phd american legal history

JD/PhD American Legal History

Offered through the University of Pennsylvania Carey Law School and the Department of History, the JD/PhD Program allows students to take a deep dive into the complex field of legal history.

• Degree Requirements
• Joint Degrees & Certificates
• Legal Practice Skills
• Clinics & Externships
• Academic Support Program
• International Affairs
• Future of the Profession Initiative
• Legal Education Programs
• Executive Education
• Academic Calendar
• Learning Outcomes
• Advocacy Competitions

About the JD/PhD American Legal History

Program course overview.

Students can earn both degrees in seven years. The Law School gives credit for up to four pre-approved courses in the Department of History toward the JD degree. The Department of History requires that the student complete the full PhD coursework, which may include several courses from the Law School curriculum.

Most often, students spend their first year in the Department of History and their second year at the Law School, completing the traditional 1L curriculum. The next two years are spent in combined coursework in the two departments, followed by dissertation writing. On occasion, for the exceptional candidate, some other arrangement of coursework may be possible.

How to Apply

Students must apply and gain admission separately to each department. Applications to the Department of History are welcomed contemporaneously with the Law School application and vice versa.

For more information, admitted or current JD students should contact Amanda S. Aronoff. Applicants or prospective applicants to the Law School should contact [email protected] .

Current and Former Students

• Gregory Ablavsky
• Amber Armstrong
• Smita Ghosh
• Justin L. Simard
• Sarah Winsberg

Additional Information

• Department of History
• History Department’s Graduate Admissions
• Penn Carey Law Admissions
• Penn Carey Law’s legal history offerings
• Penn Carey Law’s joint JD/PhD programs set graduates on the path to careers in academia

Interested in other humanities focused joint degrees?

JD/PhD Philosophy

JD/AM Islamic Studies

Law and History Program of Study

Students who plan to practice in almost any area of law, as well as those interested in the academic study of legal history have much to gain from courses in Law and History. The Program of Study in Law and History offers students a chance to examine law and its relationship to the larger world of social movements, economic change, politics and government – in the context of studying law in a period of time different from our own. It is designed to reflect the present evolution of interdisciplinary university education in our rapidly changing world. Law and History offers students a chance to contrast our present circumstances with the past, a chance to understand the long path of development that led to the legal problems we grapple with in the present, and the chance to see the deep roots of the social forces that are changing the shape of our own world. The program offers a chance to study lawyers, legal institutions, and the larger society and its interaction with law. The study of law in historical context provides a rich foundation for both practice and scholarship in all fields of law.

The Program of Study in Law and History is designed to be useful to both students who might take one or several of its foundational or advanced courses to round out their law school education, and for those who are interested in more sustained exposure to academic legal history and interdisciplinary study that will connect them to faculty and students from other parts of the university. The program is designed:

• To guide students through foundational and advanced courses and seminars about law and history, and related subjects.
• To facilitate faculty-student interaction and scholarship about legal history—broadly defined—among interested faculty and students.
• To offer support and advising for students who are engaged in the JD/PhD program in history and plan to pursue academic careers.

The law school boasts unmatched expertise in law and history. Students involved in the program have the opportunity to study with renowned faculty who are leaders in the field. Members of the Harvard Law School faculty write and teach about a wide range of law and history subjects, periods, localities, and methods. We have experts in Civil Rights, the Legal Profession, Economic History, Comparative Law, the Ancient World, English Legal History, Legal Thought, Slavery and Emancipation, and all periods of American Constitutional and Legal History.

Interested students are advised to enroll in a range of course offerings. Foundational courses introduce students to the study of law and history, while advanced courses offer in-depth study of particular subjects. Students also are encouraged to attend the law and history workshop; in this context, students can deepen their understanding of the central questions and controversies that animate the field of legal history.

Academic Offerings

For the latest academic year offerings in Law and History, please visit the HLS Course Catalog .

Foundational Courses

These courses offer context, perspective and introductory readings about or relevant to legal history to interested students.

• American Legal History
• Legal History Workshop

Advanced Courses and Seminars

• American Legal History, 1776 – 1865
• American Legal History: Law, Economy, and Society in the Era of the American Revolution
• American Legal History: From Reconstruction to the Present
• Comparative Law: Ancient Law
• Constitutional History I: From the Founding to the Civil War
• Constitional History II: From Reconstruction to the Civil Rights Movement
• Constitutional Law: Money and the Making of American Capitalism
• English Legal History
• Legal History: History of American Economic Regulation
• Legal History: Workshop on the Political Economy of Modern Capitalism
• Legal History Seminar: Continential Legal History
• Legal History Workshop: Race and Policing in Historical Context
• Legal History Workshop: Sex and the Law
• Making Legal History
• Pierson v. Post and the Theory of Property Seminar
• Politics, Social Life and Law in Jeffersonian America
• The Warren Court

Related Courses

• Advanced Legislation: Statutory Interpretation
• American Legal Education
• Civil Liberties and the Second Reconstruction: Problems of Suppression and Covert Disruption
• From Protest to Law: Triumphs and Defeats of the Civil Rights Revolution 1950-1970
• Mind and Criminal Responsibility in the Anglo-American Tradition
• The Legal Architecture of Globalization: Money, Debt, and Development

Academic Careers

Students who wish to pursue academic careers in this area should enroll in a variety of the offerings described above combined with significant research and writing under the direction of relevant faculty. For further information, contact the Law and History Program of Study faculty leaders and advising faculty.

Advising Faculty

William Alford

Nikolas Bowie

Christine Desan

Tomiko Brown-Nagin

Charles Donahue

William Fisher

Annette Gordon-Reed

Elizabeth Papp Kamali

Michael Klarman

Adriaan Lanni

Anna Lvovsky

Kenneth Mack

Intisar Rabb

Kristen A. Stilt

Laura Weinrib

Fellowship Opportunities

• Raoul Berger-MarkDeWolfe Legal History Fellowship
• Reginald F. Lewis Fellowship
• Rappaport Fellowship

Interdisciplinary Study

The Law School offers a  Coordinated JD/PhD Program  with the Harvard  Graduate School of Arts and Sciences  (GSAS). Students in the program earn a JD and a PhD, allowing them to integrate the study of law with their doctoral studies in history. Several  members  of the  Harvard History Department  work in areas related or highly relevant to the law.

To be admitted to the coordinated JD/PHD program, students must apply to and be separately admitted to both the Law School and to GSAS. Students interested in the coordinated program are encouraged to contact  April Pettit , in the Office of Academic Affairs at HLS, or  Shelby Johnson , in the Office of Student Affairs at GSAS, for further information.

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Joint Degree in Law and History (J.D./Ph.D)

Stanford offers two joint degree programs in Law and History: (1) a JD/PhD program and (2) a JD/MA program. Both programs afford substantial savings in time and money as compared with the separate pursuit of each degree.

The programs are designed to provide students interested in the study of law and history with top-level training in each field, as well as in the complex and fascinating intersections between the two. Students have access to the full range of resources on campus—including not only courses, but also conferences, lectures, and workshops—devoted to law and history. For an overview of many law-and-history-related activities on campus, please visit the website for the Stanford Center for Law and History . 

Joint J.D./Ph.D in Law & History

The basic structure of the JD/PhD program is outlined below. The program has been purposefully designed to ensure flexibility that addresses individual student’s needs and interests.

Timing of Applications Interested students must separately apply and receive admission to the Stanford Law School and the History Department. Students are encouraged to begin their course of study by spending the first year in the Stanford Law School (SLS), followed by taking courses from both SLS and History Department. This facilitates a truly integrated, joint program; it also maximizes potential savings in financial cost and time-to-degree. Student, who are already enrolled in SLS or the History Department, may apply for admission to joint degree status in the other unit. If you are interested in this option, please check with History Department’s Student Services Manager.

Applications for the PhD program in History are typically due in early December. By contrast, applications to the Law School’s JD program are accepted on a rolling basis, usually between September 1 and February 1. To be considered as a joint applicant, applicants should submit their law-school application around the same time as your PhD application (and definitely no later than the December deadline for a PhD in History). Applicants must separately apply and obtain admission to the Stanford Law School and the Stanford History Department .

In completing the online Law School Admission Council [LSAC] application form, the applicant will be directed to a set of questions unique to Stanford Law School—including a page inquiring whether they are applying to “Other Stanford Programs.” Please select “History” from the drop-down menu.

The History Department application does not include a separate box to indicate application to Stanford Law School. Instead, the applicant should note in their required “Statement of Purpose” that they are also applying for admission into the Law School’s JD program (or that they are already enrolled in a JD program at SLS and are seeking to pursue a JD/PhD in History).

Course of Study  Joint degree students are encouraged to begin their course of study by spending their first year at Stanford in the SLS, followed by a full year in the History Department. This sequencing is essential to complete the required History PhD colloquia sequence without any disruption. After their first year in SLS, students may choose courses from either program. 

Students, who wish to commence JD/PhD program in the History Department, should discuss their plans in advance with their advisors in the Law School and in the History Department. Such requests are reviewed by both units and are accepted only if there is a compelling justification.

If the student chooses to begin their coursework in the History Department, it is vital that they complete the paperwork required to matriculate at the Law School at the beginning of their very first year of coursework. Otherwise, they may not be able to cross-credit this first-year of history coursework toward their JD degree (as detailed below).

Whichever academic unit that the student begins their JD/PhD program, they must be enrolled full time in the Law School during the first year of their JD studies, and full time in the History Department during the first year of their PhD program.

Joint degree students are expected to take their History PhD oral examinations no later than the spring of their fourth year at Stanford.

Cross-Crediting of Units The Law School requires students to earn 111 units in order to obtain the JD The History Department requires students to earn 135 units to obtain the PhD. This is a combined total of 246 units. But students may save about a year of coursework (or somewhat more) through cross-crediting some of these units.

The Law School cross-credits toward the JD up to 31 units earned in the History Department. The History Department has the flexibility to cross-credit toward the PhD up to 23 units earned in the Law School. The Department makes case-by-case decisions about which courses earned in the Law School it will credit toward the PhD So, if there are courses in the Law School that you believe are relevant to your PhD studies and doctoral dissertation, you should discuss with your doctoral advisor whether these are appropriate for cross-crediting.

Tuition and Financial Aid PhD Students, who are simultaneously accepted to the SLS and the History Department for a JD/PhD program, spend their first year at Stanford as a full-time graduate student in SLS. The Department of History does not fund the JD/PhD student during this first year. After finishing their first year with SLS, the student matriculates in the Department of History as a 1st year PhD student and start receiving their 5-Year Departmental Fellowship, which provides five years of guaranteed funding as described in the Finance Section of this Handbook (pg.75).

For their year in the SLS, JD/PhD students are eligible for the full range of need-based financial aid arrangements made available by the Law School and the University. The funding is awarded on a competitive basis. For more information, please see https://law.stanford.edu/education/degrees/

Applicants are also encouraged to consider applying to the Knight-Hennessy Scholars Program. The deadline for applying to this program is much earlier than the deadline for applying to pursue either the JD or the PhD in History—namely, October 11, 2023 at 1:00pm PST. Joint-degree applicants who choose to submit applications for the Knight-Hennessy Scholars Program must still submit separate applications to the Law school and the History department (as described above). Details can be found at: https://knight- hennessy.stanford.edu/ . 

Tuition for Students in Multiple Programs Graduate students who are eligible to pursue more than one degree at Stanford, where each program charges a different tuition (other than concurrent enrollment in a coterminal bachelor’s and master’s program), must document a tuition payment agreement by means of the  Tuition Agreement for Students with Multiple Programs

 (see  GAP 5.1 Changes and Additions of Degree Programs ).

The Enrollment Agreement for Students with Multiple Programs is not required if the programs all charge identical amounts of tuition (e.g., MA and PhD programs that are both in the School of Humanities and Sciences).

The student filing this enrollment agreement indicates the degree program to be used for tuition assessment in each quarter and academic year. The student must obtain the necessary signatures from the dean or associate dean representing each graduate or professional school program listed.

Each Joint Degree Program (JDP) has a pre-approved tuition agreement detailing which graduate tuition level is paid at which point in a student’s career (see  GAP 4.9 Joint Degree Programs ). JDP tuition agreements approved for each JDP reside with the Office of the Registrar.  All students enrolled in a JDP must submit the  Tuition Agreement for Students with Multiple Programs to document the tuition agreement and ensure that correct charges are applied each quarter.

J.D. / M.A. Program in Law & History

Timing of Applications Students interested in the joint JD/MA degree program in Law & History must separately apply and receive admission to the Stanford Law School and the History Department. To maximize potential savings in financial cost and time-to-degree, students are encouraged to apply to both the Law School and the History Department either (1) at the same time or (2) during their first year as a law student. Students in their second year of Stanford Law School may also apply to the MA program in History, but they are less likely to be able to complete both degrees in a total of three years and at the cost of their law degree.

Applications for the MA program in History are due in early December. Applications to the Law School’s JD program are accepted on a rolling basis, generally between September 1 and February 1. Applicants must separately apply and obtain admission to the Stanford Law School and the Stanford History Department .

The History Department application does not include a separate box to indicate application to Stanford Law School. Instead, the applicant should note in their required “Statement of Purpose” that they are also applying for admission into the Law School’s JD program (or that they are already enrolled in a JD program in SLS and are seeking to pursue a JD/MA in History).

• Course of Study Students pursuing the joint JD/MA must begin their course of study by spending the first year in the Stanford Law School. Starting in their second year, they will begin to take classes offered by the History Department, as well as by the Law School, and should be able to complete both degrees by the end of the third year. 

Cross-Crediting of Units The Law School requires students to earn 111 units in order to obtain the JD The History Department requires students to earn 45 units to obtain the MA This is a combined total of 156 units.

The Law School cross-credits toward the JD up to 31 units earned in the History Department. The History Department has the flexibility to cross-credit toward the MA up to 10 units earned in the Law School. The Department makes case-by-case decisions about which courses earned in the Law School it will credit toward the MA So, if there are courses in the Law School that you believe are relevant to your MA studies, you should discuss with your History-Department advisor whether these are appropriate for cross-crediting.

Tuition and Financial Aid The Law School requires students to earn 111 units in order to obtain the JD The History Department requires students to earn 45 units to obtain the MA This is a combined total of 156 units.

The Enrollment Agreement for Students with Multiple Programs is not required if the programs all charge identical amounts of tuition (e.g., MA and PhD. programs that are both in the School of Humanities and Sciences).

Further Information

Students have access to the full range of resources on campus, ranging from courses and conferences to lectures and workshops. For an overview of many law-and-history-related activities on campus, please visit the  Stanford Center for Law and History  website.

Please contact Arthur Palmon   (Assistant Director of Student Services).

Department Bookshelf

Browse the most recent publications from our faculty members.

In the Shadow of Liberty: The Invisible History of Immigrant Detention in the United States

Uncertain Past Time: Empire, Republic, and Politics | Belirsiz Geçmiş Zaman: İmparatorluk, Cumhuriyet Ve Siyaset

Embodied Knowledge: Women and Science before Silicon Valley

Compton in My Soul

The Fox Spirit, the Stone Maiden, and Other Transgender Histories from Late Imperial China

• Utility Menu

Legal History

Howard Chandler Christy, Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States

Magna Carta, 1215

Eleanor Roosevelt and United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Lake Success, NY)

March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, 1963

Code Civil, 1804

Corpus iuris civilis, Digest, with the Glossa ordinaria

• Program Overview

To learn about upcoming events, please visit the Law & History Events Page .  

• David Armitage : Lloyd C. Blankfein Professor of History
• Tomiko Brown-Nagin : Dean, Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study; Daniel P.S. Paul Professor of Constitutional Law; Professor of History
• Sidney Chalhoub : Professor of History and of African and African American Studies
• Lizabeth Cohen : Howard Mumford Jones Professor of American Studies
• Annette Gordon-Reed : Charles Warren Professor of American Legal History: Harvard Law School Professor of History
• Caroline Elkins : Professor of History and African and African American Studies
• Alejandro de la Fuente : Robert Woods Bliss Professor of Latin American History and Economics ; Professor of African and African American Studies and of History
• Tamar Herzog : Monroe Gutman Professor of Latin American Affairs; Radcliffe Alumnae Professor
• Elizabeth Hinton : Associate Professor of History and of African and African American Studies
• Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham : Victor S. Thomas Professor of History and of African and African American Studies; Department of History Chair
• Alison Frank Johnson : Professor of History
• Walter Johnson : Winthrop Professor of History; Professor of African and African American Studies
• James Kloppenberg  : Charles Warren Professor of American History
• Jill Lepore : David Woods Kemper '41 Professor of American History
• Mary Lewis : Robert Walton Goelet Professor of French History
• Intisar Rabb : Professor of Lawl; Professor of History; Susan S. and Kenneth L. Wallach Professor, Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study
• Emma Rothschild : Jeremy and Jane Knowles Professor of History
• Daniel Smail : Frank B. Baird, Jr. Professor of History  
• Daniel Coquillette : Visiting Professor of Law
• Christine Desan : Leo Gottlieb Professor of Law
• Charles Donahue : Paul A. Freund Professor of Law
• Mary Ann Glendon : Learned Hand Professor of Law
• Morton Horwitz : Charles Warren Professor of American Legal History, Emeritus
• Elizabeth Kamali : Assistant Professor of Law
• Randall Kennedy : Michael R. Klein Professor of Law
• Michael Klarman : Kirkland & Ellis Professor of Law
• Adriaan Lanni : Touroff-Glueck Professor of Law
• Kenneth Mack : Lawrence D. Biele Professor of Law
• Bruce Mann : Carl F. Schipper, Jr. Professor of Law
• Mark Tushnet : William Nelson Cromwell Professor of Law  
• Alex Keyssar : Matthew W. Stirling, Jr. Professor of History and Social Policy  
• Eric Nelson : Robert M. Beren Professor of Government

(Courses offered by History Department faculty automatically count for the History concentration)

• HIST 1155: Early Modern Europe, 1450-1789
• HIST 2046: Legal History Workshop: Legal Pluralism

Spring 2021:

• HIST 1005: The Early American Republic: The United States from 1783-1837
• HIST 2080: Medieval Law

Past Course Offerings on Legal History:

• FRSEMR 43C: Human Rights and the Global South
• FRSEMR 61H: Jefferson and Hamilton: Dueling American Visions
• FRSEMR 71C: The Supreme Court and Social Change: Lessons from Landmark Cases and Key Reform Movements
• HIST 13S: Secrets and Lies in European History
• HIST 13Z: Liberty and Slavery: The British Empire and the American Revolution
• HIST 14C: Tell Old Pharoah: Histories of “Contraband Camps” and Self-Emancipation in the Civil War Era
• HIST 84H: The Northern Side of the Civil Rights Movement
• HIST 1005: The Early American Republic: The United States from 1783–1873
• HIST 1007: War, State and Society
• HIST 1006: Native American and Indigenous Studies: An Introduction
• HIST 1032: A History of Brazil, from Independence to the Present
• HIST 1050: Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Atlantic World
• HIST 1206: Empire, Nation, and Immigration in France since 1870
• HIST 1265: German Empires, 1848–1948
• HIST 1405: American Legal History, 1776–1865
• HIST 1520: Colonial Latin America
• HIST 1908: Racial Capitalism and the Black Radical Tradition
• HIST 1911: Pacific History
• HIST 1921: The History of Law in Europe
• HIST 1925: Europe and its Other(s)
• HIST 1943: From Wounded Knee to Standing Rock: Indigenous Political Struggle since 1890
• HIST 2080: Medieval Law: Graduate Seminar
• HIST 2260: Central Europe: Graduate Seminar
• HIST 2442: Readings in the History of the U.S. in the 19th Century: Graduate Proseminar
• HIST 2463: Graduate Readings in 20th-Century African-American History: Graduate Seminar
• HIST 2474: American Legal History: Law and Social Reform, 1929–1973
• HIST 2475: Legal History Workshop
• HIST 2480A: The Political Economy of Modern Capitalism: Graduate Seminar
• HIST 2484A: Crime and Punishment in the History of the Americas: Graduate Seminar
• HIST 2484B: Crime and Punishment in the History of the Americas: Graduate Seminar
• HIST 2709: Themes in Modern Sub-Saharan African History: Graduate Proseminar
• US-WORLD 38: Forced to be Free: Americans as Occupiers and Nation-Builders
• US-WORLD 42: The Democracy Project

*Please be sure to check the Courses section of the History Website for more information on which of these courses count towards the History concentration and secondary field. Also, while we endeavor to keep this list current, it may not reflect all courses actually offered.*

Welcome to the Legal History Program!  This page is designed to help you navigate Harvard's many opportunities to study legal history. As you will see, our interests extend across a range of times, places and areas of concern. First, you will find a list of faculty and graduate students with an interest in legal history. They should be a resource for mentorship, advising and instruction. Reach out to them. Second, we have compiled a list of courses that touch on aspects of legal history. Regardless of whether you are interested in the Civil Rights Movement, democracy or feudalism, you should find something of interest. While many of our courses are taught through the history department, you are also encouraged to consider offerings from HLS and other departments. Finally, please take a look at our upcoming events. We hope you will join us.

Legal history matters.  Legal history sits at the cross-roads between disciplines. Its study enriches our understanding of both past societies and our own. We ask how law changes. How have the rules that govern our lives developed? How have they been resisted? How have they been changed? Studying legal history also opens our eyes to alternatives. We see how functioning societies of the past embraced solutions quite foreign from our own. On the one hand, this may make us question—even if we do not reject—the logic of our methods. On the other hand, comparison helps us to understand the importance of features of our society, and the consequence of changing them. Studying law in historical context makes us aware of whom law serves. What groups have leveraged law? What groups has law failed? Who makes law and what sectors of society does it reflect? In short, we see how law and society interact. 

Finally, studying legal history helps us to understand our contemporary world. It empowers us to actively engage with the debates of the day. Our courses explore how marriage has   changed over time. Our faculty study how immigrants and minorities have been treated by, and themselves altered, states. Our students learn what democracy has meant and what it can mean. Together, we consider the role and power of judges, lawyers, legislators, organizers and ordinary citizens. 

Regardless of whether you plan to concentrate in history, are thinking about law school or just want to take a class, we look forward to meeting you. 

• Thinking about a History Concentration?
• Undergraduate Alumni Profiles
• Concentration Guidelines and Requirements
• Senior Thesis & Undergraduate Research
• Office Hours
• Research & Employment Opportunities
• Tempus: Undergraduate History Journal
• Graduate Program

Support NYU Law

• Areas of Study
• Legal Theory, History, & the Social Sciences

Legal Theory, History, & the Social Sciences

• Law & Economics 
• Law & Philosophy
• Law & Politics
• Law & Social Theory
• Legal History

Solving for Why

NYU prides itself on being at the forefront of interdisciplinary legal education and scholarship. The faculty includes leading legal economists, philosophers, historians, and sociologists, and the curriculum features distinctive opportunities for students to pursue interdisciplinary studies.

In particular, NYU’s unique colloquia bring together faculty and students to discuss cutting-edge research in law and related disciplines. The colloquium model originated with the now famous Colloquium on Legal, Political, and Social Philosophy , founded and run for many years by the great philosophers Ronald Dworkin and Thomas Nagel, and continuing under the leadership of Samuel Scheffler , Liam Murphy , and Jeremy Waldron .

Other interdisciplinary colloquia at NYU include the Law, Economics, and Politics Colloquium , run by the distinguished political scientist John Ferejohn and prominent legal economist Lewis Kornhauser , and the Legal History Colloquium , which is the longest running legal history workshop in the country.

For students interested in pursuing graduate studies in the arts and sciences alongside their law degrees, NYU offers coordinated JD/MA or PhD degree programs in economics, history, philosophy, and politics. In addition to these established programs, NYU Law students have pursued individually tailored dual degrees with other NYU departments and with other universities.

For students interested in academic careers, the Furman Academic Scholars Program is essentially a graduate program within a law school, offering intensive training, mentoring, and intellectual community. The Furman Program, along with the broader Academic Careers Program , has had tremendous success in placing NYU Law graduates in top-tier positions in the legal academy. The LLM in Legal Theory is particularly suited to those planning a career in legal academia.

© 2024 New York University School of Law. 40 Washington Sq. South, New York, NY 10012.   Tel. (212) 998-6100

Department of History

Ph.d. programs.

The Department of History’s doctoral degree program seeks to train talented historians for careers in scholarship, teaching, and beyond the academy. The department typically accepts 22 Ph.D. students per year. Additional students are enrolled through various combined programs and through HSHM.  All admitted Ph.D. students receive a  full  financial aid package  from the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. 

History of Science and Medicine

The  Program in the History of Science and Medicine  (HSHM)  is a semi-autonomous graduate track within the Department of History. HSHM students receive degrees in History, with a concentration in the History of Science and Medicine.  There is a separate admissions process for students interested in the History of Science and Medicine. For more information, please see the  HSHM website . 

Combined Doctoral Programs

Joint ph.d. programs.

Fellowships

The Society sponsors fellowships to foster innovative scholarship, promote inclusive membership, and to cultivate new generations of legal historians. These fellowships support programs that – in addition to welcoming new participants to our annual meetings — create smaller and more focused venues where early career scholars may develop their skills, seek opportunities for career-building publications, interact with senior scholars, and meet peers from around the world with whom they will collaborate throughout their careers.

Virtual Early Career Legal History Workshop

Ph.D./JSD/JD

June 30, 2024

STUDENT RESEARCH COLLOQUIUM

Early-post-coursework Ph.D. students and historically minded law students.

Fellowship funding for travel and accommodation.

June 1, 2024

Wallace Johnson First Book Program

Scholars working toward the publication of first books in legal history.

Cromwell Fellowships

Early-career scholars researching and writing in American legal history.

Kathryn T. Preyer Scholars

Early-career scholars who wish to present a paper on any topic in legal, institutional and/or constitutional history, at the annual ASLH conference.

$500 cash + $750 reimbursement

April 1, 2024

J. Willard Hurst Summer Institute in Legal History

Early-career scholars in law, history and other disciplines pursuing research on legal history of any part of the world.

Max Planck-ASLH Dissertation Prize for European Legal History in a Global Perspective

€2,500/month for 3 months, plus limited travel costs and insurance

Become a Member

The ASLH supports our members in many ways, including offering a variety of awards and fellowships, and funding of proposals and projects. In many ways, including offering a variety of awards and fellowships.

• Other Web Gateways to Legal History
• Library Research Guides/General Reference Resources
• Primary Source Databases/Web Archives
• Law & Popular Culture
• Chronologies
• Publishers with Legal History Lists
• Workshops, Seminars, and Working Groups
• Scholarly Associations and Networks
• Graduate Programs in Legal History/Law and Society
• Reading Lists
• Fellowships
• Job Market for Legal History
• Article / Book Companion Websites

This website is a production of the Triangle Legal History Seminar, a regional group of faculty and graduate students interested in legal history. The site provides an annotated overview of online legal history resources in English, from all historical periods and regions of the world. These resources will be of interest to students hoping to orient themselves to the field or to begin legal history research, to teachers who wish to create new legal history courses, and to academics who wish to apply for research funding, propose conference sessions, or find publishing outlets for their scholarship. It includes links to:

If you would like to suggest other links for inclusion in this website, or if you find that one of the links on this page has disappeared into the mists of online custom, time out of mind, please contact Edward Balleisen . We especially welcome leads to sites that focus on African, Asian, or Latin American legal history (and we encourage scholars in these fields to make syllabi, primary source collections, and bibliographies available online).

This content was written by Edward Balleisen, Vice Provost for Interdisciplinary Studies and Professor of History and Public Policy, Duke University; Mitchell Fraas, Senior Curator, Kislak Center for Special Collections, Rare Books and Manuscripts at the University of Pennsylvania Libraries; Ashton Merck, Postdoctoral Fellow, Duke Kunshan University, and Siobhan Barco, PhD Student in History, Duke University

University of Virginia School of Law

J.D.-M.A. Program in History

In order to encourage the study of legal history and to attract able students into the field, the School of Law and the  Corcoran Department of History  offer a dual-degree program leading to the degrees of J.D. and M.A. in history.

FAQs About the Program

Admission to the progr​am.

The student is obligated to secure separate admission to both the  School of Law  and the Graduate School of Arts & Sciences .  Application to the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences may be made prior to entrance or while the applicant is a first-year student or — under certain conditions — a second-year student at the School of Law.  In all cases, the applicant will be held to the same standards as any other applicant, and the fact that he or she is a candidate for the dual-degree program will not be considered in the admissions process. J.D. students applying for the M.A. degree may submit their LSAT scores in lieu of the GRE. Once admitted independently to each school, the student may make application to the Program Committee for admission to the dual degree program. Admission to the dual-degree program will be judged according to criteria developed by the Program Committee and will not be guaranteed by virtue of acceptance at both schools.

The program will take three years to complete and will require the student to take 98 total credits. The J.D. requires 86 credits, and the M.A. requires 30 credits. Normally, a student would have to take 116 credits to complete both degrees. In the dual-degree program, however, the School of Law offers 12 credits for M.A. courses, and the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences offers 6 credits for J.D. courses, so a student in the program needs to take only 98 total credits.

M.A. in History

The M.A. has the following three requirements. (1) Students are required to take 30 credits toward the M.A. (2) Students are required to complete a Master's Thesis, which is a 40-50 page paper of publishable quality. (3) Students are required to pass an oral examination in two historical fields (one of which is usually American Legal History).

12 credit hours will count only toward the M.A. These will not count toward the student's School of Law GPA or be formally graded on the School of Law curve. Students must register for these courses in the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences.

12 credit hours will count primarily for the M.A. and receive credit toward the J.D. These may be selected from courses offered in the History Department or from courses that are offered in the School of Law but cross-listed in the History Department. These 12 credits will not count toward the student's School of Law GPA or be formally graded on the School of Law curve, but they will count toward the total number of J.D. credits that a student needs to fulfill the degree requirements (as described below). Even if the courses are cross-listed, students must register for these courses in the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, not in the School of Law. Students should consult with the faculty advisors about the availability of cross-listed courses each year.

The final 6 credits for the M.A. will be earned through the successful completion of School of Law coursework from an approved list of courses that are taught at the School of Law. Students should again consult with the faculty advisors to identify these approved law courses.

The J.D. requires 86 credit hours. A maximum of 12 credits may come from courses taken at the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences (as approved by the Program Committee and described above). The additional 74 credit hours will be earned through regular School of Law coursework. Students should again be aware that 6 of these credits will be used toward the M.A. degree and must be taken from an approved list of School of Law courses (as described above).

The student will take the required School of Law courses during his or her first year at the School of Law (i.e., Civil Procedure, Torts, Contracts, Criminal Law, Constitutional Law, Property, and Legal Research and Writing) and will fulfill the remaining requirements (professional responsibility, a professional skills course, and the writing requirement) during the remaining semesters at the School of Law. Students must comply with all other requirements for the J.D. degree and may not take more than 17 credits in any given semester.

The student will take the required law school courses during his or her first year at the law school (Civil Procedure, Torts, Contracts, Criminal Law, Constitutional Law, Property, Legal Research and Writing) and will fulfill the remaining requirements (professional responsibility, a professional skills course, and the writing requirement) during the remaining semesters at the law school. Students must comply with all other requirements for the J.D. degree. They must take at least 12 J.D. credits per semester, and they may not take more than 17 credits in any given semester.

Change of Status

At any point in the program, the participant will be permitted to terminate plans for a dual-degree and to continue toward a single degree at either school. He or she will then be required to satisfy the normal requirements for the school he or she has chosen, which may include credit for some of the work done in the other school as determined by the appropriate officials of the school in question.

Tuition and Fees

During all three years of the program, students will pay tuition to the Law School. During the third year of the program, the Law School will provide a funds transfer to the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences to recognize certain costs relating to the administration of the M.A. degree.

• Financial Aid

Because students in the program will be paying tuition to the School of Law, financial aid will be provided by the School of Law. As for all students, financial aid is not guaranteed and is subject to Law School and University availability and regulations.

Extracurricular Activities

The student will be eligible to participate in the extracurricular activities of both schools to the extent time permits. Because of the possibility of over-commitment, however, counsel of the Program Committee is recommended.

Grading Standards

The student is required to meet the grading standards of both schools independently to remain in good standing. Each school retains the right to drop students from its degree program following its usual academic standards and procedures. Problems that arise in translation of different grading scales resulting from the dual degree program will be dealt with by the Program Committee, in consultation with the Office of the University Registrar (UREG). Grades will be recorded on the student's transcript under the system in effect at the school in which the course is taken.

Faculty Advisors

The deans of each school will appoint a faculty member to advise students in the program.

FOR MORE INFORMATION:  Contact the Director of the Program,  Charles Barzun .

Related:  Constitutional Law and Legal History at UVA Law

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American Legal History

Hist166lb quarter: spring 2021 w/f 9:30-10:45am online instructor(s): tba about the course:.

The history of the U.S. Supreme Court, legal thought, legal education and the legal profession since the late nineteenth century.

Pre-requisites:

Upper-division standing.

Schedule of Courses

Go to the Schedule of Courses on the Registrar's website to register or view scheduling information on all courses.

Supplemental Materials:

Applicable field of study:, site administration.

Department of History University of California, Santa Barbara Santa Barbara, California 93106-9410

Directory Fax: 805.893.7671

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Why Lawyers are Embracing the Liberal Arts

The liberal arts, which encompass the humanities, social sciences, and natural sciences, are foundational to legal practice.

The  Master of Liberal Arts (MLA)  at the University of Chicago brings together a community of accomplished professionals who want to expand their knowledge by engaging with influential texts, eminent faculty members, and thoughtful peers. It is no surprise that many of these students are lawyers.

The liberal arts, which encompass the humanities, social sciences, and natural sciences, are foundational to legal practice. Whether they practice civil, criminal, or corporate law, attorneys need to be persuasive communicators and careful researchers who can see issues from multiple angles, develop ironclad arguments, and navigate difficult ethical conflicts. It is for this reason that, as preparation for law school, the American Bar Association (ABA)  encourages aspiring lawyers  “to pursue an area of study that interests and challenges you, while taking advantage of opportunities to develop your research and writing skills. Taking a broad range of difficult courses from demanding instructors is excellent preparation for legal education.”

Through the  MLA experience , practicing attorneys reignite their passion for wide-ranging education as active members of a diverse community of adult learners. They strengthen and build on the skills cultivated through years of practicing law by investigating big questions about human lives, the societies we form, and the natural world.

The MLA inspires lawyers to think rigorously about new ideas and to pursue fresh possibilities in their lives. Here’s how.

Enhanced Skills and Important Ideas

A  liberal arts curriculum  builds knowledge and skills that are relevant to attorneys and to anyone who’s interested in better understanding the world around them. MLA students broaden their horizons by completing courses in fields such as literature, philosophy, film, history, sociology, biology, and physics. They critically analyze texts and synthesize concepts from multiple disciplines, crafting arguments and communicating complicated ideas through discussion and writing.

Rather than passively absorbing information from a professor, UChicago MLA students participate in Socratic dialogue. They come to a class session having read influential, intellectually provocative texts and prepared to express their individual points of view. For attorneys like Lee Greenfield, this is an ideal format for investigating new fields of inquiry and enhancing the skills they’ve developed through years of legal practice.

Lee is an antitrust lawyer who has represented and counseled international organizations in a variety of industries like tech, aviation, and shipping. As a graduate of UChicago Law who earned his Juris Doctor degree after studying business as an undergrad, his prior schooling didn’t provide an opportunity for an in-depth exploration the humanities. Decades later, his interest in literature and desire for personal growth motivated him to return to the University as a liberal arts master’s student and study topics ranging from fiction to bioethics.

“The MLA program, with its varied curriculum, is a great way to have academic experiences that I had little of when I was going through school the first time,” Lee explained.

Rekindling a Passion for Learning

When Angela Larimer was an undergraduate at the University of Illinois, she prioritized her interests in poetry and broadcast journalism. She completed a double bachelor’s degree in English literature and rhetoric and went on to become a teacher. However, her own courtroom experience during divorce proceedings inspired her to rethink her career path and start preparing for the LSAT. She earned a JD at DePaul College of Law and embarked on a legal career. 

As Angela split her time between representing clients at her family law practice and caring for children at home, she found there was little time to keep up with the intellectual and artistic pursuits that brought her joy.

“I gave everyone exemplary service, but gave myself nothing,” she said.

By enrolling in the UChicago MLA, Angela was finally able to dive back into reading great books, grappling with ideas, and writing poetry. Courses could be challenging, but she now had a structure that unlocked her creativity. She even submitted a new poem as a final project for one of her courses. 

An MLA program with a choice of concentrations offers students paths to focus on the subjects that interest them most. At UChicago, the  optional concentrations  include Literary Studies, Ethics and Leadership, and Tech and Society. The Literary Studies track is ideal for people like Angela who want to dive back into their love for reading and writing in a structured environment where they can discuss texts with thoughtful peers who share their enthusiasm.

Meanwhile, other lawyers — like  Joseph Monaghan , a partner at Holding Redlich Lawyers — may seek professional growth through the Ethics and Leadership concentration. Students in this concentration analyze leadership styles, create decision-making frameworks, and explore subjects like corporate responsibility and maintaining team morale.

“As a midcareer professional whose role is increasingly focused upon leadership and management, I wanted to undertake further study and the MLA with its concentration in ethics and leadership was a perfect fit,” Joseph said.

A Vibrant Community of Learners

One of the greatest advantages of an MLA program is participating in a community of learners who come from very different educational and professional backgrounds. Just as non-lawyers sometimes earn a Master of Legal Studies to become more capable of navigating the areas where their own professions overlap with the law, a liberal arts graduate degree helps attorneys tackle questions they might have never explored otherwise. By respectfully sharing their individual points of view, peers help each other better understand the course material and sharpen their arguments. 

When Lee engaged with the  UChicago MLA community  of accomplished individuals who work in diverse fields, he soon began looking at important issues in a new light.

 “The program is making me a better-rounded person, with perspectives I had lacked, and, for me, that is the great value,” he said. “I have already learned a tremendous amount from my professors and classmates, who have a huge range of perspectives.”

Angela appreciated how the MLA program let her step away from her usual professional circles and hear from people who have succeeded in very different pursuits. Joining a learner community brought her into conversations that she found fulfilling and illuminating.

“I need to make time to talk to intelligent people about topics outside of the law,” she said.

Lawyers’ work is demanding and often requires them to become deeply familiar with highly specialized areas of the legal code. An MLA program gives them the tools to consider the bigger picture and think about what they do in new contexts. 

“Education keeps our minds alive, which keeps our bodies alive,” Angela said. “It sustains you and gives you joy in life.”

About the University of Chicago Master of Liberal Arts

The University of Chicago  Master of Liberal Arts  welcomes a diverse community of accomplished professionals to participate in a transformative educational experience. Our students develop their skills in leadership, critical thinking, collaboration, and communication by engaging in live seminar discussions guided by eminent faculty members with expertise in multiple disciplines.

Customize the online MLA to fit your goals by choosing from three optional concentrations. You can complete all the requirements online or visit us on campus for UChicago’s week-long, immersive residential seminars, held twice a year. 

  Contact us  to learn more about how our program can help you achieve your professional goals.

Related Blog

Celebrating an Ambitious Learning Adventure

The Graham School recognized its latest MLA graduates at Spring 2023 Diploma Ceremony.

What Can You Do with a Master of Liberal Arts?

The world around us is undergoing profound transformations, and organizations of all kinds are being compelled to adapt.

In the AI Era, Is a Liberal Arts Degree Obsolete?

Artificial intelligence is rapidly reshaping our world, presenting both awe-inspiring advancements and potential concerns.

Is an MLA Right for You?

Take a short quiz to find out how the UChicago MLA fits your goals and which of our optional concentrations could be the best choice for you.

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Geographic coordinates of Elektrostal, Moscow Oblast, Russia

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Coordinates of Elektrostal in decimal degrees

Coordinates of elektrostal in degrees and decimal minutes, utm coordinates of elektrostal, geographic coordinate systems.

WGS 84 coordinate reference system is the latest revision of the World Geodetic System, which is used in mapping and navigation, including GPS satellite navigation system (the Global Positioning System).

Geographic coordinates (latitude and longitude) define a position on the Earth’s surface. Coordinates are angular units. The canonical form of latitude and longitude representation uses degrees (°), minutes (′), and seconds (″). GPS systems widely use coordinates in degrees and decimal minutes, or in decimal degrees.

Latitude varies from −90° to 90°. The latitude of the Equator is 0°; the latitude of the South Pole is −90°; the latitude of the North Pole is 90°. Positive latitude values correspond to the geographic locations north of the Equator (abbrev. N). Negative latitude values correspond to the geographic locations south of the Equator (abbrev. S).

Longitude is counted from the prime meridian ( IERS Reference Meridian for WGS 84) and varies from −180° to 180°. Positive longitude values correspond to the geographic locations east of the prime meridian (abbrev. E). Negative longitude values correspond to the geographic locations west of the prime meridian (abbrev. W).

UTM or Universal Transverse Mercator coordinate system divides the Earth’s surface into 60 longitudinal zones. The coordinates of a location within each zone are defined as a planar coordinate pair related to the intersection of the equator and the zone’s central meridian, and measured in meters.

Elevation above sea level is a measure of a geographic location’s height. We are using the global digital elevation model GTOPO30 .

Elektrostal , Moscow Oblast, Russia

American Airlines backtracks on filing that blamed 9-year-old for being filmed in bathroom

"We do not believe this child is at fault," the airline said Wednesday.

One day after lawyers for American Airlines argued a 9-year-old child acted negligently when she was recorded by a hidden camera in an airplane lavatory , the airline is backpedaling that defense.

FBI agents knocked on the 9-year-old's family home almost a year after the alleged incident in January 2023 to inform her parents that videos of the child were found on a phone belonging to a former flight attendant who is currently in custody.

The airline on Wednesday said in a statement about the filing, "Our outside legal counsel retained with our insurance company made an error in this filing. The included defense is not representative of our airline and we have directed it be amended this morning. We do not believe this child is at fault and we take the allegations involving a former team member very seriously. Our core mission is to care for people — and the foundation of that is the safety and security of our customers and team."

The court filing was submitted on behalf of American Airlines on Tuesday in response to a civil lawsuit filed by the 9-year-old's parents in Texas District Court against the airline and the flight attendant, Estes Carter Thompson III, who allegedly recorded the child.

The filing, which generally denies the allegations and raises several affirmative defenses, including contributory negligence, states, "Defendant would show that any injuries or illnesses alleged to have been sustained by Plaintiff, Mary Doe, were proximately caused by Plaintiff's own fault and negligence, were proximately caused by Plaintiff's use of the compromised lavatory, which she knew or should have known contained a visible and illuminated recording device."

The lawsuit was filed by Mary Doe's parents, alleging that Thompson secretly filmed their 9-year-old daughter in the airplane's lavatory on a flight to Los Angeles in January 2023.

Thompson is currently in federal custody after being charged with one count of attempted sexual exploitation of children and one count of possession of images of child sexual abuse depicting a prepubescent minor. He was arrested after a 14-year-old passenger on another flight discovered Thompson's hidden phone in the plane lavatory. Police said Thompson allegedly possessed recordings of four additional minor female passengers who used bathrooms aboard the same aircraft. One of those recordings was allegedly of Mary Doe. Thompson has pleaded not guilty.

Reacting to the airline's filing Tuesday, Jane Doe, mother of Mary Doe, said, "Instead of taking responsibility for this awful event, American Airlines is actually blaming our daughter for being filmed.

MORE: Pilot who allegedly tried to shut off engines hadn't slept in 40 hours: Authorities

"How in good conscience could they even make such a suggestion? It both shocks and angers us. American Airlines has no shame," the mother added.

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Responding to American Airlines backtracking on their court filing, Paul Llewellyn, a lawyer representing the family of the 9-year-old girl, said Wednesday, "American Airlines has clearly faced intense media and public backlash over their blaming of a 9 year old for being filmed. To claim that they filed the "wrong" [answer] is simply not credible. But the bell cannot be unwrung. They should never have taken such a position in the first place."

Llewellyn said the airline did not reach out to the family after the recording was discovered.

Representatives for American Airlines did not immediately respond to requests for comment on the attorney's claim that the airline did not reach out to the family.

The airline said Friday that they've retained new counsel to represent them in the new lawsuit.

Responding to the announcement about the airline's new counsel, Llewellyn said, "As a result of the intense media and public backlash surrounding the outrageous allegation, we are not surprised to learn that American Airlines fired its law firm. With the benefit of this new legal representation, we hope that American Airlines will now take a fresh look at the case and finally take some measure of responsibility for what happened to our client. Otherwise, we are very confident that a Texas jury will do the right thing and hold American Airlines responsible."

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Was it legal to fly the flag upside-down at samuel alito’s house.

• Legal Issues
• Supreme Court

Supreme Court Justice Samuel Alito Jr., left, and his wife Martha-Ann Alito, in 2018. (AP)

Media reports that Supreme Court Justice Samuel Alito’s house displayed an upside-down American flag, a traditional sign of political dissent, after the storming of the Capitol on Jan. 6, 2021, set off a firestorm of criticism over whether the move was a political statement that compromises his impartiality. 

Hanging the flag upside down is technically against U.S. law. But legal experts say Alito likely did not act illegally.

The initial May 16 New York Times article reported that the upside-down flag, a longstanding sign to communicate distress in "instances of extreme danger to life or property," was by then a common symbol for supporters of outgoing President Donald Trump’s effort to overturn his 2020 election loss. "A flood of social media posts exhorted Trump supporters to flip over their flags or purchase new ones to display upside down," the Times reported.

The justice later told Fox News that he had no role in the flag being flown in that manner. Rather, he said, his wife, Martha-Ann Alito had raised the upside-down flag "for a short time" as a response to verbal attacks by her neighbors.

As the controversy developed, Alito’s Democratic critics urged him to recuse himself from cases involving Trump and his actions during that period, saying the justice’s impartiality could not be assured. Supreme Court recusals are up to the justice, with no external mechanism to require them.

But the episode has spotlighted an even more basic question: Was flying the flag upside down against the law?

In a technical sense, perhaps. In a practical sense, no, legal experts say.

U.S. law lays out lengthy instructions for the proper display and treatment of the flag. 

For the Alitos, the most relevant portion of U.S. Code is: "No disrespect should be shown to the flag of the United States of America. … The flag should never be displayed with the union down, except as a signal of dire distress in instances of extreme danger to life or property."

The notion of hanging a flag upside down to communicate distress has a long history in maritime culture, likely dating back to the British Isles in the 17th century, according to the North American Vexillological Association, an organization of flag scholars and enthusiasts. Ships commonly used it through the 18th and 19th centuries until more effective communication systems, notably radio, were developed. 

By now, "neither the International Code of Signals nor U.S. inland rules of the road recognize the inverted ensign as a distress signal," and "signal books published by the U.S. maritime agencies specifically discourage its use." (Today, ships in dire distress are supposed to signal with "N" and "C" international code flags — which stand for "November" and "Charlie" — or other specified flags.)

As a result, an inverted flag "has largely become a political signal," the association has written.

For instance, prior to becoming an election-denial symbol in 2020, "many Cuban-Americans in Miami used it to protest the federal government taking Elian Gonzalez from his Miami relatives and sending him back to his father in the spring of 2000," said Howard M. Wasserman, a Florida International University law professor.

But despite being part of U.S. law, it provides no enforcement mechanism for flying the flag right side up. In addition, the flag code’s text uses the softer term "should" when it discusses how flags should be treated, rather than "shall." 

"The U.S. Flag Code can be understood as an etiquette manual," Ted Kaye, the North American Vexillological Association’s secretary, told PolitiFact. 

And even if U.S. law did specify an enforcement mechanism, it would be impractical to charge all violators with criminality. 

For instance, another portion of the flag code forbids flags from being "used for advertising purposes in any manner whatsoever" and being printed "on paper napkins or boxes or anything that is designed for temporary use." This is a common practice today and is never prosecuted. 

A big reason for the hands-off approach: Several rulings , most recently Texas v. Johnson in 1989, affirmed First Amendment protections for mistreating a flag. Since the 1989 decision, efforts to amend the Constitution to allow the prosecution of flag burning have come to naught .

"Punishing someone for flag misuse or desecration violates a bedrock free speech principle — that government has no power to punish a speaker based on the message they seek to convey, including through the potent symbol of the U.S. flag," said Timothy Zick, a William & Mary law professor.

"Flying the flag upside down to send a political message is protected by the First Amendment," said Gregory P. Magarian, a law professor at Washington University in St. Louis. 

With the Supreme Court having taken the flag’s mistreatment out of the legal realm more than three decades ago, questions of flag-display propriety shift instead to the world of norms, Magarian said.

"Alito couldn’t be prosecuted for altering the flag to send a political message," he said. "However, the statute still makes a normative statement about behavior of which society should disapprove. I think that’s the likeliest sense in which the statute could be relevant for the present discussion."

Our Sources

New York Times, " At Justice Alito’s House, a ‘Stop the Steal’ Symbol on Display ," May 16, 2024

Fox News, " Alito says wife displayed upside-down flag after argument with insulting neighbor ," May 17, 2024

4 U.S. Code § 8 - Respect for flag

Oyez, Street v. New York , 1969

Oyez, Spence v. Washington , 1973

Oyez, Texas v. Johnson , 1989

Congressional Research Service, " Frequently Asked Questions About Flag Law ," Oct. 7, 2019

North American Vexillological Association, " Flag Questions and Answers ," accessed May 20, 2024

CNN, " Justice Samuel Alito blames upside-down American flag on his wife and a flap with neighbors ," May 17, 2024

Newsweek, " Full List of Lawmakers Calling for Justice Alito to Recuse Himself ," May 17, 2024 

PolitiFact, " Bloggers say West violated federal law by diving with American flag ," June 17, 2011

PolitiFact, " No, US flag code wasn’t violated when the progress pride flag was displayed at the White House ," June 16, 2023

Email interview with Ted Kaye, secretary of the North American Vexillological Association, May 20, 2024

Email interview with Gregory P. Magarian, law professor at Washington University in St. Louis, May 20, 2024

Email interview with Timothy Zick, William & Mary law professor, May 20, 2024

Email interview with Howard M. Wasserman, Florida International University law professor, May 20, 2024

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