clark, Roy Peter. Help! for Writers: 210 Solutions to the Problems Every Writer Faces . New York: Little, Brown, 2011.
• Clouse, Barbara Fine. A Troubleshooting Guide for Writers: Strategies and Process . 7th edition. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2013.
• Cottrell, Stella. Dissertations and Project Reports: A Step by Step Guide . Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014.
• Cutts, Martin. Oxford Guide to Plain English . 4th edition. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2013.
• Eby, Erika. The College Student's Guide to Writing a Great Research Paper: 101 Easy Tips and Tricks to Make Your Work Stand Out . Ocala, FL: Atlantic Pub. Group, 2012.
• Edwards, Mark. Writing in Sociology . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2014.
• Evans, David, Paul Gruba, and Justin Zobel. How to Write a Better Thesis . 3rd edition. Melbourne, Australia: Melbourne University. Publishing, 2011.
• Faigley, Lester. Writing: A Guide for College and Beyond . 4th edition. Boston, MA: Pearson Higher Ed, 2016.
• Fiske, Robert Hartwell. To the Point: A Dictionary of Concise Writing . New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 2014.

Floyd, Randy G., editor. Publishing in School Psychology and Related Fields: An Insider's Guide . New York: Routledge, Taylor and Francis Group, 2018.

• Gelman, Howard. Everyone Can Write: A Guide to Get You Started . Wollombi, NSW, Australia: Exisle Publishing, 2014.
• Gill, Charlene. Essential Writing Skills for College and Beyond . Cincinnati, OH: Writer's Digest Books, 2014.
• Giltrow, Janet, Richard Gooding, Daniel Burgoyne, and Marlene Sawatsky. Academic Writing: An Introduction . 3rd edition. Tonawanda, NY: Broadview Press, 2014.
• Gibson, Twyla, and Mark Lipton. Research, Write, Create: Connecting Scholarship and Digital Media . Ontario, Canada: Oxford University Press, 2014.
• Glaser, Joe. Understanding Style: Practical Ways to Improve Your Writing . 3rd edition. New York: Oxford University Press, 2016.
• Goodson, Patricia. Becoming an Academic Writer: 50 Exercises for Paced, Productive, and Powerful Writing . 2nd edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2016.

Graff, Gerald and Cathy Birkenstein. "They Say / I Say": The Moves that Matter in Academic Writing . New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 2017.

• Hacker, Diana and Nancy Sommers. Rules for Writers . 9th edition. Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2018.
• Hart, Chris. Doing a Literature Review: Releasing the Research Imagination . 2nd edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2018.
• Harvey, Michael. The Nuts and Bolts of College Writing . Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing, 2013.
• Hjortshoj, Keith. The Transition to College Writing . Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martins, 2009.
• Howard, Rebecca Moore. Writing Matters: A Handbook for Writing and Research . 2nd edition. New York: McGraw-Hill Higher Education, 2013.
• Johnson, William A. A Criminal Justice Student's Writer's Manual . 6th edition. Boston, MA: Pearson, 2015.
• Johnson Jr, William A., Gregory M. Scott, and Stephen M. Garrison. The Sociology Student Writer's Manual and Reader's Guide . 7th edition. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2017.
• Joyner, Randy L., William A. Rouse, and Allan A. Glatthorn. Writing the Winning Thesis or Dissertation: A Step-by-step Guide . 3rd edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2013.
• Kirszner, Laurie G. and Stephen R. Mandell. Patterns for College Writing: A Rhetorical Reader and Guide . 12th edition. Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martins, 2012.
• Koerber, Duncan and Guy Allen. Clear, Precise, Direct: Strategies for Writing . Ontario, Canada: Oxford University Press, 2015.
• Langan, John. Exploring Writing: Paragraphs and Essays . 3rd edition. Dubuque, IA: McGraw-Hill, 2013.
• Lee, Kooi Cheng. Effective College Writing: A Process-Genre Approach . 2nd edition. Singapore: McGraw-Hill, 2009.
• Lerych, Lynne and Allison DeBoer Criswell. Everything You Need to Know about College Writing . Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2016.
• Lester, James D. and James D. Lester. Writing Research Papers: A Complete Guide . 14th edition. Boston, MA: Pearson, 2012.
• Lindemann, Kurt. Composing Research, Communicating Results: Writing the Communication Research Paper . Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons, 2017.
• Marsen, Sky. Professional Writing . 3rd edition. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013.
• McMillan, Kathleen and Jonathan Weyers. How to Improve Your Critical Thinking and Reflective Skills . Harlow, UK: Pearson Education Limited, 2013.
• McNiff, Jean. Writing Up Your Action Research Project . New York: Routledge, 2015.
• Miller, Scott A. Writing in Psychology . New York: Routledge, 2014.
• Muller, Jake. Writing in the Social Sciences: A Guide for Term Papers and Book Reviews . 2nd edition. Ontario, Canada: Oxford University Press Canada, 2015.
• Northey, Margot, Dianne Draper, and David B. Knight. Making Sense: A Student's Guide to Research and Writing: Geography and Environmental Sciences . 6th edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015.
• Oliver, Paul. Writing Your Thesis . 3rd edition. London: Sage, 2013.
• Parsons, Tony, and Peter G. Knight. How to Do Your Dissertation in Geography and Related Disciplines . New York: Routledge, 2015.
• Pyrczak, Fred. Writing Empirical Research Reports: A Basic Guide for Students of the Social and Behavioral Sciences . 8th edition. Glendale, CA: Pyrczak Publishing, 2014.
• Raimes, Ann and Susan K. Miller-Cochran. Keys for Writers . 7th edition. Boston, MA: Wadsworth Publishing, 2014.
• Reinking, James A. Strategies for Successful Writing: A Rhetoric, Research Guide, Reader, and Handbook . 1oth edition. Boston, MA: Pearson, 2014.
• Reynolds, Nedra and Elizabeth Davis. Portfolio Keeping: A Guide for Students. 3rd edition. Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martins, 2013.
• Ridley, Diana. The Literature Review: A Step-by-step Guide for Students . 2nd edition. Los Angeles, CA: Sage, 2012.
• Roen, Duane, Gregory Glau, and Barry Maid. The McGraw-Hill Guide: Writing for College, Writing for Life . 4th edition. New York: McGraw-Hill Education, 2018.
• Rudestam, Kjell Erik and Rae R. Newton. Surviving Your Dissertation: A Comprehensive Guide to Content and Process . 4th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2014.
• Scott, Gregory M. and Stephen M. Garrison. The Political Science Student Writer's Manual and Reader's Guide . 8th edition. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2017.
• Spencer, Linda. Writing Well in the 21st Century: The Five Essentials . Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2014.
• Starr, Douglas Perret and Deborah Williams Dunsford. Working the Story: A Guide to Reporting and News Writing for Journalists and Public Relations Professionals . Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2014.
• Szuchman, Lenore T. Writing with Style: APA Style Made Easy . 6th edition. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning, 2014.
• Thurman, Susan and Larry Shea. The Only Grammar Book You'll Ever Need: A One-Stop Source for Every Writing Assignment . Avon, MA: Adams Media, 2015.
• Turabian, Kate L. A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations: Chicago Style for Students and Researchers . 9th edition. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2018.
• Wallwork, Adrian. English for Research: Usage, Style, and Grammar . New York: Springer Science and Business Media, 2012.
• Wang, Gabe T. and Keumjae Park. Student Research and Report Writing: From Topic Selection to the Complete Paper . Malden, MA: Wiley Blackwell, 2016.
• Warner, John. The Writer's Practice: Building Confidence in Your Non-Fiction Writing . New York: Penguin/Random House, 2019.
• Watt, Jane. Report Writing for Social Workers . Los Angeles, CA: Sage, 2012.
• Wyrick, Jean. Steps to Writing Well . 12th edition. Boston, MA: Cengage Learning, 2014.
• Wyse, Dominic and Kate Cowan. The Good Writing Guide for Education Students . 4th edition. London: Sage, 2017.
• Yagoda, Ben. How to Not Write Bad: The Most Common Writing Problems and the Best Ways to Avoid Them . New York: Riverhead Books, 2013.
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• Last Updated: Jul 30, 2024 10:20 AM
• URL: https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide

• Research Guides
• CECH Library

How to Write an Annotated Bibliography

• Introduction
• New RefWorks
• Formatting Citations
• Writing Annotations
• Sample Annotated Bibliographies

What is an Annotated Bibliography?

An annotated bibliography is an enhanced list of citations that briefly summarizes each article, book, or other source of information and explains why it is important for your topic.  It can be divided into two distinct parts: the annotation and the bibliography.

• A bibliography is a list of articles, books, and or other sources of information that have been used for researching a topic. This list is called “References” In APA format or “Works Cited” in MLA format.  All academic papers should have a bibliography that lists the sources used for its creation. 
• An annotation is a short paragraph that summarizes a source and describes how it is relevant to your research.  To annotate literally means “to make notes.”

There is not an official format for annotated bibliographies, though usually the bibliographic citation is written in APA or MLA format.  If this is being done for a class, ask the instructor which format you should use. ​

• Example of an Annotated Bibliography The William Morris Collection at the Archives and Rare Books Library, University of Cincinnati
• More Examples

Example of entries on an Annotated Bibliography

Henderson, R., & Honan, E. (2008). Digital literacies in two low socioeconomic classrooms: Snapshots of practice. English Teaching: Practice and Critique, (7)2 , 85-98.

Provides snapshots of digital practices in two middle-level classrooms within low socioeconomic suburbs in Australia during one school term. Ethnographic research techniques were used to investigate (1) teachers' pedagogical approaches to using digital literacy practices with low-income students; (2) students' access to digital technologies at home and at school; and (3) how home literate practices compared to the practices valued in school. Results underscore the need to disrupt teachers' deficit views of these students' home digital literacies so that school practices can be built upon the knowledge and literacies students already have. 

(Beach et al., 2009)

Frazen, K., & Kamps, D. (2008). The utilization and effects of positive behavior support strategies on an urban school playground. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 10, 150-161. doi: 10.1177/1098300708316260.

This study examined the effectiveness of a school-wide PBS recess intervention across three grades—2 nd , 3 rd , and 4 th .  The intervention included a token economy system for following five operationally defined, positively stated school rules.  A multiple baseline design across grades was used to determine the effectiveness of the swPBS recess intervention on inappropriate behaviors.  Intervention was implemented across the three grades at staggered times.  When intervention was implemented, inappropriate behavior demonstrated a change in level for all grades and a decrease in variability for one grade (2 nd ). Trend was relatively stable across all phases for two classrooms and a slight increasing trend was observed during baseline for the 4 th grade that stabilized once the intervention was implemented. Experimental control was demonstrated when (1) baseline behavior remained consistent despite the implementation of intervention in other grades, (2) only when intervention was implemented was a change in behavior level observed, and (3) experimental control was demonstrated at three distinct points. 

(McCoy, 2015)

Why are Annotated Bibliographies useful?

An annotated bibliography demonstrates your understanding of a topic.  It's easy to add a source to a reference list and forget about it when you just need a citation, but you will read and evaluate that source more carefully when you have to write an annotation for it. Since annotations need to be more than just a summary and explain the value of each source, you are forced to think critically and develop a point of view on the topic.  Writing an annotated bibliography is a great way to start preparing a major research project because you will see what arguments have already been proposed in the literature and where your project can add something new to the larger body of work.

Reading published scholarly annotated bibliographies is an efficient method for starting research since they will provide a comprehensive overview of a topic and introduce what other researchers are saying about a topic.

Beach, R., Bigelow, M., Dillon, D., Dockter, J., Galda, L., Helman, L., . . . Janssen, T. (2009). Annotated Bibliography of Research in the Teaching of English.  Research in the Teaching of English,   44 (2), 210-241. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/27784357

McCoy, D. (2015). Annotated bibliography #1 behavior research methods [Class handout]. Behavior Analysis, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH.

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Bibliography

Arksey, H., & Knight, P. T. (1999). Interviewing for social scientists: An introductory resources with examples Sage Publications.

Briggs, C. L. (1986). Learning how to ask: A sociolinguistic appraisal of the role of the interview in social science research Cambridge University Press.

Brown, A. L. (1992). Design experiments: Theoretical and methodological challenges in creating complex interventions in classroom settings. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 2(2), 141-178.

Butler-Kisber, L. (2010). Qualitative inquiry: Thematic, narrative and arts-informed perspectives Sage Publications.

Caelli, K., Ray, L., & Miller, J. (2003). ‘Clear as mud’: Toward greater clarity in generic qualitative research. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 2(2), 1-13.

Chesla, C. A. (2008). Translational research: Essential contributions from interpretive nursing science. Research in Nursing & Health, 31(4), 381-390.

Chirban, J. T. (1996). Interviewing in depth: The interactive-relational approach. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

Clark, A. (Ed.). (2005). Situational analysis: Grounded theory after the postmodern turn (1st ed.) Sage Publications.

Coffey, A., & Atkinson, P. (1996). Making sense of qualitative data: Complementary research strategies Sage Publications.

Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (3rd ed ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

Creswell, J. W. (2005). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (2nd ed ed.). Upper Saddle River: Merrill.

Creswell, J. W. (2002). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (2nd ed ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

Creswell, J. W. (1998). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five traditions. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

Creswell, J. W. (1994). Research design: Qualitative and quantitative approaches. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

Denzin, N. K., & Loncoln, Y. S. (1994). Handbook of qualitative research. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

Docherty, S., & Sandelowski, M. (1999). Interviewing children. Research in Nursing & Health, 22(2), 177-185.

Emerson, R. M., Fretz, R. I., & Shaw, L. L. (1995). Writing ethnographic fieldnotes. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Flick, U., Kvale, S., & Angrosino, M. V. (2007). The sage qualitative research kit. London: Sage Publications.

Flyvbjerg, B. (2001). Making social science matter: Why social inquiry fails and how it can succeed again. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Fowler, F. J., & Mangione, T. W. (1991). Standardized survey interviewing: Minimizing interviewer-related error. Newbury Park: Sage Publications.

Freeman, M., deMarrais, K., Preissle, J., & Roulston, K. (2007). Standards of evidence in qualitative research: An incitement to discourse. Educational Researcher, 36(1), 25-32.

Glaser, B. G. (1994). More grounded theory methodology: A reader. Mill Valley: Sociology Press.

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Glaser, B. G. (1965). The constant comparative method of qualitative analysis. Social Problems, 12(4), 436-445.

Glaser, B. G., & Kaplan, W. D. (1996). Gerund grounded theory: The basic social process. Mill Valley: Sociology Press.

Glaser, B. G. (1995). Grounded theory, 1984-1994. Mill Valley: Sociology Press.

Glesne, C. (1999). Becoming qualitative researchers: An introduction (2nd ed ed.). New York: Longman.

Graue, M. E., & Walsh, D. J. (1998). Studying children in context: Theories, methods, and ethics. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

Greene, J. C. (2007). Mixed methods in social inquiry. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Gubrium, J. F., & Holstein, J. A. (2002). Handbook of interview research: Context and method. London: Sage Publications.

Harry, B., Sturges, K. M., & Klinger, J. K. (2005). Mapping the process: An exemplar of process and challenge in grounded theory analysis. Educational Researcher, 34(2), 3-13.

James, N., & Busher, H. (2009). Online interviewing. Los Angeles: Sage Publications.

Janesick, V. J. (1998). “Stretching” exercises for qualitative researchers. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

Kearney, M. H. (2001). Levels and applications of qualitative research evidence. Research in Nursing & Health, 24(2), 145-153.

Krippendorff, K., & Bock, M. A. (2009). The content analysis reader. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

Krueger, R. A., & Casey, M. K. (2000). Focus groups: A practical guide for applied research. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

Kuper, A., Linfard, L., & Levinson, W. (2008). Critically appraising qualitative research. British Medical Journal, 337, 687-692.

Lingard, L., Albert, M., & Levinson, W. (2008). Grounded theory, mixed methods, and action research. British Medical Journal, 337, 459-461.

Lofland, J. (2006). Analyzing social settings: A guide to qualitative observation and analysis. Belmont: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.

Loncoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications. Marshall, C., & Rossman, G. B. (2006). Designing qualitative research (4th ed ed.). London: Sage Publications.

McCall, G. J., & Simmons, J. L. (Eds.). (1969). Issues in participant observation: A text and reader. Reading: Addison-Wesley.

McCracken, G. (1990). The long interview. Newbury Park: Sage Publications.

Merriam, S. B. (1988). Case study research in education: A qualitative approach (1st ed ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook (2nd ed ed.). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

Morrow, S. (2005). Quality and trustworthiness in qualitative research in counseling psychology. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52(2), 250-260.

Morse, J. M., & Stern, P. N. (2009). Developing grounded theory: The second generation. Walnut Creek: Left Coast Press.

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Novick, G. (2008). Is there a bias against telephone interviews in qualitative research? Research in Nursing & Health, 31(4), 391-398.

Padgett, D. (2008). Qualitative methods in social work research (2nd ed ed.). Los Angeles: Sage Publications.

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Richards, L. (2005). Handling qualitative data: A practical guide. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

Rubin, H. J., & Rubin, I. S. (2005). Qualitative interviewing: The art of hearing data. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

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Sandelowski, M. (2001). Real qualitative researchers do not count: The use of numbers in qualitative research. Research in Nursing & Health, 24(3), 230-240.

Sandelowski, M. (2000). Combining qualitative and quantitative sampling, data collection, and analysis techniques in mixed-method studies. Research in Nursing & Health, 23(3), 246-255.

Sandelowski, M. (2000). Whatever happened to qualitative description? Research in Nursing & Health, 23(4), 334-340.

Sandelowski, M. (1998). Writing a good read: Strategies for re-presenting qualitative data. Research in Nursing & Health, 21(4), 375-382.

Sandelowski, M., Barroso, J., & Voils, C. I. (2007). Using qualitative metasummary to synthesize qualitative and quantitative descriptive findings. Research in Nursing & Health, 30(1), 99-111.

Sandelowski, M., Docherty, S., & Emden, C. (1997). Focus on qualitative methods. qualitative metasynthesis: Issues and techniques. Research in Nursing & Health, 20(4), 365-371.

Sandelowski, M. J. (2008). Justifying qualitative research. Research in Nursing & Health, 31(3), 193-195.

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Schumacher, K. L., Koresawa, S., West, C., Dodd, M., Paul, S. M., Tripathy, D., et al. (2005). Qualitative research contribution to a randomized clinical trial. Research in Nursing & Health, 28(3), 268-280.

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Research Methods: Annotated Bibliographies

• Annotated Bibliographies
• Literature Reviews
• Scoping Reviews
• Systematic Reviews
• Scholarship of Teaching and Learning
• Persuasive Arguments
• Subject Specific Methodology

An annotated bibliography includes the citation for sources used to research a topic as well as a summary and/or evaluation of each of the sources. The citation style depends upon your discipline. Annotated bibliographies help you learn about your topic AND helps others learn about the topic.

Writing an annotated bibliography is excellent preparation for a research project. When you have to write annotations for each source, you're forced to read each source more carefully.

Steps & Elements

• Find relevant articles or other sources about your topic and read the articles.

Parts of an Annotation

• Summarize : Some annotations merely summarize the source. What are the main arguments? What is the point of this book or article? What topics are covered? If someone asked what this article/book is about, what would you say? The length of your annotations will determine how detailed your summary is.
• Assess : After summarizing a source, it may be helpful to evaluate it. Is it a useful source? How does it compare with other sources in your bibliography? Is the information reliable? Is this source biased or objective? What is the goal of this source?
• Reflect : Once you've summarized and assessed a source, you need to ask how it fits into your research. Was this source helpful to you? How does it help you shape your argument? How can you use this source in your research project? Has it changed how you think about your topic? 

Not all annotated bibliographies will include all of these elements! Look at your assignment, ask your instructor, or inquire about procedures in your discipline to determine what is often used.

• Annotations are written in paragraph form and are often two to eight sentences, but can be a couple of pages (depends on your purpose).
• University of North Carolina The Writing Center: Abstracts From the University of North Carolina Writing Center
• Annotated Bibliographies (Purdue OWL) Provides definitions and an overview on how to write annotated bibliographies.
• What goes into the content of the annotations? From The University of Wisconsin - Madison Writing Center
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What is an Annotated Bibliography?

An annotated bibliography is a summary and evaluation of a resource. According to Merriam-Webster, a bibliography is “the works or a list of the works referred to in a text or consulted by the author in its production.” Your references (APA) or Works Cited (MLA) can be considered a bibliography. A bibliography follows a documentation style and usually includes bibliographic information (i.e., the author(s), title, publication date, place of publication, publisher, etc.). An annotation refers to explanatory notes or comments on a source.

An annotated bibliography, therefore, typically consists of:

Documentation for each source you have used, following the required documentation style.

For each entry, one to three paragraphs that:

Begins  with a summary ,

Evaluates  the reliability of the information,

Demonstrates  how the information relates to previous and future research.

Entries in an annotated bibliography should be in alphabetical order.

** Please note: This may vary depending on your professor’s requirements.

Why Write an Annotated Bibliography?

Why Write an Annotated Bibliography

Writing an annotated bibliography will help you understand your topics in-depth.

An annotated bibliography is useful for organizing and cataloging resources when developing an argument.

Formatting an Annotated Bibliography

Formatting Annotated Bibliographies

• Use 1-inch margins all around
• Indent annotations ½ inch from the left margin.
• Use double spacing.
• Entries should be in alphabetical order.

Structure of an Annotated Bibliography

This table provides a high-level outline of the structure of a research article and how each section relates to important information for developing an annotated bibliography.

Annotated Bibliography Sample Outline

Author, S. A. (date of publication). Title of the article.  Title of Periodical, vol.  (issue), page-page.  https://doi.org/XXXXXX

Write one or two paragraphs that focus on the study and its findings.

• Two or more sentences that outline the thesis, hypothesis, and population of the study.
• Two or more sentences that discuss the methodology.
• Two or more sentences that discuss the study findings.  
• One or more sentences evaluating the study and its relationship to other studies.

Sample Annotated Bibliographies

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BIBLIOGRAPHY (ONE AUTHOR)

  (Section 17.2., p. 187, 9th edition)

     NOTES (ONE AUTHOR)

        Format:

       1. First Name [ Middle Initial.]  Last Name, "Article Title," Publication title volume number, issue no. (Publication date): page number, URL/DOI .        2. Last Name, "Article Title," page number.

       Example:

      1. Gerda Lerner, "The Grimke Sisters and the Struggle against Race Prejudice,"    The Journal of Negro History  48, no. 4 (October 1993): 278,  https://doi.org/10.2307.2716330.       2.  Lerner , “ The Grimke Sisters ,” 290 .

_______________________________________________________________________________________________________

BIBLIOGRAP HY (TWO AUTH ORS)

Last name, First name [ Middle Initial.], and First name Last name. "Article Title." Publication title volume number, issue no. (Publication               date): page range. URL/DOI.

Kovan, Seth, and Sonya Michel. "Womanly Duties: Maternalist Politics and Origins of Welfare States in France, Germany, Great Britain, and the United States." American Historical Review 95, no. 4 (October 1990): 1076-1108. https://doi.org/10.2307/2163479  .

     NOTES (TWO AUTHORS)

         1 . First name [ Middle Initial.] Last name and First name Last name, "Article Title," Publication title volume number, issue no. (Publication date): number, URL/DOI.          2. Last name and Last name, "Article title," page number.

     Example:

      1.  Seth Koven and Sonya Michel, "Womanly Duties: Maternalist Politics and Origins of Welfare States in France, Germany, Great Britain, and the United States," American Historical Review 95, no. 4 (October 1990): 1079, http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2163479.       2.  Koven and Michel, "Womanly Duties," 1077  . _______________________________________________________________________________________________________

BIBLIOGRAPHY (THREE AUTHORS)

Last name, First name [ Middle Initial.], First name [Middle Initial.]  Last name, and First name [Middle Initial.]  Last name . "Article           Title." Publication title volume number, issue no. (Publication date): page range. URL/DOI.

Reddick, Christopher G., Akemi Takeokaand Chatfield, and Patricia A. Jaramillo. " Public Opinion on National Security Agency Surveillance Programs: A Multi-method Approach." Government Information Quarterly 32, no. 2 (April 2015): 129-141.  https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.giq.2015.01.003  .

     NOTES (THREE AUTHORS)

    Format:

      1. First name [ Middle Initial.] Last name,  First name [ Middle Initial.] Last name, and First name [Middle initial.] Last name, "Article Title," Publication title volume number, issue no. (Publication date): number, URL/DOI.      2. Last name, Last name, and Last name, "Article title," page number.

    Example:

      1.  Christopher G. Reddick, Akemi Takeokaand Chatfield, and Patricia A. Jaramillo, " Public Opinion on National Security Agency Surveillance Programs: A Multi-method Approach," Government Information Quarterly 32, no. 2 (April 2015), 130, https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.giq.2015.01.003.       2.  Reddick, Chatfield, Jaramillo, " Public Opinion on National Security Agency Surveillance Programs," 141  .

_________________________________________________________________________________________

BIBLIOGRAPHY (FOUR OR MORE AUTHORS)

*Up to ten authors/editors should be included in the bibliography. For sources with more than ten authors/editors, include the first seven authors in the bibliography, followed by et al

Last name, First name [ Middle Initial.], First name [Middle Initial.]  Last name, First name [Middle Initial.]  Last name, and First name           [Middle Initial.]  Last name . "Article Title." Publication title volume number, issue no. (Publication date): page range. URL/DOI.

Bovenschen, Silvia, Jeannine Blackwell , Johanna Moore , and Beth  Weckmueller . “The Contemporary Witch, the Historical Witch and the Witch Myth: The Witch, Subject of the Appropriation of Nature and Object of the Domination of Nature.” New German Critique no. 15, 1978: 83-119. https://doi.org/10.2307/487908  .

     NOTES (FOUR OR MORE AUTHORS)

      *For sources with more than three authors, include the lead author in the note, followed by et al

       1. First name [ Middle Initial.] Last name et al. , "Article Title," Publication title volume number, issue no. (Publication date): number, URL/DOI.       2. Last name et al., "Article title," page number.

      1.  Silvia Bovenschen et al., "The Contemporary Witch, the Historical Witch and the Witch Myth: The Witch, Subject of the Appropriation of Nature and Object of the Domination of Nature," New German Critique no. 15 (1978): 110, https://doi.org/ 10.2307/487908.       2.  Bovenschen et al., "The Contemporary Witch, the Historical Witch and the Witch Myth," 85  .

  NOTES

      1.  Jon Lawrence , "Forging a Peaceable Kingdom: War, Violence, and Fear of  Brutalization  in Post-World War Britain,"  The Journal of Modern History  75, no. 3 (September 2003): 558 .       2.  Lawrence , “ Forging a Peaceable Kingdom ,” 290 .

• Entire book
• Edited book
• Chapter in book
• Multivolume Works
• Classical work
• Dissertation/Thesis

BIBLIOGRAPHY (ONE AUTHOR)    

(For more examples look on pages 171-187 in the 9th edition)

      1. Norman F. Cantor, Medieval History: The Life and Death of a Civilization , 2nd ed. (New York: Macmillan, 1969), 152-54 .       2.  Cantor, Medieval History , 157.  

BIBLIOGRAPHY (FOUR OR MORE AUTHORS)

Faigley, Lester, Diana George, Anna Palchik, and Cynthia Selfe. Picturing Texts . New York: W.W. Norton, 2004  . 

      1.  Lester Faigley et al., Picturing Texts , (New York: W.W. Norton, 2004), 45.       2.  Faigley et al., Picturing Texts , 48 .

BIBLIOGRAPHY (TWO EDITORS)

(For more examples look on page 172 in the 9th edition)

      1.  Nathan Rosenstein and Robert Morstein-Marx, eds,  A Companion to the Roman Republic , (Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010), 70-72.       2.  Rosenstein and Morstein-Marx, eds,  A Companion to the Roman Republic , 77 .

BIBLIOGRAPHY (ONE AUTHOR, MULTIPLE EDITORS)

Pearsall, Sarah M. S. “Recentering Indian Women in the American Revolution.” In Why You Can't Teach United States History without American Indians , edited by Susan Sleeper-Smith, Juliana Barr, Jean M. O'Brien, Nancy Shoemaker, and Scott Manning Stevens, 57-70. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015. 

      1. Sarah M. S. Pearsall, “Recentering Indian Women in the American Revolution,” in Why You Can't Teach United States History without American Indians , eds. Susan Sleeper-Smith, Juliana Barr, Jean M. O'Brien, Nancy Shoemaker, and Scott Manning Stevens (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015), 58.       2. Pearsall, 60 .

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________

BIBLIOGRAPHY (MORE THAN FOUR EDITORS)

Sleeper-Smith, Susan, Juliana Barr, Jean M. O'Brien, Nancy Shoemaker, and Scott Manning Stevens, eds. Why You Can't Teach United                 States History Without American Indians . Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015. 

NOTES 

       1.  Sleeper-Smith et al.,  xi-xii .

(For more examples look on pages 183 in the 9th edition)

      1. Phyllis Culham, “Women in the Roman Republic,” in The Cambridge Companion to the Roman Republic , ed. Harriet I. Flower (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 127-48.       2. Culham, “Women in the Roman Republic,” 130 .

(For more examples look on pages 178 in the 9th edition)

       1. Joyce E. Salisbury, ed., vol. 2, The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Daily Life: A Tour through History from Ancient Times to the Present , (Westport CT: Greenwood Press, 2004), 380.       2. Salisbury, The Medieval World, vol. 2, 381 .

BIBLIOGRAPHY (Separate editor of each volume, Separate title of each volume)

Salisbury, Joyce E., ed. The Medieval World . Vol. 2, The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Daily Life: A Tour through History from Ancient Times to the Present . Westport CT: Greenwood Press, 2004.

   * Please Note: Each volume of the multivolume set The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Daily Life has a separate editor and volume title. 1. The ancient world / Gregory S. Aldrete, volume editor -- 2. The medieval world / Joyce E. Salisbury, volume editor -- 3. 15th and 16th centuries / Lawrence Morris, volume editor -- 4. 17th and 18th centuries / Peter Seelig, volume editor -- 5. 19th century / Andrew E. Kersten, volume editor -- 6. The modern world / Andrew E. Kersten, volume editor.

BIBLIOGRAPHY (Same editor of each volume)

Bedini, Silvio A., ed.  The Christopher Columbus Encyclopedia. Vol. 2.  New York: Simon & Schuster, 1992.

BIBLIOGRAPHY (TWO AUTHORS)    

(For more examples look on page 186 in the 9th edition)

      1.  Isaiah Berlin and Henry Hardy, The Soviet Mind: Russian Culture under Communism (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 2004), 56-58, https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=shib&db=nlebk&AN=112216&site=ehost-live&scope=site&custid=074-800 .       2. Berlin and Hardy, The Soviet Mind , 59.

BIBLIOGRAPHY (App/Device Example)

Issacon, Walter.  Leonardo da Vinci . New York: Simon & Schuster, 2017 . Kindle

    NOTES ( Chapter When Fixed Page Numbers Not Given)

     1. Walter Issacson, Leonardo da Vinci , (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2017), chap. 33. sec. 1. Kindle.       2.  Issacson,  Leonardo da Vinci , chap. 33, sec. 3.

Well Known Reference Book (For more examples look on page 204 in the 9th edition)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

        1. Oxford Classical Dictionary , 3rd ed., s.v. “Daedalus. ”        2. Oxford Classical Dictionary , “Daedalus. ”

Less Well Known Reference Book

David Sacks, Encyclopedia of the Ancient Greek World , Rev. ed., New York: Facts on File, 1995.

NOTES  

        1. David Sacks, Encyclopedia of the Ancient Greek World , Rev. ed., (New York: Facts on File, 1995), 15.          2. David Sacks, Encyclopedia of the Ancient Greek World, 16.  

Entry in a Well Known Multi-Volume Reference Work

       1. J. A. Leo Lemay, “ Benjamin Franklin,”  in American National Biography , vol. 8.,  eds. John A. Garraty and Marc C. Carnes, (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 199.        2. “ Benjamin Franklin,”   in  American National Biography , vol. 8. , 200 .

NOTES (For more examples look on page 202 in the 9th edition)

        1. Polybius, Histories 1.6.4.       2. Polyb, 1.6.5

BIBLIOGRAPHY (ONE AUTHOR)

(17.7.1, p. 198, 9th edition)

 NOTES

      1. Mark Arvid Warburton, “’For the Purposes of Example and Justice’: Native American Incarceration in the Upper Mississippi Valley, 1803-1849,” (PhD. diss, University of Iowa, 2011), 67 .       2.  Warburton, 78.

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A Blood Test Accurately Diagnosed Alzheimer’s 90% of the Time, Study Finds

It was much more accurate than primary care doctors using cognitive tests and CT scans. The findings could speed the quest for an affordable and accessible way to diagnose patients with memory problems.

By Pam Belluck

Scientists have made another major stride toward the long-sought goal of diagnosing Alzheimer’s disease with a simple blood test . On Sunday, a team of researchers reported that a blood test was significantly more accurate than doctors’ interpretation of cognitive tests and CT scans in signaling the condition.

The study , published Sunday in the journal JAMA, found that about 90 percent of the time the blood test correctly identified whether patients with memory problems had Alzheimer’s. Dementia specialists using standard methods that did not include expensive PET scans or invasive spinal taps were accurate 73 percent of the time, while primary care doctors using those methods got it right only 61 percent of the time.

“Not too long ago measuring pathology in the brain of a living human was considered just impossible,” said Dr. Jason Karlawish, a co-director of the Penn Memory Center at the University of Pennsylvania who was not involved in the research. “This study adds to the revolution that has occurred in our ability to measure what’s going on in the brain of living humans.”

The results, presented Sunday at the Alzheimer’s Association International Conference in Philadelphia, are the latest milestone in the search for affordable and accessible ways to diagnose Alzheimer’s, a disease that afflicts nearly seven million Americans and over 32 million people worldwide. Medical experts say the findings bring the field closer to a day when people might receive routine blood tests for cognitive impairment as part of primary care checkups, similar to the way they receive cholesterol tests.

“Now, we screen people with mammograms and PSA or prostate exams and other things to look for very early signs of cancer,” said Dr. Adam Boxer, a neurologist at the University of California, San Francisco, who was not involved in the study. “And I think we’re going to be doing the same thing for Alzheimer’s disease and hopefully other forms of neurodegeneration.”

In recent years, several blood tests have been developed for Alzheimer’s. They are currently used mostly to screen participants in clinical trials and by some specialists like Dr. Boxer to help pinpoint if a patient’s dementia is caused by Alzheimer’s or another condition.

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Modernizing the Data Infrastructure for Clinical Research to Meet Evolving Demands for Evidence

• 1 Verily Life Sciences, South San Francisco, California
• 2 Center for Biostatistics & Qualitative Methodology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
• 3 Bakar Computational Health Sciences Institute, University of California, San Francisco
• 4 Center for Data-Driven Insights and Innovation, University of California Health, Oakland
• 5 Faculty of Health Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
• 6 Departments of Surgery and Radiology and Institute for Health Policy Studies, University of California, San Francisco
• 7 Anesthesiology and Critical Care, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia
• 8 Biogen, Boston, Massachusetts
• 9 Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland
• 10 Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut
• 11 National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) Health and Social Care Delivery Research Programme, London, United Kingdom
• 12 Intensive Care National Audit & Research Centre (ICNARC), London, United Kingdom
• 13 Highlander Health, Dallas, Texas

Importance   The ways in which we access, acquire, and use data in clinical trials have evolved very little over time, resulting in a fragmented and inefficient system that limits the amount and quality of evidence that can be generated.

Observations   Clinical trial design has advanced steadily over several decades. Yet the infrastructure for clinical trial data collection remains expensive and labor intensive and limits the amount of evidence that can be collected to inform whether and how interventions work for different patient populations. Meanwhile, there is increasing demand for evidence from randomized clinical trials to inform regulatory decisions, payment decisions, and clinical care. Although substantial public and industry investment in advancing electronic health record interoperability, data standardization, and the technology systems used for data capture have resulted in significant progress on various aspects of data generation, there is now a need to combine the results of these efforts and apply them more directly to the clinical trial data infrastructure.

Conclusions and Relevance   We describe a vision for a modernized infrastructure that is centered around 2 related concepts. First, allowing the collection and rigorous evaluation of multiple data sources and types and, second, enabling the possibility to reuse health data for multiple purposes. We address the need for multidisciplinary collaboration and suggest ways to measure progress toward this goal.

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Franklin JB , Marra C , Abebe KZ, et al. Modernizing the Data Infrastructure for Clinical Research to Meet Evolving Demands for Evidence. JAMA. Published online August 05, 2024. doi:10.1001/jama.2024.0268

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GPSA2: combining landmark-free and landmark-based methods in geometric morphometrics

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Geometric Morphometrics (GM) revolutionized the way that biologists quantify shape variation among individuals, populations, and species. Traditional GM methods are based on homologous landmarks that can be reliably identified across all specimens in a sample. However, landmark-based studies are limited by the intensive labor required of anatomical experts, and regions of interest are often devoid of landmarks. These limitations inspired the development of many “landmark-free” approaches, but unreliable homology estimation and complicated underlying mathematical bases can make biological interpretation challenging. Here we present GPSA2, a novel method for analyzing surface meshes that combines landmark-based and landmark-free methodology within the familiar framework of Generalized Procrustes Analysis. In a major innovation, our method can incorporate user-defined landmarks into otherwise landmark-free analysis by transforming the landmarks into pointwise shape descriptors that are exploited during iterative homology estimation and superimposition (i.e. “alignment” of objects). GPSA2 also addresses a longstanding issue in morphometrics – the impact of variability in the distribution of sampled points over an object – by introducing a surface area-weighted shape distance metric and superimposition cost function. The improved homology approximation, together with the application of Taubin smoothing and an optional resistant-fit superimposition technique, ensure robust analysis even when a dataset exhibits regions of intense shape variation. We apply GPSA2 to two empirical datasets: 15 primate skulls and 369 mouse bacula. Our analyses show that inclusion of landmarks increases biological accuracy, and that GPSA2 produces summaries of shape variation that are easy to visualize and interpret.

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The authors have declared no competing interest.

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The purpose of this Notice is to inform the research community that the NIH Common Fund, along with its partner NIH Institutes, Centers, and Offices, is planning to issue a Notice of funding opportunity (NOFO) to support the Complement Animal Research In Experimentation (Complement-ARIE) program.

This Notice is being provided to allow potential applicants sufficient time to develop meaningful collaborations and responsive projects.

This NOFO will utilize the UM1 activity code, Clinical Trial Optional. Details of the planned NOFO are provided below.

The NIH Common Fund’s Complement Animal Research In Experimentation (Complement-ARIE) program goal is to accelerate the development, standardization, validation, and use of human-based New Approach Methodologies (NAMs).

NAMs, are laboratory (in vitro and in chemico) or computer-based (in silico) research approaches intended to more accurately model human biology, and complement, or in some cases, replace traditional research models. The Complement-ARIE program will build upon ongoing efforts in the field related to NAMs, while identifying opportunities for innovation and coordination amongst the various interest groups,  including the Advisory Committee to the Director (ACD) on catalyzing the development and use of Novel Alternative Methods to Advance Biomedical Research . The ACD working group recommendations are aligned with Complement-ARIE program goals. Feedback from the scientific community was solicited through the Complement-ARIE Challenge to propel the development and refinement of human-based NAMs. These Common Fund strategic planning activities have guided the development of the Complement-ARIE program.  

Complement-ARIE is expected to significantly advance understanding of human health and disease by providing a range of mature and/or validated and standardized biomedical research models. Developing these models will require multi-disciplinary expertise in in vitro, in silico and in chemico approaches focused on modeling and understanding human diseases and conditions, personalized medicine, environmental science, and in screening therapeutics for safety and effectiveness and environmental compounds for health hazards.

The overarching goal of the Complement-ARIE program is to catalyze the development, standardization, validation, and use of human-based NAMs that will transform the way we do basic, translational, and clinical sciences. The program goals include: 

• Better model and understand human health and disease outcomes across diverse populations. 
• Develop NAMs that provide insight into specific biological processes or disease states. 
• Validate mature NAMs to support regulatory use and standardization. 
• Complement traditional models and make biomedical research more efficient and effective.

The Complement-ARIE Program consists of three major initiatives:

• Comprehensive NAMs Technology Development Centers (TDC)
• NAMs Data Hub and Coordinating Center (NDHCC)
• Validation and Qualification Network (VQN)

This NOITP applies only to the Comprehensive NAMs Technology Development Centers.

Research Scope

The goal of the Comprehensive NAMs Technology Development Centers is to stimulate the development of combinatorial NAMs to support the areas of greatest need , with emphasis on increased biological complexity and throughput, innovative combinatorial approaches, and data sharing according to FAIR principles. Training and outreach components will be required to facilitate dissemination, capacity building, and adoption. This initiative will solicit UM1 applications for the Comprehensive NAMs Technology Development Centers.

Comprehensive NAMs Technology Development Centers

Application structure

• Element A: Center Overview
• Module B1: Center Management
• Module B2: Consortium Liaison
• Module C1: NAMs Technology Development
• Module C2: Technology Pilot projects
• Module D1: Administration
• Module D2: Data Collection and Bioinformatics
• Module D3: Resources
• Element E: Technical Characterization
• Module F1: Workforce Development and Training
• Module F2: Community and Stakeholder Engagement Research
• Module F3: Ethical, legal and social implications (ELSI)

This Notice encourages investigators with expertise and insights into this area of New Approach Methodologies to begin to consider applying for this new NOFO.

In addition, collaborative investigations combining expertise in in vitro, in silico, and in chemico NAMs are encouraged.

Announcements and regular updates will be posted on the program website:  https://commonfund.nih.gov/complementarie . Potential applicants can also register for the listserv:  go.nih.gov/ComplementARIE_listserv .

Technical Assistance Webinars

Technical assistance workshops regarding application expectations and program goals will be convened after the NOFO is published. Information about the technical assistance webinars will be posted to the Complement-ARIE FAQs page:  https://commonfund.nih.gov/complementarie/faqs .

$18M total in total costs per year

$2M per year in direct costs

Applications are not being solicited at this time.  

Please direct all inquiries to: [email protected]