music development essay

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Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History Essays

Music in the renaissance.

ex "Kurtz" Violin

Andrea Amati

Double Virginal

Hans Ruckers the Elder

Cornetto in A

possibly Georg Voll

Sixtus Rauchwolff

Claviorganum

Lorenz Hauslaib

Tenor Recorder

Rectangular Octave Virginal

Rebecca Arkenberg Department of Education, The Metropolitan Museum of Art

October 2002

Music was an essential part of civic, religious, and courtly life in the Renaissance. The rich interchange of ideas in Europe, as well as political, economic, and religious events in the period 1400–1600 led to major changes in styles of composing, methods of disseminating music, new musical genres, and the development of musical instruments. The most important music of the early Renaissance was composed for use by the church—polyphonic (made up of several simultaneous melodies) masses and motets in Latin for important churches and court chapels. By the end of the sixteenth century, however, patronage had broadened to include the Catholic Church, Protestant churches and courts, wealthy amateurs, and music printing—all were sources of income for composers.

The early fifteenth century was dominated initially by English and then Northern European composers. The Burgundian court was especially influential, and it attracted composers and musicians from all over Europe. The most important of these was Guillaume Du Fay (1397–1474), whose varied musical offerings included motets and masses for church and chapel services, many of whose large musical structures were based on existing Gregorian chant. His many small settings of French poetry display a sweet melodic lyricism unknown until his era. With his command of large-scale musical form, as well as his attention to secular text-setting, Du Fay set the stage for the next generations of Renaissance composers.

By about 1500, European art music was dominated by Franco-Flemish composers, the most prominent of whom was Josquin des Prez (ca. 1450–1521). Like many leading composers of his era, Josquin traveled widely throughout Europe, working for patrons in Aix-en-Provence, Paris, Milan, Rome, Ferrara, and Condé-sur-L’Escaut. The exchange of musical ideas among the Low Countries, France, and Italy led to what could be considered an international European style. On the one hand, polyphony or multivoiced music, with its horizontal contrapuntal style, continued to develop in complexity. At the same time, harmony based on a vertical arrangement of intervals, including thirds and sixths, was explored for its full textures and suitability for accompanying a vocal line. Josquin’s music epitomized these trends, with Northern-style intricate polyphony using canons, preexisting melodies, and other compositional structures smoothly amalgamated with the Italian bent for artfully setting words with melodies that highlight the poetry rather than masking it with complexity. Josquin, like Du Fay, composed primarily Latin masses and motets, but in a seemingly endless variety of styles. His secular output included settings of courtly French poetry, like Du Fay, but also arrangements of French popular songs, instrumental music, and Italian frottole.

With the beginning of the sixteenth century, European music saw a number of momentous changes. In 1501, a Venetian printer named Ottaviano Petrucci published the first significant collection of polyphonic music, the Harmonice Musices Odhecaton A . Petrucci’s success led eventually to music printing in France, Germany, England, and elsewhere. Prior to 1501, all music had to be copied by hand or learned by ear; music books were owned exclusively by religious establishments or extremely wealthy courts and households. After Petrucci, while these books were not inexpensive, it became possible for far greater numbers of people to own them and to learn to read music.

At about the same period, musical instrument technology led to the development of the viola da gamba , a fretted, bowed string instrument. Amateur European musicians of means eagerly took up the viol, as well as the lute , the recorder , the harpsichord (in various guises, including the spinet and virginal), the organ , and other instruments. The viola da gamba and recorder were played together in consorts or ensembles and often were produced in families or sets, with different sizes playing the different lines. Publications by Petrucci and others supplied these players for the first time with notated music (as opposed to the improvised music performed by professional instrumentalists). The sixteenth century saw the development of instrumental music such as the canzona, ricercare, fantasia, variations, and contrapuntal dance-inspired compositions, for both soloists and ensembles, as a truly distinct and independent genre with its own idioms separate from vocal forms and practical dance accompaniment.

The musical instruments depicted in the studiolo of Duke Federigo da Montefeltro of Urbino (ca. 1479–82; 39.153 ) represent both his personal interest in music and the role of music in the intellectual life of an educated Renaissance man. The musical instruments are placed alongside various scientific instruments, books, and weapons, and they include a portative organ, lutes, fiddle, and cornetti; a hunting horn; a pipe and tabor; a harp and jingle ring; a rebec; and a cittern .

From about 1520 through the end of the sixteenth century, composers throughout Europe employed the polyphonic language of Josquin’s generation in exploring musical expression through the French chanson, the Italian madrigal, the German tenorlieder, the Spanish villancico, and the English song, as well as in sacred music. The Reformation and Counter-Reformation directly affected the sacred polyphony of these countries. The Protestant revolutions (mainly in Northern Europe) varied in their attitudes toward sacred music, bringing such musical changes as the introduction of relatively simple German-language hymns (or chorales) sung by the congregation in Lutheran services. Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina (1525/26–1594), maestro di cappella at the Cappella Giulia at Saint Peter’s in Rome, is seen by many as the iconic High Renaissance composer of Counter-Reformation sacred music, which features clear lines, a variety of textures, and a musically expressive reverence for its sacred texts. The English (and Catholic) composer William Byrd (1540–1623) straddled both worlds, composing Latin-texted works for the Catholic Church, as well as English-texted service music for use at Elizabeth I ‘s Chapel Royal.

Sixteenth-century humanists studied ancient Greek treatises on music , which discussed the close relationship between music and poetry and how music could stir the listener’s emotions. Inspired by the classical world, Renaissance composers fit words and music together in an increasingly dramatic fashion, as seen in the development of the Italian madrigal and later the operatic works of Claudio Monteverdi (1567–1643). The Renaissance adaptation of a musician singing and accompanying himself on a stringed instrument, a variation on the theme of Orpheus, appears in Renaissance artworks like Caravaggio’s Musicians ( 52.81 ) and Titian ‘s Venus and the Lute Player ( 36.29 ).

Arkenberg, Rebecca. “Music in the Renaissance.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/renm/hd_renm.htm (October 2002)

Additional Essays by Rebecca Arkenberg

• Arkenberg, Rebecca. “ Renaissance Violins .” (October 2002)
• Arkenberg, Rebecca. “ Renaissance Keyboards .” (October 2002)
• Arkenberg, Rebecca. “ Renaissance Organs .” (October 2002)

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Artist or Maker

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Post-Colonial Music Development Essay

In Tonality as a Colonizing Force in Africa , Agawu (2016) states that tonality, that is, a hierarchically organized pitch relation system, has been the most influential pitch organization system in Western Europe for centuries. This is why it should not be surprising that such an essential and viable resource acted a part in the chain of exchanges and imposings that characterized European colonialism in Africa starting from the 1840s. That is, choral hymns, church music, and music for entertainment, all of it tonal, improved or even defined life in communities in, among other places, Ghana, Malawi, Uganda, Nigeria, Kenya, Sierra Leone, and South Africa. In this work, the author engages with numerous works on the theory of music, the Western view of music, urban music cultures, African music, African philosophy, and colonialism in Africa. To this body of work, Agawu (2016) adds his perspective on how African music was influenced by tonality brought to their land by Europeans and how exactly this influence was developing.

The author unfolds the argument, starting with general information on the topic and then organizing his findings in sections. First, Agawu (2016) discusses traces of tonality in African music; after that, he speaks about African tonal thinking as it was before Europeans, and, finally, he looks at some African works composed under a tonal regime. The researcher uses a variety of source materials on a number of topics, as it has been mentioned above, and he uses them to provide the necessary context for his work. In general, Agawu (2016) tries to argue that, while it is not talked about much, Europe contributed to the tonal underdevelopment of Africa by making inaction possible in the areas of creation and reception. This is the main takeaway for readers of this work envisioned by the author, and one I wholeheartedly agree with. I am from South Korea, that is, the country that went through colonization by Japan and has been subjected to American cultural influences. I believe that our musical national identity has been altered for the worse by these foreign powers, and I like seeing different authors come to similar conclusions in regard to different cultures. Moreover, Agawu’s thoughtful approach to the subject of his work is something I would want to incorporate into my own research.

In Latin American Baroque: Performance as a Post-Colonial Act? , Baker (2008) states that Latin American Baroque music is the result of more or less direct contact with the African culture of the past. Therefore, he intends to examine some ways in which greater awareness of the realities of colonialism may influence the performance and listening of colonial Baroque music. In Baker’s (2008) opinion, certain 21 st- century values can be reasonably applied to the reflection on music of the 17 th -century Latin America. The author engages with various works on the theory of music, music as a political act, music and culture, colonialism, and post-colonialism. What Baker (2008) adds to this body of work is his point of view on how colonial music needs to be listened to and performed and how significant historical awareness is.

The author constructs the paper by starting with the introduction, which is followed by a section expanding on the subjects of musicology and performance. After that, there is a section that offers solutions, after which comes a lengthy conclusion. Baker (2008) uses source materials that expand on the topics mentioned above to provide the foundation for his thought processes. What he tries to argue is that performers should be more aware of the issues that come with performing colonial Latin American repertoire, historically informed about them, and communicate this information to their audiences. This is the main takeaway of the work from the perspective of the author and the opinion with which I agree. The researcher’s logical composition of the paper is one thing that I feel like might be useful for my own work.

• From Agawu’s perspective, how did Europe tonally underdeveloped Africa?
• According to Baker, what is the way for audiences to become aware of the realities of colonialism when listening to or watching performances of Latin American Baroque music?

Agawu, K. (2016). Tonality as a colonizing force in Africa. In R. Radano and T. Olaniyan (Eds.), Audible empire: Music, global politics, critique (pp. 334-356). Duke University Press.

Baker, G. (2008). Latin American Baroque: Performance as a post-colonial act? Early Music , 36 (3), 441-448. Web.

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1. IvyPanda . "Post-Colonial Music Development." April 4, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/post-colonial-music-development/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Post-Colonial Music Development." April 4, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/post-colonial-music-development/.

EDITORIAL article

Editorial: the impact of music on human development and well-being.

• 1 Department of Culture, Communication and Media, University College London, London, United Kingdom
• 2 Department of Philosophy, Sociology, Education and Applied Psychology, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
• 3 School of Humanities and Communication Arts, Western Sydney University, Penrith, NSW, Australia
• 4 Melbourne Conservatorium of Music, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

Editorial on the Research Topic The Impact of Music on Human Development and Well-Being

Music is one of the most universal ways of expression and communication for humankind and is present in the everyday lives of people of all ages and from all cultures around the world ( Mehr et al., 2019 ). Hence, it seems more appropriate to talk about musics (plural) rather than in the singular ( Goble, 2015 ). Furthermore, research by anthropologists as well as ethnomusicologists suggests that music has been a characteristic of the human condition for millennia (cf. Blacking, 1976 ; Brown, 1999 ; Mithen, 2005 ; Dissanayake, 2012 ; Higham et al., 2012 ; Cross, 2016 ). Nevertheless, whilst the potential for musical behavior is a characteristic of all human beings, its realization is shaped by the environment and the experiences of individuals, often within groups ( North and Hargreaves, 2008 ; Welch and McPherson, 2018 ). Listening to music, singing, playing (informally, formally), creating (exploring, composing, improvising), whether individually and collectively, are common activities for the vast majority of people. Music represents an enjoyable activity in and of itself, but its influence goes beyond simple amusement.

These activities not only allow the expression of personal inner states and feelings, but also can bring about many positive effects in those who engage in them. There is an increasing body of empirical and experimental studies concerning the wider benefits of musical activity, and research in the sciences associated with music suggests that there are many dimensions of human life—including physical, social, educational, psychological (cognitive and emotional)—which can be affected positively by successful engagement in music ( Biasutti and Concina, 2013 ). Learning in and through music is something that can happen formally (such as part of structured lessons in school), as well as in other-than-formal situations, such as in the home with family and friends, often non-sequentially and not necessarily intentional, and where participation in music learning is voluntary, rather than mandated, such as in a community setting (cf. Green, 2002 ; Folkestad, 2006 ; Saether, 2016 ; Welch and McPherson, 2018 ).

Such benefits are evidenced across the lifespan, including early childhood ( Gerry et al., 2012 ; Williams et al., 2015 ; Linnavalli et al., 2018 ), adolescence ( McFerran et al., 2018 ), and older adulthood ( Lindblad and de Boise, 2020 ). Within these lifespan perspectives, research into music's contribution to health and well-being provides evidence of physical and psychological impacts ( MacDonald et al., 2013 ; Fancourt and Finn, 2019 ; van den Elzen et al., 2019 ). Benefits are also reported in terms of young people's educational outcomes ( Guhn et al., 2019 ), and successful musical activity can enhance an individual's sense of social inclusion ( Welch et al., 2014 ) and social cohesion ( Elvers et al., 2017 ).

This special issue provides a collection of 21, new research articles that deepen and develop our understanding of the ways and means that music can impact positively on human development and well-being. The collection draws on the work of 88 researchers from 17 different countries across the world, with each article offering an illustration of how music can relate to other important aspects of human functioning. In addition, the articles collectively illustrate a wide range of contemporary research approaches. These provide evidence of how different research aims concerning the wider benefits of music require sensitive and appropriate methodologies.

In terms of childhood and adolescence, for example, Putkinen et al. demonstrate how musical training is likely to foster enhanced sound encoding in 9 to 15-year-olds and thus be related to reading skills. A separate Finnish study by Saarikallio et al. provides evidence of how musical listening influences adolescents' perceived sense of agency and emotional well-being, whilst demonstrating how this impact is particularly nuanced by context and individuality. Aspects of mental health are the focus for an Australian study by Stewart et al. of young people with tendencies to depression. The article explores how, despite existing literature on the positive use of music for mood regulation, music listening can be double-edged and could actually sustain or intensify a negative mood.

A Portuguese study by Martins et al. shifts the center of attention from mental to physical benefits in their study of how learning music can support children's coordination. They provide empirical data on how a sustained, 24-week programme of Orff-based music education, which included the playing of simple tuned percussion instruments, significantly enhanced the manual dexterity and bimanual coordination in participant 8-year-olds compared to their active control (sports) and passive control peers. A related study by Loui et al. in the USA offers insights into the neurological impact of sustained musical instrument practice. Eight-year-old children who play one or more musical instruments for at least 0.5 h per week had higher scores on verbal ability and intellectual ability, and these correlated with greater measurable connections between particular regions of the brain related to both auditory-motor and bi-hemispheric connectivity.

Younger, pre-school children can also benefit from musical activities, with associations being reported between informal musical experiences in the home and specific aspects of language development. A UK-led study by Politimou et al. found that rhythm perception and production were the best predictors of young children's phonological awareness, whilst melody perception was the best predictor of grammar acquisition, a novel association not previously observed in developmental research. In another pre-school study, Barrett et al. explored the beliefs and values held by Australian early childhood and care practitioners concerning the value of music in young children's learning. Despite having limited formal qualifications and experience of personal music learning, practitioners tended overall to have positive attitudes to music, although this was biased toward music as a recreational and fun activity, with limited support for the notion of how music might be used to support wider aspects of children's learning and development.

Engaging in music to support a positive sense of personal agency is an integral feature of several articles in the collection. In addition to the Saarikallio team's research mentioned above, Moors et al. provide a novel example of how engaging in collective beatboxing can be life-enhancing for throat cancer patients in the UK who have undergone laryngectomy, both in terms of supporting their voice rehabilitation and alaryngeal phonation, as well as patients' sense of social inclusion and emotional well-being.

One potential reason for these positive findings is examined in an Australian study by Krause et al. . They apply the lens of self-determination theory to examine musical participation and well-being in a large group of 17 to 85-year-olds. Respondents to an online questionnaire signaled the importance of active music making in their lives in meeting three basic psychological needs embracing a sense of competency, relatedness and autonomy.

The use of public performance in music therapy is the subject of a US study by Vaudreuil et al. concerning the social transformation and reintegration of US military service members. Two example case studies are reported of service members who received music therapy as part of their treatment for post-traumatic stress disorder, traumatic brain injury, and other psychological health concerns. The participants wrote, learned, and refined songs over multiple music therapy sessions and created song introductions to share with audiences. Subsequent interviews provide positive evidence of the beneficial psychological effects of this programme of audience-focused musical activity.

Relatedly, McFerran et al. in Australia examined the ways in which music and trauma have been reported in selected music therapy literature from the past 10 years. The team's critical interpretive synthesis of 36 related articles led them to identify four different ways in which music has been used beneficially to support those who have experienced trauma. These approaches embrace the use of music for stabilizing (the modulation of physiological processes) and entrainment (the synchronization of music and movement), as well as for expressive and performative purposes—the fostering of emotional and social well-being.

The therapeutic potential of music is also explored in a detailed case study by Fachner et al. . Their research focuses on the nature of critical moments in a guided imagery and music session between a music therapist and a client, and evidences how these moments relate to underlying neurological function in the mechanics of music therapy.

At the other end of the age span, and also related to therapy, an Australian study by Brancatisano et al. reports on a new Music, Mind, and Movement programme for people in their eighties with mild to moderate dementia. Participants involved in the programme tended to show an improvement in aspects of cognition, particularly verbal fluency and attention. Similarly, Wilson and MacDonald report on a 10-week group music programme for young Scottish adults with learning difficulties. The research data suggest that participants enjoyed the programme and tended to sustain participation, with benefits evidenced in increased social engagement, interaction and communication.

The role of technology in facilitating access to music and supporting a sense of agency in older people is the focus for a major literature review by Creech , now based in Canada. Although this is a relatively under-researched field, the available evidence suggests that that older people, even those with complex needs, are capable of engaging with and using technology in a variety of ways that support their musical perception, learning and participation and wider quality of life.

Related to the particular needs of the young, children's general behavior can also improve through music, as exampled in an innovative, school-based, intensive 3-month orchestral programme in Italy with 8 to 10-year-olds. Fasano et al. report that the programme was particularly beneficial in reducing hyperactivity, inattention and impulsivity, whilst enhancing inhibitory control. These benefits are in line with research findings concerning successful music education with specific cases of young people with ADHD whose behavior is characterized by these same disruptive symptoms (hyperactivity, inattention, and impulsivity).

Extra-musical benefits are also reported in a study of college students (Bachelors and Masters) and amateur musicians in a joint Swiss-UK study. Antonini Philippe et al. suggest that, whilst music making can offer some health protective effects, there is a need for greater health awareness and promotion among advanced music students. Compared to the amateur musicians, the college music students evaluated their overall quality of life and general and physical health more negatively, as did females in terms of their psychological health. Somewhat paradoxically, the college students who had taken part in judged performances reported higher psychological health ratings. This may have been because this sub-group were slightly older and more experienced musicians.

Music appears to be a common accompaniment to exercise, whether in the gym, park or street. Nikol et al. in South East Asia explore the potential physical benefits of synchronous exercise to music, especially in hot and humid conditions. Their randomized cross-over study (2019) reports that “time-to-exhaustion” under the synchronous music condition was 2/3 longer compared to the no-music condition for the same participants. In addition, perceived exertion was significantly lower, by an average of 22% during the synchronous condition.

Comparisons between music and sport are often evidenced in the body of existing Frontiers research literature related to performance and group behaviors. Our new collection contains a contribution to this literature in a study by Habe et al. . The authors investigated elite musicians and top athletes in Slovenia in terms of their perceptions of flow in performance and satisfaction with life. The questionnaire data analyses suggest that the experience of flow appears to influence satisfaction with life in these high-functioning individuals, albeit with some variations related to discipline, participant sex and whether considering team or individual performance.

A more formal link between music and movement is the focus of an exploratory case study by Cirelli and Trehub . They investigated a 19-month-old infant's dance-like, motorically-complex responses to familiar and unfamiliar songs, presented at different speeds. Movements were faster for the more familiar items at their original tempo. The child had been observed previously as moving to music at the age of 6 months.

Finally, a novel UK-based study by Waddington-Jones et al. evaluated the impact of two professional composers who were tasked, individually, to lead a 4-month programme of group composing in two separate and diverse community settings—one with a choral group and the other in a residential home, both funded as part of a music programme for the Hull City of Culture in 2017. In addition to the two composers, the participants were older adults, with the residential group being joined by schoolchildren from a local Primary school to collaborate in a final performance. Qualitative data analyses provide evidence of multi-dimensional psychological benefits arising from the successful, group-focused music-making activities.

In summary, these studies demonstrate that engaging in musical activity can have a positive impact on health and well-being in a variety of ways and in a diverse range of contexts across the lifespan. Musical activities, whether focused on listening, being creative or re-creative, individual or collective, are infused with the potential to be therapeutic, developmental, enriching, and educational, with the caveat provided that such musical experiences are perceived to be engaging, meaningful and successful by those who participate.

Collectively, these studies also celebrate the multiplicity of ways in which music can be experienced. Reading across the articles might raise a question as to whether or not any particular type of musical experience is seen to be more beneficial compared with another. The answer, at least in part, is that the empirical evidence suggests that musical engagement comes in myriad forms along a continuum of more or less overt activity, embracing learning, performing, composing and improvising, as well as listening and appreciating. Furthermore, given the multidimensional neurological processing of musical experience, it seems reasonable to hypothesize that it is perhaps the level of emotional engagement in the activity that drives its degree of health and well-being efficacy as much as the activity's overt musical features. And therein are opportunities for further research!

Author Contributions

The editorial was drafted by GW and approved by the topic Co-editors. All authors listed have made a substantial, direct and intellectual contribution to the Edited Collection, and have approved this editorial for publication.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Acknowledgments

We are very grateful to all the contributing authors and their participants for their positive engagement with this Frontiers Research Topic, and also for the Frontiers staff for their commitment and support in bringing this topic to press.

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Saether, M. (2016). Music in informal and formal learning situations in ECEC. Nordic Early Childhood Educ. Res. J. 13, 1–13. doi: 10.7577/nbf.1656

van den Elzen, N., Daman, V., Duijkers, M., Otte, K., Wijnhoven, E., Timmerman, H., et al. (2019). The power of music: enhancing muscle strength in older people. Healthcare 7:82. doi: 10.3390/healthcare7030082

Welch, G.F., and McPherson, G. E., (eds.). (2018). “Commentary: Music education and the role of music in people's lives,” in Music and Music Education in People's Lives: An Oxford Handbook of Music Education (New York, NY: Oxford University Press), 3–18. doi: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199730810.013.0002

Welch, G. F., Himonides, E., Saunders, J., Papageorgi, I., and Sarazin, M. (2014). Singing and social inclusion. Front. Psychol. 5:803. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00803

Williams, K. E., Barrett, M. S., Welch, G. F., Abad, V., and Broughton, M. (2015). Associations between early shared music activities in the home and later child outcomes: findings from the longitudinal study of Australian Children. Early Childhood Res. Q. 31, 113–124. doi: 10.1016/j.ecresq.2015.01.004

Keywords: music, wider benefits, lifespan, health, well-being

Citation: Welch GF, Biasutti M, MacRitchie J, McPherson GE and Himonides E (2020) Editorial: The Impact of Music on Human Development and Well-Being. Front. Psychol. 11:1246. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01246

Received: 12 January 2020; Accepted: 13 May 2020; Published: 17 June 2020.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2020 Welch, Biasutti, MacRitchie, McPherson and Himonides. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Graham F. Welch, graham.welch@ucl.ac.uk ; Michele Biasutti, michele.biasutti@unipd.it

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Music In Our Lives: Rethinking Musical Ability, Development, and Identity

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Why do some children take up music, while others don't? Why do some excel, whilst others give up? Why do some children favour classical music, whilst others prefer rock? These are questions that have puzzled music educators, psychologists, and musicologists for many years. Yet, they are incredibly difficult and complex questions to answer. This book takes an innovative approach to trying to answer these questions. It is drawn from a research project that spanned fourteen years, and closely followed the lives of over 150 children learning music — from their seventh to their twenty second birthdays. This longitudinal approach allows for the probing of a number of important issues. For example, how do you define musical skill and ability? Is it true, as many assume, that continuous engagement in performance is the sole way in which those skills can be developed? What are the consequences of trends and behaviours observed amongst the general public, and their listening consumption? After presenting an overview and detailed case study explorations of musical lives, the book provides frameworks and theory for further investigation and discussion. It tries to present a holistic interpretation of these studies, and looks at their implications for musical development and education.

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Guide on How to Write a Music Essay: Topics and Examples

Let's Understand What is Music Essay

You know how some school assignments are fun to write by default, right? When students see them on the course syllabus, they feel less like a burden and more like a guaranteed pleasure. They are about our interests and hobbies and therefore feel innate and intuitive to write. They are easy to navigate, and interesting topic ideas just pop into your head without much trouble.

Music essays belong to the category of fun essay writing. What is music essay? Anything from in-depth analysis to personal thoughts put into words and then to paper can fall into a music essay category. An essay about music can cover a wide range of topics, including music history, theory, social impact, significance, and musical review. It can be an analytical essay about any music genre, musical instruments, or today's music industry.

Don't get us wrong, you will still need to do extensive research to connect your opinions to a broader context, and you can't step out of academic writing standards, but the essay writing process will be fun.

In this article, our custom essay writing service is going to guide you through every step of writing an excellent music essay. You can draw inspiration from the list of music essay topics that our team prepared, and later on, you will learn what an outstanding essay on music is by an example of a music review essay.

What are Some Music Topics to Write About

There are so many exciting music topics to write about. We would have trouble choosing one. You can write about various music genres, be it country music or classical music; you can research music therapy or how music production happens.

Okay, forgive us for getting carried away; music makes us enthusiastic. Below you will find a list of various music essay topics prepared from our thesis writing service . Choose one and write a memorable essay about everyone's favorite art form.

Music Argumentative Essay Topics

Music essays can be written about an infinite number of themes. You can even write about performance or media comparison.

Here is a list of music argumentative essay topics. These edge-cutting topics will challenge your readers and get you an easy A+.

• Exploring the evolution of modern music styles of the 21st century
• Is it ethical to own and play rare musical instruments?
• Is music therapy an effective mental health treatment?
• Exploring the Intersection of Technology and Creativity in electronic music
• The Relevance of traditional music theory in modern music production
• The Role of musical pieces in the Transmission of cultural identity
• The value of historical analysis in understanding the significance of music in society
• How does exposing listeners to different genres of music break down barriers
• Exploring the cognitive effects of music on human brain development
• The therapeutic potential of music in treating mental disorders

Why is Music Important Essay Topics

Do you know which essay thrills our team the most? The importance of music in life essay. We put our minds together and came up with a list of topics about why music is so central to human life. Start writing why is music important essay, and we guarantee you that you will be surprised by how much fun you had crafting it.  

• Popular Music and its Role in shaping cultural trends
• Music as a metaphorical language for expressing emotions and thoughts
• How music changes and influences social and political movements
• How the music of different countries translates their history to outsiders
• The innate connection between music and human beings
• How music helps us understand feelings we have never experienced
• Does music affect our everyday life and the way we think?
• Examining the cross-cultural significance of music in society
• How rock music influenced 70's political ideologies
• How rap music closes gaps between different racial groups in the US

Consider delegating your ' write my essay ' request to our expert writers for crafting a perfect paper on any music topic!

Why I Love Music Essay Topics

We want to know what is music to you, and the best way to tell us is to write a why I love music essay. Below you will find a list of music essay topics that will help you express your love for music.

• I love how certain songs and artists evoke Memories and Emotions
• I love the diversity of music genres and how different styles enrich my love for music
• I love how music connects me with people of different backgrounds
• How the music of Linkin Park helped me through life's toughest challenges
• What does my love for popular music say about me?
• How the unique sounds of string instruments fuel my love for music
• How music provides a temporary Release from the stresses of daily life
• How music motivates me to chase my dreams
• How the raw energy of rock music gets me through my daily life
• Why my favorite song is more than just music to me

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Music Therapy Essay Topics

One of the most interesting topics about music for an essay is music therapy. We are sure you have heard all the stories of how music cures not only mental but also physical pains. Below you can find a list of topics that will help you craft a compelling music therapy essay. And don't forget that you can always rely on our assistance for fulfilling your ' write my paper ' requests!

• The effectiveness of music therapy in reducing stress and pain for cancer patients
• Does pop music have the same effects on music therapy as classical music?
• Exploring the benefits of music therapy with other genres beyond classical music
• The potential of music therapy in aiding substance abuse treatment and recovery
• The Role of music therapy in Addressing PTSD and Trauma in military veterans
• The impact of music therapy on enhancing social interaction and emotional expression in individuals with developmental disabilities
• The use of music therapy in managing chronic pain
• Does musical therapy help depression?
• Does music reduce anxiety levels?
• Is music therapy better than traditional medicine?

History of Music Essay Topics

If you love analytical essays and prefer to see the bigger picture, you can always write a music description essay. Below you can find some of the most interesting topics for the history of music essay.

• The Significance of natural instruments in music production and performance
• Tracing the historical development of Western music theory
• How electronic music traces its roots back to classical music
• How the music industry evolved from sheet music to streaming services
• How modern producers relate to classical composers
• The Origins and Influence of Jazz Music
• How folk music saved the Stories of unnamed heroes
• Do we know what the music of ancient civilizations sounded like?
• Where does your favorite bandstand in the line of music evolve?
• The Influence of African American Music on modern pop culture

Benefits of Music Essay Topics

If you are someone who wonders what are some of the values that music brings to our daily life, you should write the benefits of music essay. The music essay titles below can inspire you to write a captivating essay:

• How music can be used to promote cultural awareness and understanding
• The benefits of music education in promoting creativity and innovation
• The social benefits of participating in music groups
• The Impact of Music on Memory and Learning
• The cognitive benefits of music education in early childhood development
• The effects of music on mood and behavior
• How learning to play an instrument improves cognitive functions.
• How music connects people distanced by thousands of miles
• The benefits of listening to music while exercising
• How music can express the feelings words fail to do so 

Music Analysis Essay Example

Reading other people's papers is a great way to scale yours. There are many music essay examples, but the one crafted by our expert writers stands out in every possible way. You can learn what a great thesis statement looks like, how to write an engaging introduction, and what comprehensive body paragraphs should look like. 

Click on the sample below to see the music analysis essay example. 

How to Write a Music Essay with Steps

Writing music essays is definitely not rocket science, so don't be afraid. It's just like writing any other paper, and a music essay outline looks like any other essay structure.

• Start by choosing a music essay topic. You can use our list above to get inspired. Choose a topic about music that feels more relevant and less researched so you can add brand-new insights. As we discussed, your music essay can be just about anything; it can be a concert report or an analytical paper about the evolution of music.
• Continue by researching the topic. Gather all the relevant materials and information for your essay on music and start taking notes. You can use these notes as building blocks for the paper. Be prepared; even for short essays, you may need to read books and long articles.
• Once you have all the necessary information, the ideas in your head will start to take shape. The next step is to develop a thesis statement out of all the ideas you have in your head. A thesis statement is a must as it informs readers what the entire music essay is about. Don't be afraid to be bold in your statement; new outlooks are always appreciated.
• Next, you'll need a music essay introduction. Here you introduce the readers to the context and background information about the research topic. It should be clear, brief, and engaging. You should set the tone of your essay from the very beginning. Don't forget the introduction is where the thesis statement goes.
• One of the most important parts of essay writing is crafting a central body paragraph about music. This is where you elaborate on your thesis, make main points, and support them with the evidence you gathered beforehand. Remember, your music essay should be well structured and depict a clear picture of your ideas.
• Next, you will need to come up with an ideal closing paragraph. Here you will need to once again revisit the main points in your music essay, restate them in a logical manner and give the readers your final thoughts.
• Don't forget to proofread your college essay. Whether you write a long or short essay on music, there will be grammatical and factual errors. Revise and look through your writing with a critical mind. You may find that some parts need rewriting.

Key Takeaways

Music essays are a pleasure to write and read. There are so many topics and themes to choose from, and if you follow our How to Write a Music Essay guide, you are guaranteed to craft a top-notch essay every time.

Be bold when selecting a subject even when unsure what is research essay topic on music, take the writing process easy, follow the academic standards, and you are good to go. Use our music essay sample to challenge yourself and write a professional paper. 

If you feel stuck and have no time our team of expert writers is always ready to give you help from all subject ( medical school personal statement school help ). Visit our website, submit your ' write my research paper ' request and a guaranteed A+ essay will be on your way in just one click.

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FAQs on Writing a Music Essay

Though music essay writing is not the hardest job on the planet, there are still some questions that often pop up. Now that you have a writing guide and a list of essay topics about music, it's time to address the remaining inquiries. Keep reading to find the answers to the frequently asked questions. 

Should Artists' Music be Used in Advertising?

What type of music is best for writing an essay, why do people love music.

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Music History and Development

The middle ages, the renaissance, the baroque age, the classical period, the romantic era, the twentieth-century, bibliography:.

Different Cultures all have there owned a specific way of communicating through music. Music is basically broken into two specific groups Eastern Music and Western Music.

Eastern music is mainly derived from the orient and India. While western music first emerged from Europe. Western music has developed in many ways since the middle ages through its form, sound, and message.

Starting with the Middle Ages, they covered almost one thousand years. That was from the year of 476 to the year 1450. During this time, the Christian church and the state were the centers of authority during this time. Music was very important in the cultures of Greece, Rome, the Judaic humanity, and many other places (Burney 1957).

Many around the world at this point used a chant or a monophonic melody in their worship, which was created by much more melodic phrases then Gregorian Chant, organum was also the first type of music too utilize fourth and fifth intervals, which would become one of the building blocks of modern musical theory.

Music in the church had not changed much during this time, as said by Charles Burney in A General History of Music Volume I, Music in the church, however, appears to have undergone no other change at this time than in being applied in some parts of the service. A type of popular music began to erupt and was sung all over Europe by the troubadours and troubles of France.

The Renaissance began in the year 1420 and ended in the year 1600. The Renaissance was an era of searching, scientific questioning, and imaginative awakening and marked the passing from a highly religious civilization to a worldlier one.

The Renaissance is often observed as the golden age of Cappella singing. Renaissance music features a fuller and extra consonant sound than music from the middle ages. Some Renaissance pieces are constructed on a permanent, preexistent melody, while others mirror the text through the music.

Baroque music has a distinctive artistic style, and it is an idiomatic form. Composers began to write towards a particular medium, such a violin or the solo voice, rather than music with identical or no dialects that might either sung or played by almost any combination of voices and instruments.

The violin became the primary instrument and formulated its artistic style, instrumental as well as vocal styles started to be distinguished, finally becoming so different that the composers could adopt vocal artistic style into instrumental writing and vice versa.

A distinctive Baroque piece comprises of a melodic line of voice, a bass line for an uninterrupted instrument just like a cello or bassoon playing, a plucked or keyboard instrument playing the figured chord to fill the intervening space between the two poles.

The Classical Era saw the intersection of two contradicting schools of thought in society. The first was the remnant of the Baroque Era, which said that the nobility had absolute power in society. The second was from the Middle Ages, who said that the nobility had gone too far with their power and should give some of their power over to the middle class.

The result of this was many opportunities for composers. Not only they could have their traditional occupations or servents to various noblemen who served as their patron, but they could also make a fair living performing their work at public concerts, an innovation of the time.

In the middle of the Romantic Era, an era presented as dedicated to irrationality and unreason, the most purely rational social science, classical political economy—carried on the Enlightenment tradition. Enlightenment continued to be shown in the speech of political and economic liberalism. During the Romantic era, people were very big in the idea of connecting with nature.

Everything was about connecting with nature, and people believed that nature was a source of inspiration. Therefore from this, people began to express and explain things using guidelines of nature instead of logic. The whole idea was that everyone created something of them, and it is original, and that is art. This time was all about emotions, deep thinking, personal experience, and connecting with nature.

Music written since 1900 is called the twentieth-century music. There have been different types and styles of music printed in the twentieth century than ever before (Yudkin 2007). In the twentieth century, the only limitations of the composers are their imagination. “One of the great forms of musical styles shows the variety of life during the early twentieth century.

More people were free to choose where to live, how to earn a living, and how to spend their time. One of the ranges of experience that expanded and is more accessible to the world is the car, airplane, phonograph, movies, and radio” (Yudkin 2007).

Technological growths have also had determine on twentieth-century music, especially electronic music. The progress of the technology has also had an enormous impact on the evolution of the twentieth century, with some composers, for example, the cassette player as a compositional tool or electronically generated sounds alongside classical music instruments.

Burney, C. (1957). A General History of Music 2 . New York: Dover Publications.

Yudkin, J. (2007). Understanding Music fifth edition. Boston University: Prentice Publications

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Music Interventions and Child Development: A Critical Review and Further Directions

Elisabeth dumont.

1 Music in Education, Zuyd University of Applied Science, Maastricht, Netherlands

Elena V. Syurina

2 Health, Ethics and Society, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands

3 Faculty of Science, Athena Institute, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, Netherlands

Frans J. M. Feron

4 Social Medicine, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands

Susan van Hooren

5 Healthcare, Zuyd University of Applied Science, Maastricht, Netherlands

Research on the impact of music interventions has indicated positive effects on a variety of skills. These findings suggest musical interventions may have further potential to support educational processes and development of children. This paper reviews the latest evidence on the effect of musical interventions on the development of primary school-aged children. Four electronic databases were searched from January 2010 through June 2016 using music, music instruction, music education, music lesson, music training, development, child, student , and pupil as key words for the search. Two reviewers independently evaluated the studies to determine whether they met the stated inclusion criteria. Studies were compared on study setup, methodological quality, intervention components, outcome variables, and efficacy. A review of these selected studies ( n = 46) suggestive beneficial effects of music intervention on development of children, although clear conclusions cannot be drawn. Possible influencing factors that might contribute to the outcome of intervention are reviewed and recommendations for further research are made.

Introduction

Music interventions are often said to have an influence on motor, language, social, cognitive, and academic abilities (Ho et al., 2003 ; Costa-Giomi, 2004 ; Schellenberg, 2004 ; Forgeard et al., 2008 ; Standley, 2008 ; Jentschke and Koelsch, 2009 ; Southgate and Roscigno, 2009 ; Yazejian and Peisner-Feinberg, 2009 ; Strait et al., 2010 ). Music may play an important role in meeting a child's educational needs as it provides a means of self-expression, giving the child an outlet for feelings and emotions. Music, aside from being a source of enjoyment, is also a means of communication with others (Suthers and Niland, 2007 ). Music may expose the child to challenges and multi-sensory experiences which enhance learning abilities and encourage cognitive development. In particular, music can also engage cognitive functions, such as planning, working memory, inhibition, and flexibility. These functions are known as executive functions (EF). Although there is no consensus on conceptualization, there is agreement on the complexity and the importance of EF for learning and development (Gioia et al., 2000 ). Music education may be a promising tool in improving EF as it activates multiple cortical and subcortical brain areas, including the prefrontal cortex, which is linked to EF (Särkämö et al., 2014 ).

Musical interventions may become an appealing approach for schools that are increasingly facing a challenge of supporting education processes and development of children with varied degrees of learning and behavioral difficulties. However, before an extended use can be introduced into practice, we need to have a clearer, more systematic understanding of the known effects musical interventions have.

The current study builds on the results of previous reviews of literature examining the impact of music training and education including, among others, those of Jaschke et al. ( 2013 ), Cogo-Moreira et al. ( 2012 ), Besson et al. ( 2011 ), Maloy and Peterson ( 2014 ), and Miendlarzewska and Trost ( 2014 ). Jaschke et al. ( 2013 ) found mixed evidence of far transfer effects between music education and other cognitive skills. Cogo-Moreira et al. ( 2012 ) aimed to review RCTs to investigate the effectiveness of music education on reading skills in children and adolescents with dyslexia but were unable to find such studies. In a meta-analysis, Maloy and Peterson ( 2014 ) concluded that there was a minimal effect of music as an intervention to increase task performance in children and adolescents with ADHD. Miendlarzewska and Trost ( 2014 ) found that musical training in childhood has a positive impact on many cognitive functions and is associated with neuroplastic changes in brain structure and function. The transfer of training from music to speech was evaluated by Besson et al. ( 2011 ), who pointed to positive transfer of training effects from musical expertise to speech processing. When interpreting the results, it is important to take into consideration that these reviews in general yielded mixed results and were limited in their focus: specific skills (Cogo-Moreira et al., 2012 ), a specific developmental domain (Miendlarzewska and Trost, 2014 ), specific designs and age groups (Cogo-Moreira et al., 2012 ; Jaschke et al., 2013 ), or a specific target group (Maloy and Peterson, 2014 ).

Bearing these in mind, the purpose of this article is to provide a comprehensive summary of the existing research in the field by collecting and analyzing the latest evidence on the effect of music interventions across different domains of development of the primary school-aged children. It aims to report on the effectiveness of a broad range of music interventions, describe relevant contextual factors, to evaluate the general level and quality of evidence in the field and to provide implications for future research.

Due to a broad scope of this study, we decided to do a systematic search and a “critical review,” which aims to “extensively research the literature and critically evaluate its quality” (Grant and Booth, 2009 ). Several steps were taken in order to ensure high scientific quality of the work.

Search procedure

The search for relevant articles was conducted via three routes. First, PubMed, EMBASE (Ovid), PsycInfo, and EBESCO databases were systematically searched. The search covered 6 years (January 2010 to June 2016) and the following search terms were included: music, music education, music instruction, music lesson, music training, development, child * , student, pupil . The key-words were combined in various ways using Boolean terms AND and OR. Second, reference lists of the identified relevant systematic reviews and key articles (referenced by more than 1 paper) were examined in order to identify additional studies. The last route included a manual search of the tables of contents of relevant journals: International Journal of Music Education and British Journal of Music Education. A flowchart describing these processes is reported in Figure ​ Figure1 1 .

Flow diagram of article identification and inclusion.

Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Identified studies were considered eligible for inclusion if they met the following a priori defined criteria. The studies had to (a) involve training, teaching, or providing intervention using music; (b) utilize outcome measures targeting child's development; (c) focus on the (pre)school-aged children up to 13 years without physical disabilities; (d) be published in a peer-reviewed journal between January 2010 and June 2016; (e) be written in English. We excluded studies that (a) examined use of music psychotherapy interventions; (b) focused only on imaging techniques, (c) had musical outcomes only; (d) were not based on empirical data: qualitative reviews, commentaries, case studies or studies without an accurate methodological description.

Screening and study selection

Upon removal of the duplicates, the literature search yielded 1,092 results. All identified studies were subjected to multilevel screening, executed independently by two co-authors (ED and EVS). First, the titles and abstracts of identified studies were screened. At this stage, the titles and abstracts that did not meet at least one inclusion criteria (non-English language, commentaries) were omitted. Based on this first screening, 126 potentially relevant articles were obtained as full texts. Next, these articles were further reviewed by ED and EVS independently to determine whether or not they met the stated inclusion criteria. All exclusion decisions were documented. Each reviewer made a selection list, which were then compared. In cases of disagreement, the articles in question were discussed by all co-authors and a consensus decision was made. Our final selection included 46 articles.

Data analysis

Studies that met at least one inclusion criteria, but did not meet any of the exclusion criteria, have been reported according to a list of five variables in order to extract data in a comparable way. The methodological quality of the studies was assessed using the guidelines of the Dutch Institute for Health Care Improvement (CBO). The following elements were evaluated: randomization, allocation concealment, baseline comparability, blinding of participants or providers, blinding of outcome assessors, reporting of attrition rate, the use of intent-to-treat analyses and the use of validated tools. The level of evidence of each study was determined according to the guidelines of Melnyk and Fineout-Overholt ( 2005 ).

The main results of selected studies are reported in Table ​ Table1. 1 . All studies involved participants of 4–13 years-old, but some were not limited to this range: two studies chose a broad age range of 6–25 years [35] and 6–59 years [32]. Sample sizes varied between 10 [1] and 352 [35]. In general, studies employed both genders. One study [40] and one sub-experiment of a study [42] included males only. Although the type of design was not explicitly mentioned in all studies, most studies implemented a(n) (quasi-) experimental, longitudinal, or correlational design. Only three of the 46 studies used a randomized control trial (RCT) [21] [29] [17].

Intervention details for included studies.

The reviewed articles have spawned a broad range of approaches to and considerable heterogeneity in music interventions. In general, music interventions consisted either of structured musical instruction/activities, i.e., use of instruments, singing, moving, listening, improvising, music notation, rhythm training, composing music, instrumental classes, or private instrumental training. Only in several studies, the music intervention was especially designed for the acquisition of specific non-musical skills [10] [11]. Length of the intervention varied across studies, ranging from seven and a half minutes [31] to 11 semesters [43]. Music interventions were mostly provided two or three times per week. In three studies, interventions were delivered on a daily basis [15] [16] [25]. All but two studies [32] [40] used live music as opposed to recorded music. Four studies used a specific pedagogical approach for music instruction: the Orff method, which refers to a way of teaching children about music that engages their mind and body through a mixture of singing, dancing, acting, and the use of percussion instruments or the Kodaly method, in which children are first introduced to concepts of music through experiences such as singing, listening or movement. Only after the child becomes familiar with the concept of music do they learn how to compose it [8] [15] [28] [45]. Interventions were either performed in (small) groups or individual (in case of instrumental training). The authors conducted studies either in the school/classroom environment, where music interventions would be regularly conducted; or used locations outside school i.e., music schools or specific center for music teaching. Information about the person who delivered the music intervention was mentioned in 30 studies. In most studies a professionally trained music teacher was employed. In two other studies, the intervention was delivered by parents/teachers [4] who received training or by trained research assistants [11]. In four studies, the intervention was either computer-based [16] [25] or delivered via CD/radio [32] [40].

The reviewed articles used varied outcome measures affected by music interventions. Outcome measures can be grouped in the following categories: motor skill development, social and emotional development, language, cognitive development, academic performance and other, non-musical, related skills.

Motor skill development

We identified no studies that focused particularly on the association between music training and gross motor skill development. Two studies explored, among others, the beneficial impact of music activity on specific motor skills. Using a non-randomized design, Brodsky and Sulkin ( 2011 ) [1] (which presented results of three experiments) focused on hand-clapping songs. In the first experiment, the association of performance quality of handclapping songs with academic achievement was evaluated among a class of 18 children (mean age 7 years). Two handclapping songs were taught by rote via live demonstration by the second author during a 3-week period and both performance quality and achievement of all 18 children were assessed. Results indicated that children who were more skillful in performing handclapping songs, were also more efficient learners. In a second experiment, the authors measured bimanual rhythmic patting and aural diction in 10 children aged 8–8.5 years, five children who self-reported engagement in handclapping songs activity, and five children from the same classroom who self-reported not to engage in handclapping songs were recruited. Self-reports were confirmed by the second author through observations. The authors found that children who spontaneously engaged in hand clapping songs had an advantage in aural diction and accuracy performance of eye-hand motor sequences. The third experiment took place over 8 weeks. Twenty-four children received classroom handclapping intervention (HCST) while another 27 received the music appreciation guided listening curriculum (MAGL). Children who received HCST were more effective in developing bimanual coupling, writing proficiencies and handwriting compared to children who received MAGL (Brodsky and Sulkin, 2011 [1]). Janzen et al. ( 2014 ) [2] investigated whether formal music training enhances precision in discrete and continuous movements. The study included 32 children enrolled in music classes who had at least 2 h of weekly musical activities. Twenty-five children who were not involved in any musical activity were also included. All were 10–14 years-old. Results showed that musically trained children had a significantly more accurate performance in the discrete movement task compared to controls. Findings suggest performance was positively associated with the number of years of formal music training. Musically trained children also tended to be more precise in the continuous movement task (Janzen et al., 2014 ).

Although reporting positive results, a limitation of above-mentioned, quasi-experimental studies was the lack of randomization. In a sub-experiment of one study only (sub experiment 3) [1], participants were matched socioeconomically and an active control group was included. In the second study of another sub-experiment, performance of the music group was compared to control groups who were not involved in music training [2] or who did not receive any additional activity (sub experiment 2) [1]. Therefore, caution should be used when making inferences about the observed effects of the music interventions on specific motor skills.

Social and emotional development

Social skills.

Four studies reported mixed evidence of the influence of music interventions on social skills. Using a quasi-experimental design, Ritblatt et al. ( 2013 ) [4] found that 55 children, aged 3–5, who received a music intervention program focused on socioemotional skills, demonstrated a positive change in these skills compared to a wait-list control group ( n = 47) who did not receive the music intervention. These changes occurred over the course of a 8-month period. It's important to note that these effects were reported by teachers and not parents. Schellenberg et al. ( 2015 ) [5] investigated whether social benefits were accrued from an existing group music training program that was designed with music pedagogy as its focus in 84 8–9 year-old children. Results showed that children in the music group ( n = 38), who attended schools that incorporated an enhanced group music program into the curriculum, had larger increases in sympathy and prosocial behavior compared to children in the control group ( n = 46), who attended schools without the enhanced music program, but this effect was limited to children who had poor prosocial skills before the lessons began. Evidence from a between-participants study of the effects of joint music making in 48 pairs of 4 year-old children [3] who were randomly assigned either to the music condition (i.e., episode of interactive play with joint music making) or the non-music condition (i.e., episode of interactive play without music), demonstrated an increase in willingness to help one another and to cooperate on a problem-solving task in children in the music condition compared to non-music condition (Kirschner and Tomasello, 2010 ) [3]. However, in an experimental study, Rickard et al. ( 2013 ) [8] assigned 195 5–8 year-old children to either a music education ( n = 122) or a control group ( n = 73) based on the school they were attending. Children receiving a music education received age-specific, specialized music programs on top of the preexisting, general school music program, while children in the control group did not receive these specialized music programs but continued with their regular school music program. The authors found no benefits of the specialized music program on children's social skills compared to children in the control group.

In sum, three studies [3] [4] [5] reported partially positive results, whereas one study [8] reported no effects. One study reporting a beneficial impact of music [3] is of high quality$ i.c. incorporating random assignment to conditions, blinding the outcome assessors and incorporating an active, matched control program without music. The intervention lasted, however, for 20 min. The partially positive findings of Ritblatt et al. ( 2013 ) [4] and Schellenberg et al. ( 2015 ) [5] should be interpreted with caution due to the design used [5], the lack of randomization, the fact the sample may not be representative of the target population (i.c. higher SES and higher educational level) [4] and teacher/parent expectations which may have influenced the results [4]. In the experimental study [8] of Rickard et al. ( 2012 ) [8], reporting no effects of a specialized music program on top of the general school music program, randomization was absent. However, the relatively large sample size, the duration of the study and the inclusion of an active control group are strengths of this study.

Results of above mentioned studies are mixed and demonstrate the need for further research.

Emotional development

Two studies addressed the influence of music on emotional development and reported mixed results. A study of Schellenberg and Mankarious ( 2012 ) [7] assessed 60 children, ranging from 7 to 8 years-old, on a test of emotion comprehension (TEC). The musically trained group included 30 children who had at least 8 months of formal music lessons taken outside the school, whereas the untrained group consisted of 30 children who had no music training outside the school. Musically trained children demonstrated significantly higher TEC scores than the ones without music training. The effect remained even after accounting for demographic variables. However, the link appeared to be a consequence of high level cognitive functioning of the musically trained group. No group differences were present when IQ scores were accounted for. Using an experimental study, Rabinowitch et al. ( 2013 ) [6] tracked 52 children aged 8–11 after they were randomly assigned to either a musical group interaction program ( n = 23), a games group ( n = 8), receiving a similar program without the use of music or a control group ( n = 21), not receiving any special activity. Children in the music group showed an increase in empathy scores on two out of three measures compared to children in the games group and children in the control group.

While both studies reported positive results, the findings of the study of Schellenberg and Mankarious ( 2012 ) [7] turned out to be a related to the level of cognitive functioning of participants in the music group. The experimental study of Rabinowitch et al. ( 2013 ) [6] permits, at least to some extent, for causal inference. The authors used randomization to allocate participants to conditions, thereby reducing the risk of bias from confounding. The small sample size and the fact that the active and the passive control group were merged into one control group before comparison with the music group, should, however, be taken into consideration. Based on findings from both studies, no definitive conclusions can be drawn yet and more research is needed in this area to achieve conclusive results.

Academic self-concept, psychosocial wellbeing, and self-esteem

Three studies reported mixed effects of music on academic self-concept, which refers to the cognitive representation and appraisal of one's own abilities in academic performance (Degé et al., 2014 ), psychosocial wellbeing and self-esteem, which describes one's overall sense of self-worth. In a correlational study, Degé et al. ( 2014 ) [9] revealed that duration of music lessons was positively associated with academic self-concept in 92 12–14 year-old children, even after controlling for demographic variables and IQ. In a 3 year experimental study, Rickard et al. ( 2013 ) [8] showed that increase in school-based music lessons prevented a decline in global self-esteem measures experienced by the control group in both the younger and older cohorts across the first year of the study. However, effect sizes were generally modest in the second year. In another study, Rickard et al. ( 2012 ) [42] investigated the effect of increasing existing music education (study 1) and the effect of introducing a novel high-quality music education program (study two) on various psychosocial measures in 111 10–13 year-old children (all males). One hundred eleven 10–13 year-old children in study one were pseudo-randomly assigned to additional music classes ( n = 47), art classes ( n = 27), or drama classes ( n = 37). One hundred six children in study two (mean age 131.07 months) were randomly allocated to a music group ( n = 38), a drama group ( n = 37) or control group, receiving no program ( n = 31). No significant effects were found.

Degé et al. ( 2014 ) [9], using a correlational design, was the only one reporting positive results. However, these results do not allow for any conclusions to be drawn about causality. Two experimental studies of Rickard et al. ( 2012 ) [8] [42] found modest effects and no effects, respectively music interventions on top of the preexisting school music education. The (relatively) large sample sizes [8] [42] and the duration of one the studies [8] can be considered as strengths. Both studies, did not, however, randomize participants to the intervention or control groups. In one of the two experimental studies [42], active control groups were included, who continued their regular school music program. The other study [8] included both passive and active control groups, which better allowed for comparison of the increased music education.

In summary, although one study reported positive correlations, two studies suggest little or no beneficial effect. Further research is needed to clarify whether music can positively impact self-concept, self-esteem, and psychosocial wellbeing.

Studies that link music intervention to language acquisition can be clustered into two groups: (1) focus on phonological awareness and auditory processing and (2) reading.

Phonological awareness and auditory processing

Several studies assessed the influence of music on auditory and phonological skills with mixed findings. Some suggest that musical activities have a beneficial effect on these skills. Using a descriptive-comparative design, Escalda et al. ( 2011 ) [12] examined the relationship between musical experience, auditory processing abilities and phonological awareness skills of 56 five year-old children. Results showed that 26 children, with musical experience, performed significantly better on auditory processing and phonological awareness than 30 children without musical experience. In an exploratory study, Moritz et al. ( 2013 ) [15] investigated whether musical activity could enhance the acquisition of reading skill, potentially before formal reading instructions began in 30 children (mean age 5.6 years). Children in the music group ( n = 15) received daily 45 min music lessons whereas children in the control group ( n = 15) received weekly 35-min music lessons. Correlational results showed that rhythm ability was related to phonological segmentation skills at the beginning of kindergarten and that end-of-year phonological awareness skills of children who received daily music lessons were better than skills of children in the control group who received music lessons once a week. Using a pragmatic RCT, Cogo-Moreira et al. ( 2013 ) [21] included 235 participants with reading problems, aged 8–10 years, in 10 schools, to compare the effectiveness of music education for the improvement of among other, reading skills. Five schools were randomly chosen to incorporate music classes ( n = 114) and five schools, who were not encouraged to offer musical activities, served as controls ( n = 121). There was no improvement in phonological awareness when comparing the two groups. Flaugnacco et al. ( 2015 ) [17], also using an RCT, pseudo-randomly assigned 8–11 year-old dyslexic children to a music group ( n = 24) or a painting group ( n = 24). Both groups also received conventional rehabilitation program. After 7 months of training, the music group outperformed the painting group in tasks assessing rhythmic abilities and phonological awareness. Using a pretest/training/posttest design, Moreno et al. ( 2011b ) [16] focused on the effects of an intensive computerized training in music or visual arts on pre-literacy skills in 60 4–6 year-old children, who were pseudo-randomly assigned to the music or visual arts condition. They reported comparable improvements in both groups in rhyme awareness and in ability to map unfamiliar symbols to known words. However, when the two groups were statistically equated at pretest, the magnitude of improvement was found to be larger in the music group. Herrera et al. ( 2011 ) [13] on the other hand, used a 2 year pretest-posttest study in which 97 children (mean age 4.5 years) at two preschools were allocated following stratified randomization procedures into a group that received phonological training with music ( n = 32), a group that received phonological training with no music ( n = 34) and a control group who did not receive any specialized training ( n = 31). Phonological training was effective regardless of whether it included music and whether the children were foreign Spanish speakers or native speakers. Both experimental treatment groups outperformed the control group in the posttests on phonological awareness tasks and speed in naming objects. However, the phonological training with music group outperformed the phonological training without music group on phonological awareness of ending sounds. In general, the foreign Spanish speakers were significantly slower in the naming task than their Spanish counterparts, those who had participated in the training with musical activities outperformed their peers in the control group by the end of the treatment. Bhide et al. ( 2013 ) [10] compared the effects of a musical intervention for poor readers ( n = 10) with a software intervention of known beneficial effects based on rhyme training and phoneme-grapheme learning ( n = 9) in 6–7 year-old children, all of them identified by their class teachers as struggling readers. The authors found that both interventions were equally effective for literacy acquisition and phonological skills. Habib et al. ( 2016 ) [18] examined the effectiveness of a specially-designed Cognitivo-musical training (CMT) in two studies. In study one, 12 children with a diagnosis of severe dyslexia (mean age 10.7 years) received daily 6 h of CMT on 3 consecutive days while 22 reading-age matched normal-reading children (30 months younger on average) served as controls, receiving no CMT. The authors found that dyslexic children were impaired in the identification test of categorical perception, but their performance reached the level of control children after 3 days of CMT. Significant improvement in performance of dyslexic children was also noticed in the syllabic lengthening task. In study two, 12 dyslexic children, grouped according to the severity of their problems received CMT training sessions at school. The 3-h weekly sessions were provided over a period of 6 weeks. Results showed a positive influence of the CMT program on categorical perception and the temporal aspects of speech processing. Also, additional improvements in auditory attention, phonological awareness (syllable fusion) were found. Fonseca-Mora et al. ( 2015 ) [14], using a pre-post comparison design, tested the efficacy of a phonological training program aimed at improving early reading skills in 7–8 year-old Spanish children learning English as a foreign language in three groups: an experimental group with phonological non-musical intervention ( n = 22), an experimental group with musical intervention ( n = 18) and a control group receiving the traditional teaching program ( n = 23). The results clearly pointed to the beneficial effects of the phonological teaching approach, but the further impact of the music support was not demonstrated. In a longitudinal, experimental study, Degé and Schwarzer ( 2011 ) [11] investigated the effect of a music program on phonological awareness in preschoolers. Forty-one children (mean age 5.6 years) were randomly assigned to a music program ( n = 13), a phonological skills program ( n = 13), or a sport group ( n = 14). Results indicated that 26 children who followed either the music program or the phonological program significantly improved in phonological awareness of large phonological units (words) compared to the sport group who received no intervention. All three groups showed similar development in phonological awareness of small phonological units.

Of the two RCTs reviewed, one found beneficial effects of a music intervention on phonological awareness [17] while the other found no effects [21]. Two experimental studies [11] [13], using (stratified) randomization and including two active control groups [11] and an active and passive control group [13], respectively, reported no beneficial effects of music. Of the four studies that used a quasi-experimental design without randomization, two studies, including an active [10] or both an active and passive control group [14], also found no benefits of music interventions One out of these four studies, reporting positive results, used pseudo-random allocation, included an active control group and blinded outcome assessors [16]. Another study, also describing positive results, matched participants, but did include a passive control group only [18]. Positive results were also reported by two correlational studies [12] [15]. However, these results do not allow for any conclusions to be drawn about causality. Although findings suggest music can positively affect phonological awareness and auditory processing in some situations, clear conclusions cannot be drawn.

Eight studies addressed the association between music-related activities and a range of reading skills with inconsistent findings. The results of the study of Cogo-Moreira et al. ( 2013 ) [21] indicated no improvement in word accuracy, in-text accuracy and non-word accuracy of children in the music intervention schools compared to the children in control ones. In contrast, the RCT results of Flaugnacco et al. ( 2015 ) [17] showed better performance of the music group on reading skills in comparison to the control group. Using an experimental design, Bonacina et al. ( 2015 ) [20] randomly assigned 11–14 year-old children to a computer-assisted, rhythmic reading training (RRT) ( n = 14) or a control group ( n = 14), for which no specific activity addressed to improve reading skills was carried out. Results indicated that RRT had a positive effect on both reading speed and accuracy. The effect of RRT seemed to be specifically on reading skills, as no difference in rhythm perception between the two groups was found. Moritz et al. ( 2013 ) [15] found that kindergarteners' rhythm ability was significantly correlated to their phonological awareness and basic word identification skills in second grade. Using a longitudinal design, Slater et al. ( 2014 ) [22] compared reading ability of 42 low-income, Spanish-English bilingual children aged 6-to-9, pseudo-randomly assigned to a group music instruction program outside school or a waiting list control group. Twenty-three children in the music group maintained their age-normed performance on the composite reading measure after 1 year, whereas the performance of 19 children in the matched control group deteriorated over the same period of time, consistent with expected declines in this population. Rautenberg ( 2013 ) [23], in an experimental study, measured the correlations between musical skills and decoding skills and the effects of musical training on word-level reading abilities. One hundred fifty-nine seven year-old children were randomly allocated to a special music training program ( n = 33), a visual arts training program ( n = 41), or no training program for the period of the study ( n = 85). Results showed the special music training had a significant effect on reading accuracy in word reading. Additionally, positive correlations were found between rhythmical ability and decoding skills. Tonal skills were not correlated with reading skills. In a correlational study of Corrigall and Trainor ( 2011 ) [19], it was shown that duration of music training (i.e., the number of years of training on their primary instrument, plus the number of years of training on any additional instruments) was associated with reading comprehension, but not with word decoding among 46 6–9 year-olds. The findings are in contrast to a longitudinal study from Bergman Nutley et al. ( 2014 ) [35] which revealed that practicing a musical instrument was not associated with reading comprehension.

Of the eight studies measuring the effects on reading, two studies used an RCT design with pseudo randomization [17] [21] and blinded outcome assessors [17]. Their findings are contradictory; Flaugnacco et al. ( 2015 ) [17] found a positive influence of music, whereas the results of Cogo-Moreira et al. ( 2013 ) [21] indicated no effect. Results of two studies that used an experimental design with randomization [20] [23] illustrated potential benefits of a music training program. Of these two studies, one included a passive control group, offering no music training program [20] while the other included both a passive and active control group [23], allowing for a more comprehensive comparison. The results of the longitudinal study of Slater et al. ( 2015 ) [46] also point to beneficial effects. However, an active control group could not be included. (Partially) positive correlations were shown by two studies [15] [19]. However, correlational studies do not allow for causal inferences. In another longitudinal study [35], participants were compared to themselves. Attrition rate and practice effects might, however, have influenced the results.

As results of above-mentioned studies are both positive and negative, findings in this area are inconclusive.

Cognitive development

In this review, studies focusing on the effects of music on children's cognitive abilities were subdivided into three categories, reflecting different aspects of cognitive development: (1) intelligence, (2) memory, and (3) attention and other executive function skills.

Intelligence

Several studies have explored the effects of music intervention on intelligence. Results from these studies suggest little or no beneficial effects. In an experimental design, Kaviani et al. ( 2014 ) [28] randomly allocated 60 5–6 year-old children to two groups, the experimental group receiving Orff music lessons and the other (matched for age-, sex-, and mother's educational level) receiving no lessons The authors demonstrated that after participating in the Orff music program for 3 months, children had significantly higher scores on the visual abstract reasoning, verbal reasoning and short term memory subscales of the Stanford—Binet Intelligence Scale compared to children, who did not receive any musical lessons. Schellenberg ( 2011 ) [24] and Bergman Nutley et al. ( 2014 ) [35] also reported positive associations between, respectively, music training and IQ and music training and non-verbal reasoning. In a longitudinal study, Moreno et al. ( 2011a ) [25] used two subtests of the WPSI III (vocabulary and block design) to examine the influence of two interactive computerized training programs (music and visual arts) on, among other skills, verbal and spatial intelligence in 64 4–6 year-old children who were pseudo-randomly allocated to one of the two conditions. They found that children who participated in a computerized music training program showed enhanced performance on the measure of vocabulary knowledge. Not in line with above mentioned findings is the study of Mehr et al. ( 2013 ) [29]. They conducted an RCT to investigate the effects of parent-child music education on specific cognitive skills in preschool children. In experiment one, four-year-old children were randomly assigned to a music group ( n = 15) or a visual arts group ( n = 14). In experiment two, 23 children were randomly allocated to a music group and 22 children to a control group who did not receive music classes. Analyses with a combined music group ( n = 38), the visual arts group and the control group revealed no significant effects on spatial-navigational reasoning, visual form analysis, numerical discrimination, and receptive vocabulary. Rickard et al. ( 2012 ) [42] failed to find an effect of increased classroom based music education on various cognitive measures. Bugos and Jacobs ( 2012 ) [26] evaluated the effects of a composition program, Composers in Public Schools (CiPS), on cognitive skills among 28 sixth-graders who were assigned to an experimental group ( n = 15), receiving the CiPS program or a control group ( n = 13), not participating in any musical courses. Results showed enhanced performance in arithmetic scores of the WISC-IV for the experimental group compared to the control group. No effect was found for vocabulary performance. Due to a relatively large variation in scores, enhancements for digit coding and symbol search subtests were not significant.

Only one out of the seven studies measuring the effects of music on intelligence, employed an RCT design including an active as well as a passive control group [29], which permits causal inferences to be made. No significant effects were found in that particular study. The two experimental studies reviewed [28] [42] yielded mixed results. While both used randomization [28] [sub experiment 2, 42], only one study, reporting no effect, included an active control group [42]. The remaining four studies, employed a quasi-experimental (longitudinal) design [24] [25] [26] or longitudinal developmental design [35], showed positive or partially positive effects. However, only one out of these four studies used pseudo-randomized group assignment, blinded outcome assessors and included an active control group. Schellenberg ( 2011 ) [24] and Bugos and Jacobs ( 2012 ) [26] both included a passive control group. Neither study matched participants on baseline variables. Despite the large sample size and duration of the study, caution is needed in interpreting findings of Bergman Nutley et al. ( 2014 ) [35], due to attrition and the possible influence of practice effects.

A number of studies looked specifically at aspects of memory with mixed results. Degé et al. ( 2011 ) [31] demonstrated in a non-randomized, longitudinal design that after 2 years of extended music curriculum (ECM) training, short-term visual, and auditory memory scores for 16 9–11 year-old children, attending ECM training, had improved significantly, whereas no such increase was found in 25 children who did not attend ECM training. Roden et al. ( 2012 ) [33] conducted a quasi-experimental study where participants were allocated to a music program, a science program or a control group. Results showed that 25 children (mean age 7.73 years), who took part in a school-based music program, outperformed 25 children receiving extended natural science training and 23 children in a control group receiving no additional training, on verbal memory tasks. The authors failed to show a link between type of program and visual memory. Brodsky and Sulkin ( 2011 ) [1] reported positive effects of classroom handclapping intervention (HCST) on verbal memory. Results of a longitudinal study by Rickard et al. ( 2010 ) [30] showed significant enhancement of verbal learning and immediate verbal recall scores in 82 children (mean age 8.62 years) after ~1 year, but not 2 years after non-random allocation to an increased classroom-based instrumental music training, compared to 68 children (mean age 8.79 years), who did not receive training. In an experimental design, Martens et al. ( 2011 ) [32] focused on the effect of musical experience on verbal memory in 38 individuals with Williams syndrome, aged 6–59 years. Participants who had participated in formal music lessons scored significantly better on a verbal long-term memory task when the stimuli were sung than when they were spoken in comparison to those who did not have formal lessons, showing no benefit for either sung or spoken condition. Short-term memory did not appear to be affected by musical experience.

The five studies reviewed yielded mixed results. One experimental study [32] showed improved performance of participants who had participated in formal music lessons. However, generalizability of findings is low by including only participants with Williams syndrome, making the participants a non-representative sample. The remaining four studies, reporting positive or partially positive results, employed quasi-experimental (longitudinal) designs [1] [30] [31] [33]. However, in none of these four studies, participants were randomized or matched on potentially influencing variables, decreasing validity of findings. Blinded outcome assessors were used in one study [30]. Two out of the four studies included an active control group [1] or both an active and passive control group [33], allowing for a more detailed comparison. Although studies suggest potential benefits, the methodological limitations do not allow clear conclusions to be drawn about the effect of music and the part(s) of memory of which music can have an effect on.

Attention and other EF skills

The impact of music interventions on attention and several executive function skills was reported in seven studies with mixed evidence. One study of 102 7–12 year-olds Khalil et al. ( 2013 ) [37] found that, those, who were able to synchronize to a driving beat (in the context of a music class), were more attentive, showed less ADHD-like behaviors (rated by teachers) and performed better on an attention control task, in comparison to those who were less capable of synchronizing. Positive results have also been shown by Moreno et al. ( 2011a ) [25], who reported enhanced performance on accuracy on a go/no-go task. Using a cross-sectional design, Zuk et al. ( 2014 ) [38] assessed (among other participants) 27 children (mean age 10 years) on a range of EF tasks. Fifteen instrumentally trained children, who started training on average at 5 years and had been studying their instruments on average 5.2 years, demonstrated heightened performance on coding, cognitive flexibility and processing speed tasks in comparison with 12 children without musical training outside the requirements of the general music curriculum in school. In contrast, Roden et al. ( 2014 ) [27], using a quasi-experimental design, investigated, among other skills, the effects of music lessons on processing speed abilities and visual attention in 7–8 year-old children over a period of 18 months. In the study, 345 children were assigned to the music training group ( n = 192) or the natural science training group ( n = 153). Children in the music group showed significant increases in information processing speed from T2 to T3. However, the level of significance was only associated with a small effect size. Although both groups improved their visual attention scores over time, these increases were stronger from T1 to T2 and T2 to T3 in children with natural science training as compared to children with music training. In a quasi-experimental study, Schellenberg ( 2011 ) [24] found that, with the exception of digit span, music training was independent of performance on phonological fluency, inhibition, problem solving, and planning and mental flexibility and rule switching. Bugos and Jacobs ( 2012 ) [26] found no effect of participation in a 4-month composition program on verbal fluency. Using an intervention design, Janus et al. ( 2016 ) [39] pseudo-randomly assigned 57 4–6 year-old children (matched on age and cognitive scores) to a 20-day music training ( n = 28) or conversational French training program ( n = 29) to compare the effects on executive control abilities. The one training-specific outcome found was that children in the French group showed broader improvement in visual search than children in the music program. For verbal fluency, grammatical judgement and visual search, all children performed significantly better after training.

Several studies suggested music training may improve various aspects of working memory. In one quasi-experimental, longitudinal study (Roden et al., 2014 ) [34], examined working memory performance in 25 7–10 year-old children who participated in a classroom-based, extended instrumental music training program and 25 children who participated in an extended science training program. Results showed significant gains in two out of three components of working memory performance in children who followed the music program for one-and-a-half-years in comparison to children who took part in the science training group. Positive associations between musical practice and working memory were also reported by Bergman Nutley et al. ( 2014 ) [35] and Zuk et al. ( 2014 ) [38]. Portowitz et al. ( 2014 ) [36] reported a significant enhancement in working memory scores in 62 9–10 year-old children after a 4-month participation in the (computerized) In Harmony program compared to 22 controls who did not participate in this program. The results of the study of Janus et al. ( 2016 ) [39] showed no effect of a music training program on spatial working memory.

The seven studies reviewed yielded mixed results of the influence of music interventions on attention and other EF skills. Positive correlations were shown by one study [37]. However, correlational studies do not allow for causal inferences. The remaining six studies were quasi-experimental (longitudinal) without randomization [24] [25] [26] [27] [38] [39]. Two of these six studies, reporting positive results, used pseudo random allocation of participants to groups [25] or matched participants on potentially confounding variables [38] but only one included an active control group [25]. Two other studies reported mixed and modest results, respectively [27] [24]. The sample size and the inclusion of an active control group can be considered as strength of one of them [27]. Of the remaining two studies [26] [39], reporting no evidence of beneficial effects of music, only one used blinded outcome assessors, pseudo randomization, and included an active control group [39]. Regarding working memory, there seems to be a hint of a positive influence of music based on the results of five studies [34] [35] [36] [38] [39]. However, studies were quasi-experimental (longitudinal) without randomization [34] [36] [38] [39] or longitudinal developmental [35]. Only three out of the five used pseudo random allocation [39] or matched participants on potentially confounding variables [36] [38]. An active control group was included by two out these five studies [39] [34], reporting no effects and mixed effects, respectively. The three other studies, all reporting positive findings, included a passive control group [36] [38] or compared the participants to themselves [35].

Although part of the evidence points to potential benefits, more research is needed to determine whether music can positively impact these skills.

Academic performance

Studies exploring the effect of music on academic performance were subdivide into four categories: (1) school readiness, (2) classroom behavior and academic skills and (3) language, and (4) mathematics.

School readiness

One study focused, among other skills, on preschool children's school-readiness skills. The results of a quasi-experimental study of Ritblatt et al. ( 2013 ) [4] showed that participation in a music program had a positive effect on promoting a positive approach to learning. No effect was found for promoting academic skills.

Methodological limitations of this study are the lack over control over assignments of participants to conditions and the fact the sample may not be representative of the population as whole (i.c. higher SES and higher educational level), creating threats to validity. Information about the blinding of outcome assessors was not provided. The intervention was provided by trained teachers and parents, whose expectations may have influenced outcomes. Taking the limitations into account and the fact that the findings are based on one study only, accuracy and direction of the results should be interpreted with caution.

Classroom behavior and academic skills

There is no evidence that music can affect classroom behavior and academic skills. Pelham et al. ( 2011 ) [40] followed up 41 boys with ADHD and 26 normal comparison boys, who had never been referred for treatment of behavior problems (mean age 9 years) to examine the effects of music and video on classroom behavior and performance. Three distractor conditions (music, video, no-distractor) were randomly introduced for 24 days, varying on a daily basis (8 days in each distractor condition). Neither boys with ADHD or the control group were significantly distracted by music. Within the ADHD group, there were, however, considerable differences in response to the music such that some were adversely affected and others benefited relative to no-distractor. This study included males only, thereby eliminating a potential source of variability. Except for gender, participants were, however, not matched on any other variable. Outcome assessors were not blinded and the distractor conditions and no-distractor conditions may have been not much different. The accuracy and direction of the results should be interpreted with caution as findings are based on one study only.

Several studies have explored the association between a music intervention or music training and performance on (specific) language skills respectively, with contradictory findings. With regard to first language skills, results of an RCT by Cogo-Moreira et al. ( 2013 ) [21] showed positive growing slopes in Portuguese language in the children who completed a 5-month music education program in comparison to the control children. Findings were in contrast to the results of Yang et al. ( 2014 ) [43] who, using a non-randomized, longitudinal design, examined the relation between long-term music training and, among other skills, academic development of Chinese language among 250 Chinese elementary school students (mean age 78 months). Children who took part in formal music training out of school around the beginning of semester three, were categorized as musician children ( n = 77) whereas the remaining children, who had not received formal music training throughout this study, were categorized as non-musician children ( n = 173). Music training was not related to the enhancement of performance on Chinese language.

Regarding second language abilities, Swaminathan and Gopinath ( 2013 ) [44] explored second-language abilities of musically trained children ( n = 37)(mean age 100.55 months), who reported at least 3 months of music training and speaking a language other than English at home, and untrained children ( n = 39)(mean age 98.89 months) and found that the musically trained children (mean length of training 17.63 months) performed significantly better on the tests of comprehension and vocabulary compared to their untrained counterparts. The advantage persisted even when the trained group only consisted of participants trained in Indian Classical music, indicating that the English L2 advantage was not merely because of an increased opportunity to learn new words from songs as Indian Classical music is written in Indian languages. Positive findings were also reported by Yang et al. ( 2014 ) [43], who found that musician children outperformed non-musician children on second language development.

Two studies [21] [43] reported contradictory results on the potential benefit of music on first language development. However, only findings from Cogo-Moreira et al. ( 2013 ) [21], conducting an RCT, allow for conclusions to be drawn about causality. Although the duration and sample size of Yang et al. ( 2014 ) [43] can be considered as strengths, participants were not randomized and a passive control was included. Another two studies reported positive results on second language development [43] [44]. Both studies made a comparison of the music group with a control group, who had no previous musical training. However, only one study [44] controlled for several baseline variables and used blinded outcome assessors, thereby increasing the validity of their findings.

Mathematics

Four studies have explored the effects of music on mathematics. A longitudinal study of Bergman Nutley et al. ( 2014 ) [35] yielded a positive association between music training (i.e., the number of hours per week of practice on instruments played) and performance on mathematics. Cogo-Moreira et al. ( 2013 ) [21] also observed positive growing slopes in math grades. In Yang et al's ( 2014 ) [43] study, however, music training was not related to performance on mathematics. Courey et al. ( 2012 ) [41] examined the efficacy of a music intervention aimed to teach fractions to third graders using a quasi-experimental design. Sixty-seven 8–11 year-olds were assigned by class to either a 6-week academic music intervention, administered during regularly scheduled mathematics instruction, or continued their regular mathematics instruction with their classroom teacher. The experimental group outperformed the comparison group on music notation knowledge and the mathematical fraction completion test (i.e., not previously introduced and improper fractions). No significant group differences were found on the mathematical fraction concept test.

The four studies reviewed yielded mixed results. One RCT [21] reported positive results. The remaining three studies were (longitudinal) quasi-experimental without randomization [41] [43] and longitudinal developmental [35]. Of these three studies, one found a positive association [35], one found partial positive results [41], and one found no relation [43]. Only one of these three studies included an active control group [41]. The duration and sample sizes of two out of these three studies can be considered as strengths [43] [35]. Although possible causal relations could be tested more easily, caution is needed in interpreting findings of Bergman Nutley et al. ( 2014 ) [35], due to attrition and possible practice effects.

Other, non-musical, related skills

Two studies were identified that examined the effects of music on other, specific skills. Slater et al. ( 2015 ) [46] conducted a controlled, longitudinal study to investigate the effect of music training on speech in noise perception in 38 eight year-old children, randomly assigned to the music training program ( n = 19) or the wait-list control group ( n = 19). The authors reported a significant improvement of hearing in noise after 2 years of music training (Slater et al., 2015 ). Another longitudinal study of François et al. ( 2013 ) [45] tracked 24 eight year-old children after they were pseudo-randomly assigned to either a music training program or a painting program. They found that performance on both behavioral and electrophysiological measures of speech segmentation (i.e., the ability to extract meaningless words from a continuous flow of non-sense syllables) steadily increased across the testing sessions for the music group compared to the painting group.

Both studies, reporting positive results, employed a 2-year, longitudinal design and used valid (computer) measures to evaluate the performance of participants. Randomization, thereby reducing the risk of sampling bias, was used only in one study [46]. Information about the blinding of outcome assessors was not reported and only one out of the two studies employed an active control group [45]. Although sample sizes can be considered small, thereby limiting the external validity of findings, both studies propose an interesting direction for further research.

This review analyzed the evidence of 46 studies, dealing with five developmental domains, including the motor, social, cognitive, language, and academic domain.

With regard to the motor domain, the two studies identified suggested a positive influence of music interventions on specific motor skills (eye-hand motor sequences, discrete and continuous movements) [1] [2]. Due to the quasi-experimental design of the studies, the limited sample of participants and the inclusion of an active control group in one sub-experiment of one study only [1], clear conclusions cannot be drawn.

It cannot be concluded whether music interventions can positively influence social and emotional development as results of the nine studies reviewed [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [42] are inconclusive. The findings of two experimental studies [3] [6] suggest a beneficial impact of music interventions on empathy and spontaneous cooperative and helpful behavior. The merging of the active and passive control group into one control group and the small sample size in one of the two studies, should, however, be taken into consideration. Positive findings of another study [7] turned out to be related to the level of cognitive functioning of participants in the music group. Caution is needed in drawing conclusions from the partially positive findings of Ritblatt et al. ( 2013 ) [4] and Schellenberg et al. ( 2015 ) [5] due to the design used [5] and the representativeness of the sample [4]. Two other experimental studies [8] [42] found modest effects and no effects, respectively, on social skills and self-esteem.

Regarding the language domain, 15 studies evaluating the impact of music interventions on phonological awareness and auditory processing and reading skills [12] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [22] [23] [35], and no clear conclusions can be drawn in this area. The results of two randomized controlled trials are inconclusive. The results of four experimental studies with (stratified) randomization [13] [11] [20] [23] suggested beneficial effects of music interventions on reading skills [20] [23], however, not on phonological skills [11] [13]. Of these four studies, two included both an active and a passive control group [13] [23], allowing for a more comprehensive comparison. Of the remaining six studies, quasi-experimental (longitudinal) without randomization [10] [14] [16] [18] [22] and developmental longitudinal [35] in nature, three point to the beneficial effects of music [16] [18] [22]. The other three studies, including an active [10] or both an active and passive control group [14] or comparing participants to themselves [35], found no impact of music interventions.

With regard to the cognitive domain, seven studies reviewed provided insufficient information whether music can have a positive effect on intelligence. The results of an RCT [21] showed no effects and two experimental studies, only one of them including an active control group, yielded mixed results [30] [42]. Evidence of three quasi-experimental (longitudinal) studies [24] [25] [26] and longitudinal developmental study suggest a (partially) positive influence of music. However, an active control group was included in just one of these three studies [25]. Evidence of five (quasi-) experimental longitudinal studies seem to suggest potential benefits of music on memory. However, due to lowering generalizability of findings on one study [32], by including participants with Williams syndrome only, and methodological limitations of the other four studies (i.e., no randomization [1] [30] [31] [33] and/or no inclusion of an active control group [30] [31]), clear conclusions cannot be made. Among the six quasi-experimental studies exploring the potential influence of music on attention and EF skills, only two studies [25] [38] reported positive results. An additional five studies on working memory also seemed to suggest a positive influence. Whether or not an active control was included, the lack of randomization and the fact that working memory, attention and EF skills are difficult concepts to define, may have influenced the results obtained.

Regarding academic performance, research suggests some possible beneficial effects of music, although precise conclusions cannot be reached on the basis of reviewed studies. It cannot be concluded whether participation in a music program had a positive effect on promoting a positive approach due to the lack of randomization, the representativeness of the sample, the potential influence of parental and teacher expectations and the fact that the findings are based one study only [4]. The studies evaluating the impact of music interventions on first and second language development showed mixed findings. Regarding first language development, an RCT showed a positive effect, whereas a longitudinal study of Yang et al. ( 2014 ) reported no effects. Another two quasi-experimental studies showed improvement in second language performance [43] [44]. However, both studies included a passive control group. Of the four studies exploring the influence of music interventions on mathematics, one RCT reported positive effects [21]. Caution is needed in making causal inferences on the three remaining studies [41] [43] [35] due to the design used, the absence of randomization [41] [43] and, with regard to the study of Bergman Nutley et al. ( 2014 ) [35], attrition rate and possible practice effects. Evidence from the studies regarding the effectiveness of music on language and mathematics are reviewed separately. One can question whether there is a legitimate distinction between the two domains, as research suggest partial overlap between neural regions associated with language and arithmetic (Baldo and Dronkers, 2007 ; Cummine et al., 2014 ).

Five studies used a correlational design [9] [12] [15] [19] [37], reporting (partially) positive correlations between duration of music intervention and performance on reading and phonological awareness tasks, attention behavior, and self-esteem. Although correlational studies can provide an indication of a possible association between musical training and functioning domains, they do not allow for causal inferences.

The tool used for the methodological quality assessment allowed scoring between zero and five only. This makes a cut-off point difficult to determine. Although all domains included studies with lower quality scoring (two or less), these were more frequently found in the social and cognitive domain. This, however, does not mean that the results of these studies are invalid, but rather gives a direct for reading and interpreting them. The lower score of the study could often be explained by either unbalanced baseline characteristics, absence of randomization or missing information about blinding of outcome assessors or attrition rate. When analyzing the outcomes of the quality screening, one should take into consideration that it can be assessed with a broad range of tools. Upon applying the chosen tool, it was found that some of the items were difficult to relate to the studies at hand, but were more suitable for classical medical trials. Several criteria (including concealment of allocation and intention to treat) were negatively assessed in almost all studies, as they were not designed for the specifics of educational studies, where often it is impossible to ensure the rigid methodological quality: i.e., create double blind randomized trials.

When assessing the quality of the studied, there are several considerations regarding study design, music interventions, and the role of the teacher. In reporting on the participants, we found that little is mentioned about the intrinsic motivation of participants in the context of the intervention. As intrinsic motivation is associated with initiation and persistence of activities, level of effort and improved performance (Patall et al., 2008 ), gaining insight into the motivation of participants is important to be able to determine its impact on outcome measures. In some studies, interventions were partially provided by the authors themselves [1] [3] [6] [10] [22] [28] [36], or by parents and teachers [4]. As their expectations can have an effect on the performance of participants (the “Rosenthal effect”), one needs to be aware that observer bias rather than the intervention could cause the observed changes. Results of several studies might also have been affected by the “Hawthorne effect” i.e., a tendency of participants to alter their behavior because they are aware that they are studied. This effect cannot be ruled out or confirmed for diverse studies after screening.

Most of the study designs consisted of quasi-experimental and longitudinal designs and three studies were a RCTs. An RCT is considered as providing the strongest evidence of determining whether a cause-effect relationship exists between an intervention and outcomes (Sibbald and Roland, 1998 ) as assessment bias and confounding are minimalized. However, some research questions and settings don't permit random assignment of participants and questions may arise about the sample being representative enough of the population and the generalizability of findings to the field. As it is important to consider evidence from other methodologies as well to better understand the potential of music interventions in practice, only an RCT allows the observed effects to be causally attributed to differences between the intervention and the control group(s).

In reviewed studies, active and/or passive control groups were included in evaluating the effectiveness of a music intervention. Although showing whether participants benefit from an intervention compared to participants not receiving the intervention, passive control groups do not allow to test for intervention specific effects (Strobach and Karbach, 2016 ). Inclusion of an active control group, engaging participants in some training and activities during the intervention, can provide evidence as to whether an intervention is relatively more efficient than participating in another program (Karlsson and Bergmark, 2015 ), provided that the intervention and control group are matched on possible influencing factors and perform the same tasks.

Regarding the music interventions, studies were not uniform in their conceptualization of these music interventions. Some were very broadly defined and included listening, singing, instrumental playing, performing, movement, and musical creativity. While others, especially focused on the acquisition of non-musical skills, were more precisely defined and designed. Differences in musical content deserve attention in likely contributing to the outcomes of music interventions. Interventions in groups may have additional benefits of social interaction and motivation above the intervention itself compared to individual interventions which could have played a role in its final outcomes. In this review, the role of the teacher also emerged as a significant issue. 18 of the included studies employed (professional) music teachers and 16 reported at least partly positive outcomes. Teaching music requires many competencies. Strong teaching skills without musical skills and knowledge is not sufficient and vice versa. Research points not only to musical content knowledge, but also to pedagogical content knowledge and non-pedagogical professional knowledge (Ballantyne and Packer, 2004 ). By the way they teach, they play an important role in the teacher-child relationship which may have in turn implications for children's behavioral and academic adjustment (Furrer and Skinner, 2003 ). Therefore, teachers may also be an important factor in the context in which the effectiveness of music interventions is researched.

Another point of attention when describing the effects of music interventions on the development of children is the methodological accuracy and variety of different approaches the researchers took in their studies. Being the most powerful research design for evaluating interventions, further RCTs are needed to determine whether music interventions are effective in stimulating development in children. However, particularly in the domain of music interventions in schools, some requirements such as blinding, randomization, and controlling for potential sources of variability are often difficult if not impossible to achieve and RCTs may create an artificial situation in which findings may not always be applied to everyday practice. While we acknowledge the need for high-quality research methodology, it is important to find a balance between the externally imposed methodological standards and the drive to investigate a said phenomenon in its natural environment. As qualitative research can provide more insight into the characteristics of the intervention and can generate potential hypotheses for quantitative research, combining qualitative and quantitative research can give more comprehensive and integrated insights in potential effects of music interventions.

In conclusion, although the underlying mechanisms are not always clear, evidence of reviewed studies seems suggestive of some beneficial effects. Having a clearer view of effects and possible influencing factors may pave the way for further research on the influence of music on the developing child.

Author contributions

ED the main author and executor of the research and participated in data collection and analysis as well as article writing process. ES was a second reviewer of the selected articles, contributed to development of methodology, data extraction, and analyses as well as final comments on the article writing. FF and SvH contributed to the idea of the development of the article as well as development of the research methodology and provided feedback during the article writing stage.

Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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111 Music Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

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Music is a universal language that has the power to evoke emotions, inspire creativity, and connect people from all walks of life. Whether you are a music student looking for essay topics, or simply someone who is passionate about music and wants to explore different aspects of it, we have compiled a list of 111 music essay topic ideas and examples to help you get started.

• The evolution of hip hop music in American culture
• The impact of technology on the music industry
• The influence of classical music on modern compositions
• The role of music in shaping identity and cultural heritage
• The psychology of music and its effects on the brain
• The power of protest music in social movements
• The significance of music festivals in contemporary society
• The role of music therapy in mental health treatment
• The representation of gender and sexuality in popular music
• The history and impact of rock and roll music
• The intersection of music and fashion in pop culture
• The globalization of music and its implications on cultural exchange
• The role of music education in fostering creativity and critical thinking
• The impact of social media on music promotion and distribution
• The relationship between music and politics in the 21st century
• The evolution of music genres over the decades
• The influence of African music on Western popular music
• The role of music in film and television soundtracks
• The impact of streaming services on the music industry
• The representation of race and ethnicity in music videos
• The role of music in religious and spiritual practices
• The history of music censorship and its implications on freedom of expression
• The impact of music on memory and cognitive function
• The representation of mental health issues in music lyrics
• The role of music in promoting social justice and equality
• The impact of music on consumer behavior and marketing strategies
• The influence of technology on music production and composition
• The relationship between music and dance in different cultures
• The impact of music on emotions and mood regulation
• The significance of live music performances in the digital age
• The role of music in creating a sense of community and belonging
• The representation of gender stereotypes in music lyrics
• The influence of music on language development and communication skills
• The impact of music on physical health and well-being
• The role of music in expressing and processing emotions
• The portrayal of love and relationships in music lyrics
• The influence of music on fashion trends and style
• The impact of music on social behavior and interpersonal relationships
• The significance of music in rituals and ceremonies
• The role of music in shaping national identity and patriotism
• The representation of violence and conflict in music lyrics
• The influence of music on memory and learning abilities
• The impact of music on mood regulation and stress management
• The role of music in promoting environmental awareness and sustainability
• The portrayal of social issues and injustices in music lyrics
• The influence of music on political activism and social movements
• The significance of music in cultural celebrations and traditions
• The role of music in fostering empathy and compassion
• The representation of mental health struggles in music lyrics
• The influence of music on consumer behavior and purchasing decisions
• The role of music in promoting diversity and inclusivity
• The portrayal of love and relationships in music videos
• The impact of music on cognitive development and problem-solving skills
• The significance of music in personal growth and self-discovery
• The role of music in promoting peace and reconciliation
• The representation of gender roles and stereotypes in music videos
• The influence of music on memory retention and recall
• The impact of music on emotional intelligence and social skills
• The role of music in promoting cultural exchange and understanding
• The portrayal of mental health issues in music videos
• The influence of music on physical coordination and motor skills
• The significance of music in spiritual practices and rituals
• The role of music in fostering creativity and innovation
• The representation of social injustices and inequalities in music lyrics
• The impact of music on mood regulation and emotional well-being
• The influence of music on decision-making and problem-solving abilities
• The role of music in promoting social cohesion and unity
• The portrayal of addiction and substance abuse in music videos
• The significance of music in fostering empathy and compassion
• The role of music in promoting mental health and well-being
• The impact of music on physical health and stress management
• The representation of social issues and injustices in music videos
• The significance of music in fostering creativity and innovation
• The portrayal of mental health struggles in music lyrics
• The impact of music on memory retention and recall

These are just a few examples of the countless music essay topics that you can explore. Whether you are interested in the history of music, its cultural significance, its impact on society, or its psychological effects, there is a wide range of topics to choose from. So pick a topic that resonates with you, conduct thorough research, and let your passion for music shine through in your writing. Happy writing!

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Where did Travis Scott go to college? Rapper's essay on GOOD Music goes viral online

A merican rapper, singer, songwriter, and record producer Travis Scott recently began trending on social media after his 2009 college essay surfaced online. The now-viral essay was about Kanye West's record label, G.O.O.D Music, and the hip-hop artists associated with it, including Kid Cudi, Big Sean, and Ye himself.

"Good music is known all around the world. Rappers such as Big Sean and Kid Cudi are well-known rappers that had similar lifestyles but different messages. What they have in common carried them to an opportunity to get sign to a multi-million dollar music label called G.O.O.D MUSIC," Travis Scott wrote.

Travis Scott attended the University of Texas at San Antonio but dropped out during his sophomore year to pursue a career in music by moving to New York. He wrote this four-page essay in December 2009, seemingly to his English teacher. The essay carried his real name, Jacques Webster, alongside that of a fellow student named Martha Smith.

Travis Scott's college essay sketches career details of Kid Cudi and Big Sean

Travis Scott's 2009 college essay was recently leaked on social media, which has garnered enough traction. It narrates the story of Kid Cudi and Big Sean's different upbringings and how their mutual love for music got them together.

He talked about how the rappers established a career in the hip-hop industry with the help of Kanye West and his record label, G.O.O.D Music, which was founded in 2004. In the very first paragraph of his essay, Travis Scott wrote:

"Both of these rappers had enough courage to step to the famous Kanye West and rap there heart which lead them to instant success. Even though these two moguls are sign to the same label and are part of the same music family there styles and there background are different but they were brought together by a beautiful sound we call music."

Travis Scott then sketched the background of Kid Cudi as a half-Mexican and half-African American kid who grew up in Cleveland, Ohio, in a middle-class family. He narrated how Kid Cudi's father's death had a "significant effect on his personality and subsequently his music."

"Cudi turn his music in to a way of venting," Scott added.

The Utopia rapper continued by writing about how Kid Cudi began rapping as a high school senior, was influenced by alternative hip-hop groups including The Pharcyde and A Tribe Called Quest, and later dropped out of college to pursue music.

Scott then moved on to Big Sean. He explained that the latter was raised by a single mother in Detroit, Michigan, and Big Sean's grandparents "instilled in him hard work and determination" that helped him gain success eventually.

La Flame added that Big Sean began rapping as a high school junior with his friends Charles and Anthony until he was taken onboard by a local radio station, 102.7 FM.

"He would show his rhyming skills on a weekly basis as part of a rap battle contest the station held on a regular basis. Sean was always inspired to be a rapper he never knew how to go out and find a way to get out and go after his dream," Scott wrote.

Travis followed up by writing about Kid Cudi and Big Sean's first meeting with Kanye West. He mentioned how the former met Ye at a Brooklyn clothing store where he worked and asked West for an opportunity.

The Rodeo rapper talked about Kid Cudi's breakthrough following the release of his debut mixtape, A Kid Named Cudi, and how his 2009 single, Day ‘n' Nite, charted him at the top of the Billboard Hot 100 and Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs lists.

Likewise, Travis Scott mentioned how Big Sean met Kanye at the 102.7 FM radio station and "left him impressed" with his rhyming skills, demo tape, and freestyling. However, it was after another two years that Sean was signed by Ye on his G.O.O.D Music label.

The Cactus Jack label founder wrapped up his college essay by stating how people create their own opportunities in life rather than waiting for them, just like Kid Cudi and Big Sean did by directly approaching West with their music and eventually getting signed and recognized by him.

"Success is not something that is giving out you must go out and take what you want. Kid Cudi and Big Sean are two complete opposite people but they are both brought together by music," Scott wrote in the last paragraph.

In his conclusion, the now-33-year-old claimed that the message people should take from the two rappers was that dreaming was not enough; one should pursue their dreams until they become realities, despite all the "obstacles" that they might encounter.

Erik Erikson’s Theory: Understanding Human Development

This essay is about Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, which outlines eight stages of human growth from infancy to old age. Each stage presents a central conflict that must be resolved for healthy psychological development. The stages include “Trust vs. Mistrust” in infancy, “Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt” in early childhood, “Initiative vs. Guilt” in preschool years, “Industry vs. Inferiority” in school-age children, “Identity vs. Role Confusion” in adolescence, “Intimacy vs. Isolation” in young adulthood, “Generativity vs. Stagnation” in middle adulthood, and “Integrity vs. Despair” in late adulthood. The theory emphasizes the importance of social relationships and personal growth in shaping one’s identity and highlights the continuous nature of development throughout life.

How it works

Erik Erikson’s paradigm concerning psychosocial evolution stands as a fundamental pillar in comprehending human maturation and identity formation. Unlike certain psychological doctrines fixated solely on childhood, Erikson’s construct envelops the entirety of the human lifespan, positing that individuals persistently evolve and confront novel challenges from infancy to senescence. Each of his eight delineated stages encapsulates a pivotal dichotomy or quandary imperative for nurturing robust psychological development.

The inaugural stage, denoted as “Trust versus Mistrust,” transpires from birth to approximately 18 months.

During this epoch, neonates depend entirely on their caregivers. Should their requisites for sustenance, solace, and sanctuary be consistently gratified, they cultivate a rudimentary faith in their milieu and its denizens. This bedrock of trust assumes paramount importance as it underpins all subsequent interpersonal relationships. Conversely, should caregivers prove erratic, remiss, or excessively severe, infants might harbor mistrust, perceiving the world as capricious and perilous.

From roughly 18 months to three years, progeny ingress the “Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt” juncture. Herein, toddlers commence asserting their autonomy by exploring their surroundings and executing rudimentary decisions, such as attire selection or dietary preferences. Successful negotiation of this phase engenders a sense of self-governance and certitude. However, excessive parental strictness or disparagement may instill sentiments of shame and dubiety concerning their capabilities. Caregivers must delicately navigate this milieu, fostering independence whilst imposing judicious limits.

Succeeding this phase is the “Initiative versus Guilt” interlude, spanning ages three to five. At this juncture, children embark on instigating activities, concocting schemes, and undertaking novel challenges. Encouragement of their endeavors nurtures a sense of purpose and self-assurance. Conversely, dismissal or censure of their endeavors might inculcate feelings of culpability regarding their aspirations and aspirations. This stage represents a crucible for cultivating leadership and decision-making acumen.

Subsequently, offspring segue into the “Industry versus Inferiority” domain, spanning ages six to eleven. This epoch is characterized by a preoccupation with scholastic pursuits and peer interactions. Triumph in academic and communal endeavors begets a sense of industry, signifying a perception of competence and proficiency. Conversely, failure or recurrent adverse feedback may engender sentiments of inferiority and self-doubt. This phase accentuates the susceptibility of children’s self-esteem, necessitating nurturing environments conducive to their advancement.

Adolescence, approximating ages 12 to 18, precipitates the “Identity versus Role Confusion” phase. Herein, adolescents traverse the labyrinth of assorted roles, convictions, and ideologies in their quest to forge a personal identity. This juncture assumes seminal import in delineating a stable self-concept. Triumph begets a robust sense of identity and trajectory, while adversity yields role perplexity and vacillation regarding one’s niche in the world. It signifies an epoch of experimentation wherein familial and communal support proves invaluable in navigating this labyrinthine period.

Emerging adulthood, spanning approximately 18 to 40 years, is distinguished by the “Intimacy versus Isolation” phase. At this nexus, individuals aspire towards fostering intimate bonds and profound affiliations with their peers. Success in this endeavor augurs robust, supportive relationships, whilst failure portends solitude and isolation. This juncture underscores the criticality of cultivating intimate friendships and romantic entanglements for emotional well-being.

Middle adulthood, encompassing the age spectrum from about 40 to 65 years, engenders the “Generativity versus Stagnation” phase. During this interval, individuals pivot towards contributing to society and nurturing subsequent generations. This may be realized through parenthood, professional pursuits, and civic engagement. Generativity begets a sense of purpose and fulfillment, whereas stagnation ensues from lack of engagement and productivity, engendering feelings of discontent. This phase underscores the import of involvement in endeavors transcending personal gratification.

The denouement is epitomized by the “Integrity versus Despair” stage, manifesting in late adulthood, from approximately 65 years onward. As individuals reflect upon their life trajectory, they endeavor to distill meaning and coherence from their lived experiences. Those contented with their accomplishments and life choices attain a sense of integrity. Conversely, those burdened by remorse or a perception of squandered opportunities may befall despair and despondency. This phase underscores the import of retrospection suffused with contentment and acquiescence.

Erikson’s paradigm underscores the interconnectivity of these stages, with each stage serving as a scaffold for the subsequent one. Successful resolution of the quandaries attendant to each stage engenders the gestation of a robust, well-adjusted persona. Conversely, travails or failings in negotiating these quandaries may engender impediments in subsequent stages. This cumulative cascade underscores the import of addressing and buttressing each developmental epoch.

One of the salient virtues of Erikson’s paradigm is its universal applicability across diverse cultural and contextual milieus. Whilst the specific tribulations and societal expectations may fluctuate, the foundational dichotomies and developmental imperatives remain germane. This ubiquity endows the paradigm with invaluable utility in unraveling human comportment and evolution across variegated populations.

In the annals of contemporary psychology, Erikson’s paradigm remains a lodestar in developmental psychology. It furnishes an exhaustive framework for scrutinizing the interplay between individual maturation and societal influences. By discerning the pivotal stages of evolution and the import of resolving seminal quandaries, Erikson’s schema proffers insights into the factors undergirding robust development and the impediments militating against it.

Furthermore, Erikson’s oeuvre underscores the import of social affiliations in evolution. From the foundation of trust fostered with caregivers in infancy to the generative contributions tendered in middle adulthood, Erikson’s stages accentuate how our interactions and affiliations sculpt our psychological gestation. These affiliations furnish the succor and feedback imperative for traversing life’s vicissitudes successfully.

In summation, Erik Erikson’s paradigm of psychosocial development proffers profound insights into the vicissitudes of individual evolution and adaptation across the lifespan. It accentuates the import of social affiliations and personal evolution in shaping one’s identity, underscoring the continuous trajectory of evolution. As we navigate the labyrinthine vicissitudes of existence, Erikson’s stages serve as a poignant reminder of the import of addressing our psychological exigencies and nurturing supportive environs to actualize our latent potential. His paradigm remains an indispensable framework for unraveling the dynamic process of human evolution and the lifelong odyssey of personal development.

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Erik Erikson's Theory: Understanding Human Development. (2024, May 28). Retrieved from https://papersowl.com/examples/erik-eriksons-theory-understanding-human-development/

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PapersOwl.com. (2024). Erik Erikson's Theory: Understanding Human Development . [Online]. Available at: https://papersowl.com/examples/erik-eriksons-theory-understanding-human-development/ [Accessed: 29 May. 2024]

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Guest Essay

How to Make Room for One Million New Yorkers

By Vishaan Chakrabarti

Vishaan Chakrabarti is the founder of Practice for Architecture and Urbanism, a New York City architecture firm, and the former director of planning for Manhattan.

New York City doesn’t have enough homes. The average New Yorker now spends 34 percent of pre-tax income on rent, up from just 20 percent in 1965. There are many reasons homes in the city are so expensive, but at the root of it all, even after the pandemic, is supply and demand: Insufficient housing in our desirable city means more competition — and therefore sky-high prices — for the few new homes that trickle onto the market.

Some New Yorkers harbor fantasies that instead of building more, we can meet our housing needs through more rent control, against the advice of most economists , or by banning pieds-à-terre or by converting all vacant office towers into residential buildings, despite the expense and complexity . Given the enormity of the crisis, such measures would all be drops in the bucket, leading many to worry that if we were to actually build the hundreds of thousands of homes New Yorkers need, we would end up transforming the city into an unrecognizable forest of skyscrapers.

This resistance to change is more than just the usual grumbling from opinionated New Yorkers; it has become a significant obstacle, and it threatens to stifle the vitality of this great city. As Binyamin Appelbaum of The Times argues in his analysis of New York’s housing crisis: “New York is not a great city because of its buildings. It is a great city because it provides people with the opportunity to build better lives.”

I Want a City, Not a Museum

New York’s layers of laws to protect existing buildings has led to a shortage of housing.

By Binyamin Appelbaum

To do that, New York needs to build more housing, and it can. New York could add dwellings for well over a million people — homes most New Yorkers could afford — without substantially changing the look and feel of the city.

My architecture firm, Practice for Architecture and Urbanism, previously worked with Times Opinion to imagine the future of the city’s rail infrastructure and streets . This time, we took a fresh look at housing.

We found a way to add more than 500,000 homes — enough to house more than 1.3 million New Yorkers — without radically changing the character of the city’s neighborhoods or altering its historic districts.

Here’s how we got to 500,000 housing units — the same number that the mayor has called a “moonshot goal.”

Apartments near public transit are convenient for residents and better for the environment, so we started by looking at areas within a half-mile of train stations and ferry terminals.

Next, we excluded parts of the city that might be at risk of flooding in the future.

In the remaining areas, we identified more than 1,700 acres of underutilized land: vacant lots, single-story retail buildings, parking lots and office buildings that could be converted to apartments.

For each lot, we calculated how much housing we could add without building any higher than nearby structures.

Take this single-story grocery store in the Crown Heights neighborhood of Brooklyn.

A mid-rise apartment complex built above a replacement grocery store could create 58 new housing units. The resulting structure wouldn't be any taller than the apartment complex next to it.

We also identified sites that could support smaller developments, like this vacant lot on the northern edge of the Bronx.

Low-rise apartment buildings house many more people than single-family homes. If designed thoughtfully, they could become just as much a part of the urban fabric as the city's brownstones.

This single-story store in Flushing, Queens, is just minutes away from a subway stop on a line that runs straight to Midtown Manhattan. It’s a prime example of underutilized land.

Matching the density of surrounding buildings, a high-rise built above new retail spaces could create 242 apartments.

Last, we considered office buildings that could be converted to apartments.

Office building conversions can require a tremendous amount of construction. But we should consider any reasonable proposal to house more New Yorkers.

The hypothetical buildings in our analysis would add 520,245 homes for New Yorkers. With that many new housing units, more than a million New Yorkers would have a roof over their head that they could afford, near transit and away from flood zones, all while maintaining the look and feel of the city.

Of course, adding apartment buildings would place more demand on our subways and schools in some neighborhoods. But the construction of over 520,000 homes would stimulate our economy; add people to our sidewalks, making them safer; and make the city more accessible to middle-class families — who are essential to the long-term health and prosperity of New York.

How to add 520,245 housing units to N.Y.C.

conversions

Getting to 500,000

How many housing units our proposed buildings would add.

Office conversions

Mid-rises wouldn’t feel out of place

in many parts of the Bronx and Queens.

Almost all of the office conversions

we’re proposing are in Manhattan.

Residents of high-rises along Atlantic Avenue could easily take the subway to work.

Low-rises near the

Staten Island Railway

could house thousands

more New Yorkers.

Several political, legal and economic impediments stand in the way of addressing New York City’s housing crisis. Mayor Eric Adams and Gov. Kathy Hochul have proposed ambitious plans to build hundreds of thousands of new housing units, but they have faced stiff opposition. Our City Council and State Legislature need to support a significant expansion of housing supply for the city or otherwise answer for our housing and homelessness crisis.

There are many reasons it is so difficult to build new housing in New York City — including zoning, the under-taxation of vacant and underutilized land, the continuing rise of construction costs, the elimination of important tax incentives, and intense and often misguided anti-development sentiments. These challenges can and should be addressed. But please, don’t let people tell you we can’t build the homes New Yorkers need because we’ve run out of room or because it would ruin the city’s character. We are, in fact, a very big apple.

Methodology

We identified underutilized lots using the Department of City Planning’s PLUTO dataset. Transit stations include stops for the subway, ferry, Long Island Rail Road and Metro-North train lines. For the flood risk analysis, we used the NYC Flood Hazard Mapper’s 0.2 percent annual chance floodplain for 2100.

Contiguous lots facing the same street were merged to maximize hypothetical development potential; small and irregular lots were excluded from the analysis. Maximum building heights were determined by looking at buildings in an 800-foot radius from sites on local streets or quarter-mile radius for sites on more heavily trafficked thoroughfares, as defined by the city’s LION street database.

For low- , mid- and high-rises, we calculated the number of units in each proposed building using the following assumptions: We allocated 37 percent to 45 percent of each lot to open space, and then multiplied the remaining lot area by the number of stories allowed as determined above to calculate the amount of buildable area. Of that total buildable area, we allotted 15 percent to hallways, lobbies and mechanical spaces; we divided the remaining residential space by an average unit size of 750 square feet to determine the number of units.

To identify offices that could be converted to apartments, we created a list of larger, older offices that were built between 1950 and 1990 and have not been altered since 2003. We excluded offices that are publicly owned or have architectural or historical significance. To estimate the number of units in the proposed conversions, we allocated 40 percent of each building to hallways, lobbies and mechanical spaces.

To calculate how many people could live in the proposed housing, we used a rate of 2.56 people per housing unit, based on statistics for New York City from the U.S. Census Bureau.

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