loss of biodiversity research paper

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LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY: THE BURGEONING THREAT TO HUMAN HEALTH

"We are losing biodiversity globally at an alarming rate, and we need a cornucopia of different plants and animals, for the planet's health and our own." 1 Daine Ackerman American poet (1948- )

INTRODUCTION

One of the greatest attributes of the Earth is the biodiversity of her ecosystem. The Convention on Biological Diversity (Article 2) defined biological diversity or biodiversity" as the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems" . 2 This is a reflection of the more than 9 million types of living thing which include fungi, bacteria, plants, animals, protists that co-inhabit the Earth with human beings and serves as the bases of the diverse array of organismal, genetic and ecological diversity obtainable on Earth. 3 The complex interplay between this rich array of Earth's inhabitants underpins the proper functioning of the Earth's ecosystem. However, the last few decades, have witnessed a rapid disruption and loss of this rich biodiversity in terms of numbers and variability. Human beings are relentless than ever in eliminating genes, species, and biological traits that constitute the biodiversity via her disruptive activities on the Earth ecosystem.

Effects of biodiversity loss

The pressure from agriculture requirement for crop & animal husbandry has made humanity to convert wetlands, forest, and grassland into farmlands and grazing land, among others. Furthermore, the increasing world human population, which has doubled between 1970 and now to more than 7 billion is the other edge of the sword aggravating the global loss of biodiversity. On the other side are factors are exploitation of mineral resources, pollution, the introduction of exotic species & genetically modified organisms, climate changes and alteration and loss habitats which are all connected with human efforts to care for the growing habitats of the Earth.

Every year, at least a species goes into extinction while many species of plants and animals face extinction across the world according to the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services Report (2019). 4

Sadly, most of the global loss of biodiversity occurs in the Developing World, Nigeria inclusive. 5 Furthermore, the critical 25 hotspots of the global loss of biodiversity include areas spanning the rain forest belt of southern Nigeria although the enormous swathe of territory includes the Tropical Andes in South America and Indo-Burma areas in South East Asia. These hotspots are home to a considerable proportion of Earth's species of plants and animals. The Amazon in the Tropical Andes alone harbours 50,000 species or one-sixth of the Earth's total. 6 Generally, known species are going extinct, 1000 times more than newly discovered ones. 7

The history of medicine and the development of the rich armament of pharmacopoeia to combat diseases are traceable to a great deal to derivatives from flora and fauna whether aquatic or terrestrial in origin that are available across the world from ancient time to the present time. This product includes the ubiquitous aspirin derived from the bark of the willow tree Salix alba , which is no more a mere analgesic rather a useful drug in cardiovascular and haematologic disorders treatment. 8 Digoxin, a great drug in managing heart failure is derived from Foxglove Digitalis purpurea L . 8 Drugs such as quinine derived from Cinchona succirubra , and Artemisin based compounds are made from Artemisia annua and have help combat malaria at various times are derived from plant products. 8 While penicillin derived from Penicillium notatum may not be prominent antibiotics in the last 20 years, the subsequent and related products such as Erythromycin are derived from a microorganism. 8 Other great products that have saved many lives include antimitotic agents such as Doxorubicin from Torreya taxifolia and paclitaxel derived from Pacific Yew Taxus brevifolia . The list of products that have been derived from flora and fauna to help combat human disease is endless.

It is interesting to note that only an estimated 10% of the diverse species on Earth have been exploited to combat diseases while a little over 12.5% of the approximately 250 000 species of higher plants have been exploited in the same line. 9 On the other side, only about 1 % of microbial species on Earth are known. 9 , 10

No doubt, the loss of biodiversity does not only threaten new drug discovery especially in the light of emerging and reemerging diseases, but it also threatens the ability to discover a more effective therapy for the burgeoning non-communicable diseases, hence man's quest to stem the tide of this increasing global burden.

Equally threatened is the accessibility to clean fresh water and good quality air. 8 The air and water are greatly more polluted than ever due to human industrial activities, while the purifying capacity of the ecosystem is being lost. 2

Food production is being affected, thereby endangering the nutritional status of the world population, especially in regions where the poorest habit. The economic activities of natural pollinators, e.g. bees which aids our plants to fruits are estimated at approximately $550billion. 11 The aquatic species are being depleted. Fisheries currently provide 16% of the global protein source. The wild flora and fauna could mean alternative access to the nutritious source to the aforementioned is being wiped out.

While the biodiversity is contracting, there is a great danger of emerging and reemerging of infectious agents which threatens global health. The incidence of Lyme disease or West Nile virus (WNV) in humans have been linked to the loss of biodiversity among the animal host. 12

While the loss of biological biodiversity appears to affect significantly human health, it has also been opined to be a significant threat to the attainment of sustainable development goals which is the blueprint for achieving a better and more sustainable future for all. 13 Currently it threatens the goal 1; to reduce poverty, Goal 2; zero hunger, Goal 3; good health & well-being and goal 6; clean water and sanitation, Goal 11; sustainable cities and communities, Goal 13; Climate Action, Goal 14; Life Below Water and Goal 15; life on land. 14

RECOMMENDATIONS

While it may be easier to pass the attempt at the reversal of this loss to the tuft of core conservationists it is necessary to point out that biomedical scientists or researchers and even clinicians who will prescribe the yet undiscovered drugs from flora or fauna have an enormous role to play. In the same vein, the temptation to isolate this discussion to only the conservationist circle, may not be optimal to achieve broad-spectrum coalition for advocacy. Now is the time biomedical scientists join the advocacy to stem the tide of biodiversity loss by joining the luxurious pool necessary for such advocacy.

Conservative efforts should be in the mainstream of discourse in scientific fora of biomedical scientists since this loss threatens the whole capability of modern medicine to keep confronting the burgeoning disease burden.

Furthermore, the least maybe in our local environment we do is to promote and join conservation efforts such as serving as an advocate for the protection of endangered species, increase in protected areas of flora and fauna and exercise high ethics in animal researches involving endangered species.

Indeed, a little there, little here approach may help save the world. A tree or other exotic nurtured in an enforced green space in a rural clinic may be in a right direction and commendable effort at mitigating this ensuing disaster.

There is a need for more interdisciplinary research on the interrelationship of biodiversity loss with medical and medical-related themes. There is also a greater need for inquiries into the usefulness of the numerous natural products in solving human disease miseries. It may be the molecule to cure some of the vast arrays of presently incurable diseases are in some species in the Niger Delta area or Amazon.

Finally, there is a need for the national governments to enact and implement laws to protect the endangered species like the United States Endangered Species Act (1973). It would also be necessary to advocate for domestication locally the Aichi Biodiversity Targets proposed at the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in Nagoya, Japan, in October 2010, which target 1 explicitly state "By 2020, at the latest, people are aware of the values of biodiversity and the steps they can take to conserve and use it sustainably" . 4 , 15

Although we may not be able to save the extinct species with their lockup potentials, we may at least be able to wrestle the endangered & threatened species from similar extinction. Humanity needs to live a life accommodative of other species to promote healthy and robust dynamism among species, thereby sustaining healthy lives for ourselves and healthy interactions with the ecosystems. The ultimate goal, therefore, will be to halt the rate of biodiversity loss and ensure a stable ecosystem as soon as possible.

The Economics of Biodiversity Loss

We explore the economic effects of biodiversity loss by developing an ecologically-founded model that captures how different species interact to deliver the ecosystem services that complement other factors of economic production. Aggregate ecosystem services are produced by combining several non-substitutable ecosystem functions such as pollination and water filtration, which are each provided by many substitutable species playing similar roles. As a result, economic output is an increasing but highly concave function of species richness. The marginal economic value of a species depends on three factors: (i) the number of similar species within its ecosystem function, (ii) the marginal importance of the affected function for overall ecosystem productivity, and (iii) the extent to which ecosystem services constrain economic output in each country. Using our framework, we derive expressions for the fragility of ecosystem service provision and its evolution over time, which depends, among other things, on the distribution of biodiversity losses across ecosystem functions. We discuss how these fragility measures can help policymakers assess the risks induced by biodiversity loss and prioritize conservation efforts. We also embed our model of ecosystem service production in a standard economic model to study optimal land use when land use raises output at the cost of reducing biodiversity. We find that even in settings where species loss does not reduce output substantially today, it lowers growth opportunities and reduces resilience to future species loss, especially when past species loss has been asymmetric across functions. Consistent with these predictions of our model, we show empirically that news about biodiversity loss increases spreads on credit default swaps (CDS) more for countries with more depleted ecosystems.

Stefano Giglio, Theresa Kuchler, Johannes Stroebel and Olivier Wang declare that they have no conflicts of interest to disclose. The views expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Bureau of Economic Research.

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Conservation priorities for Indian biodiversity: spatiotemporal patterns, policy efficacy, and future outlook

• Original Paper
• Published: 31 August 2024

Cite this article

• C. Vishwapriya 1 &
• N. G. Devaiah 1  

As one of the world’s mega-biodiverse regions, the Indian subcontinent harbors exceptional biological riches spanning diverse taxa and ecosystems. However, rapid economic growth and associated anthropogenic pressures pose ever-increasing threats to native biota through habitat loss, overexploitation, invasive species, climate change, and pollution. This paper analyzes India’s changing biodiversity landscape, evaluates the efficacy of conservation policies, and charts strategic priorities for the future. Spatiotemporal trends for 3563 species across terrestrial, fresh water and marine realms were assessed using IUCN Red List data. We find that birds and mammals show modest improvements recently owing to legal protections and habitat recovery initiatives. However, other less-charismatic taxa exhibit alarming population declines nationwide. Our policy analysis highlights critical gaps in implementation frameworks involving multi-sector coordination, capacity building, benefit sharing, and participatory decision-making. To arrest biodiversity erosion and achieve stated policy targets by 2030, we propose an integrated, evidence-driven strategy prioritizing invasives control, agro-ecological transitions, pollution abatement, ecological connectivity via green-gray infrastructure, and community-based adaptation. Mindful of inherent socio-ecological complexities, our recommendations provide a framework for targeted conservation investments attuned to India’s development aspirations.

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Species-level extinction risk trends disaggregated by major taxonomic groups.

Species-level extinction risk trends disaggregated by biodiversity hotspot regions.

Alien invasive plants, mammals and reptiles severely endanger native biota across habitats. Potential interventions include import restrictions, early detection via monitoring, mechanical/chemical control and biocontrol research.

Habitat degradation is pervasive with Protected Areas also impacted. Restoration through native plantations, managed natural regeneration and hydrological revitalization can accelerate recovery.

Agricultural intensification critically threatens endemic dryland biota and wetland ecosystems via chemical effluents and desertification. State advisory services should actively incentivize minimum tillage, organic farming, mixed cropping, conservation agriculture and agroforestry.

Industrial effluents and untreated urban sewage have created overly polluted waterways hostile to intrinsic biota while fostering invasive species. Command-and-control restrictions coupled with compliance assistance programs are essential to control contamination at source.

Linear infrastructure like roads and canals severely fragments habitats driving population isolation and gene flow disruption. Strategic mitigation via wildlife underpasses and overpasses aligned with identified dispersal corridors can re-connect habitats for improved viability.

Revitalizing community forest rights, customary tenure and co-management institutions supports self-organized stewardship attuned to local socio-ecological feedbacks. This culturally resonant model cost-effectively safeguards ecosystem health and local livelihoods simultaneously.

Indigenous communities possess invaluable medicinal plant knowledge but lack recognized stakes in commercial applications undermining conservation incentives. Clarifying administrative procedures for bioprospecting patents, licensing and royalty flows offers a potential solution.

Complementing the existing built fabric with green elements like urban wetlands, peri-urban woodlots and mangrove buffers amplifies habitat extent while delivering air/water quality co-benefits to human settlements.

Pursuing sustainable transitions across energy, mobility and agricultural sectors will require judiciously balancing ecological impacts against development gains through appropriate regulatory frameworks.

Expanding nationwide biodiversity surveillance through citizen science platforms and remote sensing coupled with stronger enforcement mechanisms can improve compliance and accountability across policies.

Collectively these ten interventions constitute targeted, evidence-driven conservation investments closely aligned with India’s unique socio-cultural milieu and sustainability challenges.

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Vishwapriya, C., Devaiah, N.G. Conservation priorities for Indian biodiversity: spatiotemporal patterns, policy efficacy, and future outlook. Biodivers Conserv (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-024-02924-8

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Retelling the story of the birds and the bees in the age of biodiversity extinction.

1. Introduction: The Aims of the Research Study

2. signs of loss of biodiversity, 3. how aware are people of the insect decline, 4. the role of agrochemicals in biodiversity loss.

“Today, the Member States voted, in a Standing Committee on Plants, Animals, Food and Feed (SCOPAFF), on the Commission’s proposal to renew, for 10 years, the use of glyphosate. The required majority to adopt (or reject) the proposal was not reached. As a result, the proposal, which is based on an opinion delivered by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) will be submitted to the Appeal Committee. […] A decision on the renewal of glyphosate needs to be taken by 14 December 2023, as the current approval expires on 15 December 2023.”

5. Methodological Approach

5.1. preliminary comments, 5.2. synopsis of syngenta sustainable business report 2019, 5.3. concordancing study of syngenta’s sustainable business report for 2019, 5.4. analysis of some of the relevant content words, 5.4.1. ‘sustainable’, 5.4.2. ‘soil’, 5.4.3. ‘control’, 5.4.4. ‘biodiversity’, 5.4.5. ‘water’, 5.5. names of syngenta pesticides, 5.6. the first person pronoun ‘we’.

“The economic language in recent policy solutions to the ecological crisis […] frames interventions in particular directions—namely towards market and technological innovation—in ways that arguably, and often intentionally, deflect understanding away from systemic causes of ecological (and associated socio-economic) crisis.”

7. Conclusions

Institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

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Alexander, R.J. Retelling the Story of the Birds and the Bees in the Age of Biodiversity Extinction. Languages 2024 , 9 , 295. https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9090295

Alexander RJ. Retelling the Story of the Birds and the Bees in the Age of Biodiversity Extinction. Languages . 2024; 9(9):295. https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9090295

Alexander, Richard John. 2024. "Retelling the Story of the Birds and the Bees in the Age of Biodiversity Extinction" Languages 9, no. 9: 295. https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9090295

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Biodiversity loss: Many students of environment-related subjects are partly unaware of the causes

Worldwide survey by Goethe University Frankfurt reveals possible explanations for the knowledge gaps of future environmental experts

Goethe University Frankfurt

If invasive species - such as the lionfish in the Atlantic - are not a major problem in the respondents' countries, the respondents tended to underestimate their significance for biodiversity loss.

Credit: Matthias Kleespies, Goethe University Frankfurt.

Worldwide survey by Goethe University Frankfurt FRANKFURT. Of the estimated 10 million, mostly still undiscovered species of flora and fauna on Earth, one million could become extinct in the next decades. This loss of biodiversity would have dramatic consequences, as animals and plants are providers of multiple services: They maintain ecosystems, ensure a more balanced climate on our planet, and supply us with food and active substances for medical drugs. Put bluntly: Without biodiversity, we humans will not survive.

That is why there is an urgent need for resolute political measures to counter the “sixth mass extinction” in Earth’s history. One group of people who are particularly important are today’s students of environment-related subjects. Many of them will foreseeably occupy influential positions in environmental policy and business in the future – and play a key role in deciding whether the global decline in biodiversity is combated effectively.

But just how knowledgeable are the decision-makers of tomorrow? Are they capable of identifying the main causes of biodiversity for what they are – and distinguish them from factors that have no influence whatsoever on biodiversity? “Our study is the first to have examined these questions scientifically at the global level,” says Dr. Matthias Kleespies from the Department of Didactics in the Biological Sciences at Goethe University Frankfurt.

Together with other researchers in Frankfurt, Kleespies conducted an online survey among around 4,400 students on environment-related degree programs in 37 countries, who were given a questionnaire listing eight drivers of global biodiversity loss. These included the five actual causes: climate change (more and more droughts as well as other consequences of global warming), overexploitation (such as overfishing), habitat loss (for example through deforestation), displacement by invasive species, and pollution (air pollution, plastic waste, oil spills). The questionnaire additionally listed three factors that have little or no impact on biodiversity: electrosmog, factory and traffic noise, and the internet. The interviewees were asked to indicate the extent to which they thought the eight factors were responsible for the decline in biodiversity. The scale ranged from 1 (minor influence) to 5 (major influence).

To analyze the completed questionnaires, the researchers used a special method that recognizes patterns in data. The outcome was eight different groups with clusters of specific, easily distinguishable response types. Kleespies explains: “In response type 1, for example, all the main causes are recognized except for climate change. The students underestimate its influence on the decline in biodiversity.” In type 2, on the other hand, pollution plays a subordinate role, and in type 7 invasive species. Type 3 is a special form in which all the main causes are underestimated and not even distinguished from irrelevant factors such as noise. “Fortunately, the number of such responses was comparatively low,” says Kleespies. Overall, the eight response types occur with varying frequency in the countries under study.

In the next step of the evaluation, the research team examined the background to the responses: What induces the different response types? Here, the researchers incorporated country-specific indicators: the country’s CO 2 emissions as well as prosperity, environment and biodiversity indicators. Kleespies: “We found that these indicators substantially influence student perception in the respective country.”

In response type 1, for example, climate change is underestimated as a driver. In countries with very high CO 2 emissions – such as Russia, China and Saudi Arabia – type 1 occurs far more frequently. “Although our data cannot explain why this is the case, we suspect that the students in question in these countries are less aware. They do not learn at university that climate change, too, exacerbates biodiversity loss.” Furthermore, it has to do with their own country’s contribution to climate change. Perhaps people are not so ready to admit how extensive it is.

In response type 2 – pollution as an underestimated factor – a correlation between the students’ perception and country-specific indicators is also recognizable, but in a different form. In affluent countries with healthier ecosystems – such as Australia, Sweden and Germany – the students underestimate the pollution factor more frequently. Pollution is presumably not generally perceived as a problem in these countries, assumes Kleespies, and therefore also not seen to be one of the main causes of global biodiversity loss. Response type 7, on the other hand, which greatly underestimates the influence of invasive species, is more widespread in countries such as Nigeria and Kenya, where such species are less common. In Australia and Spain, by contrast, type 7 is rare – although it is precisely there that invasive species present a major problem. 

What conclusions does Kleespies draw from the study? “It shows for the first time the vast gaps in perception among the next generation of decision-makers in the environmental sector as far as biodiversity loss and its causes are concerned. We need to close these gaps.” This is where today’s decision-makers at universities and in politics come into play. They must create the overall framework so that all the causes of this complex problem are treated in environmental studies at universities in the respective country. “Biodiversity loss affects us all; it is a global problem. That is why students on environment-related degree programs need to think globally, regardless of their country of origin.” The study is an appeal in this direction.

npj Biodiversity

10.1038/s44185-024-00057-3

Method of Research

Article title.

Perceptions of biodiversity loss among future decision-makers in 37 countries

Article Publication Date

30-Aug-2024

Disclaimer: AAAS and EurekAlert! are not responsible for the accuracy of news releases posted to EurekAlert! by contributing institutions or for the use of any information through the EurekAlert system.

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• 19 January 2022

Biodiversity faces its make-or-break year, and research will be key

You have full access to this article via your institution.

Targeted measures can help to stop extinctions, including of Père David’s deer ( Elaphurus davidianus ), but conserving biodiversity will also require combating climate change, cutting pollution and enhancing sustainable food systems. Credit: Staffan Widstrand/Wild Wonders of China/Nature Picture Library

Biodiversity is being lost at a rate not seen since the last mass extinction. But the United Nations decade-old plan to slow down and eventually stop the decline of species and ecosystems by 2020 has failed. Most of the plan’s 20 targets — known as the Aichi Biodiversity Targets — have not been met .

The Aichi targets are part of an international agreement called the UN Convention on Biological Diversity, and member states are now finalizing replacements for them. Currently referred to as the post-2020 global biodiversity framework (GBF), the new targets are expected to be agreed this summer at the second part of the convention’s Conference of the Parties (COP15) in Kunming, China. The meeting was due to be held in May, but is likely to be delayed by a few months. Finalizing the framework will be down to government representatives working with the world’s leading biodiversity specialists. But input from social-science researchers, especially those who study how organizations and governments work, would improve its chances of success.

A draft of the GBF was published last July. It aims to slow down the rate of biodiversity loss by 2030. And by 2050, biodiversity will be “valued, conserved, restored and wisely used, maintaining ecosystem services, sustaining a healthy planet and delivering benefits essential for all people”. The plan comprises 4 broad goals and 21 associated targets. The headline targets include conserving 30% of land and sea areas by 2030, and reducing government subsidies that harm biodiversity by US$500 billion per year. Overall, the goals and targets are designed to tackle each of the main contributors to biodiversity loss, which include agriculture and food systems, climate change, invasive species, pollution and unsustainable production and consumption.

Fewer than 20 extinctions a year: does the world need a single target for biodiversity?

The biodiversity convention’s science advisory body is reviewing the GBF and helping governments to decide how the targets are to be monitored . But researchers and policymakers have been writing biodiversity action plans since the 1990s, and most of these strategies have failed to make a lasting impact on two of the three key demands: that global biodiversity be conserved and that natural resources be used sustainably.

Some of these failures are to do with governance, which is why it is important to involve not just researchers in the biological sciences, but also people who study organizations and how governments work. This knowledge, when allied to conservation science, will help policymakers to obtain a fuller picture of both the science gaps and the organizational challenges in implementing biodiversity plans.

The GBF is a comprehensive plan. But success will require systemic change across public policy. That is both a strength and a weakness. If systemic change can be implemented, it will lead to real change. But if it cannot, there’s no plan B. This has led some researchers to argue that one target or number should be prioritized, and defined in a way that is clear to the public and to policymakers. It would be biodiversity’s equivalent of the 2 °C climate target. The researchers’ “rallying point for policy action and agreements” is to keep species extinction to well below 20 per year across all major groups ( M. D. A. Rounsevell et al. Science 368 , 1193–1195; 2020 ). Such focus does yield results. A study published in Conservation Letters found a high probability that targeted action has prevented 21–32 bird and 7–16 mammal extinctions since 1993 ( F. C. Bolam et al. Conserv. Lett. 14 , e12762; 2021 ). Extinction rates would have been around three to four times greater without conservation action, the researchers found.

But not all agree that just one target should be given priority. A group of more than 50 biodiversity researchers from 23 countries point out in a policy report this week (see go.nature.com/3fv8oiv ) that data on species are distributed unequally: 10, mostly high-income, countries account for 82% of records.

The United Nations must get its new biodiversity targets right

The researchers also modelled how different scenarios would affect the GBF’s 21 targets. They found that achieving the targets would require action in all of the target areas — not just a few. Focusing strongly on just one or two targets — such as expanding protected areas — will have, at best, a modest impact on achieving the UN convention’s goals and targets.

The difficulty in getting governments to adopt such an integrated approach is that they (as well as non-governmental organizations and businesses) tend to tackle sustainability challenges piecemeal. Actions from last November’s climate COP in Glasgow, UK, will be implemented separately from those decided at the biodiversity COP because, in most countries, different government departments deal with climate change and biodiversity.

The science advisers for the biodiversity convention will meet in Geneva, Switzerland, in March to finalize their advice. They are not advocating reform of how governments organize themselves to implement policies in sustainable development — partly (and rightly) because this is generally beyond their fields of expertise. But it’s not too late to consult those with the relevant knowledge.

In the past, the UN has commissioned social scientists, for example in the UN Intellectual History Project, a series of 17 studies summarizing the experience of UN agencies spanning gender equality, diplomacy, development, trade and official statistics. However, this work, which ended in 2010, did not assess what has and hasn’t worked in science and environmental policy. Unless these perspectives are incorporated into biodiversity-research advice, any future plans risk going the way of their predecessors.

Nature 601 , 298 (2022)

doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-022-00110-w

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Deforestation: The Environmental Impact of Logging

• September 2, 2024

Jordan Blake

Deforestation, the process of cutting down trees for timber, fuel, or paper production, is a practice that has been integral to human civilization for centuries. While it serves as a backbone for various industries, the environmental implications of logging, particularly deforestation, are profound.

Forests are vital to the health of our planet they harbor biodiversity, regulate climate, and provide livelihoods for millions of people. However, the demand for wood products has led to extensive logging operations worldwide, resulting in significant environmental degradation.

What is Logging?

Logging refers to the cutting, skidding, on-site processing, and loading of trees or logs onto trucks. This practice is primarily driven by the need for wood as a raw material for construction, paper products, and fuel. There are different types of logging, including selective logging, where only certain trees are cut down, and clear-cutting, which involves the removal of all trees in an area.

Logging is a major economic activity, contributing significantly to the GDP of many countries. However, the focus on short-term economic gains often overshadows the long-term environmental costs. Unsustainable logging practices are a primary cause of deforestation, which poses a severe threat to the global environment.

Deforestation: The Primary Environmental Effects

Deforestation is the large-scale removal of forests, leading to the permanent destruction of trees and vegetation. Logging is one of the primary drivers of deforestation, particularly in tropical rainforests, where illegal and unregulated logging is rampant. When forests are cut down, the land is often left barren, and the natural habitat is destroyed.

• Definition of deforestation : The large-scale clearing of forests, leading to permanent loss of tree cover and ecosystems.
• Logging’s role in deforestation : Logging is a primary driver of deforestation, especially in regions where it is unregulated.
• Consequences : Leads to the loss of biodiversity, disruption of ecosystems, and release of stored carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
• Irreversibility : In many cases, the damage caused by deforestation is permanent, leading to long-term environmental degradation.

The consequences of deforestation are extensive. Forests play a critical role in absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, thus mitigating the effects of climate change. When trees are cut down, the carbon stored in them is released back into the atmosphere, contributing to global warming. Additionally, deforestation leads to the loss of biodiversity, as countless species lose their habitats and are pushed toward extinction.

Loss of Biodiversity

One of the most severe consequences of logging-induced deforestation is the loss of biodiversity. Forests are home to a vast array of plant and animal species, many of which are not found anywhere else on Earth. When trees are removed, the intricate web of life that depends on them is disrupted.

• Impact on plant species : Logging disrupts forest ecosystems, leading to the extinction of plant species that rely on specific forest conditions.
• Threats to wildlife : Animals lose their habitats and food sources, which can lead to population declines or extinction.
• Endangered species : Logging in biodiverse regions like the Amazon threatens species already on the brink of extinction.
• Ecosystem services : Biodiversity loss affects ecosystem services such as pollination, water purification, and soil fertility, essential for human survival.

Plant species that rely on the shade and moisture of the forest floor are particularly vulnerable. Without the canopy to protect them, they wither and die. Similarly, animals that depend on the forest for food and shelter, such as birds, insects, and mammals, find themselves displaced. Some species, especially those that are already endangered, may not survive the loss of their habitat.

Soil Erosion and Degradation

Forests play a vital role in preventing soil erosion. The roots of trees help to anchor the soil, while the canopy protects it from the impact of heavy rain. When trees are removed through logging, the soil is left exposed to the elements. This can lead to severe soil erosion, where the top layer of soil is washed away by rain or blown away by wind.

Tree roots and soil stability

Tree roots are vital for soil stability, as they anchor the soil firmly in place, reducing the risk of erosion. By intertwining with soil particles, roots create a natural reinforcement that prevents soil from being washed or blown away. This process helps maintain soil structure, preserves land fertility, and protects ecosystems from degradation caused by erosion.

Impact of logging

Removing trees strips away the natural protection they provide. Without the canopy and root systems, soil is left vulnerable to wind and rain, which accelerates erosion. This process depletes the fertile topsoil, essential for plant growth, leading to reduced land productivity, increased runoff, and long-term environmental degradation.

Consequences for agriculture

Erosion has serious consequences for agriculture, as it strips away the nutrient-rich topsoil essential for crop growth. This reduction in soil fertility makes it increasingly difficult for farmers to sustain productive yields, leading to lower crop outputs. As soil quality diminishes, the challenge of growing sufficient food intensifies, contributing to food insecurity and economic strain in affected regions.

Long-term land degradation

Is a gradual but severe process that can culminate in desertification, where fertile land becomes arid and unproductive. As nutrients are depleted and soil structure deteriorates, the land loses its ability to support vegetation. This transformation not only diminishes agricultural potential but also disrupts local ecosystems, leading to barren landscapes and increased vulnerability to environmental stressors.

Soil erosion has devastating effects on the environment. It reduces the land’s ability to retain water, leading to increased runoff and the risk of flooding. The loss of topsoil also depletes the land of nutrients, making it less fertile and less capable of supporting plant life. Over time, this can lead to desertification, where once fertile land is turned into a barren desert.

Climate Change and Carbon Emissions

Forests are often referred to as the “lungs of the Earth” because of their role in absorbing carbon dioxide and producing oxygen. Through the process of photosynthesis, trees convert carbon dioxide into oxygen, helping to regulate the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. This makes forests one of the most effective natural tools we have for combating climate change.

• Forests as carbon sinks : Trees absorb carbon dioxide during photosynthesis, playing a crucial role in mitigating climate change.
• Carbon release : When trees are cut down and burned or left to rot, the stored carbon is released back into the atmosphere, increasing greenhouse gas levels.
• Contribution to global warming : Deforestation is a significant contributor to global warming, accounting for 10-15% of global carbon emissions.
• Feedback loop : The loss of forests exacerbates climate change, which in turn makes it harder for forests to regenerate, creating a vicious cycle.

However, when forests are cut down through logging, this balance is disrupted. The carbon stored in trees is released back into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide, contributing to the greenhouse effect and global warming. In addition to the carbon released from the trees themselves, the loss of forests also means that there are fewer trees to absorb carbon dioxide in the future, compounding the problem.

Disruption of Water Cycles

Forests play a crucial role in regulating the Earth’s water cycles. Trees absorb water from the soil and release it into the atmosphere through a process called transpiration. This water vapor then contributes to cloud formation and precipitation, helping to maintain a stable climate and water supply.

• Role of trees in water cycles : Trees regulate water cycles by absorbing and releasing water through transpiration, influencing rainfall patterns.
• Logging’s impact : Removing trees disrupts this cycle, leading to changes in local climates and reduced rainfall.
• Flooding risks : Without trees to absorb rainwater, runoff increases, leading to higher risks of flooding and soil erosion.
• Water scarcity : Logging can reduce the amount of water available in rivers and streams, leading to water shortages for human consumption and agriculture.

When forests are logged, this cycle is disrupted. Without trees to absorb water, more of it runs off into rivers and streams, leading to increased flooding and a reduction in groundwater levels. The loss of forests also affects local climates, as the cooling effect provided by transpiration is diminished, leading to hotter and drier conditions.

Sustainable Logging Practices

Sustainable logging practices are those that aim to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. This means managing forests in a way that ensures they remain healthy and productive over the long term.

• Definition and importance : Sustainable logging involves practices that minimize environmental damage and ensure forests remain productive over the long term.
• Selective logging : Removing specific trees while leaving others intact to maintain forest structure and biodiversity.
• Reduced-impact logging : Techniques that minimize damage to the surrounding environment, such as careful planning and use of specialized equipment.
• Economic and environmental benefits : Sustainable logging helps protect the environment while ensuring the timber industry remains viable for future generations.

There are several approaches to sustainable logging. One is selective logging, which involves removing only certain trees while leaving the rest of the forest intact. This helps to minimize the environmental impact of logging and allows the forest to regenerate naturally. Another approach is reduced-impact logging, which uses techniques to minimize damage to the surrounding environment during logging operations.

Public Awareness and Education

Raising public awareness about the environmental effects of logging is essential for driving change. Many people are unaware of the impact that logging has on the environment, or they may not realize that the products they use every day are contributing to deforestation.

• Importance of awareness : Educating the public about the environmental impacts of logging is crucial for driving change and promoting sustainable practices.
• Environmental education programs : Schools, NGOs, and governments can implement programs to teach people about the importance of forests and the need for conservation.
• Consumer choices : By choosing products made from sustainably sourced wood, consumers can help reduce the demand for products that contribute to deforestation.
• Public campaigns : Initiatives to raise awareness, such as social media campaigns, documentaries, and public demonstrations, can mobilize people to take action against deforestation.

Environmental education programs can help to inform the public about the importance of forests and the need for sustainable logging practices. This can include everything from school programs to public awareness campaigns, as well as efforts to engage the media and policymakers.

The environmental effects of logging, particularly deforestation, are profound and far-reaching. Logging contributes to the loss of biodiversity, soil erosion, climate change, and the disruption of water cycles. It also has significant social and economic impacts, particularly for indigenous communities.

However, there are solutions. Reforestation, sustainable logging practices, and strong legislation can help to mitigate the damage caused by logging. Corporations and consumers also have a role to play in promoting responsible practices and protecting our forests for future generations.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)

• How does logging contribute to deforestation? Logging leads to the removal of trees from forests, which often results in large-scale deforestation, especially when not managed sustainably.
• What are the environmental impacts of deforestation caused by logging? Deforestation leads to loss of biodiversity, soil erosion, disruption of water cycles, and increased carbon emissions, contributing to climate change.
• How does logging affect wildlife and biodiversity? Logging destroys habitats, forcing wildlife to relocate or perish, and reduces biodiversity by eliminating plant and animal species that rely on forest ecosystems.
• Can reforestation offset the damage caused by logging? Reforestation can help restore ecosystems, but it takes time and does not always fully recover the biodiversity and carbon storage lost through deforestation.
• What are sustainable logging practices? Sustainable logging involves methods like selective logging, reduced-impact logging, and adherence to certification standards like those from the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC).
• How does logging affect soil quality? Logging exposes soil to erosion by removing tree roots that stabilize it, leading to loss of fertile topsoil and long-term land degradation.
• What role do forests play in mitigating climate change? Forests act as carbon sinks, absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Deforestation reduces this capacity, increasing the amount of CO2 and accelerating climate change.
• How does logging impact local communities and indigenous peoples? Logging can displace communities that depend on forests for their livelihoods, cultural practices, and traditions, leading to social and economic disruptions.
• Are there laws and regulations to control logging? Many countries have laws to regulate logging, but enforcement varies. International agreements like the Paris Agreement also include provisions to reduce deforestation.
• What can individuals do to help prevent deforestation? Individuals can support sustainable products, reduce wood and paper consumption, advocate for stronger forest protection policies, and contribute to reforestation efforts.

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Jordan Blake is a forestry expert with over 15 years of experience in arboriculture and community education. Passionate about sustainable forest management, Jordan regularly writes for Forestry.com and Tree Care Magazine. Holding certifications in tree health assessments and urban forestry management, Jordan conducts workshops to educate the public on sustainable practices. Jordan has a degree in Environmental Science and enjoys hiking and photography in their free time.

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Failed U.S. ‘war on drugs’ endangers Central American bird habitats, study warns

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• Migratory and resident forest birds in Central America are being threatened by habitat loss due to narco-trafficking activity, according to a recent study.
• Antidrug policies have pushed traditional trafficking routes in Central America into more remote, forested regions, where they threaten to destroy two-thirds of important bird landscapes.
• One-fifth of bird species that migrate to the region every year from North America have more than half of their global population within landscapes where narco-trafficking is expected to increase.
• A study co-author attributes the problem to the failed U.S.-led “war on drugs,” saying that “drug policy creates narcos and keeps them moving around.”

Every year, between November and February, the golden-cheeked warbler makes its way down from the U.S. state of Texas to Central America. But as it travels to find refuge from the winter, this tiny, endangered bird, Setophaga chrysoparia , with its bright-yellow cheeks and a buzzing song, seems unable to evade habitat loss. More than 90% of the golden-cheeked warbler population winters in a region that is at increased risk of deforestation, experts are warning.

It isn’t alone. Dozens of migratory and native forest birds in Central America could see as much as two-thirds of their habitats threatened by encroaching narco-trafficking activity that drives deforestation, according to recently published research . More than half of the migratory species analyzed had more than a quarter of their global populations in landscapes that have become more vulnerable to drug-related deforestation in Central America. And this is only for the migratory species that breed in North America, the study authors say.

They found that antidrug policies can push narco-trafficking into more remote forest areas, many of which represent important bird landscapes. Some of the areas that have become more vulnerable as a result lie within Central America’s Five Great Forests: the Maya Forest in Guatemala, the Indio-Maiz in Nicaragua, the Tortuguero in Costa Rica, and the Moskitia in Honduras. The study found that since 1970, deforestation had pushed half of the population of resident and migratory birds in the affected areas into decline.

“The degree to which we found that the most important areas for these forest residents and migratory species overlapped with areas becoming more impacted by deforestation due to drug trafficking was higher than we expected,” said study lead author Amanda Rodewald, senior director of the Center for Avian Population Studies at the Cornell Lab of Ornithology in the U.S.

“Two-thirds is pretty sizable. And I think the biggest surprise was really just how much of the global population for some of these migratory species are located or concentrated in areas that are becoming more vulnerable,” Rodewald told Mongabay. “When you’re seeing that one in five species see half of their global population impacted, we can start expecting some serious population impacts.”

Research has shown that Central America’s role in the illegal drug trade has shifted over the years, from being a transit zone for cocaine from Colombia, Peru and Bolivia destined for the U.S., to a starting point for smuggling drugs into Europe.

Study co-author Steven Sesnie, a researcher at the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, was the lead author of a 2017 study on cocaine trafficking and forest loss in the region that estimated drug trafficking could be responsible for 15-30% of forest loss in Nicaragua, Honduras and Guatemala, with 30-60% of forest loss occurring in protected areas. This earlier study was the first to research the impact of drug trafficking on birds in the region.

“Traffickers have begun to focus on Central America. Most of the drugs on their way to North America go through Central America,” Sesnie told Mongabay.

He added that drug traffickers are moving deeper into the rainforests of Central America due to antidrug policies, but also because clearing forests for farmland that they can sell is a means of laundering drug money. This laundering scheme and the carving-out of new smuggling routes are causing an irreversible impact on flora and fauna, according to Sesnie. “The only way to stop this is to look at the environment when you start tackling drug smuggling.”

To track which important bird landscapes are becoming exposed to what researchers call narco-deforestation, the new study used satellite imagery of deforestation in Central America, combined with modeling techniques to estimate how drug cartels are expanding their territories under pressure from antidrug policies, and then juxtaposing these data against populations of resident and migratory birds in the region. The researchers also delved into the U.S. government’s Consolidated Counterdrug Database for a better sense of how drug trafficking operates in the region.

Antidrug policies can negatively affect biodiversity and communities

According to Rodewald, antidrug policies in Central America are largely driven by or adopted from the United States. “U.S. drug policy is very supply-side focused,” she said. That puts the focus of law enforcement on intercepting the traffickers, “without considering the whole range of social processes that cause the problem. They knock it down, and the problem pops up elsewhere.”

“Narcos aren’t the problem,” said study co-author Kendra McSweeney, a geographer at Ohio State University. “Our argument is that drug policy creates narcos and keeps them moving around.”

The way authorities in the U.S. are trying to crack down on drug smuggling in Central America, historically considered their “backyard,” is counterproductive, she told Mongabay, adding that the “war on drugs” has been a disaster.

“Stop putting billions of dollars in supply-side efforts to stop the flow of drugs. They make the problem worse. Stop eradicating plantations. Stop trying to intercept the boats. Stop funding the military. Stand down,” McSweeney said. “Basically, stop having U.S. policy in Central America.”

According to her, the long-standing U.S. model of trying to keep drugs from entering communities is having a heavy impact on the region. “Use the money to invest in things that keep Central Americans at home. Instead of giving money to the military, give it to civil society. To protect forests, to invest in education.”

“We have spoken at U.N. General Assembly, at three offices of U.N. drug policy,” McSweeney said. “I’ve given presentations to the military, to drugs agencies. I’ve spoken with pretty much everyone in the State Department. They never disagree, they are actually very responsive. But they seem to think that continuing to fight the war of drugs as they have done in the last 50 years will magically change things. Yet, they lack imagination for alternatives.”

The study also points to the links between drug trafficking, deforestation and the loss of Indigenous habitat in Central America.

“When smugglers enter an area, they build roads, airstrips and fields,” Rodewald said. “We are also really trying to emphasize in this study that, by working with local communities and governments, forests and communities can be better protected.”

Rodewald, A. D., Lello-Smith, A., Magliocca, N. R., McSweeney, K., Strimas-Mackey, M., Sesnie, S. E., & Nielsen, E. A. (2024). Intersection of narco trafficking, enforcement and bird conservation in the Americas.  Nature Sustainability ,  7 (7), 855-859. doi: 10.1038/s41893-024-01365-z

Sesnie, S. E., Tellman, B., Wrathall, D., McSweeney, K., Nielsen, E., Benessaiah, K., … Rey, L. (2017). A spatio-temporal analysis of forest loss related to cocaine trafficking in Central America.  Environmental Research Letters ,  12 (5), 054015. doi: 10.1088/1748-9326/aa6fff

Banner image : A golden-cheeked warbler. Image via Wikimedia Commons .

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