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Essay on India

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Essay on India in 150 words

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India, a diverse and culturally rich country located in South Asia, is renowned for its vibrant festivals, ancient heritage sites, and diverse landscapes. With a population of over 1.3 billion people, India is a melting pot of religions, languages, and ethnicities. It is a secular nation that upholds democracy and freedom. India has made significant contributions to art, literature, science, and philosophy. Despite challenges, it has achieved progress in various fields, including technology and economic growth. As the world’s largest democracy, India’s cultural richness, traditions, and hospitality attract tourists from around the world. With a young and dynamic workforce, India is emerging as a global player in innovation and entrepreneurship. India’s resilience, cultural heritage, and growing influence continue to captivate the world, making it an important player on the global stage.

India, known as the land of diversity, is a country of rich culture, history, and traditions. It is located in South Asia and is the seventh-largest country by land area. India is renowned for its vibrant festivals, ancient heritage sites, and diverse landscapes, ranging from the majestic Himalayas to the serene backwaters of Kerala.

With a population of over 1.3 billion people, India is a melting pot of different religions, languages, and ethnicities. It is a secular country that upholds the principles of democracy and freedom. India has made significant contributions to art, literature, science, and philosophy throughout history.

Despite its challenges, India has achieved notable progress in various fields, including technology, space exploration, and economic growth. It is the world’s largest democracy and has a parliamentary system of government. India’s cultural richness, traditions, and hospitality attract millions of tourists from around the world each year.

In recent years, India has emerged as a global player, contributing to the world economy, science, and technology. It is home to a young and dynamic workforce that is driving innovation and entrepreneurship.

In conclusion, India is a country that embraces diversity, celebrates its rich cultural heritage, and strives for progress. With its vast landscapes, ancient history, and vibrant culture, India continues to captivate the world. The resilience and spirit of its people, coupled with its growing influence, make India a significant player on the global stage.

Title: India – A Tapestry of Diversity, Heritage, and Progress

Introduction :

India, a nation located in South Asia, is a land of rich cultural heritage, diverse traditions, and breathtaking landscapes. With a population of over 1.3 billion people, India is known for its vibrant festivals, ancient history, and varied cuisines. This essay explores the multifaceted aspects of India, including its rich cultural tapestry, historical significance, economic growth, and contributions to the world. From the majestic Himalayas in the north to the serene backwaters of Kerala in the south, India’s beauty and diversity captivate the hearts of millions. Let us embark on a journey through the vibrant and enchanting land of India.

Cultural Heritage

India’s cultural heritage is as vast and diverse as its geographical expanse. It is a melting pot of religions, languages, and customs. The country is home to numerous religions, including Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism, and Jainism. Each religion has its own unique rituals, traditions, and festivals, contributing to the colorful tapestry of Indian culture. Festivals like Diwali, Eid, Holi, Christmas, and Durga Puja are celebrated with great enthusiasm and are a reflection of India’s religious diversity.

Historical Significance

India boasts a rich history that spans thousands of years. It has been the birthplace of several ancient civilizations, including the Indus Valley Civilization and the Maurya and Gupta Empires. The country has been the center of learning and trade for centuries, attracting scholars, explorers, and traders from around the world. The Mughal Empire, known for its architectural marvels like the Taj Mahal, left a lasting legacy on India’s history. The British colonial rule in India and the subsequent struggle for independence led by Mahatma Gandhi shaped the modern history of the nation.

Economic Growth

India has experienced significant economic growth in recent years. It is one of the world’s fastest-growing major economies and has become a prominent player on the global stage. The country has embraced economic liberalization, attracting foreign investments and fostering entrepreneurship. India’s information technology industry, pharmaceutical sector, and service industries have flourished, contributing to its economic prosperity. However, challenges such as poverty, income inequality, and unemployment persist, highlighting the need for inclusive growth and sustainable development.

Contributions to the World

India has made remarkable contributions to various fields, including science, literature, arts, and spirituality. Ancient Indian scholars made significant advancements in mathematics, astronomy, and medicine. Indian literature, such as the Vedas, Ramayana, and Mahabharata, continues to inspire and influence people worldwide. Indian art forms like classical music, dance, and cinema have gained international recognition for their richness and beauty. Spiritual traditions like yoga and meditation have transcended borders, offering tools for holistic well-being.

Unity in Diversity

India’s strength lies in its unity amidst diversity. Despite its linguistic, religious, and cultural differences, the people of India have come together as a nation. The Constitution of India, adopted in 1950, upholds the principles of democracy, secularism, and unity. The diverse fabric of Indian society is reflected in its official languages, Hindi and English, and the recognition of regional languages. India’s unity in diversity is celebrated through cultural exchange, interfaith dialogue, and the promotion of national integration.

Future Challenges and Opportunities

India faces a range of challenges, including poverty, environmental degradation, healthcare disparities, and social inequality. Addressing these challenges requires concerted efforts in education, healthcare, sustainable development, and social welfare. However, India also presents immense opportunities for progress. With a young and dynamic workforce, a vibrant entrepreneurial spirit, and a growing middle class, India has the potential to achieve inclusive growth, technological advancements, and social transformation.

Conclusion :

India, with its diverse cultures, historical significance, economic growth, and contributions to the world, stands as a shining example of unity in diversity. The nation’s cultural heritage, ancient history, and rapid development reflect its resilience and potential. As India continues its journey toward progress and prosperity, it must embrace sustainable development, address societal challenges, and build an inclusive and equitable society. India’s beauty, traditions, and people leave an indelible mark on the hearts and minds of those who explore its captivating tapestry.

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History of India

India is a land of ancient civilization. India's social, economic, and cultural configurations are the products of a long process of regional expansion. Indian history begins with the birth of the Indus Valley Civilization and the coming of the Aryans. These two phases are usually described as the pre-Vedic and Vedic age. Hinduism arose in the Vedic period. 

The fifth century saw the unification of India under Ashoka, who had converted to Buddhism, and it is in his reign that Buddhism spread in many parts of Asia. In the eighth century Islam came to India for the first time and by the eleventh century had firmly established itself in India as a political force. It resulted into the formation of the Delhi Sultanate, which was finally succeeded by the Mughal Empire, under which India once again achieved a large measure of political unity. 

It was in the 17th century that the Europeans came to India. This coincided with the disintegration of the Mughal Empire, paving the way for regional states. In the contest for supremacy, the English emerged 'victors'. The Rebellion of 1857-58, which sought to restore Indian supremacy, was crushed; and with the subsequent crowning of Victoria as Empress of India, the incorporation of India into the empire was complete. It was followed by India's struggle for independence, which we got in the year 1947.

India Timeline

Indian timeline takes us on a journey of the history of the subcontinent. Right from the ancient India, which included Bangladesh and Pakistan, to the free and divided India, this time line covers each and every aspect related to the past as well as present of the country. Read on further to explore the timeline of India.

Economic History of India

Indus valley civilization, which flourished between 2800 BC and 1800 BC, had an advanced and flourishing economic system. The Indus valley people practiced agriculture, domesticated animals, made tools and weapons from copper, bronze and tin and even traded with some Middle East countries. 

Medieval Indian History

After the death of Harsha the Rajputs came into prominence on the political horizons of North India. The Rajputs were known for their bravery and chivalry but family feuds and strong notions of personal pride often resulted into conflicts. The Rajputs weakened each other by constant wrangling.

Emperor Akbar, also known as Akbar the Great or Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar, was the third emperor of the Mughal Empire, after Babur and Humayun. He was the son of Nasiruddin Humayun and succeeded him as the emperor in the year 1556, when he was only 13 years old.

Shah Jahan, also known as Shahbuddin Mohammed Shah Jahan, was a Mughal Emperor who ruled in the Indian Subcontinent from 1628 to 1658. He was the fifth Mughal ruler, after Babur, Humayun, Akbar and Jahangir. Shah Jahan succeeded the throne after revolting against his father, Jahangir. 

Chhatrapati Shivaji

Chatrapati Shivaji Maharaj was the founder of the Maratha Empire in western India. He is considered to be one of the greatest warriors of his time and even today, stories of his exploits are narrated as a part of the folklore. King Shivaji used the guerrilla tactics to capture a part of, the then, dominant Mughal empire.

Ancient India

The History of India begins with the Indus Valley Civilization and the coming of the Aryans. These two phases are generally described as the pre-Vedic and Vedic periods. The earliest literary source that sheds light on India's past is the Rig Veda. It is difficult to date this work with any accuracy on the basis of tradition and ambiguous astronomical information contained in the hymns.

Modern Indian History

During the late 16th and the 17th Centuries, the European trading companies in India competed with each other ferociously. By the last quarter of the 18th Century the English had outdone all others and established themselves as the dominant power in India. The British administered India for a period of about two centuries and brought about revolutionary changes in the social, political and the economic life of the country.

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• The Outer Himalayas (the Siwalik Range)
• The Lesser Himalayas
• The Great Himalayas
• Associated ranges and hills
• The Indo-Gangetic Plain
• The Western Ghats
• The Eastern Ghats
• Inland regions
• Coastal areas
• The Ganges-Brahmaputra river system
• Peninsular rivers
• Drainage into the Arabian Sea
• Lakes and inland drainage
• Red-to-yellow soils
• Black soils
• Alluvial soils
• The southwest monsoon
• Rainfall during the retreating monsoon
• Tropical cyclones
• Importance to agriculture
• Temperatures
• Reptiles, fish, and insects
• Conservation
• Ethnic groups
• Indo-European languages
• Dravidian and other languages
• Lingua francas
• Minor languages and dialects
• Population density
• Rural settlement
• Urban settlement
• Demographic trends
• Resources and power
• Manufacturing
• Labour and taxation
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• Constitutional structure
• Executive branch
• Legislative branch
• Bureaucracy
• Foreign policy
• State and local governments
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• Health and welfare
• Cultural milieu
• Family and kinship
• Festivals and holidays
• Architecture
• Dance and music
• Theatre, film, and literature
• Cultural institutions
• Sports and recreation
• Media and publishing
• The Indian Paleolithic
• Mesolithic hunters
• Neolithic agriculture in the Indus valley and Baluchistan
• Developments in the Ganges basin
• Earliest settlements in peninsular India
• Earliest settlements in eastern India
• Extent and chronology of Early Harappan culture
• Principal sites
• Subsistence and technology
• Culture and religion
• Character and significance
• Planning and architecture
• Mohenjo-daro
• Other important sites
• Agriculture and animal husbandry
• Communications
• Craft and technology
• Trade and external contacts
• Language and scripts, weights and measures
• Social and political system
• Religion and burial customs
• The end of the Indus civilization
• The Post-Urban Period in northwestern India
• The appearance of Indo-Aryan speakers
• The late 2nd millennium and the reemergence of urbanism
• Peninsular India in the aftermath of the Indus civilization (c. 2000–1000 bce )
• Traditional approaches to Indian historiography
• Trends in early Indian society
• Early Vedic period
• Later Vedic period (c. 800–c. 500 bce )
• Political systems
• Magadhan ascendancy
• Campaigns of Alexander the Great
• Chandragupta Maurya
• Ashoka and his successors
• Financial base for the empire
• Mauryan society
• Mauryan government
• Ashoka’s edicts
• Mauryan decline
• The concept of the state
• Indo-Greek rulers
• Central Asian rulers
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• The Shunga kingdom
• The Andhras and their successors
• Southern Indian kingdoms
• Contacts with the West
• Impact of trade
• Religious patronage
• Assimilation of foreigners
• Successor states
• Southern India
• Society and culture
• The tripartite struggle
• The Rajputs
• The coming of the Turks
• The Hoysalas and Pandyas
• The economy
• Social mobility
• Literature and the arts
• The Turkish conquest
• The early Turkish sultans
• Consolidation of the sultanate
• The Khaljīs
• Centralization and expansion
• Taxation and distribution of revenue resources
• Expansion and conquests
• The urban economy
• The Tughluqs
• Reversal and rebellion
• Society and the state under the Tughluqs
• Decline of the sultanate
• The rise of regional states
• Struggle for supremacy in northern India
• Bahmanī consolidation of the Deccan
• External and internal rivalries
• Vizierate of Maḥmūd Gāwān
• Bahmanī decline
• Successors to the Bahmanī
• Consolidation
• Wars and rivalries
• Decentralization and loss of territory
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• Growth of power
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• Relations with the Muslim states
• Military policies
• Loss of central control
• Breakup of the empire
• Administration of the empire
• The significance of Mughal rule
• Conquest of Hindustan
• Bābur’s achievements
• Sher Shah and his successors
• Restoration of Humāyūn
• The early years
• Struggle for firm personal control
• Subjugation of Rajasthan
• Conquest of Gujarat and Bengal
• The frontiers
• Central, provincial, and local government
• The composition of the Mughal nobility
• Organization of the nobility and the army
• Revenue system
• Fiscal administration
• Evolution of a nonsectarian state
• Akbar in historical perspective
• Loss of Kandahār
• Submission of Mewar
• Developments in the Deccan
• Rebellion of Khurram (Shah Jahān)
• Mahābat Khan’s coup
• The Deccan problem
• Central Asian policy
• War of succession
• Local and peasant uprisings
• Assessment of Aurangzeb
• The Sikh uprisings
• Cracks in the core
• Struggle for a new power center
• The emperor, the nobility, and the provinces
• Nādir Shah’s invasion
• The Afghan-Maratha struggle for northern India
• Political and economic decentralization during the Mughal decline
• Early history
• Rise of the peshwa s
• Subordinate Maratha rulers
• The case of Mysore
• Challenge from the northwest
• The Afghan factor in northern India, 1747–72
• From Banda Singh Bahadur to Ranjit Singh
• Rajasthan in the 18th century
• The south: Travancore and Mysore
• Politics and the economy
• Cultural aspects of the late precolonial order
• The Portuguese
• The British, 1600–1740
• The Anglo-French struggle, 1740–63
• European military superiority
• Revolution in Bengal
• The period of disorder, 1760–72
• The Company Bahadur
• The company and the state
• Relations with the Marathas and Mysore
• The government of Lord Wellesley
• The government of Lord Minto
• The government of Lord Hastings
• The settlement of 1818
• Organization
• The determination of policy
• The completion of dominion and expansion
• Political effects
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• Nature and causes of the rebellion
• The revolt and its aftermath
• Government of India Act of 1858
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• The northwest frontier
• The Second Anglo-Afghan War
• The incorporation of Burma
• Origins of the nationalist movement
• The early Congress movement
• The first partition of Bengal
• Nationalism in the Muslim community
• Reforms of the British Liberals
• Moderate and militant nationalism
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• Anti-British activity
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• Gandhi’s strategy
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• Muslim separatism
• The impact of World War II
• British wartime strategy
• The transfer of power and the birth of two countries
• Government and politics
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• The 1965 war with Pakistan
• Indira Gandhi’s impact
• The Bangladesh war
• Emergency rule
• The Janata interlude and the return of Indira Gandhi
• Sikh separatism
• The premiership of Rajiv Gandhi
• V.P. Singh’s coalition—its brief rise and fall
• Congress government of P.V. Narasimha Rao
• The BJP becomes the largest party in the Lok Sabha
• BJP gains in elections
• Divisiveness of BJP government
• Domestic policy
• Monetary and tax reforms
• BJP reelection bids and tensions in Kashmir
• Addressing COVID-19 and its economic impact
• Pre-Mughal Indian dynasties
• Prime ministers of India

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What countries border India?

India shares borders with Pakistan to the northwest; with Nepal, China, and Bhutan to the north; and with Myanmar and Bangladesh to the east. The island country of Sri Lanka is situated some 40 miles (65 kilometres) off the southeast coast of India.

The expansive alluvial plains of the Indus and Ganges (Ganga) river basins in India provided the environment and focus for the rise of two great phases of city life: the civilization of the Indus valley, known as the Indus civilization, during the 3rd millennium BCE; and, during the 1st millennium BCE, that of the Ganges.

The major secular holidays are Independence Day (August 15) and Republic Day (January 26). The most popular religious festivals celebrated over the greater part of India are Vasantpanchami, in honour of Sarasvati, the goddess of learning; Holi, a time when traditional hierarchical relationships are forgotten and celebrants throw coloured water and powder at one another; Dussehra, when the story of the Ramayana is reenacted, and Diwali (Divali), a time for lighting lamps and exchanging gifts.

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India , country that occupies the greater part of South Asia . It is made up of 28 states and eight union territories , and its national capital is New Delhi , built in the 20th century just south of the historic hub of Old Delhi to serve as India’s administrative center. Its government is a constitutional republic that represents a highly diverse population consisting of thousands of ethnic groups and hundreds of languages. India became the world’s most populous country in 2023, according to estimates by the United Nations .

It is known from archaeological evidence that a highly sophisticated urbanized culture—the Indus civilization —dominated the northwestern part of the subcontinent from about 2600 to 2000 bce . From that period on, India functioned as a virtually self-contained political and cultural arena, which gave rise to a distinctive tradition that was associated primarily with Hinduism , the roots of which possibly can be traced to the Indus civilization. Other religions, notably Buddhism and Jainism , originated in India—though their presence there is now quite small—and throughout the centuries residents of the subcontinent developed a rich intellectual life in such fields as mathematics, astronomy, architecture, literature, music, and the fine arts.

Throughout its history, India was intermittently disturbed by incursions from beyond its northern mountain wall. Especially important was the coming of Islam , brought from the northwest by Arab, Turkish, Persian, and other raiders beginning early in the 8th century ce . Eventually, some of those raiders stayed; by the 13th century much of the subcontinent was under Muslim rule, and the number of Muslims steadily increased. Only after the arrival of the Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama in 1498 and the subsequent establishment of European maritime supremacy in the region did India become exposed to major external influences arriving by sea, a process that culminated in the decline of the ruling Muslim elite and absorption of the subcontinent within the British Empire .

Direct administration by the British, which began in 1858, effected a political and economic unification of the subcontinent. As a result of the Indian Independence Movement , British rule came to an end on August 14-15, 1947, celebrated annually as Independence Day . The subcontinent was then partitioned along religious lines into two separate countries—India, with a majority of Hindus, and Pakistan , with a majority of Muslims; the eastern portion of Pakistan later split off to form Bangladesh . Many British institutions stayed in place (such as the parliamentary system of government); English continued to be a widely used lingua franca; and India remained within the Commonwealth . Hindi became the official language (and a number of other local languages achieved official status), while a vibrant English-language intelligentsia thrived .

India remains one of the most ethnically diverse countries in the world. Apart from its many religions and sects, India is home to innumerable castes and tribes, as well as to more than a dozen major and hundreds of minor linguistic groups from several language families unrelated to one another. Religious minorities, including Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, and Jains, still account for a significant proportion of the population. Earnest attempts have been made to instill a spirit of nationhood in so varied a population, but tensions between neighboring groups have remained and at times have resulted in outbreaks of violence. Yet social legislation has done much to alleviate the disabilities previously suffered by formerly “ untouchable ” castes, tribal populations, women, and other traditionally disadvantaged segments of society. At independence, India was blessed with several leaders of world stature, most notably Mohandas Karamchand (Mahatma) Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru , who were able to galvanize the masses at home and bring prestige to India abroad. The country has played an increasing role in global affairs.

Contemporary India’s increasing physical prosperity and cultural dynamism—despite continued domestic challenges and economic inequality—are seen in its well-developed infrastructure and a highly diversified industrial base, in its pool of scientific and engineering personnel (one of the largest in the world), in the pace of its agricultural expansion, and in its rich and vibrant cultural exports of music, literature, and cinema. Though the country’s population remains largely rural, India has three of the most populous and cosmopolitan cities in the world— Mumbai (Bombay), Kolkata (Calcutta), and Delhi . Three other Indian cities— Bengaluru (Bangalore), Chennai (Madras), and Hyderabad —are among the world’s fastest-growing high-technology centers, and most of the world’s major information technology and software companies now have offices in India.

The history section of the articles Pakistan and Bangladesh discuss those countries since their creation.

India’s frontier, which is roughly one-third coastline, abuts six countries. It is bounded to the northwest by Pakistan , to the north by Nepal , China , and Bhutan ; and to the east by Myanmar (Burma). Bangladesh to the east is surrounded by India to the north, east, and west. The island country of Sri Lanka is situated some 40 miles (65 km) off the southeast coast of India across the Palk Strait and Gulf of Mannar .

The land of India—together with Bangladesh and most of Pakistan—forms a well-defined subcontinent, set off from the rest of Asia by the imposing northern mountain rampart of the Himalayas and by adjoining mountain ranges to the west and east. In area, India ranks as the seventh largest country in the world.

Much of India’s territory lies within a large peninsula, surrounded by the Arabian Sea to the west and the Bay of Bengal to the east; Cape Comorin (Kanniyakumari), the southernmost point of the Indian mainland, marks the dividing line between those two bodies of water. India has two union territories composed entirely of islands: Lakshadweep , in the Arabian Sea, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands , which lie between the Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Sea .

It is now generally accepted that India’s geographic position, continental outline, and basic geologic structure resulted from a process of plate tectonics —the shifting of enormous, rigid crustal plates over the Earth’s underlying layer of molten material. India’s landmass, which forms the northwestern portion of the Indian-Australian Plate , began to drift slowly northward toward the much larger Eurasian Plate several hundred million years ago (after the former broke away from the ancient southern-hemispheric supercontinent known as Gondwana , or Gondwanaland). When the two finally collided (approximately 50 million years ago), the northern edge of the Indian-Australian Plate was thrust under the Eurasian Plate at a low angle. The collision reduced the speed of the oncoming plate, but the underthrusting, or subduction, of the plate has continued into contemporary times.

The effects of the collision and continued subduction are numerous and extremely complicated. An important consequence, however, was the slicing off of crustal rock from the top of the underthrusting plate. Those slices were thrown back onto the northern edge of the Indian landmass and came to form much of the Himalayan mountain system. The new mountains—together with vast amounts of sediment eroded from them—were so heavy that the Indian-Australian Plate just south of the range was forced downward, creating a zone of crustal subsidence. Continued rapid erosion of the Himalayas added to the sediment accumulation, which was subsequently carried by mountain streams to fill the subsidence zone and cause it to sink more.

India’s present-day relief features have been superimposed on three basic structural units: the Himalayas in the north, the Deccan (peninsular plateau region) in the south, and the Indo-Gangetic Plain (lying over the subsidence zone) between the two. Further information on the geology of India is found in the article Asia .

Ancient India

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India is a country in South Asia whose name comes from the Indus River. The name 'Bharata' is used as a designation for the country in their constitution referencing the ancient mythological emperor, Bharata, whose story is told, in part, in the Indian epic Mahabharata .

According to the writings known as the Puranas (religious/historical texts written down in the 5th century CE), Bharata conquered the whole subcontinent of India and ruled the land in peace and harmony. The land was, therefore, known as Bharatavarsha (`the subcontinent of Bharata'). Hominid activity in the Indian subcontinent stretches back over 250,000 years, and it is, therefore, one of the oldest inhabited regions on the planet.

Archaeological excavations have discovered artifacts used by early humans, including stone tools, which suggest an extremely early date for human habitation and technology in the area. While the civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt have long been recognized for their celebrated contributions to civilization , India has often been overlooked, especially in the West, though its history and culture is just as rich. The Indus Valley Civilization (c. 7000-c. 600 BCE) was among the greatest of the ancient world, covering more territory than either Egypt or Mesopotamia and producing an equally vibrant and progressive culture.

It is the birthplace of four great world religions - Hinduism , Jainism , Buddhism , and Sikhism - as well as the philosophical school of Charvaka which influenced the development of scientific thought and inquiry. The inventions and innovations of the people of ancient India include many aspects of modern life taken for granted today including the flush toilet, drainage and sewer systems, public pools, mathematics, veterinary science , plastic surgery, board games, yoga and meditation, as well as many more.

Prehistory of India

The areas of present-day India, Pakistan, and Nepal have provided archaeologists and scholars with the richest sites of the most ancient pedigree. The species Homo heidelbergensis (a proto-human who was an ancestor of modern Homo sapiens ) inhabited the subcontinent of India centuries before humans migrated into the region known as Europe . Evidence of the existence of Homo heidelbergensis was first discovered in Germany in 1907 and, since, further discoveries have established fairly clear migration patterns of this species out of Africa .

Recognition of the antiquity of their presence in India has been largely due to the fairly late archaeological interest in the area as, unlike work in Mesopotamia and Egypt, western excavations in India did not begin in earnest until the 1920s. Though the ancient city of Harappa was known to exist as early as 1829, its archaeological significance was ignored and the later excavations corresponded to an interest in locating the probable sites referred to in the great Indian epics Mahabharata and Ramayana (both of the 5th or 4th centuries BCE) while ignoring the possibility of a much more ancient past for the region.

The village of Balathal (near Udaipur in Rajasthan), to cite only one example, illustrates the antiquity of India's history as it dates to 4000 BCE. Balathal was not discovered until 1962 and excavations were not begun there until the 1990s CE. Even older is the Neolithic site of Mehrgarh, dated at c. 7000 BCE but showing evidence of even earlier habitation, which was not discovered until 1974.

Archaeological excavations in the past 50 years have dramatically changed the understanding of India's past and, by extension, world history. A 4000-year-old skeleton discovered at Balathal in 2009 provides the oldest evidence of leprosy in India. Prior to this find, leprosy was considered a much younger disease thought to have been carried from Africa to India at some point and then from India to Europe by the army of Alexander the Great following his death in 323 BCE.

It is now understood that significant human activity was underway in India by the Holocene Period (10,000 years ago) and that many historical assumptions, based upon earlier work in Egypt and Mesopotamia, need to be reviewed and revised. The beginnings of the Vedic tradition in India, still practiced today, can now be dated, at least in part, to the indigenous people of ancient sites such as Balathal and their interaction and blending with the culture of Aryan migrants who arrived in the region between c. 2000-c. 1500 BCE, initiating the so-called Vedic Period (c. 1500-c.500 BCE) during which the Hindu scriptures known as the Vedas were committed to written form.

Mohenjo-daro & Harappan Civilization

The Indus Valley Civilization dates to c. 7000 BCE and grew steadily throughout the lower Gangetic Valley region southwards and northwards to Malwa. The cities of this period were larger than contemporary settlements in other countries, were situated according to cardinal points, and were built of mud bricks, often kiln-fired. Houses were constructed with a large courtyard opening from the front door, a kitchen/workroom for the preparation of food, and smaller bedrooms.

Family activities seem to have centered on the front of the house, particularly the courtyard and, in this, are similar to what has been inferred from sites in Rome , Egypt, Greece , and Mesopotamia. The buildings and homes of the Indus Valley peoples, however, were far more advanced technologically with many featuring flush toilets and "wind catchers" (possibly first developed in ancient Persia ) on the rooftops which provided air conditioning. The sewer and drainage systems of the cities excavated thus far are more advanced than those of Rome at its height.

The most famous sites of this period are the great cities of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa both located in present-day Pakistan (Mohenjo-daro in the Sindh province and Harappa in Punjab) which was part of India until the 1947 partition of the country which created the separate nation. Harappa has given its name to the Harappan Civilization (another name for the Indus Valley Civilization) which is usually divided into Early, Middle, and Mature periods corresponding roughly to 5000-4000 BCE (Early), 4000-2900 BCE (Middle), and 2900-1900 BCE (Mature). Harappa dates from the Middle period (c. 3000 BCE) while Mohenjo-Daro was built in the Mature period (c. 2600 BCE).

Harappa's buildings were severely damaged and the site compromised in the 19th century when British workers carried away a significant amount of material for use as ballast in constructing the railroad . Prior to this time, many buildings had already been dismantled by citizens of the local village of Harappa (which gives the site its name) for use in their own projects. It is therefore now difficult to determine the historical significance of Harappa save that it is clear it was once a significant Bronze Age community with a population of as many as 30,000 people.

Mohenjo-Daro, on the other hand, is much better preserved as it lay mostly buried until 1922. The name Mohenjo-Daro means `mound of the dead' in Sindhi and was applied to the site by local people who found bones of humans and animals there, as well as ancient ceramics and other artifacts, emerging from the soil periodically. The original name of the city is unknown although various possibilities have been suggested by finds in the region, among them, the Dravidian name `Kukkutarma', the city of the cock, a possible allusion to the site now known as Mohenjo-Daro as a center of ritual cock-fighting or, perhaps, as a breeding center for cocks.

Mohenjo-Daro was an elaborately constructed city with streets laid out evenly at right angles and a sophisticated drainage system. The Great Bath, a central structure at the site, was heated and seems to have been a focal point for the community. The citizens were skilled in the use of metals such as copper , bronze , lead, and tin (as evidenced by artworks such as the bronze statue of the Dancing Girl and by individual seals) and cultivated barley, wheat, peas, sesame, and cotton. Trade was an important source of commerce and it is thought that ancient Mesopotamian texts which mention Magan and Meluhha refer to India generally or, perhaps, Mohenjo-Daro specifically. Artifacts from the Indus Valley region have been found at sites in Mesopotamia though their precise point of origin in India is not always clear.

Decline of Harappan Civilization

The people of the Harappan Civilization worshipped many gods and engaged in ritual worship. Statues of various deities (such as Indra , the god of storm and war ) have been found at many sites and, chief among them, terracotta pieces depicting the Shakti (the Mother Goddess) suggesting a popular, common worship of the feminine principle. In c. 2000 - c.1500 BCE it is thought another race, known as the Aryans , migrated into India through the Khyber Pass and assimilated into the existing culture, bringing their gods and the language of Sanskrit with them which they then introduced to the region's existing belief system. Who the Aryans were and what effect they had on the indigenous people continues to be debated but it is generally acknowledged that, at about the same time as their arrival, the Harappan culture began to decline.

Scholars cite climate change as one possible reason noting evidence of both drought and flood in the region. The Indus River is thought to have begun flooding the region more regularly (as evidenced by approximately 30 feet or 9 meters of silt at Mohenjo-Daro) and this destroyed crops and encouraged famine. It is also thought the path of the monsoon, relied upon for watering the crops, could have changed and people left the cities in the north for lands in the south. Another possibility is loss of trade relations with Mesopotamia and Egypt, their two most vital partners in commerce, as both of those regions were undergoing domestic conflicts at this same time.

Racialist writers and political philosophers of the early 20th century, following the lead of the German philologist Max Muller (l. 1823-1900), claimed the Indus Valley Civilization fell to an invasion of light-skinned Aryans but this theory has now long been discredited. Equally untenable is the theory that the people were driven south by extra-terrestrials. Among the most mysterious aspects of Mohenjo-daro is the vitrification of parts of the site as though it had been exposed to intense heat which melted the brick and stone. This same phenomenon has been observed at sites such as Traprain Law in Scotland and attributed to the results of warfare . Speculation regarding the destruction of the city by some kind of ancient atomic blast, however, (the work of aliens from other planets) is not generally regarded as credible.

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The Vedic Period

Whatever the reason for the abandonment of the cities, the period that followed the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization is known as the Vedic Period, characterized by a pastoral lifestyle and adherence to the religious texts known as The Vedas . Society became divided into four classes (the Varnas ) popularly known as 'the caste system' which were comprised of the Brahmana at the top (priests and scholars), the Kshatriya next (the warriors), the Vaishya (farmers and merchants), and the Shudra (laborers). The lowest caste was the Dalits , the untouchables, who handled meat and waste, though there is some debate over whether this class existed in antiquity.

At first, it seems this caste system was merely a reflection of one's occupation but, in time, it became more rigidly interpreted to be determined by one's birth and one was not allowed to change castes nor to marry into a caste other than one's own. This understanding was a reflection of the belief in an eternal order to human life dictated by a supreme deity.

While the religious beliefs which characterized the Vedic Period are considered much older, it was during this time that they became systematized as the religion of Sanatan Dharma ('Eternal Order') known today as Hinduism (this name deriving from the Indus (or Sindus) River where worshippers were known to gather, hence, 'Sindus', and then 'Hindus'). The underlying tenet of Sanatan Dharma is that there is an order and a purpose to the universe and human life and, by accepting this order and living in accordance with it, one will experience life as it is meant to be properly lived.

While Sanatan Dharma is considered by many a polytheistic religion consisting of many gods, it is actually monotheistic in that it holds there is one god, Brahman (the Self but also the Universe and creator of the observable universe), who, because of his greatness, cannot be fully apprehended save through the many aspects which are revealed as the different gods of the Hindu pantheon.

It is Brahman who decrees the eternal order and maintains the universe through it. This belief in an order to the universe reflects the stability of the society in which it grew and flourished as, during the Vedic Period, governments became centralized and social customs integrated fully into daily life across the region. Besides The Vedas , the great religious and literary works of the Puranas , the Mahabharata , Bhagavad -Gita , and the Ramayana all come from this period.

In the 6th century BCE, the religious reformers Vardhamana Mahavira (l. c. 599-527 BCE) and Siddhartha Gautama (l. c. 563 to c. 483 BCE) developed their own belief systems and broke away from mainstream Sanatan Dharma to eventually create their own religions of Jainism and Buddhism, respectively. These changes in religion were a part of a wider pattern of social and cultural upheaval which resulted in the formation of city-states and the rise of powerful kingdoms (such as the Magadha Kingdom under the ruler Bimbisara ) and the proliferation of philosophical schools of thought which challenged orthodox Hinduism.

Mahavira rejected the Vedas and placed the responsibility for salvation and enlightenment directly on the individual and the Buddha would later do the same. The philosophical school of Charvaka rejected all supernatural elements of religious belief and maintained that only the senses could be trusted to apprehend the truth and, further, that the greatest goal in life was pleasure and one's own enjoyment. Although Charvaka did not endure as a school of thought, it influenced the development of a new way of thinking which was more grounded, pragmatic, and eventually encouraged the adoption of empirical and scientific observation and method.

Cities also expanded during this time and the increased urbanization and wealth attracted the attention of Cyrus II (the Great, r. c. 550-530 BCE) of the Persian Achaemenid Empire (c. 550-330 BCE) who invaded India in 530 BCE and initiated a campaign of conquest in the region. Ten years later, under the reign of his son, Darius I (the Great, r. 522-486 BCE), northern India was firmly under Persian control (the regions corresponding to Afghanistan and Pakistan today) and the inhabitants of that area subject to Persian laws and customs. One consequence of this, possibly, was an assimilation of Persian and Indian religious beliefs which some scholars point to as an explanation for further religious and cultural reforms.

The Great Empires of Ancient India

Persia held dominance in northern India until the conquest of Alexander the Great in 330 BCE who marched on India after Persia had fallen. Again, foreign influences were brought to bear on the region giving rise to the Greco- Buddhist culture which impacted all areas of culture in northern India from art to religion to dress. Statues and reliefs from this period depict Buddha, and other figures, as distinctly Hellenic in dress and pose (known as the Gandhara School of Art). Following Alexander 's departure from India, the Mauryan Empire (322-185 BCE) rose under the reign of Chandragupta Maurya (r. c. 321-297 BCE) until, by the end of the third century BCE, it ruled over almost all of northern India.

Chandragupta 's son, Bindusara (r. 298-272 BCE) extended the empire throughout almost the whole of India. His son was Ashoka the Great (r. 268-232 BCE) under whose rule the empire flourished at its height. Eight years into his reign, Ashoka conquered the eastern city-state of Kalinga which resulted in a death toll numbering over 100,000. Shocked at the destruction and death, Ashoka embraced the teachings of the Buddha and embarked on a systematic program advocating Buddhist thought and principles.

He established many monasteries, gave lavishly to Buddhist communities, and is said to have erected 84,000 stupas across the land to honor the Buddha. In 249 BCE, on pilgrimage to sites associated with the Buddha's life, he formally established the village of Lumbini as Buddha's birthplace, erecting a pillar there, and commissioned the creation of his famous Edicts of Ashoka to encourage Buddhist thought and values. Prior to Ashoka's reign, Buddhism was a small sect struggling to gain adherents. After Ashoka sent missionaries to foreign countries carrying the Buddhist vision, the small sect began to grow into the major religion it is today.

The Mauryan Empire declined and fell after Ashoka's death and the country splintered into many small kingdoms and empires (such as the Kushan Empire) in what has come to be called the Middle Period. This era saw the increase of trade with Rome (which had begun c. 130 BCE) following Augustus Caesar 's incorporation of Egypt into the newly established Roman Empire in 30 BCE. Rome now became India's primary partner in trade as the Romans also had already annexed much of Mesopotamia. This was a time of individual and cultural development in the various kingdoms which finally flourished in what is considered the Golden Age of India under the reign of the Gupta Empire (320-550 CE).

The Gupta Empire is thought to have been founded by one Sri Gupta (`Sri' means `Lord') who probably ruled between 240-280 CE. As Sri Gupta is thought to have been of the Vaishya (merchant) class, his rise to power in defiance of the caste system is unprecedented. He laid the foundation for the government which would so stabilize India that virtually every aspect of culture reached its height under the reign of the Guptas. Philosophy , literature , science, mathematics, architecture , astronomy, technology, art, engineering, religion, and astronomy, among other fields, all flourished during this period, resulting in some of the greatest of human achievements.

The Puranas of Vyasa were compiled during this period and the famous caves of Ajanta and Ellora, with their elaborate carvings and vaulted rooms, were also begun. Kalidasa the poet and playwright wrote his masterpiece Shakuntala and the Kamasutra was also written, or compiled from earlier works, by Vatsyayana. Varahamihira explored astronomy at the same time as Aryabhatta, the mathematician, made his own discoveries in the field and also recognized the importance of the concept of zero, which he is credited with inventing. As the founder of the Gupta Empire defied orthodox Hindu thought, it is not surprising that the Gupta rulers advocated and propagated Buddhism as the national belief and this is the reason for the plentitude of Buddhist works of art, as opposed to Hindu, at sites such as Ajanta and Ellora.

The Decline of Empire & the Coming of Islam

The empire declined slowly under a succession of weak rulers until it collapsed around 550 CE. The Gupta Empire was then replaced by the rule of Harshavardhan (590-647 CE) who ruled the region for 42 years. A literary man of considerable accomplishments (he authored three plays in addition to other works) Harsha was a patron of the arts and a devout Buddhist who forbade the killing of animals in his kingdom but recognized the necessity to sometimes kill humans in battle .

He was a highly skilled military tactician who was only defeated in the field once in his life. Under his reign, the north of India flourished but his kingdom collapsed following his death. The invasion of the Huns had been repeatedly repelled by the Guptas and then by Harshavardhan but, with the fall of his kingdom, India fell into chaos and fragmented into small kingdoms lacking the unity necessary to fight off invading forces.

In 712 CE the Muslim general Muhammed bin Quasim conquered northern India, establishing himself in the region of modern-day Pakistan. The Muslim invasion saw an end to the indigenous empires of India and, from then on, independent city-states or communities under the control of a city would be the standard model of government. The Islamic Sultanates rose in the region of modern-day Pakistan and spread north-west.

The disparate world views of the religions which now contested each other for acceptance in the region and the diversity of languages spoken, made the unity and cultural advances, such as were seen in the time of the Guptas, difficult to reproduce. Consequently, the region was easily conquered by the Islamic Mughal Empire. India would then remain subject to various foreign influences and powers (among them the Portuguese, the French, and the British) until finally winning its independence in 1947.

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Bibliography

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• Archaeological Sites In India,Famous Archaeological Sites In India,Indian Archaeological Sites,Archaeology India - Indiasite , accessed 1 Dec 2016.
• Keay, J. India: A History. Grove Press, 2010.
• Koller, J. M. Asian Philosophies. Prentice Hall, 2007.
• Kulke, H. & Rothermund, D. A History of India. Barnes & Noble Books, 2008.
• Long, J. D. Historical Dictionary of Hinduism. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2010.
• Long, J. D. Jainism: An Introduction. I.B. Tauris, 2009.
• Mauryan Empire (ca. 323–185 B.C.) | Thematic Essay | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art , accessed 1 Dec 2016.
• Nagle, D. B. The Ancient World. Prentice Hall, 2008.
• Scarre, C. & Fagan, B. M. Ancient Civilizations. Routledge, 2008.

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India Essay in English 10 lines, 100 Words – For Students & Children

• Entrance Exams
• November 6, 2023

India Essay in English – India, often referred to as the “Land of Diversity,” is a country that boasts a rich and complex history, an astonishing variety of cultures, languages, and traditions, and a promising future as one of the world’s fastest-growing economies. India’s culture celebrates pluralism, with numerous languages and religions coexisting harmoniously.

Here you will find the India Essay in 10 lines, 100, 500, 1000 Words. This essay explores the multifaceted facets of India, from its geography and culture to its remarkable achievements and challenges. Despite challenges, India continues to evolve and thrive.

10 Lines About India Essay

India is a diverse and culturally rich nation known for its centuries-old history and traditions. With a population of over a billion people, it’s the world’s largest democracy. India is famous for its iconic landmarks like the Taj Mahal and vibrant festivals like Diwali and Holi. Here are some points about India in easy and understand way:

• India, located in South Asia, is known for its rich cultural heritage and history.
• The Indian flag consists of three colors: saffron, white, and green, with the Ashoka Chakra, a blue wheel, at its center.
• New Delhi serves as the capital city of India, while Mumbai, Kolkata, and Chennai are other major urban centers.
• India is the world’s second-most populous country, with a population of over 1.3 billion people.
• Hindi and English are the official languages of India, but the country is incredibly linguistically diverse, with over 19,500 languages spoken.
• Indian cuisine is famous for its flavorful dishes, such as curry, biryani, and samosas, which are cherished worldwide.
• Cricket is the most popular sport in India, with a massive following among children and adults alike.
• India boasts an array of iconic landmarks, including the Taj Mahal, a symbol of eternal love, and the Himalayas, the world’s highest mountain range.
• Festivals like Diwali, Holi, and Eid are celebrated with great enthusiasm, featuring vibrant colors and lights.
• India has a rich historical and cultural legacy, with influential figures like Mahatma Gandhi, Rani Lakshmibai, and Aryabhata leaving a lasting impact on the world.

Also See – Azadi Ka Amrit Mahotsav Essay in English – 10 Lines, 100 / 1000 Words

Short Essay about India in 100 Words

India, my beloved motherland, is a haven of honesty, diversity, and welcoming hearts. Its cultural tapestry weaves people of unique traditions and languages into a harmonious fabric. While Hindi is the mother tongue, countless languages flourish, fostering religious unity. India’s natural beauty and historic sites beckon the world, from the Himalayas to spiritual practices like Yoga. The philosophy of Sanatan Dharma upholds our unity in diversity. As a republic, India empowers its citizens to shape its destiny. Pilgrims from across the globe flock to experience the magnificence of temples and heritage sites. India’s heartwarming spirit and global significance make it a cherished treasure.

Essay on My country India in 500 Words

In this essay, we embark on a journey to explore the intricate tapestry of a nation known for its diversity, culture, and rich heritage. “My Country India” is not just a geographical entity; it’s an experience, a reflection of history, culture, and unity.

India: The Land of Unity in Diversity

India, my beloved homeland, is a tapestry of diversity, culture, and history. As the seventh-largest country in the world by land area and the second-most populous nation, it stands as a remarkable entity in the global landscape. India is not just a nation; it’s an experience, a journey through time and tradition.

The Bengal Tiger, a symbol of strength and beauty, serves as our national animal, representing the rich wildlife and natural beauty that grace our land. Every year, on the 15th of August, India celebrates its Independence Day, marking the hard-fought freedom from British colonial rule. The tricolored Indian flag, known as the Tiranga, adorns the occasion, with its saffron, white, and green bands and the Ashok Chakra in navy blue at its center.

The ‘Lion Capital of Ashoka’ stands as our national emblem, a relic from our illustrious past. The national motto, ‘Satyameva Jayate,’ meaning ‘truth alone triumphs,’ reflects the guiding principles that shape our nation.

On the 26th of January, India observes Republic Day, commemorating the day when our constitution came into effect in 1950. This marked a significant milestone, solidifying India’s status as a sovereign nation capable of self-governance.

India’s true strength lies in its diversity. With a population exceeding 1.3 billion people, it is a melting pot of languages, cultures, and religions. From Buddhism to Jainism, Islam to Hinduism, India embraces a wide array of faiths. The diverse cuisine and clothing styles that vary from one region to another beautifully exemplify the concept of ‘Unity in Diversity.’ Each region offers a unique blend of flavors and fabrics, a testament to the rich cultural tapestry that defines India.

India shares its borders with several countries, including Pakistan, Afghanistan, China, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar, and Bangladesh. It also shares its maritime borders with Sri Lanka and the Maldives. This geographic diversity influences the nation’s way of life and culture, making it a dynamic and ever-evolving entity.

Saffron, white, and green harmoniously come together to form the Indian national flag, a symbol of unity in a country defined by diversity. The Ashok Chakra at the center is a navy blue 24-spoke wheel, symbolizing virtue and righteousness. This emblematic representation of India is a constant reminder of its heritage and values.

In conclusion, India is not merely a nation; it is a vibrant tapestry woven from diverse threads of culture, religion, and tradition. Its strength lies in its unity despite differences, and its resilience is evident in its journey from colonial rule to a thriving democracy. With its rich history, stunning natural landscapes, and a populace that embraces both its heritage and progress, India remains a source of inspiration for the world, a country where diversity is celebrated and unity prevails. India is more than just a country; it is a celebration of life itself.

Write an Essay on India

India, often referred to as the “Land of a Thousand Contrasts,” is a nation of unparalleled diversity and rich heritage. With a history dating back thousands of years, India has been a cradle of civilizations, the birthplace of different religions, various languages, cuisines, and traditions, all harmoniously coexisting.

Title: India – A Multifaceted Nation

Introduction:

India, a land of immense diversity and cultural richness, is a country that captivates the imagination of people worldwide. This essay explores the multifaceted aspects of India, with a focus on its geography, history, culture, society, and global presence.

Geographical Diversity:

• Geographic Extent: India is a vast subcontinent, stretching from the snow-capped Himalayan mountains in the north to the tropical coastlines in the south. It covers an extensive range of landscapes, from arid deserts to fertile plains and lush forests.
• Rivers and Water Bodies : India boasts a network of significant rivers, including the sacred Ganges, Brahmaputra, and many others. These rivers not only provide water for agriculture but also have cultural and religious significance.

Historical Significance:

• Ancient Civilizations: India’s history dates back thousands of years and includes the ancient Indus Valley Civilization, which thrived in the 3rd millennium BCE. It has been a cradle of various ancient civilizations and empires.
• Colonial Era: The British colonial rule from the 18th to the mid-20th century left an enduring impact on India’s political and social landscape, paving the way for the struggle for independence.
• Independence and Republic: India’s journey to independence, led by Mahatma Gandhi, culminated in the establishment of the Indian Republic on August 15, 1947.

Cultural Diversity:

• Linguistic and Religious Diversity: India is home to a multitude of languages, dialects, and religions. Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, Islam, Christianity, and various other faiths coexist harmoniously.
• Festivals and Traditions: India celebrates a plethora of festivals such as Diwali, Holi, Eid, Christmas, and regional celebrations, showcasing its rich cultural tapestry.
• Arts and Architecture: India is renowned for its classical and folk dance forms, music, art, and architectural marvels, with the Taj Mahal being an iconic symbol of India’s architectural heritage.

Society and Values:

• Family Values : Indian society places a strong emphasis on family values, and joint families, where multiple generations live together, are prevalent in many parts of the country.
• Hospitality and Respect: The Indian tradition of “Atithi Devo Bhava” (the guest is God) reflects the warmth, politeness, and respect for visitors in Indian culture.

National Anthem and Song

• National Anthem: “Jana Gana Mana” serves as India’s national anthem, uniting the nation with its evocative lyrics.
• National Song: “Vande Mataram,” a passionate ode to the motherland, resonates with the spirit of India.

National Symbols of India

Representing the Nation

• The Lion Capital of Ashoka: This sculpture serves as India’s national emblem, reflecting its historical heritage.
• National Motto: India’s guiding motto is “Satyameva Jayate,” which means “truth alone triumphs.”
• National Emblem: Lion of Sarnath (Symbolizes India’s commitment to peace and goodwill)
• National Animal: Tiger (Symbolizes grace, strength, and power)
• National Bird: Peacock (Symbolizes beauty, majesty, and pride)
• National Flower: Lotus (Symbolizes purity, wealth, richness, knowledge, and serenity)
• National Tree: Great Banyan Tree (Considered immortal and sacred, integral part of Indian myths and legends)

Global Presence:

• Economic Growth: India is one of the world’s fastest-growing major economies, with a thriving IT industry and a diverse industrial base.
• Diplomatic Relations: India’s international presence is influential as the world’s largest democracy, playing a vital role in global diplomacy, and maintaining relations with neighboring countries.

Challenges and Opportunities

Addressing Socioeconomic and Environmental Issues

• Socioeconomic Challenges: India faces issues such as poverty, income inequality, and limited access to healthcare and education.
• Environmental Concerns: Environmental challenges, including air pollution and deforestation, threaten sustainable development.

Natural Beauty and Landmarks

From the Taj Mahal to Serene Backwaters

• Iconic Monuments: India boasts world-famous landmarks like the Taj Mahal, a white marble mausoleum symbolizing love, and the Himalayas, the world’s highest mountain range.
• Natural Scenery: The country’s landscapes are diverse, from lush forests to serene backwaters, making it a visual paradise.

Spiritual and Philosophical Traditions

Exploring Spiritual Practices and Philosophy

• Spiritual Practices: India is renowned for its spiritual and philosophical traditions, including Yoga and meditation, which have gained global popularity.
• Contributions to Philosophy: Ancient Indian scholars like Aryabhata made significant contributions to fields like mathematics and astronomy.

Conclusion:

India, a multifaceted nation, is a land of unparalleled diversity, culture, history, and societal values. Its vast geographical extent, rich heritage, warm-hearted people, and global influence make it a unique and captivating country. As India continues to evolve, it remains a land of endless opportunities, growth, and enduring cultural richness.

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The Open Skies of History

What Walter Benjamin helps us understand about India’s ravaged past

(Illustration: Saurabh Singh)

SEVENTY-SEVEN years after Freedom at Midnight, the “open skies of history” beckon to us. What do they point to? Not Walter Benjamin’s “angel of history.”

But Kala Bhairava.

Benjamin’s famous essay, ‘ Über den Begriff der Geschichte ’ in the original German, first translated into English and published in Illuminations , edited by Hannah Arendt (1969), is where we come across the angel of history.

But, we might ask, what about Kala?

The usual word for history in our languages is Itihasa .

Kala, on the other hand, encompasses all aspects of time—ordinary time, felt time, chronological time, mega time, cosmic time, meta time even.

How to free ourselves from historical time, this direst and dirtiest of colonialist impositions? We who were masters of time—worshippers of Mahakala and thus akalis —became its subjects.

Unlike asking “What is Kala?” we need not go through the trouble of asking, “What is time?” because we know instinctively that time is a human construct.

What is clearly discernable in the natural world is not time, but cycles of day and night, the change of seasons, lunar cycles, and the apparent movement of the planets and stars.

The ancients, not only in India, but elsewhere, knew about the rotation and revolution of the Earth, possibly about the eccentricity of the Earth’s orbit around the Sun. Also, something about its obliquity, the angle and tilt of the Earth’s axis with respect to its orbital plane. As well as where the direction of its axis of rotation is pointed. That is its precession.

Many temples and monuments from thousands of years ago prove this.

Even ‘primitive’ humans were aware of how their own bodily patterns were connected with larger natural, planetary, and cosmic rhythms.

The very rhythm word is akin to Rta , the ancient word for the order of things.

But of time, we had no strict measure. Nor did we have a universal chronology.

In that sense, the chronometer, a mechanical device whose precision became a continental obsession, is itself the supreme symbol of modernity and the ensuing tyranny of time.

No surprise that the Gregorian Calendar, BC (Before Christ)/Anno Domini (AD), and, more definitively, Greenwich Mean Time (1884), were relatively recent inventions, all connected with colonial modernity and historiography.

Time cannot be the ‘same’ even at two different points along the same latitude. It is ‘frozen’ into zones for convenience and when you cross an imaginary line, even the date changes.

Yet, time became the measure of all things, universally applied across homes, schools and colleges, factories and parliaments.

If so, what is history but the reclamation of the past from the ravages of time?

We are reminded of these haunting lines from Walter Benjamin’s famous 1940 essay, ‘Theses on the Philosophy of History’: “Where we see the appearance of a chain of events,” the Angel of History sees “one single catastrophe, which unceasingly piles rubble on top of rubble and hurls it before his feet.”

Ironically, even Mahatma Gandhi, the great anti-modernist, was a respecter, if not servitor, of time. The exact time of his death on January 30, 1948, is revealed by the hands of his Swiss-made Zenith alarm pocket watch. The watch fell out of his hands when he was shot, crashing on the ground.

The watch stopped.

His time on earth came to an end at 5.15 PM.

At another momentous event, during the French Revolution, the rebels shot all at once at the clock towers.

Time itself came to a standstill, as Walter Benjamin reminds us:

“ Qui le croirait! on dit, / qu’irrités contre l’heure / De nouveaux Josués / au pied de chaque tour, / Tiraient sur les cadrans /pour arrêter le jour .” Or, “Who would’ve thought! As though / Angered by time’s way / The new Joshuas / Beneath each tower, they say / Fired at the dials / To stop the day.”

‘ Über den Begriff der Geschichte ’ was the last major essay Benjamin wrote. He was fleeing from the French Vichy regime under German occupation. Jewish refugees were being hunted and handed over to the Gestapo.

‘Thesis XVIII’ by Walter Benjamin is so true of India during its darkest days of colonialism out of which both Mahatma Gandhi and Veer Savarkar tried to redeem us. But which of them, if at all, vanquished the ‘anti-Christ?’

Speaking of his own people, the Jews, in ‘Addendum B’, Benjamin observes: “It is well-known that the Jews were forbidden to look into the future. The Torah and the prayers instructed them, by contrast, in remembrance. This disenchanted those who fell prey to the future, who sought advice from the soothsayers. For that reason the future did not, however, turn into a homogenous and empty time for the Jews. For in it every second was the narrow gate, through which the Messiah could enter.”

Those Jews who still believed they were the chosen people, who had not turned their back to the very progenitor of their clan, Abraham, and his covenant with God, who still could see in that moment which was Jetztzeit , here and now, rather than in the past—only such Jews could keep open the narrow gate through which the Messiah could enter in the future.

Benjamin escaped from France, crossing the Pyrenees into Spain, ruled by the rightwing dictator, General Francisco Franco. Benjamin allegedly killed himself that very evening in a hotel room in Portbou. Supposedly, because he had been betrayed and was about to be captured.

But next morning, his Jewish fellow fugitives were allowed to escape, while he was found dead from an overdose of morphine. The doctor said he died of natural causes.

Something does not quite add up. Because he had just escaped certain death in a concentration camp from Jew-hunting Nazis wouldn’t he, like his companions, have tried to flee too?

That is why the new theory that Stalinist agents killed him seems more plausible.

Why? Because he had exposed the hypocrisy and hollowness of the Marxist doctrine so thoroughly that “nothing remains of historical materialism except the term itself.”

The immediate trigger was the shock Benjamin received by the Stalin-Hitler pact of August 23, 1939.

We may or may not entirely buy this revisionist interpretation of Benjamin’s career and his famous ‘Theses on the Philosophy of History’. For the text is quite elliptical as it is “fragmentary and tentative” (Beiner).

Only 20 pages long, Benjamin’s ‘Theses’ are full of pithy and provocative statements, the “dense ruminations” that he became so famous for.

At its heart is a devastating critique, as I see it, both of the pseudo-scientific claims of dialectical materialism as well as progressivist historicism. Long before the collapse of the Soviet Union or China’s capitalist turn under Deng Xiaoping.

Benjamin begins with an analogy. There is a chess game in which a mechanical puppet, dressed like a Turk, always wins.

But actually, it is not a mechanical contraption or doll, but a dwarf chess master hiding inside the box who is pulling the strings.

Benjamin says, “The puppet called ‘historical materialism’ is always supposed to win.” But only “so long as it employs the services of theology, which as everyone knows is small and ugly and must be kept out of sight.”

Benjamin, the disillusioned Marxist, is fleeing from the long arm of Jew-hating Nazi Germany.

What does he offer as solace?

Tradition, the past, history is not readymade nor rigid: “In every epoch, the attempt must be made to deliver tradition anew from the conformism which is on the point of overwhelming it.”

Then, even more spectacularly, “For the Messiah arrives not merely as the Redeemer; he also arrives as the vanquisher of the Anti-Christ.”

The millennial man is not only the redeemer, but he is also the vanquisher of evil.

‘Thesis XVIII’ is so true of India during its darkest days of colonialism out of which both Mahatma Gandhi and Veer Savarkar tried to redeem us: “The tradition of the oppressed teaches us that the ‘emergency situation’ in which we live is the rule.”

But which of them, if at all, vanquished the “Anti- Christ?” Who, indeed, was that latter symbol of evil? British imperialism, along with its racism, economic exploitation, and structural violence?

Individual representatives of which Savarkar tried to eliminate through political assassinations? Including— perhaps unwittingly or deliberately—Gandhi himself? Though exonerated, the needle of suspicion, as Justice Kundanlal Kapur observed, still pointing at Savarkar?

Or was it the demonic history of Islamic invasions, conquests, and rulers from the past?

Or Gandhi’s self-sacrifice to save India from endless Partition, with the “Anti-Christ” being the monster of violence within each of us?

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India Essay

India is the seventh-largest country and most populous democracy in the world. It is located in South Asia and was officially declared as the Republic of India after its independence from British rule. India has unique topographical features – plains of central India, rain forests of the north east, icy cold Himalayan region and dry arid desert in west, among others. The cultural, linguistic and religious diversity of India is as much diverse as its geography.

Indian culture differs from place to place and is a union of several different cultures, spread across the length and breadth of the continent. Although there are 22 Languages imbibed in the Constitution of India, there are more than 1900 dialects or mother tongues are spoken throughout the nation. This huge cultural and linguistic diversity of India is one of its most distinguished features.

Long and Short Essay on India in English

India is one of the famous countries of the world. Every citizen of India must know about it means its history, struggle, culture and other important things.

Students are generally given this topic in their schools to write some paragraphs or full essay in the class tests or main exams.

Here we have given below long and short essay on India, which are well written essay on India to help students under various word limits.

They can select anyone of these India essay according to the words limit:

India Essay 1 (100 words)

India is a famous country all over the world. Geographically, our country is located to the south of Asia continent. India is a high population country and well protected from all directions naturally. It is a famous country for its great cultural and traditional values all across the world. It contains a mountain called Himalaya which is biggest in the world.

It is surrounded by the three big oceans from three directions such as in south with Indian Ocean, in east with Bay of Bengal and in west with Arabic sea. India is a democratic country ranks second for its population. The national language of India is Hindi however almost fourteen nationally recognized languages are spoken here.

India Essay 2 (150 words)

India is a beautiful country and famous all over the world for its unique cultures and traditions. It is famous for its historical heritages and monuments. Citizens here are very polite and understanding in nature. It was a slave country earlier to the 1947 under the British rule.

However, after many years of hard struggles and sacrifices of the great Indian freedom fighters, India got freedom from the British rule in 1947. Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru became the first Prime Minister of India and hoisted the Indian flag when India got freedom and he proclaimed that “When the world sleeps, India will wake to life and freedom”.

India is a democratic country where its public are authorized to take decisions for the betterment of the country. India is a famous country for the saying “Unity in Diversity” because people of many religions, castes, culture and tradition live together with unity. Most of the Indian heritages and monuments have been added to the world heritage sites.

India Essay 3 (200 words)

India is my mother country and I love it very much. People of India are very honest and truthful in nature. People of various unique traditions and culture live here together without any problem. The mother-tongue of my country is Hindi however many languages are spoken here by the people of different religions without any boundation. India is a great country of natural beauty where great people took birth from time to time and did great works. Indians are very heart-touching in nature and they heartily welcome their guests from other countries.

In India Indian philosophy of life is followed which is called as Sanatan Dharma and has become the main factor to maintain unity in diversity here. India is a republic country where its citizens have power to take decision about country.

There are many natural sceneries, places, monuments, historical heritage of the ancient time, etc which attracts people’s mind from every corner of the world. India is very famous for its spiritual works, Yoga, martial arts, etc. A huge crowd of pilgrims and devotees come here to see and enjoy the beauty of famous places, temples and other world heritage sites in India.

India Essay 4 (250 words)

My country India is a land of Shiva, Parvati, Krishna, Hanuman, Buddha, Mahatma Gandhi, Swami Vivekananda, Kabir, etc. It is a country where great people took birth and did great works. I love my country very much and salute it. It is famous for its biggest democracy and oldest civilization of the world. It is the second most populous country of the world after the chain.

It is a country where courteous people of many religions and cultures lives together. It is a country of great warriors such as Rana Pratap, Shivaji, Lal Bahadur Shashtri, Jawaharlal Nehru, Mahatma Gandhi, Sardar Patel, Subhash Chandra Bose, Bagat Singh, Lala Lajpet Rai and so many.

It is a rich country where great people took birth in the field of literature, art and science such as Rabindranath Tagore, Sara Chandra, Premchand, C.V. Raman, Jagadish Chandra Bose, APJ Abdul Kalama, Kabir Das, etc. Such great people of India were the proud of my country. All the great leaders of the country came from villages and led the country to go ahead.

They fought for many years and sacrificed their lives to make India an independent country from the British rule. It is a country where famous rivers and oceans are run regularly such as Ganges, Yamuna, Godavari, Narmada, Brahmaputra, Krishna, Kavery, Bay of Bengal, Arabic sea, etc. India is a beautiful country surrounded by the oceans from three sides. It is a country where people are very intellectual and spiritual and believe in God and Goddess.

India Essay 5 (300 words)

India is my motherland country where I took birth. I love India and have proud of it. India is a big democratic country which ranks second in population after China. It has rich and glorious past. It is considered as the country of old civilization of the world. It is a land of learning where students from many corners of the world come to study in the big universities.

It is famous for its various unique and diverse culture and tradition of people of many religions. Some people in the abroad as well follow the Indian culture and tradition because of being attractive in nature. Various invaders came and steal the glory and precious things of India. Some of them made it a slave country however various great leaders of the country became successful in making my motherland free of biritshers in 1947.

The day our country got freedom means 15 th of August is celebrated every year as Independence Day. Pt. Nehru became the first prime minister of India. It is a country rich in natural resources yet inhabitants here are poor. It is growing continuously in the field of technology, science and literature because of the eminent people like Rabindra Nath Tagore, Sir Jagdish Chandra Bose, Sir C.V.Raman, Shri H. N. Bhabha, etc. It is a peace loving country where people of many religions follow their own culture and tradition as well as celebrate their festivals without any interference.

There are many glorious historical buildings, heritages, monuments and sceneries which attracts people’s mind from different countries every year. Taj Mahal is a great monument in India and symbol of eternal love and Kashmir as the heaven on the earth. It is a country of famous temples, mosques, churches, Gurudwaras, rivers, valleys, fertile plains, highest mountain, etc.

India Essay 6 (400 words)

India is my country and I proud to be an Indian. It ranks as the seventh largest country of the world as well as second most populated country of the world. It is also known as Bharat, Hindustan and Aryavart. It is a peninsula means surrounded by oceans from three sides such as Bay of Bengal in east, Arabian Sea in west and Indian Ocean in south. The national animal of India is tiger, national bird is peacock, national flower is lotus and national fruit is mango.

The flag of India has tricolor, saffron means purity (the uppermost), white means peace (the middle one having an Ashok Chakra) and green means fertility (the lowest one). Ashok Chakra contains equally divided 24 spokes. The national anthem of India is “Jana Gana Mana”, the national song is “Vande Mataram” and national sport is Hockey.

India is a country where people speak many languages and people of different castes, creeds, religions and cultures live together. That’s why India is famous for common saying of “unity in diversity”. It is well known as the land of spirituality, philosophy, science and technology. People of various religions like Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, Islam, Christianity and Judaism lives here together from the ancient time.

It is famous country for its agriculture and farming which are the backbones of it from the ancient time. It uses it own produced food grains and fruits. It is a famous tourist’s paradise because it attracts people’s mind from all over the world. It is rich in monuments, tombs, churches, historical buildings, temples, museums, scenic beauty, wild life sanctuaries, places of architecture, etc are the source of revenue to it.

It is the place where Taj Mahal, Fatehpur Sikri, golden temple, Qutab Minar, Red Fort, Ooty, Nilgiris, Kashmir, Kajuraho, Ajanta and Ellora caves, etc wonders exist. It is the country of great rivers, mountains, valleys, lakes and oceans. The national language of India is Hindi. It is a country where 29 states and UTs. It has 28 states which again have many small villages.

It is a chief agricultural country famous for producing sugarcane, cotton, jute, rice, wheat, cereals etc crops. It is a country where great leaders (Shivaji, Gandhiji, Nehru, Dr. Ambedkar, etc), great scientists (Dr. Jagadeeshchandra Bose, Dr Homi Bhabha, Dr. C. V Raman, Dr. Naralikar, etc) and great reformers (Mother Teresa, Pandurangashastri Alhavale, T. N. Sheshan) took birth. It is a country where diversity exists with strong unity and peace.

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21 A Historical Study of the Origin and Evolution of Indian Fiction in English

Ananya Bhattacharjee

The origin and development of Indian Writing in English took place during the consolidation of British rule in India. Various opinions are found regarding the first text that was written in Indian English and many critics hold the view that history of Indian English Writing could be traced back to at least the early 19th century. The three most important sources that fostered the beginnings of Indian Writing in English are the educational reforms by British government, the efforts of the missionaries and the response of the upper-class Indians who accepted English literature and language in India with great enthusiasm. The Charter Act of 1813 and the 1835 English Education Act of William Bentinck gave way towards an attempt to change and improve the conditions of the servants of the East India Company. The approval of the Charter Act by the English government made England responsible for educational upliftment of the natives. English became the medium of education in India and English literature was established as a disciplinary subject in the educational institutes in India after the English Education Act was initiated by Thomas Babington Macaulay on Indian education.

The history of Indian literature in English is generally believed to be one and half centuries old. The Travels of Dean Mahomet is regarded as the first book to be written in English by an Indian in 1793. English has become the primary or secondary language as the means of communication for a large number of the people if India in present times. The reason behind such a scenario is due to the fact that the British Empire had set up its colony in India for almost

200 years. This might have been a solid ground for the origin and constant flourishing of Indian English literature. The establishment of the East India Company in India was the most influential factor towards the evolution of English language and literature in India. Dr. A.N. Pathak says,

During 1835 to 1855 English education had widely spread in the country and the number of people showing interest in the discipline went on rapidly increasing. Reading culture was in vogue and it is said that in 1834 some 5, 32,000 English books sold in India, the number of books sold in native Indian languages was quite less than this. The craze for English books was generated mostly among the Indians who were educated in English and demand came more from them than the Englishmen in India. People in urban areas started following Western manners and customs and tried to adapt themselves to the current English trends of life. The introduction of railways in India happened in 1853 and in 1854 the first telegraph line was established and a modern postal system was started. Distance gradually narrowed down and eventually there was a common medium of communication among people. Various modern European scientific techniques came to be used in India. Along with the mechanical advancement, there was a kind of renaissance in modern Indian literature which began with the initiative taken by Raja Ram Mohan Roy who acted as a linking factor between India and England. He was the master of many languages that includes Sanskrit, Persian, and Arabic besides Bengali. After travelling around the country and even abroad, Raja Ram Mohan Roy was associated with two British officials called Woodford and Digby when he was working for some business in Calcutta. While he was serving in the districts under these two officials, their relation turned out to be more than being official. With Digby’s help, Ram Mohan Roy gained his mastery over the English language. He finally left the company service and returned to Calcutta in 1814. Ram Mohan Roy then started the Atmiya Sabha and devoted himself completely towards the development Calcutta society by instilling new spirits in the minds of the people there. This period is regarded as an age of awakening in Bengal in the various fields of philosophy, literature, economics, science and politics. The relation between the western influence under colonialism, the advent of print and standardised high literature and an awakening of the Indian thought has been shown in many narratives of modern India. For long Bengal has been regarded by historians as the forerunner of modernity in the subcontinent. Two prominent features of the Renaissance in Calcutta were: the formation of associations, societies and organizations; and emergence of innumerable newspapers and magazines. Another important aspect of the Bengal Renaissance movement was the formation of reform movements in both religious and socio-cultural fields. Western ideals and principles influenced this Renaissance movement in Bengal considerably. Thoughts about nationalism and independent ruling derived from the west were disseminated by the educated Bengali elite to all the masses through the various organisations, movements, and magazines.

Invigorated with western education, Bengali intellectuals are supposed to have brought a western style ‘Renaissance’ in contemporary thought and the liberal arts.

English education influenced Indian social, cultural, religious and literary traditions to a great extent and there was an awakening among the people who transformed their traditional ways and culture. Such awakening, which many call as ‘renaissance’, shaped literature totally in a different light. There was a regeneration of Indian literatures which stepped into a new venture through adapting new literary techniques, forms and genres from the west. The introduction of prose style and its further development in literature influenced Indian writers to adopt modern creative forms of writing such as poetry, novel, drama and short story. Great works have been done in Indian English literature notably in poetry, fiction, philosophy and criticism. However, the Novel as a literary form served best to provide an artistic shared experience of the relationship between society and human beings. The novel as a genre of literature was almost absent in India until the 1900s. When this creative form of art first arrived in the country along with the British, it was quite new to the Indian literature. According to Samaresh C. Sanyal, “During the late Nineteenth century it was absorbed into the Bengal literary tradition, while this century, and has witnessed a continuous output of novels in English. The strength and maturity of much Indian writing in English as recorded in the Indo-Anglian novels are beyond dispute. K.R.S. Iyengar in Indian Writing in English opines, Novels have been, and are being published in a dozen Indian languages, and also in English; and the reciprocal influence between the novels in English and the novel in the regional languages has been rather more intimate and purposive than such influence in the fields of poetry or drama. And this has, of course, been facilitated by the comparative ease with which a novel can be translated from one to another of the many languages current in the country.

Indian English Fiction is believed to have emerged during the early years of the twentieth century. Most of the early practitioners of Indian English Literature were mostly British and this is not quite surprising since India was perhaps not in a condition under British domination to produce excellence in native English language and literature. Although there were many Indian exponents who arrived some time later but the history of Indian English literature belonged solely to the elite British section of the society. The works of George Orwell, Rudyard Kipling and Jim Corbett had offered the preliminary push towards growth of Indian English Writings that was later developed by other British writers. The contribution made by Rabindranath Tagore, Michael Madhusudan Dutt, Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, R.C. Dutt, Raja Rao, Jawaharlal Nehru and Mahatma Gandhi among others consolidated the historical maturity of English literature in India. They represented the natives and served as the pre-Independent spokesperson in delineating the vision of life then.

The pre-independence Indian English fiction has been shaped by the contributions made by the pioneers of Bengali literature namely Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, R.C. Dutt and Rabindranath Tagore. The popular novels by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee (1838-1894) include Kopalkunda, Durgeshnandini, Krishankanta’s Will, The Two Rings and Rajmohan’s Wife. Most of his novels are based on themes of social life which he delineated with realism. His historical novels representing ideas of patriotism and revolution provided an impetus to many other Indian English novelists. R.C. Dutt (1848-1909) wrote six novels in Bengali; four were historical novels called Banga Bijeta (Conqueror of Bengal), Madhavi Kanan (Bracelet of Flowers), Rajput Jiban Sandhya (Evening of Rajput Life) and Maharashtra Prabhat (Dawn of Maharashtra). The first two novels deal with the conquest of Bengal by the emperor Akbar. The third novel tells the heroic stories of Rana Pratap Singh and the fourth one depicts Shivaji’s leadership and the rise of Maratha rule. All of these four novels were published in 1879. Dutt also wrote two social novels; Samaj (1885) and Sangsar (1893). The first one is based on the theme of widow remarriage and the second one deal with the issue of inter-caste marriage. Most of his novels introduced the theme of social reformation. Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941) is a major presence when one thinks of Bengal and its culture; a paramount figure in Indian English literature. A collection of poems, Gitanjali (Song Offerings), secured for him the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1913. He excelled in various genres of art and culture and became renowned as a poet, dramatist, novelist, composer, actor, singer, editor of the Bengali literary journal (Sadhana). He wrote eight novels and four novellas among them Chaturanga, Shesher Kobita, Chare Adhyay and Noukadubi. Some of his famous novels that were rendered into English include The Wreck (1921), Gora (1923) and Home and the World (1919). Many of his works are the inspiration for filmmakers. Some hundred films have been made, out of which more than half in Bengali, are based on Tagore’s works, making him one of the most adapted writers of all time.

The period of the freedom struggle and the influence of Gandhi were responsible for the growth and development of novel in its early stage. S.Jogendra Singh’s Nasrin (1915), The Love of Kusuma (1910) by Balkrishna, Sorabji Cornelia’s Love and Life behind the Purdah and Sun Babies (1910) and Between the Twilight (1908) are some of the famous novels based on the theme of national awakening and political consciousness. The various momentous events of the Gandhian era like the boycott of the Simon Commission, the boycott of foreign goods, the Jallianwalla Bagh Massacre, Civil Disobedience Movement, Dandi March, Quit India Movement and many others forms of Gandhian movement are represented in many of the novels written during this period of the freedom struggle. Many writers of this period were influenced by the ideals of Mahatma Gandhi who voiced against the injustice done towards the under-privileged, the marginalized and the suppressed. According to Amarnath Prasad the works dealing with the theme of either Gandhi or the contemporary freedom struggle are Mulk Raj Anand’s Untouchable (1935), Raja Rao’s Kanthapura (1938), K.S. Venkatramani’s Kandan the Patriot (1932), D.F. Karaka’s We never Die (1944), Amir Ali’s Conflict (1947), Venu Chitali’s In Transit (1950), K.A. Abbas’s Inquailab (1955), R.K. Narayan’s Waiting for the Mahatma (1956), Nayantara Sehgal’s A Time to be Happy (1955) and K.Nagarajan’s Chronicles of Kedaram (1961).

Mulk Raj Anand (1905-2004) was one of the most prolific writers of the period who is best known as a social realist and a humanist. His vision of a humanist and a reformist is seen in his novel named Untouchable (1935) which gave him immense popularity. His other humanistic novels Coolie (1936), Two Leaves And A Bud (1937), The Village (1939), Across the Black Waters (1941), The Sword and the Sickle (1942) and The Big Heart in 1945. Anand has also written seven collections of short stories – The Child and other Stories (1934), The Barber’s Trade Union and other Stories (1944), The Tractor and the Corn Goddess and other Stories (1947), Reflections on the Golden Bed and other Stories (1953), The Power of Darkness and other stories (1959), Lajwanti and other stories (1966) and Between Tears and Laughter (1973). His other works include Indian fairy Tales (1961), The Old woman and the Cow (1960). It was followed by The Road (1963) and The Death of Hero (1964). Seven Summers, Morning Face, The Confession of A Lover and The Bubble are his autobiographical novels.

R.K. Narayan is considered as one of the pioneers of regional novel in India. His based many of his novels on the fictional place called Malgudi which he created in his imagination. Some of his autobiographical works include Swami and Friends (1935), The Bachelor of Arts (1936) and The English Teacher. The novels placed on the locale of Malgudi are The Dark Room (1938), Mr. Sampath (1952), The Financial Expert (1955), The Guide (1958), Waiting for the Mahatma, The Vendor of Sweets (1967), The Painter of Signs (1977), A Tiger for Malgudi (1983) and The World of Nagraj (1990). Narayan’s novels display his comic vision of life where his characters show a journey towards experience from innocence and they continue their journey until they are contended with wisdom. The language that Narayan adopts in his works is simple and lucid but his command over the language is remarkable. The Times Literary Supplement comments on Narayan’s style,

His humour is woven into the texture of his prose. It never erupts in a detachable epigram or joke. He did his best to inject the spirit and tempo of Tamilian idiom into English speech in a natural and unaffected manner. In spite of the raciness and simplicity Narayan’s style is rich in evocativeness and suggestiveness.

Raja Rao was the famous novelist of the Gandhian era whose works show an acute consciousness of the forces that came into existence by the Gandhian movement. His works include Kanthapura (1938), The Cow of the Barricades (1947), The Serpent and the Rope (1960), The Cat and Shakespeare (1965), Comrade Kirillov (1976) and The Policeman and The Rose (1978). He was much influenced by Gandhi’s philosophy and this is evident in his two works namely Kanthapura and The Cow of the Barricades where the Mahatma never appears physically but his indomitable presence is felt everywhere. He won the Sahitya Academy Award for The Serpent and the Rope. He was also honoured with the Padma Bhushan for his literary achievements. His works show a perfect blend of eastern and western sensibility. As far as narration is concerned he was a lot inspired by James Joyce, Joseph Conrad, Valmiki and Ved Vyas.

One of the most important post-independent writers includes Bhabani Bhattacharya who contributed many novels; most of them were driven with a social purpose. His works include So Many Hungers (1947), Music for Mohini (1952), He Who rides a Tiger (1954), A Goddess Named Gold (1960), Shadow From Ladakh (1967) and A Dream In Hawaii (1975). He has also written a number of short stories of psychological interest. He was the winner of the Sahitya Academy Award in 1967 for his novel, Shadow From Ladakh. He could easily grasp the social scenario of his times and documented them in his novels.

A renowned writer of the post-independent era, Khushwant Singh, is the recipient of the Padma Bhushan in 1974. He was the editor of Yojana (1951-1953), The Illustrated Weekly of India (1969-1979), The National Herald (1978-1979), New Delhi (1979-1980), and The Hindustan Times (1980-1983). He has written four novels Train to Pakistan (1956), I Shall Not Hear The Nightingale (1959), Delhi (1989) and The Company Of Women (2000). He has also published two collection of short stories called The Mark of Vishnu (1950) and A Bribe for the Sahib (1967). He received the Grove Press Award for Train to Pakistan. In this novel he gives a horrifying picture of the brutality and inhumanity seen during the partition of India. The novel was set in a fictional place called Maono-Majria located in the India-Pakistan border. I Shall Not Hear The Nightingale is set in the pre-independence times and deals with a Sikh family. Delhi and The Company of Women describes a world obsessed with sex and lust.

Manohar Malgonkar has been a notable writer who worked in the Indian Army during the Second World War and was eventually appointed to the rank of Lieutenant Colonel. His experiences of army life were recorded in his debut novel Distant Drums (1960). His others books include Combat Of Shadows (1962), The Princes (1963), A Bend in the Ganges (1964), Spy in Amber (1971), The Devil’s Wind (1972) and Shalimar (1978). His novels have a wide range of thematic variety. They depict life of princes, experiences of military life, political upheaval during the partition of the country, the Sepoy Mutiny and many others. Besides novels he has written two collections of short stories named A Tost in Warm Wine and Bombay Beware.

Chaman Nahal is the other prominent writer of the post-independent era who has written books like My True Faces (1973), Azadi (1975), Into Another Dawn (1977), The English Queen (1979), The Crown and the Loincloth (1981) and also a collection of short stories titled The Weird Dance (1965). My True Faces deals with the theme of broken marriage; Into Another Dawn highlights the encounter between East and West, Azadi depicts the partition of India and the age of Gandhi is shown in The Crown and the Loincloth. Chaman Nahal’s skill as a gifted craftsman is seen in The English Queen which is famous for its technical excellence.

During the nineteen seventies a new class of elite Indian English authors emerged and became globally acclaimed. One of such writers is Salman Rushdie, a novelist of global fame and also one of the most controversial writers in Indian English Fiction. He is famous for creating historical fantasy, combining both magic and realism. Most of his works deal with history and politics and to mention here one can talk about Grimivs (1975) which exposes the ‘politics’ of western powers. His Midnight Children (1981) is an extravagant representation of the mingling of an individual’s life and a nation’s history. He received the Booker of Bookers for this novel which deals with the important political happenings of India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. Shame (1983) highlights the creation of Pakistan after 1947 and exposes the attempts towards dictatorship with the help of caricature. His Satanic Verses (1988) is regarded as a controversial text as it hurt the sentiments of the Islam followers. It has been banned in many countries including India. His other works include Haroun and the Sea of Stories (1990), In Good Faith (1990), Imaginary Homelands: Essays and Criticism (1981-1991), East-West (1994), The Moor’s Last Sigh (1995), The Ground Beneath Her Feet (1999), Fury (2001), Step Across This Line: Collected Non- Fiction (2002) and Shalimar The Clown (2005).

Another eminent writer of this period, Amitav Ghosh has been quite successful in contributing a lot towards Indian English Literature. He worked as a print journalist in The Indian Express during the Emergency and had a first-hand experience of socio-political condition of the contemporary times. His first work is titled The Circle of Reason (1982) where he depicts an individual, who being suspected as a terrorist, flees from unknown village in Calcutta to Bombay and further journeys around the Persian Gulf to North Africa. The Shadow Lines (1986) deals with a family that lives in Kolkata and Dhaka and also unfolds their connection with a British family that lives in London. The novel procured him Sahitya Academy Award. His third novel, In An Antique Land (1993) chronicles an anthropological and historical survey coloured with ample imagination. The Calcutta Chromosome (1995) is written in the genre of science fiction and was quite popular due to the innovative attempt made in its creation. Ghosh won Arthur C. Clarke Award for it, a prestigious award given by Britain for Science.

The women novelists of Indian English literature have marked a distinctive form of writing which is especially shaped by their feminine sensibility. The early women novelists include Raj Laxmi Devi, Cornelia Sorabji, Iqbalunnisa Hussain and some others. Kamala Markandaya was a prolific writer who dealt with social and political concerns. Her works include Nectar in a Sieve (1954), A Silence of Desire (1960), A Handful of Rice (1966), The Coffer Dams (1969), Two Virgins and The Golden Honey.

Ruth P. Jhabvala is a unique writer of Indian English novels. She brings to light the follies and foibles of her characters in the most humorous way. She has written To Whom She Will (1955), The Nature of Passion (1956), Esmond in India (1958), The Householder (1960), Get Ready for Battle (1962), A Backward Place (1965), A New Dominion (1972), Heat and Dust (1975) and My Nine Lives: Chapters on a Possible Past (2004). She has also written several collections of short stories like An Experience of India (1967), Like Bird, Like Fishes (1963) and A Stronger Climate (1963).

Nayantara Sehgal is one of the other remarkable novelists of the times. She mostly focuses her attention towards the political situation and its influence upon human lives. She also highlights the degeneration of human values and the rampant corruption of political upheaval in her novel A Time To Be Happy (1957). She is also the author of The Time of Morning (1965), Storm in Chandigarh (1969), The Day in Shadow (1971), A New Situation in New Delhi (1977) and Rich Like Us (1985).

Anita Desai, in her novels, mostly probes into the psychological lives of her characters. Trauma of the past, mental anguish, struggle with one’s own self are some of the aspects she is concerned with in her novels. She has written Cry, the Peacock (1963), Voices in the City (1963), Bye-Bye Blackbird (1971), Where Shall We Go This Summer (1975), Fire on the Mountain (1977), Clear Light of Day (1980), The Village by the Sea (1982) and The Zigzag way (2004).

Shashi Deshpande is one of the most celebrated women novelists. Her novel The Dark Holds No Terror (1980) depicts the struggle of a woman named Sarita who tries to break the strictures of society and rebels against familial authority. Her other novel Roots and Shadows (1983) received the Thirumati Rangmal Award. That Long Silence (1988) deals with the search for one’s identity and it won The Sahitya Academy Award. Her other novels include The Binding Vine (1992), The Match Of Time (1999), Small Remedies (2000) and Moving On (2004).

Arundhati Roy is famous for her novel, The God Of Small Things which is about a family living in Ayemenem, a town in the state of Kerala during post-independence times. The novel received good reviews from major publications such as The New York Times, Los Angeles Times and Toronto Star. Her other works include a television serial called The Banyan Tree and a documentary DAM/AGE: A Film With Arundhati Roy (2002). She also wrote a book named We Are One: A Celebration of the Tribal Peoples published in 2009. Besides these she contributed several essays on contemporary politics and culture. She has been working for political activism since a long time and is a strong opponent of India’s rapid industrial development that includes Sardar Sarovar Project and India’s nuclear weapon policies which found expression in The End Of Imagination which she wrote in 1998.

Shobha De mostly deals with the theme of marginalisation of women in India and voices the idea of women empowerment through her novels. She shows her concern towards women who struggle to renounce patriarchal hegemony, domestic life and marital relationship to forge an identity for them. She is the author of Socialite Evenings (1989), Starry Nights (1991), Sisters (1992), Strange Obsession (1992), Sultry Boys (1994) and Snapshots (1995).

In the recent times Indian English Fiction has developed a new trend in writing both in its theme and the technique. A new group of writers belonging to the elite class has taken the forefront with their innovative and challenging approach towards creative writing. Novelists such as Pankaj Misra, Chetan Bhagat, Jhumpa Lihiri, Dominique Lepierre, William Dalrymple have received international acclaim. The evolution of disciplines in critical literary studies such as feminist, diasporic, postmodern, postcolonial, dalit literature have given a new outlook and perspective of studying Indian English Fiction writing.

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History of the Origin and Evolution of Indian Fiction in English

The Beginnings

• The origin and development of Indian Writing in English took place during the consolidation of British rule in India.
• Various opinions are found regarding the first text that was written in Indian English and many critics hold the view that history of Indian English Writing could be traced back to at least the early 19th century.
• One most important source that fostered the beginnings of Indian Writing in English is the educational reforms by British government.
• Another is the effort of the missionaries and the response of the upper-class Indians who accepted English literature and language in India with great enthusiasm.
• The history of Indian literature in English is generally believed to be one and half centuries old.
• The Travels of Dean Mahomet is regarded as the first book to be written in English by an Indian in 1793.
• The novel as a genre of literature was almost absent in India until the 1900s.

Writers of the pre-Independence era

• The pre-independence Indian English fiction has been shaped by the contributions made by the pioneers of Bengali literature namely Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, R.C. Dutt and Rabindranath Tagore.

The Independence Phase

• The period of the freedom struggle and the influence of Gandhi were responsible for the growth and development of novel in its early stage.
• S.Jogendra Singh’s Nasrin (1915), The Love of Kusuma (1910) by Balkrishna, Sorabji Cornelia’s Love and Life behind the Purdah and Sun Babies (1910) and Between the Twilight (1908) are some of the famous novels based on the theme of national awakening and political consciousness.
• Some other memorable works dealing with the theme of freedom struggle are Mulk Raj Anand’s Untouchable (1935), Raja Rao’s Kanthapura (1938), K.S. Venkatramani’s Kandan the Patriot (1932), K.A. Abbas’s Inquailab (1955), R.K. Narayan’s Waiting for the Mahatma (1956), Nayantara Sehgal’s A Time to be Happy (1955) and K.Nagarajan’s Chronicles of Kedaram (1961).

The post-Independence Period

• Bhabani Bhattacharya, Khushwant Singh, Manohar Malgonkar, Chaman Nahal, Amitav Ghosh, Salman Rushdie and many other popular writers of the post-Independence era dealt with the idea of brutality and inhumanity seen during the partition of India.
• Many novelists highlighted the fragmentary nature of the modern world and the crisis of identity.

The Women Novelists

• Some of the early women novelists include Raj Laxmi Devi, Cornelia Sorabji, Iqbalunnisa Hussain and many others.
• The later novelists who gained immense popularity are namely Kamala Markandaya, Ruth P. Jhabvala, Nayantara Sehgal, Anita Desai, Shashi Deshpande, Arundhati Roy, Shobha De and some others.

The Contemporary Novelists

• Novelists such as Pankaj Misra, Chetan Bhagat, Jhumpa Lihiri, Dominique Lepierre, William Dalrymple have received international acclaim in present times.
• The evolution of disciplines in critical literary studies such as feminist, diasporic, postmodern, postcolonial, dalit literature have given a new outlook and perspective of studying Indian English Fiction writing.

• Iyengar, K. R. Srinivasa, Indian Writing In English, Indiana University: Sterling Publishers Pvt.Ltd, 2012
• McCutchion, David, Indian Writing in English, Calcutta: Writers Workshop, 1969
• Naik, M.K., A History of Indian English Literature, the University of Michigan: Sahitya Akademi Publications, 1982
• Piciucco, Pier Paolo (ed.), A Companion to Indian Fiction in English, New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers, 2004
• Ramamurti, K.S., Rise of the Indian Novel in English, Pennsylvania State University: Oriental University Press, 1987
• Singh, Ram Sewak and Singh, Charu Sheel, Spectrum History of Indian Literature in English, New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers & Dist, 1997
• https://books.google.co.in/books?isbn=8126903104
• www.jstor.org/stable/4087326

Essay on India in English for Children and Students

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Essay on India : India is the seventh-largest country and the most populous democracy in the world. It is located in South Asia and was officially declared the Republic of India after its independence from British rule. India has unique topographical features – plains of central India, rain forests of the northeast, icy cold Himalayan region, and dry arid desert in the west, among others. India’s cultural, linguistic, and religious diversity is as diverse as its geography.

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Indian culture differs from place to place and is a union of several different cultures spread across the length and breadth of the continent. Although there are 22 Languages imbibed in the Constitution of India, more than 1900 dialects or mother tongues are spoken throughout the nation. India’s huge cultural and linguistic diversity is one of its most distinguished features.

Long and Short Essay on India in English

India is one of the most famous countries in the world. Every citizen of India must know about its history, struggle, culture, and other important things.

Students are generally given this topic in their schools to write some paragraphs or full essays in the class tests or main exams.

Here we have given below long and short essays on India, which are well-written essays to help students under various word limits.

They can select anyone of these India essays according to the words limit:

Essay on India 100 words

India is a famous country all over the world. Geographically, our country is located to the south of the Asia continent. India is a high population country and well protected from all directions naturally. It is a famous country for its great cultural and traditional values all across the world. It contains a mountain called Himalaya, which is the biggest in the world.

Three big oceans surround it in three directions: the south with the Indian Ocean, the east with the Bay of Bengal, and the west with the Arabic sea. India is a democratic country that ranks second in its population. The national language of India is Hindi however, almost fourteen nationally recognized languages are spoken here.

Essay on India 150 words

India is a beautiful country and famous all over the world for its unique cultures and traditions. It is famous for its historical heritages and monuments. Citizens here are very polite and understanding in nature. It was a slave country earlier to 1947 under British rule.

However, after many years of hard struggles and sacrifices of the great Indian freedom fighters, India got freedom from British rule in 1947. Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru became India’s first Prime Minister, hoisted the Indian flag when India got freedom, and proclaimed, “When the world sleeps, India will wake to life and freedom.”

India is a democratic country where its public is authorized to take decisions for the betterment of the country. India is a famous country for the saying “Unity in Diversity” because people of many religions, castes, cultures, and traditions live together in unity. Most of the Indian heritages and monuments have been added to the world heritage sites.

Essay on India 200 words

India is my mother country, and I love it very much. The people of India are very honest and truthful in nature. People of various unique traditions and cultures live here together without any problem. The mother tongue of my country is Hindi however many languages are spoken here by people of different religions without any foundation. India is a great country of natural beauty where great people took birth from time to time and did great works. Indians are heart-touching in nature and heartily welcome guests from other countries.

In India, the Indian philosophy of life is called Sanatan Dharma and has become the main factor in maintaining unity in diversity here. India is a republic country where its citizens have the power to take decisions about the country.

There are many natural sceneries, places, monuments, historical heritage of ancient time, etc., which attracts people’s minds from every corner of the world. India is famous for its spiritual works, Yoga, martial arts, etc. A huge crowd of pilgrims and devotees come here to see and enjoy the beauty of famous places, temples, and other world heritage sites in India.

Essay on India 250 words

My country India is a land of Shiva, Parvati, Krishna, Hanuman, Buddha, Mahatma Gandhi, Swami Vivekananda, Kabir, etc. It is a country where great people took birth and did great work. I love my country very much and salute it. It is famous for its biggest democracy and oldest civilization in the world. It is the second most populous country in the world after the chain.

It is a country where courteous people of many religions and cultures live together. It is a country of great warriors such as Rana Pratap, Shivaji, Lal Bahadur Shashtri, Jawaharlal Nehru, Mahatma Gandhi, Sardar Patel, Subhash Chandra Bose, Bhagat Singh, Lala Lajpat Rai, and so many.

It is a rich country where great people took birth in literature, art, and science, such as Rabindranath Tagore, Sara Chandra, Premchand, C.V. Raman, Jagadish Chandra Bose, APJ Abdul Kalama, Kabir Das, etc. Such great people of India were proud of my country. All the great leaders came from villages and led the country to go ahead.

They fought for many years and sacrificed their lives to make India an independent country from British rule. It is a country where famous rivers and oceans are run regularly, such as the Ganges, Yamuna, Godavari, Narmada, Brahmaputra, Krishna, Kavery, Bay of Bengal, Arabic sea, etc. India is a beautiful country surrounded by the oceans from three sides. It is a country where people are very intellectual and spiritual and believe in God and Goddess.

Essay on India 300 words

India is my motherland country where I took birth. I love India and have proud of it. India is a big democratic country that ranks second in population after China. It has a rich and glorious past. It is considered the country of old civilization in the world. It is a land of learning where students from many corners come to study in the big universities.

It is famous for its various unique and diverse cultures and tradition of people of many religions. Some people abroad as well follow Indian culture and tradition because of being attracted to nature. Various invaders came and steal the glory and precious things of India. Some of them made it a slave country; however various great leaders of the country became successful in making my motherland free of Britishers in 1947.

The day our country got freedom means the 15 th of August is celebrated every year as Independence Day. Pt. Nehru became the first prime minister of India. It is a country rich in natural resources, yet the inhabitants here are poor. It is growing continuously in technology, science, and literature because of eminent people like Rabindra Nath Tagore, Sir Jagdish Chandra Bose, Sir C.V.Raman, Shri H. N. Bhabha, etc. It is a peace-loving country where people of many religions follow their own culture and tradition as well as celebrate their festivals without any interference.

There are many glorious historical buildings, heritages, monuments and sceneries which attract people mind from different countries every year. Taj Mahal is a great monument in India and a symbol of eternal love and Kashmir as the heaven on the earth. It is a country of famous temples, mosques, churches, Gurudwaras, rivers, valleys, fertile plains, highest mountain, etc.

Essay on India 400 words

India is my country, and I am proud to be an Indian. It ranks as the seventh largest country in the world as well as the second most populated country in the world. It is also known as Bharat, Hindustan, and Aryavart. It is a peninsula means surrounded by oceans on three sides as Bay of Bengal in the east, the Arabian Sea in the west, and the Indian Ocean in the south. The national animal of India is a tiger, the national bird is a peacock, national flower is the lotus, and the national fruit is mango.

The flag of India has a tricolor, and saffron means purity (the uppermost), white means peace (the middle one having an Ashok Chakra), and green means fertility (the lowest one). Ashok Chakra contains equally divided 24 spokes. The national anthem of India is “Jana Gana Mana,” the national song is “Vande Mataram,” and the national sport is Hockey.

India is a country where people speak many languages, and people of different castes, creeds, religions, and cultures live together. That’s why India is famous for the common saying of “unity in diversity.” It is well known as the land of spirituality, philosophy, science, and technology. People of various religions like Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, Islam, Christianity, and Judaism have lived together in ancient times.

It is a famous country for its agriculture and farming, which are the backbones from ancient times. It uses its own produced food grains and fruits. It is a famous tourist paradise because it attracts people from all over the world. It is rich in monuments, tombs, churches, historical buildings, temples, museums, scenic beauty, wildlife sanctuaries, places of architecture, etc., which are its source of revenue.

It is where Taj Mahal, Fatehpur Sikri, golden temple, Qutab Minar, Red Fort, Ooty, Nilgiris, Kashmir, Khajuraho, Ajanta and Ellora caves, etc., wonders exist. It is a country of great rivers, mountains, valleys, lakes, and oceans. The national language of India is Hindi. It is a country where 29 states and UTs. It has 28 states which again have many small villages.

It is a chief agricultural country famous for producing crops of sugarcane, cotton, jute, rice, wheat, cereals, etc. It is a country where great leaders (Shivaji, Gandhiji, Nehru, Dr. Ambedkar, etc.), great scientists (Dr. Jagadeeshchandra Bose, Dr. Homi Bhabha, Dr. C. V Raman, Dr. Naralikar, etc.) and great reformers (Mother Teresa, Pandurangashastri Alhavale, T. N. Sheshan) took birth. It is a country where diversity exists with strong unity and peace.

Essay on India FAQs

What makes india special essay.

India is special due to its rich culture, history, and diverse traditions.

How to write an essay on my country India?

To write an essay about India, describe its culture, heritage, and achievements.

What are the 10 lines of India of my dream?

In my dream India, there's unity, education for all, and prosperity.

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History Essay Sample: Indian History and Culture

16 February, 2020

12 minutes read

Author:  Richard Pircher

This Essay Sample was written by Handmade Writing Team.

Culture is basically defined as the totality of arts and other various manifestations of human intellectual achievements regarded in a collective manner. Culture is an idea, a value, a belief any particular civilization holds closely to its roots or foundation at any given period in time. It is generalized as a “State of Mind”.

It is the way we interact with one another, the way we behave and react to our environment and certain other things. Culture interprets the manner in which a society perceives abstract entities and by which such a society is perceived. It is established as the diverse manifestations resulting from the basic principles, behaviors and ethics of a specific group of individuals.

To limit the definition of the word “Culture” to the above stated few lines would be doing great injustice to a concept that is a system which encompasses the totality of everything we have come to know today. It is a systematic emancipation, which continuously and consistently absorbs and passes back to society, all that is initiated by different religions, beliefs and races, who are in extremely close proximity with one another, giving the cultural concept a new dimension and meaning as time proceeds.

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Culture is an integration of diverse entities, music, family, social norms, fashion, food and attitude. It is an existing, vibrant and ever-changing activity which completely takes over and absorbs our way of life in any certain period of time. This is what generates the whole visual perception, or picture of the social and psychological fabric of society.

The Indian culture, a majority of historians would confirm is one of the richest, most dynamic and intriguing cultural heritages ever to be known by man. India is blessed with such a rich cultural tradition. There is such a delightful and balanced blend of philosophy, art and religion within the context of Indian culture and history. Each entity is so aesthetically interwoven in the values and fabric of the Indian way of life, customs, thought and values that they are inseparable.

The Indian culture is fundamentally a result of a never-ending synthesis that has taken in a variety of numerous superficial influences in the advancement of its journey through time and history (Aurobindo, 20). The first evidence of civilization took place among the Indian people some four thousand years prior to the birth of Christ.

Unarguably, one of, if not the oldest of traditions, the Indians have been exposed to a series of never-ending, uninterrupted and unbroken sequences of civilizations. Yet, the flexibility and dynamism of the Indian cultural heritage has enabled its people survive these alien invasions and still significantly hold on to the traditions and originality even after it had inculcated the most beneficial of these outside influences.

The Indians by nature possess a submissive mental attitude towards culture or tradition, born out of a philosophical doctrine that all events are predetermined in advance for all time and human beings are powerless to its inevitability. Thus, the Indian mind has assimilated, to a rather large extent, the context of the diverse cultures, hence the wealthy heritage and uniqueness. Today, it is that buoyant uniqueness that attracts the western world to the Indian culture. Disenchanted from their worldly and bourgeois way of life, westerners turn to India to find peace and solace.

The Indian culture and history can certainly boast of the stimulating and mind-opening wisdom found in the ancient epics such as the likes of Ramayana and Mahabharata that serve as beacons of enlightenment and awareness to the seekers of truth and spiritual bliss. Lord Krishna speaks, in the Bhargava Gita of how each and every individual can come to abide in the subtle philosophical principles embedded in the scriptures in ones day to day activities. Lord Buddha equally teaches the principles of followership of the “Middle Path” by exercising and exerting authority over passions. It should be clearly admitted that Indian sages or mentors in spiritual and philosophical issues renowned for their profound wisdom hard started analyzing and deducing hypothesis on life’s issues for more than decades of centuries, the west only recently began pondering on such issues.

Influenced and induced by the philosophical trends of history, as well as religious and moral beliefs, Indian art from the caves of Ajanta, Khajuraho, Ellora and the temples of the south are living witnesses and testimonies to the satisfying aesthetic standards and sensibility of perfection achieved by Indian sculptors, architects and artists in the ancient times. Westerners have claim of intense spiritual enlightenment and awakening on visitations to such temples.

In music as well as dance, are two other significant entities that characterize the rich and dynamic culture of the Indians. The Indian cultural music is strikingly extraordinary due to its continuity in development and growth. Prior to the Christian historic period, Indian music had propagated not only definite rules of practical theory, but an even depth of insight and understanding of appreciative measure. Having been built on the foundations and concept of ragas and fast, Indian music and dance are established as appropriate in depicting diverse emotions and moods.

Hindustani and Karnataka, two significant schools of classical music, whose rules are derived from the Sangeet Ratnakar by Sarangdeva and Natya Shastra of Bharata are well established in Indian history. These forms of classical music have had a great impact as well as having influenced to a large account, western music. Zakir Hussain, Pandit Ravi Shankar and a host of other notable Maestros have made tremendous contributions to the growth and development of Indian classical music to the western world.

The backdrop and foundations of Indian dance, comes with a diverse and wealthy essence. Historians lay claim to the notion that Indian dance is as diverse as the culture and the land itself. Undoubtedly, it still holds onto the implicit bond that binds the Indian people together. From a range of classical, to folk, the dances of India are an articulate and eloquent blend of expressions of an ancient civilization, whose erudition continuously evokes the desired search of humans for a conscious identity and self-discovery within one’s self and with his creator.

The beauty of Indian dance is in its ability to convey the people’s sense of rhythm and abandon as well as their jocularity. Often said, the origins of these dances can be linked to Hindu temples, where they were first birthed and nurtured until they attained maturity and their full stature, hence the impulse of such dances to have or exhibit some religious context to it. Four systems of classical dance are accounted for in Indian culture, though other prominent ones exist. But as in all performing arts within the context of the Indian history and traditions, the concept of “rasa” advocates a central position. This essence of the rasa is conveyed via the “Bhava” or the “expression”, through the emulation of Abhinaya.

Hinduism is said to be the earliest form of religion in Indian history and dates back to several millenniums. Hinduism’s earliest records can be found in the Indus valley civilization. Owing its core values to Vedas and the Hindu culture, it lays its focus and reference from the Holy Scriptures in the sacred language of the Sanskrit. Laying its projection on the belief in god in a variety of forms and on the emphasis on rituals, which are said to be practical in the unity of spiritual togetherness and kinship, other essentially notable features are the belief in the Guru Shishya tradition of learning and a divided structured caste system.

Apart from the Hindu Religion, Indian culture and history boast of the Jains, who claim, and have presented scholarly reports and documentation to prove that their religion is the most ancient of religions.

Another very critical and historically famous religion notable in the Indian history is Buddhism. Based on the teachings and practises of Gautama Buddha. Many say Buddhism, rather than a religion is more of a system of morality and ethics.

Through forceful coercion and conversions, Islam was introduced into India by invaders, who set up religion and rule in the country. Today it is one of the largest religions amongst the Indian community. The Greeks and Indian civilizations came into close proximity and thus the influences of such civilizations rubbed off on each culture, this was as a result of Alexander’s prominent invasion on India, which opened up a land route from Europe to the India. The impact of civilization was further felt, as the French, Portuguese and to a larger extent the Brits, whose influences of Christianity played a minimal but enduring role on Indian civilization and cultural heritage as well as its religious beliefs.

In recent times, Indians have demonstrated a deep interest in further encouraging and promoting its cultural and unique historical values and heritage. This revivification of India’s national identity has been greeted with a boost of larger awareness in the sectors of Indian classical music and dance and the realm of indigenous folk arts the world over

Educational institutions are beginning to ensure that future generations are inculcated and imbibed with the values of the buoyant cultural and historical heritage of its people for the world to see. Cultural Festivals of India had a huge success in the west in recent times, so has the government’s effort in promoting Indian heritage and cultural values domestically been met with a huge and enthusiastic response.

The Indian culture is one of philosophical dynamism. Throughout history and time, no other civilization nor cultural heritage has been known to produce deduced hypothetical philosophy that has transcended into the future from the past. Be it in the sciences, medicine, astronomy as well as astrology, the Indian culture has bordered it all. Ancient and modern India has produced some of the world’s greatest minds and thinkers, this phenomenon can be easily associated with the vast knowledge that lies within the underlying layers of the Indian heritage. As William Durant, the great American historian put it, “India is the motherland of our race.”

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Works Cited

• Aurobindo, Sri. The Renaissance in India: On Indian Culture and Other Essays.  Arya: Aug 1918. Print.
• Amartya, Sen. The Argumentative Indian: Writings on Indian History, Culture and Identity. Picador 1st Edition: 2006. Print.
• “Arts and Culture.” National Portal of India. n.d. Web 10 June 2013. Retrieved from http://india.gov.in/india-glance/culture-heritage
• Elwin, V. The Religion of an Indian Tribe . Bombay: Oxford University Press. 1943. Print.
• Muller, Max. F. Sacred Books of the East: The Zend Avesta, Vol 1: The Vendidad. 1910. Web. 10 June 2013. Retrieved from http://www.holybooks.com/the-sacred-books-of-the-east-all-50-volumes/

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• 75 Years of Independence: The Changing Landscape of India

75 Years of Independence: The Changing Landscape of India  Blogs Home

• 14 Aug 2022

There is an old saying that India is a new country but an ancient civilization, and this civilization has seen tremendous changes throughout its history.

From being an education hub of the world in ancient times to becoming the IT hub of the world today, the Indian landscape has come a long way. Taking 15 th August 1947 as our frame of reference, we find that there are several fields like Science and Technology, economy, and human development where India has shown remarkable progress. However, some fields like health and education still seem to be taken care of. Let us look at these aspects of Indian development individually.

The Landscape of Science and Technology

When the Britishers left India, they left behind a broken, needy, underdeveloped, and economically unstable country. After independence, India prioritized scientific research in its first five-year plan. It paved the way for prestigious scientific institutes like IITs and IISC. After just three years of independence, the Indian Institute of Technology has established in 1950. These institutions promoted research in India with the aid of foreign institutions. From launching its first satellite Aryabhatta in 1975 to being the first country to reach the orbit of Mars, India has taken confident strides in the field of space research technology, thanks to the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). We can proudly state that India is standing at par with countries like USA and China, same goes with the field of biotechnology also where India is producing vaccines for the entire world. The success of UPI is also a case study for the world with 9.36 billion transactions worth Rs. 10.2 trillion in Q1 of 2022 only.

Economic Landscape

India faced several issues following its independence, including illiteracy, corruption, poverty, gender discrimination, untouchability, regionalism, and communalism. Numerous issues have acted as major roadblocks to India's economic development. When India declared its independence in 1947, its GDP was mere 2.7 lakh crore accounting for 3% of the world GDP. In 1965, the Green Revolution was started in India by M. S. Swaminathan, the father of the Green Revolution. During the Green Revolution, there was a significant increase in the crop area planted with high-yielding wheat and rice types. From 1978–1979, the Green Revolution led to a record grain output of 131 million tonnes. India was then recognized as one of the top agricultural producers in the world. With the construction of linked facilities like factories and hydroelectric power plants, a large number of jobs for industrial workers were also generated in addition to agricultural workers.

Today India is the 5 th largest economy in the world with 147 lakh crore GDP, accounting for 8% of global GDP. In recent years, India has seen a whopping rise of 15,400% in the number of startups, which rose from 471 in 2016 to 72,993 as of June 2022. This phenomenal rise in startups has also produced millions of new jobs in the country.

Infrastructure

The India of today is different from India at the time of freedom. In the 75 years of independence, Indian Infrastructure has improved drastically. The overall length of the Indian road network has grown from 0.399 million km in 1951 to 4.70 million km as of 2015, which makes it the third largest roadway network in the world. Additionally, India's national highway system now spans 1, 37, 625 kilometres in 2021, up from 24,000 km (1947–1969).

After over 70 years of independence, India has risen to become Asia's third-largest electricity generator. It increased its ability to produce energy from 1,362 MW in 1947 to 3, 95, 600 MW. In India, the total amount of power produced increased from 301 billion units in 1992–1993 to 400990.23 MW in 2022. The Indian government has succeeded in lighting up all 18,452 villages by April 28, 2018, as opposed to just 3061 in 1950, when it comes to rural electrification.

The Landscape of Human Development

In 1947 India had a population of 340 million with a literacy rate of just 12%, today it has a population of nearly 1.4 billion and a literacy rate of 74.04%. The average life expectancy has also risen from 32 years to 70 years in 2022.

The Landscape of Education and Health

In 1947, India had a population of 340 million with a literacy rate of just 12%, today it has a population of nearly 1.4 billion and a literacy rate of 74.04%. The average life expectancy has also risen from 32 years to 70 years in 2022. Though India has shown remarkable progress In terms of literacy rate, the quality of higher education is still a cause of major concern. There is not a single Indian University or Institute in the top 100 QS World University Ranking. With the largest youth population in the world, India can achieve wonders if its youth get equipped with proper skills and education. The health, sector is also worrisome. The doctor-to-patient ratio is merely 0.7 doctors per 1000 people as compared to the WHO average of 2.5 doctors per 1000 people. A recent study shows that 65% of medical expenses in India are paid out of pocket by patients and the reason is that they are left with no alternative but to access private healthcare because of poor facilities in public hospitals.

The Political Landscape

Jawaharlal Nehru was appointed as India's first prime minister in 1947, following the end of British rule. He promoted a socialist-economic system for India, including five-year plans and the nationalization of large sectors of the economy like mining, steel, aviation, and other heavy industries. Village common areas were taken, and a massive public works and industrialization drive led to the building of important dams, roads, irrigation canals, thermal and hydroelectric power plants, and many other things. India's population surpassed 500 million in the early 1970s, but the “Green Revolution” significantly increased agricultural productivity, which helped to end the country's long-standing food problem.

From 1991 to 1996, India's economy grew quickly as a result of the policies implemented by the late Prime Minister P. V. Narasimha Rao and his Finance Minister at the time, Dr Manmohan Singh. Poverty had decreased to about 22%, while unemployment has been continuously reducing. Growth in the gross domestic product exceeded 7%.

India's first female Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi, held office from 1966 until 1977 for three consecutive terms before serving a fourth term (1980–84). India elected Pratibha Patil as its first female president in 2007.

India's economy has expanded significantly in the twenty-first century. Under the Prime ministership of Narendra Modi (BJP), many significant changes have taken place like the scraping of Section 370, strengthening the Defence systems, creating a startup-friendly environment and much more. To expand infrastructure and manufacturing, the Modi administration launched several programs and campaigns, including “Make in India”, “Digital India”, and the “Swachh Bharat project.”

The Legal Landscape

Before independence, the Privy Council was the highest appellate authority in India. This Council was abolished as the first action following independence. The abolition of the Privy Council Jurisdiction Act was passed by the Indian Constituent Assembly in 1949 to eliminate the Privy Council's authority over appeals from India and to make provisions for outstanding appeals. It was B. R. Ambedkar's sharp legal intellect to draft a constitution for the newly sovereign country. In all executive, legislative, and judicial matters in the nation, the Constitution of India serves as the supreme law. The Indian legal system has developed into a key component of the largest democracy in the world and a pivotal front in the fight to protect constitutional rights for all citizens. Since it was first adopted in 1950, the Indian Constitution has had 105 modifications as of October 2021. The Indian Constitution is divided into 22 parts with 395 articles. Later, through various changes, further articles were added and amendments were made. According to the online repository maintained by the Legislative Department of the Ministry of Law and Justice of India as of July 2022, there are around 839 Central laws. The Indian legal system has a promising and forward-thinking future, and in the twenty-first century, young, first-generation lawyers are entering the field after graduating from the best law schools.

The Landscape of the Defence Sector

The Indian military ranked 4 of 142 out of the countries considered for the annual GFP review. From being defeated by the Chinese army in 1962 to becoming one of the largest defence systems in the world, India has surely learnt from its past errors. One of the reasons the Indian defence system has been able to attain its present reputation is the Defence Research and Development Organization (DRDO) which was established in 1958. Since its founding, it has created many significant programs and critical technologies, including missile systems, small and big armaments, artillery systems, electronic warfare (EW) systems, tanks, and armoured vehicles. India began working on nuclear energy in the late 1950s and had indigenous nuclear power stations by the 1970s. India had also begun developing nuclear weapons and producing fissile material concurrently, which allowed for the purportedly harmless nuclear explosion in Pokhran in 1971. The Integrated Guided Missile Development Program (IGMDP), under the direction of APJ Abdul Kalam and with the support of the Ordnance Factories, was established in 1983. In 1989, the longer-range Agni was independently designed and tested. Later, India and Russia collaborated to design and produce the Brahmos supersonic cruise missile. India currently leads several other nations in the production of defences. India is one of about a dozen nations that have built and produced their fighter jets, helicopters, submarines, missiles, and aircraft carriers.

Analyzing the different landscapes of India we find that we have come a long way in our journey but still, there is a lot to be done if we want to make India a ‘super power’. A lot will depend on our people’s willingness to change, ensuring the equal participation of women in the workforce, including marginalized communities in our economic growth, and last but not least is having a liberal and progressive and unbiased mindset.

As we are celebrating “Azaadi ka Amrit Mahotsav”, the completion of 75 years of independence can be taken as a new opportunity to build an India of our aspirations and make positive contributions to the changing landscape of India.

 Aarifa Nadeem 

https://www.nationalheraldindia.com/opinion/how-we-have-done-since-gaining-freedom-from-our-colonial-masters-seven-decades-ago

https://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/news/story/qs-world-university-rankings-2023-top-10-universities-globally-and-top-10-in-india-1960806-2022-06-10

https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/news/national/5-reasons-why-indias-healthcare-system-is-struggling/article34665535.ece

https://www.thehindu.com/business/Economy/economic-survey-high-out-of-pocket-expenses-for-health-can-lead-to-poverty/article33699314.ece

https://www.mapsofindia.com/my-india/technology/development-in-india-after-independence#:~:text=Infrastructure%20Development,%2C37%2C625%20km%20(2021) .

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_India_(1947%E2%80%93present)#: ~:text=India%20became%20a%20sovereign%20democratic,the%2042nd%20Constitution %20Amendment%201976.

http://www.barcouncilofindia.org/about/about-the-legal-profession/history-of-the-legal-profession/

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Essay on Constitution of India

500+ words indian constitution essay for students and children in english.

A Constitution is a set of rules and regulations guiding the administration of a country. The Constitution is the backbone of every democratic and secular fabric of the nation. The Constitution of India is the longest Constitution in the world, which describes the framework for political principles, procedures and powers of the government. The Constitution of India was written on 26 November 1949 and came into force on 26 January 1950. In this essay on the Constitution of India, students will get to know the salient features of India’s Constitution and how it was formed.

Constitution of India Essay

On 26th January 1950, the Constitution of India came into effect. That’s why 26th January is celebrated as Republic Day in India.

How Was the Constitution of India Formed?

The representatives of the Indian people framed the Indian Constitution after a long period of debates and discussions. It is the most detailed Constitution in the world. No other Constitution has gone into such minute details as the Indian Constitution.

The Constitution of India was framed by a Constituent Assembly which was established in 1946. Dr Rajendra Prasad was elected President of the Constituent Assembly. A Drafting Committee was appointed to draft the Constitution and Dr B.R. Ambedkar was appointed as the Chairman. The making of the Constitution took a total of 166 days, which was spread over a period of 2 years, 11 months and 18 days. Some of the salient features of the British, Irish, Swiss, French, Canadian and American Constitutions were incorporated while designing the Indian Constitution.

Also Read: Evolution and Framing of the Constitution

Features of The Constitution of India

The Constitution of India begins with a Preamble which contains the basic ideals and principles of the Constitution. It lays down the objectives of the Constitution.

The Longest Constitution in the world

The Indian Constitution is the lengthiest Constitution in the world. It had 395 articles in 22 parts and 8 schedules at the time of commencement. Now it has 448 articles in 25 parts and 12 schedules. There are 104 amendments (took place on 25th January 2020 to extend the reservation of seats for SCs and STs in the Lok Sabha and state assemblies) that have been made in the Indian Constitution so far.

How Rigid and Flexible is the Indian Constitution?

One of the unique features of our Constitution is that it is not as rigid as the American Constitution or as flexible as the British Constitution. It means it is partly rigid and partly flexible. Owing to this, it can easily change and grow with the change of times.

The Preamble

The Preamble has been added later to the Constitution of India. The original Constitution does not have a preamble. The preamble states that India is a sovereign, socialist, secular and democratic republic. The objectives stated by the Preamble are to secure justice, liberty, and equality for all citizens and promote fraternity to maintain the unity and integrity of the nation.

Federal System with Unitary Features

The powers of the government are divided between the central government and the state governments. The Constitution divides the powers of three state organs, i.e., executive, judiciary and legislature. Hence, the Indian Constitution supports a federal system. It includes many unitary features such as a strong central power, emergency provisions, appointment of Governors by the President, etc.

Fundamental rights and fundamental duties

The Indian Constitution provides an elaborate list of Fundamental Rights to the citizens of India. The Constitution also provides a list of 11 duties of the citizens, known as the Fundamental Duties. Some of these duties include respect for the national flag and national anthem, integrity and unity of the country and safeguarding of public property.

Also Read: Difference between Fundamental Rights and Fundamental Duties

India is a republic which means that a dictator or monarch does not rule the country. The government is of the people, by the people and for the people. Citizens nominate and elect its head after every five years.

Related Read: Constitution of India – 13 Major Features

The Constitution serves as guidelines for every citizen. It helped India to attain the status of a Republic in the world. Once Atal Bihari Vajpayee said that “governments would come and go, political parties would be formed and dissolved, but the country should survive, and democracy should remain there forever”.

We hope that this essay on the “Constitution of India” must have helped students. For the latest updates on ICSE/CBSE/State Board/Competitive Exams, stay tuned to BYJU’S. Also, download the BYJU’S App for watching interesting study videos.

Also Read: Independence Day Essay | Republic Day Essay | Essay on Women Empowerment

Frequently Asked Questions on Constitution of India Essay

Who is the father of our indian constitution.

Dr. B. R. Ambedkar is the father of our Indian Constitution. He framed and drafted our Constitution.

Who signed the Indian Constitution?

Dr. Rajendra Prasad was the first person from the Constitution Assembly to have signed the Indian Constitution.

What is mentioned in the Preamble of our Indian Constitution?

The preamble clearly communicates the purpose and emphasis the importance of the objectives of the Indian Constitution.

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Essay on Incredible India

Students are often asked to write an essay on Incredible India in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Incredible India

Land of diversity.

India, often known as “Incredible India,” is a land of rich culture, history, and diversity. It is famous for its colorful festivals, diverse languages, and varied landscapes.

Historical Significance

India’s history spans over five millennia, with significant contributions to art, science, and philosophy. It is home to ancient civilizations and world-famous monuments.

Cultural Richness

The Indian culture, with its myriad traditions, music, dance forms, and cuisines, is a true reflection of its diversity. Each region has a unique cultural identity.

Natural Beauty

From snow-capped mountains to sun-kissed beaches, India’s natural beauty is breathtaking. It has numerous national parks and wildlife sanctuaries.

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250 Words Essay on Incredible India

Introduction.

India, often referred to as ‘Incredible India’, is a nation that boasts of rich cultural heritage, diverse traditions, and historical landmarks. This unique amalgamation of cultures, religions, and languages makes India a truly incredible country to explore.

Cultural Diversity

India’s cultural diversity is its most remarkable feature. Home to a multitude of religions, India thrives on harmonious co-existence, tolerance, and respect for all faiths. With over 2,000 distinct ethnic groups and more than 1,600 spoken languages, the country exemplifies unity in diversity.

India’s historical significance is another aspect that contributes to its incredibility. From the architectural grandeur of Mughal monuments like the Taj Mahal to the spiritual allure of ancient Hindu temples, India’s historical sites are a testament to its rich past.

Natural Wonders

India’s geographical diversity is equally fascinating. From the snow-capped Himalayan peaks to the tropical beaches of Goa, from the arid Thar Desert to the lush Sundarbans, India offers an array of natural wonders that captivate the senses.

In conclusion, the term ‘Incredible India’ perfectly encapsulates the essence of this vibrant nation. Its cultural diversity, historical significance, and natural beauty make it a country like no other. The uniqueness of India lies in its ability to maintain its cultural essence while embracing modernity, making it truly incredible.

500 Words Essay on Incredible India

The land of diversity and harmony.

India, often known as “Incredible India,” is a country that stands out for its diverse culture, rich history, and fascinating traditions. It is a land where 1.3 billion people live in harmony, speaking over 2000 dialects, practicing various religions, and celebrating numerous festivals. This diversity is not a weakness but a strength that adds to the incredible nature of India.

The Cultural Mosaic

India’s culture is a colorful mosaic of different traditions, religions, and languages that have evolved over thousands of years. Each state has its unique culture, food, dance, music, and art forms, contributing to the country’s rich cultural heritage. This diversity in culture is a testament to India’s tolerance and acceptance, where every festival, be it Diwali, Eid, Christmas, or Pongal, is celebrated with equal fervor.

The Architectural Marvels

India is home to numerous architectural wonders that reflect its glorious past. From the intricate carvings of Ajanta and Ellora caves to the majestic Mughal architecture of Taj Mahal, from the grand palaces of Rajasthan to the serene monasteries of Ladakh, India’s architecture is a blend of various styles, each narrating a unique story of its time.

The Land of Spirituality

India’s natural splendour.

India’s natural beauty is as diverse as its culture. From the snow-capped Himalayan peaks to the sun-kissed beaches of Goa, from the dense forests of Sundarbans to the arid Thar Desert, India offers a wide range of landscapes. The country is also rich in biodiversity, hosting a variety of flora and fauna, some of which are endemic to the region.

Economic Growth and Challenges

India is a rapidly developing economy, with significant advancements in technology, healthcare, and education. However, it still grapples with challenges such as poverty, illiteracy, and corruption. Addressing these issues is crucial for India to fully realize its potential and continue its journey towards becoming a global superpower.

If you’re looking for more, here are essays on other interesting topics:

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Essay on Indian History

History is agreed upon as an uninterrupted process in time and space.

Yet knowledge of the period is essential to understand and appreciate the nature of the historical changes that take place in time and space.

Periodization of Indian history is a tricky and controversial concept. There is no unanimity among the historians about the periodization of Indian history.

Image Source: saddahaq.blob.core.windows.net/multimedia/99038380-indiaincre-voc3impd.jpg

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Broadly, there are two types of periodization in vogue, one on the religious and ethnic nature of rulers which divides it as Hindu, Muslim and the British periods and the other, borrowed from European historiography – Ancient, Medieval and Modern.

Initially, the British historian, James Mill proposed the tripartite division of Indian history on religious and ethnic nature of rulers as Hindu, Muslim and British. Even this division is not precise as all the rulers in the Hindu period were not Hindus and we have a number of rulers who migrated to India from other countries and ruled side by side with the Hindu rulers and the Hindus were not culturally a homogenous entity either.

Further, this division is not acceptable to modem historians as it has communal tinge which is not desirable for a pluralistic country like India. But there are still some historians who believe in that division. The second type of division – Ancient, Medieval and Modern – is also regarded as inadequate as the terms are imprecise and vague and fail to explain the nature of changes that took place from time to time.

In the last few decades, there is a revisiting of periodization by the histo­rians because new questions are asked and new sources are consulted and collated to arrive at conclusions regarding the factors of change that necessitated new socio-economic formations that led to new cultural and political patterns that shaped the course of our historical process.

Keeping the latest trends in periodization in mind an attempt ismade to give primacy to the nature of change propelled by factors of change – technology, material milieu and ideology – in the creation of new socio-economic formation linking it to political and cultural formation in time and space. As there is so far no new nomenclature acceptable to all, I followed the broad periodization of ancient, medieval and modem as that format is still popular.

The ancient period begins with prehistory and ends with the Gupta age. The medieval period begins with the post-Gupta age and ends with the advent of Europeans. The medieval period witnessed the emergence and assertion of regional polities and cultures and the arrival of two separate nationalities, the Muslims with belief in Islam and the westerners believing in Christianity who played a crucial role in integrating politically and creating a crucible of culturally diverse India.

The modern period begins with colonialism introduced by the new political masters, the British. The modern period witnessed the growth and spread of new ideas and ideals of democracy, equality, social justice, consequent to the introduction of western model of educational system.

The introduction of colonial power structure which led to ruination of Indian populace led to non-violent and sometimes to violent mass upsurge that resulted in the declaration of Indian independence and division of India on the principle of separate nationalities in 1947.

Generally, the historian with the help of available primary and secondary sources reconstructs the history of any country. As history is not a simple narration of events in a chronological and spatial order, the historian has to choose the sources that are authentic and can be corroborated by other sources before arriving at a historical generalization.

As the contemporary approach to history is to understand the historical process and attempt to explain it in the present times, a historian should be knowledgeable about theories of historical method as well as of other social sciences. It is essential to develop the needed analytical skills of source materials objectively before the historical process is constructed.

Primary sources are those, which are contemporaneous with an event or happening, and secondary sources are those, which belong to a later time. For instance, the Asokan edicts are the primary sources to understand Asoka’s Dhamma.

The Allahabad Pillar Prasasthi and the Aihole epigraph of Samudragupta and Pulakesin II are respectively the primary sources for under­standing the conquests of Samudragupta and Pulakesin II. Romila Thapar’s Asoka and the Decline of the Mauryas belongs to the category of secondary sources as she wrote that book after a thorough examination of the entire published and original sources.

Related Articles:

• Phases of the Growth of Historiography
• Chief Sources of Medieval Indian History
• Essay on Bhagvatism | Indian History
• Essay on Indian National Congress

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Essay on Indian Culture for Students and Children

500+ words essay on indian culture.

India is a country that boasts of a rich culture. The culture of India refers to a collection of minor unique cultures. The culture of India comprises of clothing, festivals, languages, religions, music, dance, architecture, food, and art in India. Most noteworthy, Indian culture has been influenced by several foreign cultures throughout its history. Also, the history of India’s culture is several millennia old.

Components of Indian Culture

First of all, Indian origin religions are Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism . All of these religions are based on karma and dharma. Furthermore, these four are called as Indian religions. Indian religions are a major category of world religions along with Abrahamic religions.

Also, many foreign religions are present in India as well. These foreign religions include Abrahamic religions. The Abrahamic religions in India certainly are Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Besides Abrahamic religions, Zoroastrianism and Bahá’í Faith are the other foreign religions which exist in India. Consequently, the presence of so many diverse religions has given rise to tolerance and secularism in Indian culture.

The Joint family system is the prevailing system of Indian culture . Most noteworthy, the family members consist of parents, children, children’s spouses, and offspring. All of these family members live together. Furthermore, the eldest male member is the head of the family.

Arranged marriages are the norm in Indian culture. Probably most Indians have their marriages planned by their parents. In almost all Indian marriages, the bride’s family gives dowry to bridegroom. Weddings are certainly festive occasions in Indian culture. There is involvement of striking decorations, clothing, music, dance, rituals in Indian weddings. Most noteworthy, the divorce rates in India are very low.

India celebrates a huge number of festivals. These festivals are very diverse due to multi-religious and multi-cultural Indian society. Indians greatly value festive occasions. Above all, the whole country joins in the celebrations irrespective of the differences.

Traditional Indian food, arts, music, sports, clothing, and architecture vary significantly across different regions. These components are influenced by various factors. Above all, these factors are geography, climate, culture, and rural/urban setting.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

Perceptions of Indian Culture

Indian culture has been an inspiration to many writers. India is certainly a symbol of unity around the world. Indian culture is certainly very complex. Furthermore, the conception of Indian identity poses certain difficulties. However, despite this, a typical Indian culture does exist. The creation of this typical Indian culture results from some internal forces. Above all, these forces are a robust Constitution, universal adult franchise, secular policy , flexible federal structure, etc.

Indian culture is characterized by a strict social hierarchy. Furthermore, Indian children are taught their roles and place in society from an early age. Probably, many Indians believe that gods and spirits have a role in determining their life. Earlier, traditional Hindus were divided into polluting and non-polluting occupations. Now, this difference is declining.

Indian culture is certainly very diverse. Also, Indian children learn and assimilate in the differences. In recent decades, huge changes have taken place in Indian culture. Above all, these changes are female empowerment , westernization, a decline of superstition, higher literacy , improved education, etc.

To sum it up, the culture of India is one of the oldest cultures in the World. Above all, many Indians till stick to the traditional Indian culture in spite of rapid westernization. Indians have demonstrated strong unity irrespective of the diversity among them. Unity in Diversity is the ultimate mantra of Indian culture.

FAQs on Indian Culture

Q1 What are the Indian religions?

A1 Indian religions refer to a major category of religion. Most noteworthy, these religions have their origin in India. Furthermore, the major Indian religions are Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism.

Q2 What are changes that have taken place in Indian culture in recent decades?

A2 Certainly, many changes have taken place in Indian culture in recent decades. Above all, these changes are female empowerment, westernization, a decline of superstition, higher literacy, improved education, etc.

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