essay on gupta administration

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Governance and Administration of the Gupta Empire: Structure and Function

The Gupta Empire emerged in ancient India around the 3rd century AD , following the decline of previous dynasties like the Satavahanas and Kushans . Despite not being as vast as the Mauryan Empire, the Guptas ruled with a strong central government , uniting North India for over a hundred years. Their administration, marked by political titles and a feudal system , played a crucial role in shaping the empire’s governance and stability.

Administration of the Gupta Empire: Structure, Officials and Judicial System

A. emergence of the gupta empire.

Murundas were kinsmen of Kushans who ruled central India from 230 AD to 250 AD after the decline of Kushans in North India.
Guptas were possibly the feudatories of Kushans in Uttar Pradesh , with centre of power in Prayaga .
It is mostly believed that Guptas were of Vaisya origin.
Strong Central Governance: Though the Gupta Empire was not as large as the Mauryan Empire , it kept North India united for more than a century.

It featured a strong central government , bringing many kingdoms under its hegemony.
It also covered major parts of the West and Northwest and reached the East coast of Deccan as f ar as the Pallava Kingdom.
Reasons for the Rise of the Gupta Empire
Availability of fertile land in Madhyadesha region covering Bihar and Uttar Pradesh.
They had access to iron ores from south Bihar and Central India.
They had proximity to areas in North India which were carrying Silk trade with the Byzantine Empire.

B. Administration of the Gupta Empire

Titles and Royal Authority: During the Gupta age, political hierarchies can be identified by the titles adopted. Kings assumed the titles Paramabhattaraka, Maharajadhiraja, Parameswara, Samrat and Chakravartin .
Divine Claims of Gupta Kings: Some historians have suggested that the Gupta Kings claimed divine status . For example, Samudragupta was compared to Purusha (Supreme Being) in the Allahabad inscription .
Strong Central Government: It featured a strong central government , bringing many kingdoms under its hegemony.
Feudalism: as an institution began to take root during this period.
Recruitment: to various posts was not only confined to the upper varnas.
Most posts became hereditary, weakening royal control.
Kumaramatyas: The most important officers of the empire were Kumaramatyas, who were possibly paid in cash.
King was looked upon as God Vishnu, the protector and preserver.
They were connected with Gods through epithets like Parama-Daivata (the foremost worshipper of the gods) and params-bhagavata (the foremost worshiper of Vasudeva Krishna) and Parameshvara.
Kingship was hereditary, but there was the absence of a firm practice of primogeniture.
Ministers and Officials
The king was assisted in his administration by a council consisting of a chief minister , a Senapati or commander-in-chief of the army and other important officials.
The king maintained close contact with the provincial administration through a class of officials called Kumaramatyas and Ayuktas .
Kumaramatyas: The term ‘Kumaramatya’ occurs in six Vaishali seals, an d he was associa ted with an office (Adikarana) of his own.
He seems to be important among Amatyas and equivalent in status to princes of royal blood.
Kumaramatyas were attached to the king , crown prince, revenue department or province
Individuals holding the rank of Kumaramatya had additional designations as well.
Example: Harisena (son of Dhruvabhuti, a mahadandanayaka) was a Kumaramatya, Sandhivigrahaka and Mahadandanayaka.

Officers in the Gupta Empire

“ Lokpala ”, also possibly referred to as a provincial governor.
Standing Army and Feudatory Support: The king maintained a standing army, which was supplemented occasionally by the forces of feudatories.
Adoption of Kushan Military Techniques: The Guptas learned the use of saddle, reins, buttoned coats, trousers and boots from the Kushans. All these gave them mobility and made them excellent horsemen .
Emphasis on Cavalry and Horse Archery: In the Army, chariots and elephants took backstage. The cavalry and horse archery came to the forefront.
Military Designations: Seals and inscriptions mention military designations such as Baladhikrita and Mahabaladhikrita (commander of infantry and cavalry).
Senapati: The standard term “ Senapati ” does not occur in Gupta inscriptions, but the term could be found in some Vakataka epigraphs.
A Vaishali seal mentions the Ranabhandagar-Adhikarana , which was the office of the military storehouse .

C. Division of the Empire (Bhuktis →Vishyas→Vithi→Villages)

Provinces (Bhuktis)
The Gupta Empire was divided into provinces known as Deshas or Bhuktis (provinces), which were administered by Uparikas (governors).
Uparika carried on the administration with control over the military machinery as well.
Damodarpur Plates: mention Uparika with the title of maharaja, which indicates his high status and rank in the administrative hierarchy.
Eran pillar Inscription of Budhagupta : dated Gupta year 165 AD, refers to Maharaja Surashmichandra as a Lokpal, governing the land between the Kalinndi and Narmada rivers.
Division of Provinces: The bhuktis or provinces were divided into districts known as Vishayas , which were headed by officers known as Vishyapatis.
Sometimes, even the kings directly appointed the Vishyapatis.
Prominent members of the town assisted the Vishyapati with administrative duties.
Guilds looked after their own affairs.
They punished the members for violations of the law of the guild.
Ayuktakas and Vithi-Mahattaras: refer to officials in these areas.
Gramika and Gramadhyaksha : At the village level, villagers chose these functionaries.
Mahattara: The Damodarpur copper plate of the reign of Budhagupta mentions an Ashtabula-Adhikarana (a board of eight members ) headed by the Mahattara or village headman (sometimes also referred as the head of a family community).
Sanchi Inscription: of the time of Chandragupta II mentions the Panchmandali, which may have been a corporate body .
The charters issued for vassals living on the fringe of the empire had the Royal ‘Garuda’ seal.
Feudatory Obligations: They had obligations like personal attendance to the king, paying him a tribute, and presenting daughters for marriage.

D. Judicial System

Legal Development: It was far more developed than earlier times, and for the first time, civil and criminal law were clearly demarcated.
Theft and Adultery: came under criminal law, and property disputes came under civil law.
Inheritance Laws: Elaborate Laws were laid down about inheritance.
Variety of Courts: There were different courts like Karana, Adhikarana, Aharmasana etc.
Role of the King in Justice: The King was the upholder of the law and tried the case with the help of Brahamana priests.
Guild Governance: The guilds of artisans, merchants, etc., were governed by their own laws.
Varna-Based Legal System: Laws were based on differences in varnas, and culprits belonging to a higher Varna got less punishment.
Emphasis on Mild Punishments: Punishments were not severe, and imposing a fine was a common punishment.

Conclusion

The Gupta Empire left a lasting legacy in ancient Indian history through its efficient administration and governance . With a centralized government structure , hierarchical titles, and a well-defined feudal system, the Guptas maintained order and stability across their realms. Their judicial system , advancements in governance, and innovative administrative practices set a benchmark for future dynasties, leaving behind a significant imprint on the political landscape of ancient India .

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Write an essay on Gupta administration.

The Gupta dynasty is widely regarded as one of the most prosperous and influential periods in ancient Indian history. This dynasty ruled from the 4th to the 6th century CE and was characterized by its remarkable achievements in various fields such as art, literature, science, and philosophy. Under the Gupta rulers, India experienced an unprecedented period of peace, stability, and economic growth, which contributed to the country’s cultural and intellectual prosperity.

One of the most significant aspects of the Gupta administration was its political organization. The Gupta kings implemented a centralized form of government that allowed for efficient administration and effective communication throughout the empire. They appointed governors to oversee the provinces, who were required to report regularly to the central government. Additionally, the Gupta kings maintained a well-organized system of taxation, which helped to fund their ambitious building projects and military campaigns.

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The Gupta administration was also marked by significant advancements in the arts and sciences. During this period, Indian literature and poetry flourished, and scholars made notable contributions to fields such as mathematics, astronomy, and medicine. Prominent figures of the Gupta period include Aryabhata, a mathematician; Varahamihira, an astronomer; and Charaka, a physician. The Gupta era also witnessed the emergence of classical dance forms such as Bharatanatyam and Kathak, which remain an essential part of Indian culture to this day.

The Gupta dynasty’s most enduring legacy, however, was its contributions to the field of art and architecture. The Gupta kings were patrons of the arts, and they commissioned some of the most iconic works of Indian art, such as the Ajanta and Ellora caves. These rock-cut temples and monasteries are considered masterpieces of Indian art and architecture and are recognized as UNESCO World Heritage Sites. The Gupta period also saw the emergence of the Gupta style of art, which was characterized by a focus on realism and naturalism.

Furthermore, the Gupta administration was renowned for its military strength. The Gupta kings were skilled warriors and expanded their empire through a series of successful military campaigns. They defeated their rivals in the northwest, including the Shakas and the Huns, and expanded their empire to encompass much of northern India. Additionally, the Gupta rulers maintained a strong navy, which allowed them to control trade routes and engage in maritime commerce with Southeast Asia.

One of the most notable aspects of the Gupta administration was its commitment to religious tolerance. The Gupta rulers were known for their liberal and inclusive approach towards different faiths. They supported and patronized various religious traditions, including Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. This tolerance and acceptance of diversity contributed significantly to India’s social and cultural fabric.

Overall, the Gupta administration was a period of great prosperity and achievement for India. Under their rule, the country experienced a period of peace and stability, leading to exceptional advancements in various fields such as art, literature, science, and philosophy. The Gupta kings were skilled administrators who fostered the arts and sciences and expanded their empire through military conquest. The Gupta era’s legacy continues to shape Indian culture and society, making it one of the most significant and influential periods in Indian history.

Gupta Period: A Golden Era of Decentralized Administration and Economic Prosperity

by Prince Kumar | Nov 4, 2023

Imagine an era where prosperity and culture thrived under the shadow of a decentralized yet efficient administrative system. This was the reality during the Gupta period , a pivotal chapter in Indian history known as the Golden Age. But what made their administrative system stand out? How did it foster such remarkable economic development? Let’s embark on a historical journey to uncover the intricacies of this period’s governance and its impact on society.

Table of Contents

Decentralization : The Crux of Gupta Administration

The Gupta empire, unlike its more centralized predecessors, developed an administrative framework that allowed for greater local autonomy. This system was not merely a replication of the Mauryan model; it was an evolution that catered to the changing dynamics of the time.

Administrative Units and Their Functions

The empire was meticulously divided into several units such as Rajya , Rashtra , Desha , and Mandala . Each of these units had specific roles and responsibilities that contributed to the smooth functioning of the state:

Rajya – Often governed by a member of the royal family, these were the key provinces of the empire.
Rashtra – Headed by a Rashtrapati , Rashtra was a smaller unit within a Rajya, focusing on local affairs.
Desha and Mandala – These were even smaller administrative segments, usually overseen by local chieftains.

The decentralization not only brought governance closer to the people but also instilled a sense of participation and local governance that was instrumental in the empire’s stability.

The Monarch’s Role: Protector and Provider

The Gupta kings were not just rulers; they were seen as benevolent guardians of their subjects. This perception was carefully cultivated through the monarch’s active role in providing for the people and protecting the realm.

A Council of Ministers: Governing Hand-in-Hand

No king ruled alone. The Gupta monarchs relied on a council of ministers to aid in administration. This council, composed of learned and capable individuals, was responsible for various aspects of governance, from finance to military affairs.

Local Governance: The Lifeblood of Administration

The true strength of the Gupta administrative system lay in its local governance structures.

Promoting Local Participation

Local administrations were structured to encourage participation from various levels of society. Village assemblies, known as grama sabhas , played a critical role in local decision-making, demonstrating an early form of democratic governance.

Guilds and Trade: Pillars of Economic Prosperity

Trade flourished during the Gupta period, thanks in part to the robust support of guilds. These organizations, akin to today’s corporations, regulated trade and ensured quality. Their success was a testament to the empire’s economic policies that favored trade expansion and market stability.

Revenue and Justice: Pillars of Statecraft

The Gupta Empire’s administrative prowess was also evident in its sophisticated approach to revenue collection and justice.

Advancements in Revenue Collection

The state employed a systematic approach to revenue collection, which was both fair and efficient. Land taxes, tributes from subordinate states, and custom duties from bustling trade contributed to the empire’s wealth without overburdening its citizens.

Evolved Judicial Processes

Justice was dispensed through a well-defined judicial system, with an emphasis on fair trials and appropriate punishments. This system not only maintained order but also fostered a sense of security and trust among the people.

Military Organization: The Shield of the Empire

The Gupta rulers understood the importance of a strong military, not just for defense but also for maintaining internal peace. The military was well-organized, with clear hierarchies and roles, from foot soldiers to cavalry and elephant units.

Trade Networks: Expanding Beyond Borders

Trade networks during the Gupta period expanded far beyond the Indian subcontinent. Through both land and sea routes, traders connected with distant lands, bringing wealth and cultural exchanges that enriched the Gupta society.

The administrative system of the Gupta period stands as a testament to the ingenuity and foresight of its rulers. It was a system that fostered economic prosperity, cultural development, and administrative efficiency. By decentralizing power and encouraging local governance, the Guptas created an enduring legacy that continues to intrigue historians and scholars alike.

How do you think the Gupta administrative system compares to modern governance models? And what lessons can contemporary societies take from their approach to local participation and economic policy?

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Administrative System at Union Level

1 Ancient Administrative System

Evolution of Ancient Indian Administration
Mauryan Administrative System
Administrative System during Gupta Period

2 Medieval Administrative System

Mughal Administration
Mughal Administrative System
Revenue Administration
Judicial Administration
Army and Police

3 British Administrative System

East India Company-An Overview
British Administration
Features of British Administration influencing Indian Administration

4 Continuity and change in Indian administration-post 1947

Indian Administration: Legacy of British Rule

5 Continuity and change in Indian administration-post 1948

Changes in Indian Administration

6 Indian Federalism

Federalism in India
Legislature

7 Legislature

8 Executive

Prime Minister
Prime Minister’s Office
Council of Ministers

9 Judiciary

Judiciary in India
Supreme Court
Judicial Activism
Public Interest Litigation (PIL)

10 Cabinet Secretariat

Evolution of Cabinet Secretariat
Organization
Functions of Cabinet Secretariat
Office of Cabinet Secretary
Cabinet Committees

11 Central Secretariat

Organizational Structure
Roles and Functions
Tenure System
Relationship between Secretariat and Executive

12 All India Services and Central services

Civil Services in India
Historical Background
Constitution of All India Services
Central Civil Services

13 Administrative Tribunal

Administrative Tribunal: Concept
Administrative Tribunal in India-Constitutional Provisions
Some Major Tribunals in India
Merits and Demerits of Administrative Tribunal and Safeguards

14 Commissions in India

National Institute for Transforming India
Union Public Service Commission
Election Commission
Finance Commission
Central Vigilance Commission
Administrative Reforms in India

15 National institute for transforming India

16 Union Public Service Commission

17 Election Commission

18 Finance Commission

19 Central Vigilance Commission

20 Administrative Reforms in India

Administrative Reform: Concept
Need for Administrative Reforms
First Administrative Reforms Commission 1966-1970
Second Administrative Reforms Commission 2005

21 Concept and Role of Civil Society

Concept of Civil Society
Civil Society in India
Role of Civil Society
Issues Facing Civil Society
CSOs: A Way Forward

22 Regulatory Commissions

Regulatory Commissions in India
Nature of Regulation
Problem Areas
Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI)
Pension Fund Regulatory & Development Authority (PFRDA)
Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI)

23 Telecom Regulatory Authority of India

Telecom Regulatory Authority of India
Organizational Set up
Quality of Service
Consumer Protection
Tariff Regulation
Universal Service Obligation

24 Pension Fund Regulatory and Development Authority

Pension Fund Regulatory and Development Authority
Food Safety and Standards Authority of India

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The Salient Features of the Administrative System of the Guptas | History

The Gupta Period

Approximate extent of the Gupta Empire, c. 5th century C.E. (adapted from Woudloper , CC BY-SA 4.0)

During the Gupta period (c. 320 – 647 C.E., named for the Gupta dynasty) there were tremendous advances in poetry, prose, and drama as well as important discoveries in mathematics and astronomy. This was the age of some of the most celebrated creatives in Indian history, including the fifth century writer Kālidāsa whose works would influence generations of writers. This was also the period in which the fifth century astronomer Aryabhata theorized that the earth rotated on its own axis and calculated the solar year at 365.3586805 days.

The Puranas, a compendium of religious literature considered sacred to both the Hindu and Jain religious traditions and consisting of stories and the genealogies of the gods, folk tales, and traditional lore, grew in prominence during the Gupta years . While it is difficult to date the Puranas because they contain anonymous texts compiled over many centuries both before and after the Gupta period, we know that Puranic stories were a popular religious and cultural reference during the Gupta years from the depiction of Puranic episodes in art and architecture. Kālidāsa’s poetry and plays also frequently engaged with episodes from the Puranas.

The Guptas were ambitious rulers and by the end of the fourth century claimed dominance over a vast swathe of northern India (see map above). They maintained a capital at Pataliputra, the same ancient center used by the formidable, and earlier, Mauryan empire (4th – 2nd century B.C.E.) and that of the emperor Ashoka Maurya (3rd century B.C.E.).

Emperor Chandragupta II on his horse , c. 380 – 415 C.E., gold coin ( The British Museum )

The gold coin above shows Chandragupta II — one of the earliest and most successful Gupta rulers — who reigned from c. 380 C.E. to 415 C.E. Chandragupta is regally dressed, as is his horse, and he holds a bow as his sash flies behind him. This type of iconography emphasizes the emperor’s identification as a conqueror and the inclusion of a goddess (on the reverse side of this coin, not shown) implies divinely mandated rule. Fa Hsien, a Buddhist pilgrim from China, who was in India during the reign of this king wrote with admiration about the prosperity of the empire, describing it as a charitable place with hospitals, rest-houses, and medicine for those in need.

The Golden Age of Indian Culture?

Although Gupta overlordship was significant throughout the empire in the early years and later, local rulers were allowed a fair bit of autonomy in their territories. It is important therefore to not conflate the innovations and achievements of the Gupta period with the Guptas, and to acknowledge the contributions of regional dynasties. This is particularly important when works of art and architecture dated to the Gupta period are missing contextual information. Rather than assigning the Gupta dynastic label to these works of art and architecture, art historians use methods of connoisseurship to understand the artists, patrons, and provenance of these works. In the process, we are able to better understand the artistic developments of the period as a whole.

The Gupta period was termed the “Golden Age of Indian Culture” by some early observers who assigned the vast quantity and sophisticated quality of art from that period to the sponsorship of the Guptas. The term “Golden Age” was based on the desire of these writers for an ideal or classical style of art (using the art of ancient Greece as an example), and the opinion that art after the Gupta period was less classical and too decadent to be tasteful. The artistic developments of regional kingdoms in the Gupta era problematizes this Eurocentric perspective. The fifth and sixth century rock-cut temples at Ajanta and Elephanta , in the domain of the Vakataka and Kalachuri rulers respectively, are prominent sites that point to a richer and more complex art history of the Gupta period.

That is not to say that the Gupta rulers themselves were not important patrons of art and architecture. The Udaigiri complex of rock-cut caves in Madhya Pradesh (a large state in central India) is a an exceptional site with inscriptions that indicate sponsorship from the Gupta court. Nineteen of the site’s twenty caves are dedicated to Hindu gods and date to the fourth and fifth centuries; one cave is dedicated to the Jain religion and is dated to the early fifth century.

Varaha panel, cave number 5, 5th century C.E., Udaigiri rock-cut caves, Madhya Pradesh (photo: Asitjain , CC BY-SA 3.0)

Varaha, the man-boar avatar

A sculptural panel at Udaigiri (in cave number 5) depicts the Hindu god Vishnu in his man-boar form avatar known as Varaha. The panel shows Varaha rescuing Bhudevi (goddess of earth) from a cosmic flood, a story that is recounted frequently in Hindu religious literature, including the Puranas. Varaha is shown here as a hero posing regally with the goddess as she dangles from his tusk. An audience of gods, sages, and people — most in crowds of organized rows — witness the event with awe.

Varaha, 5th century CE, Eran, Madhya Pradesh (photo: ArnoldBetten , public domain)

Scholars have suggested that the Guptas may have been especially attached to the Varaha avatar of Vishnu. A remarkable sculpture — this time showing the Varaha avatar in the form of a boar (not a man-boar as at Udaigiri cave number 5) — is found in Eran, another site in Madhya Pradesh. Eran has a number of temples dated to the Gupta period and its association with the Guptas is well-established by way of inscriptions.

Eran’s Varaha is colossal – nearly twelve feet in height – and is shown again with the goddess holding on to his tusk. The artists cleverly included the witnesses of the miracle on Varaha’s body itself which is covered almost entirely by rows of spectators. Additional figures are also carved on his ears and snout.

Standing Buddha Offering Protection , late 5th century, red sandstone, Mathura ( The Metropolitan Museum of Art )

The Gupta Buddha

The aniconic tradition of representing the Buddha was abandoned by this stage in favor of depictions of the deified Buddha and the Gupta period boasts some of the most impressive examples. Scholars have suggested that the style of the Gupta Buddha evolved out of the Gandhara and Mathura style of Buddhas. The Gandhara and Mathura Buddhas were distinct versions of the Buddha image developed during the Kushan empire (2nd century B.C.E. – 3rd century C.E.) in the Gandhara and Mathura regions respectively. Kushan-ruled territories became part of the Gupta empire and it is certainly possible that the aesthetic style of Buddha images produced in those areas inspired the development of the Gupta Buddha.

The process by which the amalgamation of features from both the Gandhara and Mathura styles led to the Gupta image was surely a complex and involved process that developed over centuries. In addition, while Gupta period artists appear to have inherited the developments of the Kushan empire in many aspects, they likely also gained from the developments of art produced in other regions and kingdoms — both previous and contemporaneous. It is helpful to also remember that artists and therefore styles of art may have been itinerant at various points in history.

Gupta period Buddhas are characterized by covered shoulders, a head full of tight curls that cover even the ushnisha , and ornately carved halos. Images of the Jina (the 24 great teachers and perfected beings of the Jain religion) from this period are closely similar to Buddha images, especially in the rendering of a head of tight curls. The Jina’s posture and adornment follows the iconographic prescriptions of Jain sacred imagery and emphasize immobility and austerity.

“Gupta” as a style

While using the Gupta dynastic label to categorize all art produced in the Gupta period is, as we have seen above, problematic, there are certain developments in style and iconography from the Gupta period that are important to note, such as the tendency to render deities as life-sized or larger and the consistent use of hierarchic scaling . See the Varaha panel at Udaigiri above, for example.

Workshops in the Gupta period also employed signature styles. Images of the Buddha from the Mathura region, for instance, were produced in mottled red sandstone. The Mathura workshops also preferred to render the folds of the Buddha’s robes as looped strings as opposed to the thick folds preferred by Gandharan workshops in the Kushan period. Buddha images from the region of Sarnath, on the other hand, were made from a yellowish-tan sandstone and are shown wearing smooth robes.

Left to right: Buddha , 3rd century CE, schist, Gandhara ( The Metropolitan Museum of Art ); Standing Buddha , c. 5th century CE, red sandstone, Mathura ( Rashtrapati Bhavan Presidential Palace, New Delhi ); Standing Buddha , 474 CE, sandstone, Sarnath ( Sarnath Museum )

Scholars believe that portable Gupta period Buddhas, carried by pilgrims back to their homelands, played a role in the development of the Buddha image in the art of East and Southeast Asia. The Gupta Buddha would also influence later images of the Buddha in South Asia — such as those that were produced in the territory of the Pala dynasty (c. 700 – 1200) in eastern India. The Pala period saw the Buddha image develop even further and is notable for its inclusion of ornate crowns .

Gupta period sculpture and painting

In addition to its prolific production of Buddha images, the Gupta period is also known for its Hindu and Jain sacred imagery fashioned from terracotta, stone, and metal . Surviving terracotta examples include sculptural plaques that were meant to adorn the walls of temples.

Krishna Killing the Horse Demon Keshi , 5th century, terracotta ( The Metropolitan Museum of Art )

The terracotta panel above shows the Hindu god Krishna (also an avatar of Vishnu) killing the horse demon Keshi. Krishna pushes the horse-demon back with his leg and sticks his elbow in Keshi’s mouth to stop the demon’s advance. If there is any doubt as to the aftermath of this encounter, the dead Keshi lies at the bottom of the panel.

Painting too was likely a popular art-form in the Gupta period, although sadly, few examples have survived. If the mural paintings at the Buddhist rock-cut caves of Ajanta are any indication, painting techniques by the fifth century were highly developed. Ajanta’s paintings are also priceless for the clues that they contain on the artistic achievements of the period; we only need look at the accessories and clothes worn by the protagonists of the murals as well as at the architectural spaces that they occupy to better know the style of jewelry, textiles, and secular architecture that was popular at that time.

Mural in cave 1, Ajanta, 5th century C.E., Aurangabad

Temple architecture

Most Gupta-period architecture that survives in-situ is religious in nature and is built from stone and brick. A modest temple structure known as number 17 at the sacred complex at Sanchi – famous for its great stupa, and believed to date to the early fifth century, gives an idea of the early style of Indian temple architecture.

Temple number 17, Sanchi (photo: Biswarup Ganguly , CC BY 3.0)

Temple number 17 is flat-roofed, mostly unadorned, and has an attached portico marked by four pillars topped with lion capitals. The temple is quite different from another fifth century brick-temple at Bhitargaon that sits at the center of a square plan and would have once had an impressive shikara (pyramidal roof). Although the temple is heavily reconstructed today, it still preserves some of its sculptured terracotta panels, providing a glimpse of its original grandeur.

Dashavatara Temple, 6th century C.E., Deogarh (photo: Work2win , CC BY-SA 4.0)

Another Gupta period temple, the sixth century Dasavatara temple at Deogarh (above), also sits at the center of a plinth (an architectural feature that becomes increasingly common in temple building). Like Bhitargaon, Deogarh features sculptured panels, although here, three large niches containing sacred imagery associated with the god Vishnu receive special prominence — each one featured on its own wall. The panels may have originally been located within an ambulatory that is now missing.

By the end of the sixth-century, hastened by military incursions and the loss of territories, the Gupta empire fell into decline. Nevertheless, the Gupta period’s formative developments in art, architecture, and religious iconography would have a lasting impact on the art and architecture of South and Southeast Asia.

Bibliography

A record of Buddhistic Kingdoms by Fa-Hsien

Art of the Silk Road: Cultures: The Gupta Dynasty

Recognizing the Gods

Frederick Asher, “Historical and Political Allegory in Gupta Art.” In Essays on Gupta Culture , ed. Bardwell Smith (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1983), pp. 55–57.

Catherine Becker, “Not your average boar: the colossal varaha at Eran, an iconographic innovation,” Artibus Asiae , volume 70, number 1, “To My Mind”: Studies in South Asian Art History in Honor of Joanna Gottfried Williams. Part II (2010): 123–49.

Vidya Dehejia, Indian Art (London: Phaidon Press, 1997).

Wendy Doniger, The Hindus: an Alternative History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010).

Partha Mitter, Indian Art (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001).

Ju-Hyung Rhi, “From Bodhisattva to Buddha: the Beginning of Iconic Representation in Buddhist Art,” Artibus Asiae , volume 54, number 3 / 4 (1994): 207–25.

Bardwell L. Smith, Essays on Gupta Culture (Columbia: South Asia Books, 1983).

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Guptas: Polity and Administration- Part I

Source of the period c. 300-600 CE

The sources include inscriptions—mostly on stone, some on copper plates—of the imperial Guptas and those of contemporary dynasties such as the Vakatakas, Kadambas, Varmans, and Hunas. selfstudyhistory.com
The prashastis (panegyric) of royal inscriptions can be understood as public message-bearing media, offering details on royal genealogies and political events.
However, they generally report political successes rather than reverses, and the inscriptions of different dynasties sometimes make conflicting claims.
The epithets and descriptions of kings reflect prevailing hierarchies of power and ideals of kingship.
Royal land grant inscriptions represent important socio-economic processes of their time and provide information regarding administrative structures and agrarian relations.
Donative inscriptions of private individuals offer glimpses into social history and the sources of patronage of religious establishments.
Coins and seals too were public message-bearing media, apart from being media of exchange or authentication.
Gupta kings issued large numbers of gold coins known as dinaras (after the Roman denarius).
These bore the names and epithets of kings, including metrical legends.
The obverse generally had a representation of the king and the reverse an image of a deity.
Rulers such as Chandragupta II, Kumaragupta I, Skandagupta, and Budhagupta also issued silver coins, similar in weight and fabric to those of the western Kshatrapas.
The obverse had the king’s portrait, sometimes accompanied by a date; the reverse had a motif (e.g., a garuda or a peacock), surrounded by a circular legend.
Copper coins of the Guptas are rare.
The coins of contemporary dynasties include those of the Kadambas, Ikshvakus, Vishnukundins, and ‘Nagas’.
Recently, a number of Vakataka coins made of base metal with a high proportion of copper have been found in the Wardha area. They are irregular in size and have a light weight standard. Similar coins were found in excavations at Mansar near Ramtek in Nagpur district.
Large numbers of seals and sealings have been found at sites such as Basarh (ancient Vaishali), Bhita, and Nalanda.
Important developments took place in the sphere of Sanskrit literature during c. 300–600 CE.
The epics and major Puranas were given final shape, and these texts form important sources for religious and cultural processes of the time.
The Narada, Vishnu, Brihaspati, and Katyayana Smritis also belong to this period.
Kamandaka’s Nitisara, a work on polity addressed to the king, was composed in the 4th century CE.
The Manjushri-mulakalpa, a Buddhist Mahayana text, has a chapter on the history of India and of Gauda and Magadha in particular from the early centuries CE to the early medieval period.
The Jaina Harivamsha Purana (8th century) and the Tiloya Pannati give some details concerning political chronology.
Fragments of the Devi-Chandragupta, a lost drama written by Vishakhadatta, were found preserved in a manuscript of Bhoja’s Shringara-Prakasha, and are relevant for Gupta political history.
Sanskrit kavya constitutes an under-utilized source for the social history of the period. The same is the case with the Kathasaritsagara, a storehouse of popular folklore.
Works on medicine and astronomy indicate the prevailing state of knowledge in these fields. Along with other technical treatises such as the Kamasutra (on pleasure) and the Amarakosha (a lexicon), they offer information on other aspects as well.
The Tamil epics—the Silappadikaram and Manimekalai—belong to the 5th/6th century and are a rich source of information on the history of South India.
Between the late 3rd and 8th centuries, many Chinese monks traveled to India in order to collect Buddhist texts, visit important places of Buddhist pilgrimage, and interact with Indian monks. The stream of Chinese monk-scholars reached its peak in the 5th century.
Some of the travellers recorded their observations, but only three records have survived in their entirety—those of Faxian, Xuanzang, and Yijing.
The travels of Faxian in India lasted about a decade (c. 337–422 CE) and took him from the north-west into the Ganga valley, right down to the eastern seaport of Tamralipti in the Bay of Bengal. From here, he took the sea route to Simhala (Sri Lanka) and further on to Southeast Asia, whence he headed back to China.
Faxian spent the rest of his life translating the enormous number of texts he had collected.
He also wrote an account of his travels called the Gaoseng Faxian zhuan (‘A Record of Buddhist Kingdoms’—the Chinese name of this book used to be transliterated as Fo-kuoki).
Although the book does not mention the name of the reigning king (who must have been Chandragupta II), it contains several observations about the life of the people, some erroneous, others useful.
Numerous Indian monks went to China as well, but there are no accounts of their travels or experiences.
There are also a few Western accounts of India in this period. An example is Cos-mas Indicopleustes’ Christian Topography, written in the 6th century. The author was a merchant who travelled widely to areas including India, before becoming a monk.
The writings of Procopious of Caesarea throw light on India’s trade relations with the Byzantine empire.
Although there are many sculptural and architectural remains of this period, most of them religious in nature, there is little documentation of archaeological evidence from sites revealing the details and textures of everyday life.
Nevertheless, sites such as the Purana Qila, Ahichchhatra, Basarh, Bhita, and Kaveripattinam do provide important data.
This period is considered as the Golden Age of India by some historians.
The ruling dynasty of the empire was founded by the king Sri Gupta.
The capital of the Guptas was Pataliputra, present day Patna.
In the post-Mauryan period two large state structures had emerged in north India and in the Deccan.
These were the Kushana state of the north and the Satavahana state of the Deccan.
But although the Kushanas and Saka chiefs continued to rule even in early fourth century A.D., their power had become considerably weak, and the Satavahana state had disappeared before the middle of the third century A.D.
There was no major political power but there were minor powers and new families of rulers were emerging .
It was in this situation that the Guptas began to build up an empire from the beginning of the fourth century A.D.

The political condition of India can be analysed by looking into the political situation of different regions separately :

However, a large number of coins which are based on earlier Kushana coins and are found in Afghanistan and Punjab suggest that several branches of rulers, some Kushana, continued to rule in the region.
There are also the coins of Kidara Kushana and his successors, in Afghanistan, Kashmir and western Punjab and it is possible that some of these rulers were contemporaries of the early Gupta rulers .
These were states which were not ruled by a single king but possibly by several chiefs; it was only occasionally that one finds a chief claiming the status of the King of a clan.
The Madras , mentioned in connection with the exploit of the Gupta ruler Samudragupta, were located in the Punjab;
the Yaudheyas were extremely powerful with their centre in present-day Haryana and the Malavas were located in Rajasthan.
There were many other republican states like these, and some of them are even mentioned in the Gupta records.
Several branches of the Nagas who became very powerful in Mathura and other centres after the decline of Kushana power in north lndia are also known. Some of the north Indian rulers who were defeated by Samudragupta were definitely of Naga origin.
The line of Chastana, to which the well-known Saka Kshatrapa Rudradaman belonged, continued to rule till 304 A.D. and then a new line of rulers began to rule.
However, Kshatrapa rule came to an end towards the close of the fourth century A.D. when Gupta ruler Chandragupta-II conquered and annexed their territories.
Vakataka power soon became formidable and a branch was also established at Vatsagulma (modem Basim in Akola district).
The Vakataka family later on came into close contact with the Guptas, particularly after a matrimonial alliance was formed between the two families.
The decline of the Satavahana state of the Deccan was followed by the emergence of a number of new royal families in different parts of the Deccan.
In coastal Andhra, there was a succession of families like the Ikshvakus , the Salankayanas and others.
The Kadamba power was founded by Brahmin Mayurasarman whose Talagunda inscription gives some interesting details of the circumstances leading to the establishment of the kingdom and also some idea regarding its extent.
The inscriptions of the early Pallava rulers were written in the Prakrit language and were in the form of copper plates. They are generally assigned to the period between century 250-350 A.D.
Sivaskandarasman of this family, who ruled in the beginning of the fourth century A.D., was a powerful ruler and his kingdom included parts of Andhra, Karnataka and Tamilnadu.
Kanchi or Kanchipuram in Tamilnadu became the capital of the Pallavas and when Gupta ruler Samudragupta led an expedition to the south, he encountered Pallavan king Vishnugopa at Kanchi.
In many areas like Bengal , Orissa , forest regions of Madhya Pradesh and elsewhere kingdoms were emerging for the first time . This was a new trend and was very significant for the later course of political history.

Origin and social background of the Guptas : The ancestry and early history of the Gupta family are little known, and have naturally given rise to various speculations. Names ending in Gupta, such as Sivagupta which occurs in a Satavahana inscription, are sometimes taken to suggest their ancestry. But these suggestions are rather far-fetched.

The assertion that they were Vaishyas is based on the recommendation in texts such as the Manu Smriti and Vishnu Purana that the name suffix ‘ gupta ’ was appropriate for members of this varna.
In the Panchobh Copper Plate , some kings bearing the title Guptas and related to the imperial Gupta Dynasty, claimed themselves as Vaisyas.
According to historian R. S. Sharma , the Vaishyas – who were traditionally associated with trade – may have become rulers after resisting oppressive taxation by the previous rulers.
Critics of the Vaishya-origin theory point out that the suffix Gupta features in the names of several non-Vaishyas before as well as during the Gupta period, and the dynastic name “Gupta” may have simply derived from the name of the family’s first king Gupta (Shri Gupta).
Some scholars have argued that the Guptas were Kshatriyas.
This is largely based on their matrimonial alliances with the Lichchhavis (who were Kshatriyas) and Nagas (who are presumed to have been Kshatriyas), and the fact that the marriage of Prabhavatigupta into the Brahmana Vakataka dynasty would have fallen within the Dharmashastra norms of hypergamous anuloma marriages.
The matrimonial alliance with the Vakatakas and the possibility that a princess of the Brahmana Kadamba family may have been married to a Gupta king have been used to argue that the Guptas were Brahmanas.
But an alternative reading of these inscriptions suggests that Dharana was the gotra of her mother Kuberanaga.
Allahabad pillar inscription, the earliest inscription recording the achievements of an early Gupta ruler, Samudragupta, comes from this region.
The nature of the coin-hoards of the Guptas, found in this region, suggests this
The description of early Gupta territories in the Puranas may point to this.
At many places in UP and Bihar, Kushan antiquities are immediately followed by Gupta antiquities.
The coins were made of gold, and this fact in addition to the fact that the Guptas followed the weight system of Kushana gold coins suggests that the Guptas had been in contact with the Kushana territories.
Literary and archaeological sources indicate that they became independent in the second decade of the fourth century A.D.
The centre of their operations lay in the fertile land of Madhyadesha covering Bihar and Uttar Pradesh.
They could exploit the iron ores of central India and south Bihar .
Further, they took advantage of their proximity to the areas in north India which carried on silk trade with the Byzantine Empire.
In the Kushan scheme of things, horse-chariots and elephants had ceased to be important, horsemen playing the central role .
This also seems to have been the case with the Guptas on whose coins horsemen are represented . Although some Gupta kings are described as excellent and unrivalled chariot warriors, their basic strength lay in the use of horses.
A passage in the Vishnu Purana refers to the Guptas enjoying all the territories along the Ganga upto Prayaga (Allahabad), as well as Saketa and Magadha.
They had title of Maharaja . This title was often borne by feudatory chiefs.
However, there are several instances of paramount sovereigns using the title Maharaja , in both pre-Gupta and post-Gupta periods, so this cannot be said with certainty.
That said, there is no doubt that Gupta and Ghatotkacha held a lower status and were less powerful than Chandragupta I.
The Poona copper plate inscription of Prabhavati Gupta describes Sri Gupta as the Adhiraja of the Gupta dynasty.
In inscriptions, he has the title maharajadhiraja , and such titles henceforth became signifiers of imperial power and status.
The marriage was commemorated on coins issued either during the reign of Chandragupta or his son Samudragupta. They have the figures and names of the king and queen on the obverse; the reverse has a goddess seated on a lion and the legend Lichchhavayah.
There are no concrete evidences to determine the boundaries of Chandragupta’s kingdom. But it is assumed that it covered parts of Bihar, U.P. and Bengal. It was during the times of his son Samudragupta that the kingdom grew into an empire.

Samudragupta (c. 350–370 CE)

Written in Sanskrit and undated.
This stone inscription was found by Alexander Cunningham near the Varaha temple.
The inscription mentions the Gupta king Samudragupta who is compared with Dhanada (Kubera) and Antaka (Yama) in joy and wr ath respectively.
A mention of setting up a temple of Janardana at Airikina to augment his own glories.
Eran is the site of first reported monument of Sati dated 510 AD in India.
Two copper plate inscriptions found at Gaya and Nalanda , dated in the reign of Samudragupta, are considered spurious by many historians.

The most important epigraph of Samudragupta’s reign is the prashasti on the Allahabad pillar, whose surface also carries inscriptions of Ashoka and the Mughal emperor Jahangir.

Harishena, the court poet of Samudragupta rightly describes him as the hero of a hundred battles , and Vincent Smith calls him the ‘ Napoleon of India ’. His name appears in the Javanese text `Tantrikamandaka’.
An inscription engraved on the Asokan pillar at Allahabad (known as Prayagaprasasti ) in prose and verse, eulogizes the achievements, conquests, and personality of Samudragupta.

The composer was a man named Harishena , whose titles — sandhivigrahika (minister for peace and war), kumaramatya (a high-ranking cadre of officials), and mahadandanayaka (an important judicial or military officer)—indicate his high rank in court circles. That he was also a skilled writer is evident from the prashasti.

The inscription weaves an image of Samudragupta as an exceptional individual and ideal king, and simultaneously offers very specific details regarding his military achievements and conquests.

This caused joy among the courtiers and heart-burning among those of equal birth.
It can be presumed that other princes might have put forward their contending claims which were put to rest by this declaration.

Samudragupta is referred to as Lichchhavi-dauhitra (grandson of the Lichchhavis) in his Allahabad prashasti.

in many respects Kacha’s coins are similar to the coins of Samudragupta,
the name of Kacha does not appear in the official lists of Gupta rulers, as they are available in the Gupta inscriptions.
Various interpretations have been given in this regard: According to one interpretation Samudragupta’s brothers revolted against him and placed Kacha, the eldest brother, on the throne. However he died in the war of succession.
Another view mentions that these coins were issued by Sarnudragupta in the memory of his brother.
A third view mentions Kacha as the initial name of Samudragupta and the later name was adopted only after the conquest of south.

Expansion and Consolidation (known from Allahabad Pillar inscription):

For the expansion and consolidation of the Gupta power Samudragupta adopted an aggressive policy of conquests. This initiated a process which culminated in the formation of the Gupta empire.
Of course, they accepted his suzerainty and paid tributes.
Such a policy adopted in relation to the far-flung areas might have paid dividends in solving problems of communication and effective control, hence bringing about stability for the time being.
His initial military campaigns were directed towards extending his control over territories lying immediately beyond this area.
This is because the prasasti first mentions three Aryavarta kings, then it goes on to mention his southern campaign and again mentions nine Aryavarta kings.
Line 14 of Allahabad inscription refers to his capturing a king of the Kota family while the latter was playing in the city of Pushpa (identified with Pataliputra or Kannauj); this may have been a ruler of the upper Ganga valley.
Line 21 refers to Samudragupta violently exterminating a number of kings of Aryavarta and making all the kings of the forest his subordinates.
It is impossible to identify all of them but it is certain that they were ruling in different parts of northern India.
Some of them were Naga rulers who had been powerful in several regions before the Guptas.
Rulers like Chandravarma who ruled in West Bengal represented new ruling families.
Rudradeva may be identified with the Vakataka king Rudrasena I , the western Kshatrapa ruler Rudradaman II or he may be the same as the Rudra whose coin has been found at Kaushambi.
A king named Nagasena is mentioned in the Harshacharita as ruling from Padmavati.
Matila is mentioned on a seal from Bulandshahr district (UP).
Coins of a king named Achyuta have been found at Ramnagar (ancient Ahichchhatra) in Bareilly district (UP).
The Prasasti says that Samudragupta reduced all states in the forest regions to the position of servants.
He not only defeated various kings mentioned in Lines 14 and 21 but also annexed their territories leading to an extension of the Gupta empire over the Ganga– Yamuna valley up to Mathura and Padmavati in the west.
Other areas were subordinated in a different manner.
Samatata (south-east Bengal).
Davaka (Dabok in Naogaon district, Assam)
Kamarupa (Guwahati region, Assam).
Nepala (Nepal).
Kartripura (Kartarpur in Jalandhar district).
The polities subordinated in this manner also included a number of ganas , namely the Malavas, Arjunayanas, Yaudheyas, Madrakas, Abhiras, Prarjunas, Sanakanikas, Kakas, and Kharaparikas.
The relationship between the Gupta emperor and all these groups had certain elements of a feudatory relationship , although there is no direct mention of their having provided troops. Perhaps this was subsumed within the phrase ajna-karana (obeying the orders) of their overlord.
Lines 19 and 20 of the Allahabad prashasti refer that Samudragupta showed favour to be Dakshinapatha kings by first capturing them (grahana) and then releasing them (moksha).
Mahendra of Kosala (Raipur, Durg, Sambalpur and Bilaspur districts)
Vyaghraraja of Mahakantara (Jeypore, forest region of Orissa)
Mantaraja of Kaurata (Probably Sonpur area in Madhya Pradesh or Plain country to the north-east of Mahendra hill)
Mahendragiri of Pishtapura (Pithasuram, East Godavari district)
Svamidatta of Kottura (Ganjam district)
Damana of Erandapalla (Chicacole or West Godavari district)
Vishnugopa of Kanchi (Chingleput district)
Nilaraja of Avamukta (Godavari Valley)
Hasti-varman of Vengi (Cellor in the Krishna-Godavari delta)
Ugresena of Palakka (Nellore district)
Kubera of Devarastra .(Yellamanchiti in Visakhapatnam district)
Dhananjaya of Kushthalpura (possibly in North Arcot district in Tamilnadu)
Line 23 of the inscription refers to some rulers rendering all kinds of service to Samudragupta, seeking the use of the Gupta garuda seal ( a request for the administration of their own districts and provinces) and entering into matrimonial alliances with the Guptas of their own accord by offering their daughters in marriage
This means that they remained independent but their independence had to be approved by Samudragupta.
In this category were included the foreign rulers of north-western India like the later Kushanas and the Saka chief and residents of different island countries including Simhala or Sri Lanka.
Permission was evidently granted and the monastery built, as its magnificence was described by Xuanzang in the 7th century.
It included the highlands of central India to the east of Jabalpur, Chhattisgarh, Orissa, and the area on the eastern coast at least up to Chingleput.
This inner core of directly annexed territories was rimmed by a large number of subordinate states.
Beyond these, to the north-west, lay the principalities of the Shakas and Kushanas, over whom Samudragupta claims to have impressed his might.
To the south were the kings of Dakshinapatha, who were humbled, but who suffered neither annexation nor a reduction to feudatory status.
Still further south lay the island of Sri Lanka , which, we are told, also acknowledged Gupta suzerainty.
But through their successful military campaigns, they did establish a network of political relationships of paramountcy and subordination that extended over a large part of the subcontinent.
Samudragupta emerges from the Allahabad prashasti as a restless conqueror. But military success is just one aspect of Harishena’s portrait of the king. He is also described as an able and compassionate ruler , concerned about the welfare of his subjects.
Samudragupta is described as having put Brihaspati (the preceptor of the gods) to shame by his sharp and polished intellect, and likewise Tumburu and Narada with his fine musical performances.
He is described as a kaviraja (king among poets), whose poetry surpassed the glory of the genius of poets.
Samudragupta had imbibed the true spirit of religion and for that reason, he has been described as ‘ Anukampavan ‘ (full of compassion) in the Allahabad inscription. He has been described ‘ as the giver of many hundreds of thousands of cows ‘.
His Ashvamedha types of coins together with other coins bearing the figures of Lakshmi and Ganga together with her ‘vahana’ (transport) makara (crocodile) testify his faith in Brahmanical religions.
But he was tolerant towards other religions. His patronage to Buddhist scholar Vasubandhu and the acceptance of the request of Meghavarman, the ruler of Sri Lanka to build a Buddhist monastery at Bodh Gaya (That monastery was called by Cinese Traveller Xuanzang as the Mahabodhi Sangharama ) amply prove that he respected other religions.
Some of his gold coins represent him as playing on the lyre(Veena).
Many of the claims made by Harishena, the composer of Prayagaprasasti, are highly exaggerated but many of the claims are also genuine. The military foundations of the Gupta-moire were laid by Samudragupta; his successors built upon these foundations.

Samudragupta’s coins:

The Standard Type,
the Archer Type,
the Battle Axe Type,
the Ashvamedha Type,
the Tiger Slayer Type,
the King type
Queen Type and
the Lyre Player Type.
They exhibit a fine quality of technical and sculptural finesse.
The coins bearing the epithets like parakramah (valour), kritanta-parashu (deadly battle-axe), vyaghra parakramah (valourous tiger), prove his being a skilful warrior.
Samudragupta’s coins represent him in various poses suggestive of prowess and martial skills— as an archer holding a bow in his left hand and an arrow in his right; standing with a battleaxe in his left hand with a dwarf looking up at him; or trampling and killing a tiger.
It commemorate the Ashvamedha sacrifices he performed and signify his many victories and superemacy
In the ‘ standard type ’, which is the most frequent, he holds a long staff in his left hand and offers oblations into a fire altar with his right; the garuda standard appears to the left.
A coin depicting Chandragupta I and his queen standing face to face is attributed either to Chandragupta I or Samudragupta.
One of Samudragupta’s coin types shows him sitting on a couch, playing the vina (lyre) .
The obverse of this king’s coins sometimes depict the goddess Ardoksho holding a cornucopia in her left hand and noose in the right; or a goddess standing on an elephant-headed fish, holding a full-blown lotus in her left hand, her right hand outstretched and empty.
In other instances, there is a standing female figure (perhaps a queen) holding a fly whisk.
parakramah (brave),
apratirathah (invincible),
ashvamedhaparakramah (powerful enough to perform the ashvamedha ), and
vyaghra-parakramah (brave as a tiger).

This king had the epithets parama-bhagavata and vikramaditya .
During his rule, the Gupta Empire achieved its zenith. Art, architecture, and sculpture flourished, and the cultural development of ancient India reached its climax. The period of prominence of the Gupta dynasty is very often referred to as the “Golden Age of India”.
The Gupta inscriptions mention Chandragupta II as Samudragupta’s successor. But on the basis of literary sources, some copper coins and inscriptions it is suggested that the successor was Samudragupta’s other son Ramagupta who ruled in between, from c. 370 to 375 CE.
He did this because Ramagupta was facing defeat at the hands of the Sakas and in order to save the kingdom, he had agreed to surrender his wife to the Saka king.
Chandragupta protested, and went to the Saka camp in the disguise of the queen Dhruvadevi. He was successful against the Saka king but as a result of the subsequent hostility with his brother he killed him and married his wife Dhruvadevi.

There are reverberations of these dramatic events in later texts such as Bana Bhatta’s Harshacharita and Shankararya’s commentary on this text.

An 11th century Persian work called the Majmat-ul Tawarikh by Abul Hasan Ali offers the additional information that Chandragupta’s killing of the Shaka king increased his popularity among his subjects, that this made Ramagupta jealous, and that Chandragupta pretended to be insane prior to killing his brother.

Copper coins that can definitely be assigned to Ramagupta were found at Bhilsa in central India. These bore the garuda emblem and were similar to Chandragupta’s coins in style, fabric, and weight standard.

Certain coins found at Bayana in Rajasthan have a legend that has been read as ‘Kacha’ or ‘Rama’.

Inscriptions on the pedestals of some Jaina images found at Vidisha, bear the name Maharaja Ramgupta.
This is because the genealogies mention only those kings who came in the direct line of succession. Since the succession passed to Chandragupta and his sons, Ramagupta is ignored.
Another example of this is the case of the later king Skandagupta, after whose reign the succession passed to the descendents of his brother Purugupta. Hence, Skandagupta is not mentioned in the geneologies in his successors’ inscriptions.
Chandragupta ascended the throne at a time when there were problems emerging again and he had to lead military campaigns to establish Gupta supremacy once again.
He extended the limits of the empire by marriage alliance and conquests.
According to The Allahabad Pillar inscription and Devichandraguptam, Chandragupta II married Kuberanaga of the Naga family. The Nagas were a powerful ruling clan and this matrimonial alliance helped the Gupta ruler in expanding his empire.
His son-in-law died fortuitously in 385 CE after a very short reign, following which Queen Prabhavatigupta (385-405) ruled the Vakataka kingdom as a regent on behalf of her two sons. During this twenty-year period, the Vakataka realm was practically a part of the Gupta empire.
The geographical location of the Vakataka kingdom allowed Chandragupta II to take the opportunity to defeat the Western Kshatrapas once for all. Many historians refer to this period as the Vakataka-Gupta Age .
We get information about Chandragupta’s campaigns and successes from certain inscriptions, literary sources and coins.
He defeated the Saka king Rudrasimha III and annexed his kingdom.
This brought an end to Saka Kshatrapa rule in western India and added the regions of Gujarat, Kathiawad and west Malwa to the Gupta empire.
His matrimonial alliances with the Vakatakas and the Nagas must have been of tremendous significance in his preparations for the campaigns.

Udayagiri cave inscription states that he went on a digvijaya (conquest of the quarters);

One inscription describes him as “ desirous of conquering the whole earth “.
We no longer find any Saka coins minted after this period, although Saka coins were being minted without a break for almost four hundred years previously.
This definitely shows that the Saka areas came within the control of Chandragupta II.

Chandragupta II adopted the title of Vikramaditya (Sun of Power) which had been first used by an Ujjain ruler King Vikramaditya (who founded a lunar calendar the Vikram Samvat following his victory over the Sakas in 56 BCE,) in 56/57 B.C. as a mark of victory over the Saka Kshatrapas of western India.
This contributed to the prosperity of Malwa, and its chief city Ujjain.
Ujjain seems to have been made the second capital of Chandragupta II though Pataliputra continued to be the capital.
According to this inscription Chandra crossed the Sindhu region of seven rivers and defeated Valhikas (identified with Bactria).
The Mehrauli inscription suggests that Chandragupta fought against a confederacy of enemies in Bengal and also led a campaign into the Punjab.
Mehrauli pillar is considered remarkable because of the metallurgical skill required to forge such a long piece of iron, the clarity of its inscriptions after so many centuries, and the fact that it has remained comparatively rust-free , even after so many centuries.
Some scholars identify Chandragupta II with the hero of Kalidasa’s work Raghuvamasa because Raghu’s exploits appear comparable with those of Chandragupta.
After finishing his campaign in the East and West India, Vikramaditya (Chandragupta II) proceeded northwards, subjugated the Parasikas, then the Hunas and the Kambojas tribes located in the west and east Oxus valleys respectively.
Thereafter, the king proceeds across the Himalaya and reduced the Kinnaras, Kiratas etc. and lands into India proper.
The Brihatkathamanjari of the Kashmiri writer Kshmendra states, king Vikramaditya (Chandra Gupta II) had “unburdened the sacred earth of the Barbarians like the Sakas, Mlecchas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Tusharas, Parasikas, Hunas, etc. by annihilating these sinful Mlecchas completely”.
On the basis of these evidences it can be suggested that the empire of Chandragupta II thus seems to have extended from Bengal to the north-west and from the Himalayan terai to the Narmada.

The pillar bears an inscription which states that it was erected as a flagstaff in honour of the Hindu god Vishnu, and in the memory of Chandra

In his memoirs he has given a vivid description of the places he visited and certain social and administrative aspects related to them.
However, he does not mention the name of the King in his accounts. But he speaks highly of the King of Madhya-desa , the region which was directly ruled by the Gupta monarch in this period, under whom the people were prosperous and happy.
Chandragupta II is also known for his patronage to men of letters.

Coinage of Chandragupta:

However, Chandragupta II also introduced several new types, such as the Horseman type and Lion-slayer type , both of which were used by his son Kumaragupta I.
These coins were intended to replace the silver coinage of the Western Kshatrapas after Chandragupta II defeated them, and were modeled on the Kshatrapa coinage .
The main difference was to replace the dynastic symbol of the Kshatrapas (the three-arched hill) by the dynastic symbol of the Guptas (the mythic eagle Garuda).
Further, Chandragupta also issued lead coins based on Kshatrapa prototypes and rare copper coins probably inspired by the coins of another tribe he defeated, the Nagas.

Religion of Chandragupta:

From Chandragupta II kings of Gupta dynasty are known as Parama Bhagavatas or Bhagavata Vaishnavas .
The Bhagavata Purana entails the fully developed tenets and philosophy of the Bhagavata tradition wherein Krishna gets fused with Vasudeva and transcends Vedic Vishnu and cosmic Hari to be turned into the ultimate object of bhakti.

Nine Gems during Chandragupta:

Author of the great epic, ‘Shakuntala’, great poet, dramatist and the most prominent scholar of Sanskrit language.
Author of ‘Sanskrit Amarkosh’
Prominent Astrologist who had achieved mastery in Astrology.
A Doctor who had achieved mastery in the science of medicine; one who was an expert in diagnosis and one who could prescribe different treatments for a single disease.
Expert Linguist and an expert in Grammar
Author of World famous epic, ‘Brhatsamhita’ and mastery in Astrology. Varahamihira predicted the death of Vikramaditya’s son.
Expert in sculpture and architecture.
Expert in Geography (This name is even well known today in the field of geography)
Expert in black magic & tantric sciences. Vetalbhatt had been a Maga Brahmin known for writing work of the sixteen stanza “ Nīti-pradīpa ” (literally, the lamp of conduct) in tribute to Vikramaditya.

Kumaragupta (412-454 A.D.)

Chandragupta II was succeeded by his son Kumaragupta, born of Mahadevi Dhruvasvamini.
He performed the ashvamedha sacrifice. His coins have representations of the god Karttikeya .
Kumaragupta is also known as Shakraditya and Mahendraditya .
The earliest known inscription of his period is from Bilsad inscription (Etah district) which is dated 415 A.D. (Gupta Era 96).
The Karamdanda inscription of Kumaragupta’s minister (436 A.D.) mentions his fame having spread to the four oceans.
A stone inscription from Mandsor (436 A.D.) mentions Kumaragupta as reigning over the whole earth.
The Damodarpur Copper Plate inscriptions (433 A.D. and 447 A.D.) refer to him as Maharajadhiraja and show that he himself appointed the governor (Uparika) of Pundravardhana bhukti (or province) being the biggest administrative division in the empire.
The last known date of Kumaragupta is from a silver coin dated 455 A.D. (Gupta Era 136).
The wide area over which his inscriptions are distributed indicates that he ruled over Magadha and Bengal in the east and Gujarat in the west.
The Gupta Empire was threatened by the rebellion of Pushyamitras (a tribe who were settled in central India but then rebelled) of central India and invasion of the White Huns . But, Kumaragupta was successful in defeating both threats and performed the Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice) to celebrate his victory.
Tumain inscription mentions a prince Ghatotkachagupta as a governor of Airikina(Eran) appointed by Kumaragupta I. It would have acted as a buffer state between the Huns and the Guptas when Huns started extending their kingdom towards east hence marking it as the easternmost boundary for the Huns.
He maintained cordial relationship with the Vakatakas which had been established through matrimonial alliances earlier.
He issued new coins with images of his namesake , Lord Kumara.

Q. “Kumaragupta’s reign was a period of consolidation in which the administrative structure of the empire attained its final shape.” Discuss.

Kumaragupta succeeded his father Chandragupta II in 415 AD. He enjoyed a long reign of more than forty years. We get information about him from certain inscriptions and coins.

The Karamdanda (Fyzabad) inscription of Kumaragupta’s minister (436 A.D.) mentions his fame having spread to the four oceans.
A stone inscription from Mandsor (436 A.D.) mentions Kumaragupta as reigning over the whole earth .
The wide area over which his inscriptions are distributed (e.g. in M.P, U.P, W.B, Bangladesh, Gujarat) indicates that he ruled over Magadha and Bengal in the east and Gujarat in the west.
Thus, he focused on the consolidation of his empire rather than enlarging it.
Kumaragupta bore the titles Maharajadhiraja, Parama-bhattaraka, and Paramadvaita.
he worshipped the war god Karttikeya, and
his gold coins suggest that he performed the Ashvamedha ceremony which was used by ancient kings to prove their sovereignty.
His coins discovered from south Gujarat resemble the coins issued by the Traikutaka dynasty, which ruled this region. This has led to suggestions that Kumaragupta defeated the Traikutakas.
Some coins of Kumaragupta’s coins depict him as a rhinoceros-slayer , which some scholars such as Tej Ram Sharma see as possible evidence of his successes against the king of Kamarupa in present-day Assam , where the Indian rhinoceros is abundant.
Another category of his coins portray him as a tiger-slayer , which according to historian H. C. Raychaudhuri, may allude to his incursions of the territory to the south of the Narmada River , where tigers are abundant.
Among the Gupta kings, Kumaragupta issued the largest varieties of coins . His 628 coins in the Bayana hoard belong to 14 different types . e.g. Archer type, Horseman type, Swordsman type, Lion-slayer type, Tiger-slayer type, Karttikeya type, Ashvamedha-type etc.
He patronized education and founded the Nalanda Mahavihara.
Bhitari Pillar inscription of Skandagupta says that Kumaragupta, “followed the true path of religion”.

The administrative structure of the empire attained its final shape

the town president or mayor (Nagara-Shreshtin)
the representative of the merchant guild (Sarthavaha)
the chief of the artisan guild (Prathama-Kulika)
the chief of the guild of writers or scribes (Prathama-Kayastha)
Kumaragupta seems to have established diplomatic relations with the Liu Sung emperors of China, as suggested by visits of Chinese delegations to India, and the exchange of an Indian envoy.

However, there are some limitations of his reign:

No concrete information is available about his military achievements.
However, this cannot be said with certainty, and the situation described in the Bhitari inscription may have been the result of events that happened after his death.
He didn’t try to reverse the rising tide of feudalism.
He didn’t decide his successor. There was succession dispute between his two sons Skandagupta and Purugupta after his death

The last known date of Kumaragupta is from a silver coin dated 455 A.D. (Gupta Era 136). Overall, we can say that his reign was a period of consolidation in which the administrative structure of the empire attained its final shape. But it was not immune of limitations.

Skandagupta (455-467 CE)

Skandagupta, who succeeded Kumaragupta I. was perhaps the last powerful Gupta monarch . Skandaguptaas the protector and stabiliser of the Gupta empire.
Skandagupta’s name appear in the Javanese text Tantrikamandaka .
His Bhitari pillar inscription suggests that he restored the fallen fortunes of the Gupta family by defeating his enemies, who may have been rebels or foreign invaders.
To consolidate his position he had to fight the Pushyamitras , and the country faced Huna invasion from across the frontiers in the northwest.
During the later years of Kumar Gupta’s reign, the empire was attacked by Pushyamitras but it was repulsed.
Later, Skanda Gupta succeeded (according to Bhitari Pillar inscription ) in eliminating completely the threat posed by Pushyamitras to the empire from the South.
Before coming to throne, he had defeated the Hunas once as the crown-prince but the penetration of the Hunas into the Indian territories continued.
Skandagupta defeated them again in about 460 A.D. and The Hunas were defeated so severely by Skanda Gupta that they did not dare to invade the empire for about the next fifty years .
This heroic feat entitled him, like Chandragupta II, to assume the title of Vikramaditya . He also assumed the titles of Kramaditya .
An inscription of the Vakataka king Narendrasena claims that his commands were obeyed by the rulers of Kosala, Mekala and Malava. The regnal dates of Narendrasena are not certain, but he is generally thought to be a contemporary of Skandagupta.
Since Malava was a part of the Gupta Empire at one time, it is possible that Narendrasena raided Gupta territories during Skandagupta’s reign. Skandagupta would have restored Gupta control over the region soon after.
In comparison to the gold coins of the earlier rulers the types of gold coins minted by Skandagupta were limited.
In addition to following the earlier system of weights, he introduced a new, heavier weight system for gold coins but generally his coins had less gold in them than earlier coins.
The Junagadh inscription of his reign tells us about the public works undertaken during his times .
The Sudarsana lake (originally built during the Maurya times) burst due to excessive rains and in the early part of his rule his governor Parnadatta got it repaired. This indicates that the state undertook the task of public works.
The last known date of Skandagupta is 467 A.D. from his silver coins.
His could not create an administrative machinery and sound economic system which could sustain the empire for long period of time. This led to gradual decline of empire under his successors.

Coinage of Skandagupta:

Archer type,
King and queen type,
Chhatra type and
Horseman type.
His silver coins are of four types: Garuda type, Bull type, Altar type and Madhyadesha type.
The initial gold coinage was on the old weight standard used by his father Kumaragupta of approximately 8.4 gm. This initial coinage is quite scarce.
At some point in his reign, Skandagupta revalued his currency, switching from the old dinar standard to a new suvarna standard that weighed approximately 9.2 gm.These later coins were all only of the Archer type, and this standard and type was followed by all subsequent Gupta rulers.

Gupta Rulers after Skandagupta

This may be the reason why a seal inscription traces a line of Gupta rulers after Skandagupta from Kumaragupta I and his son Purugupta and not Skandagupta.
Thus an inscription from western Malwa, recorded in the last year of Skandagupta does not refer to him but to some other rulers beginning with Chandragupta II.
It is unlikely that all of them ruled over a vast empire, as Chandragupta II and Kumaragupta I had done in an earlier period.
The Guptas continued to rule till about 550 A.D. but by then their power had already become very insignificant.
He had close ties with the rulers of Kannauj kingdom and together they sought to rule the Huns out of the fertile plains of Northern India.
The Eran stone pillar inscription of two brothers, Matrivishnu and Dhanyavishnu mentions Budhagupta as their emperor (Bhupati).

Huna invasion:

From here, they made inroads towards Iran and India.
Crossing the Hindu Kush, they occupied Gandhara, although their further movement was repulsed by Skandagupta’s army and and Yasodharman.
In the late 5th century or early 6th century CE, the Huna chief Toramana managed to conquer large parts of western India and the area around Eran in central India.
Toramana is known from Rajatarangini (by Kashmiri Brahman Kalhana of 12th century CE), coins and inscriptions.
Numismatic evidence suggests his sway may have extended over parts of Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Punjab, and Kashmir.
The Kuvalayamala, an 8th century Jaina text, refers to Toramana adopting the Jaina faith and living on the banks of the Chenab at Pavvaiya.
He was defeated by the Indian Emperor Bhanugupta of the Gupta Empire in 510 A.D.
He was succeeded by his son Mihirakula in 520.
Mihirakula was the son and successor of Toramana.
An inscription of his was found at Gwalior .
Xuanzang locates his capital at Sakala (Sialkot).
The Rajatarangini refers to Mihirakula’s cruelty and suggests that he ruled over Kashmir and Gandhara, but clearly exaggerates when it refers to his conquest over South India and Sri Lanka.
Although he over-ran much of north India, Mihirakula suffered defeat at the hands of Yashodharman of Malwa, Narasimhagupta, and the Maukharis. The power of the Hunas declined thereafter.
After a few years Mihirakula incited a revolt against the king of Kashmir and seized his power.
Then he invaded Gandhara located westward, and killed many of its inhabitants and destroyed its Buddhist shrines.
He claimed to be a worshipper of Shiva .
The Bijayagadh Stone Pillar Inscription of Vishnuvardhana (son of Yasodharman) was erected at Bayana in Bharatpur district, also mentions Yasodharman.
Their incompetence increased the number of internal and external enemies. The provincial governors began to assert independence.
The provincial governors began to assert independence right from the reign of Puru Gupta. Emperor Budha Gupta was hardly able to maintain a show of suzerainty over his governors.
After him even the nominal suzerainty was thrown off by the governors and they became independent rulers.
After Kumara Gupta the succession to the throne was always disputed.
This may be the reason why a seal inscription traces a line of Gupta rulers after Skandagupta from Kumaragupta-I and his son Purugupta and not Skandagupta.
it is probable that the division of the Gupta empire into many parts already began towards the close of Skandagupta’s reign. Thus an inscription from western Malwa, recorded in the last year of Skandagupta does not refer to him but to some other rulers beginning with Chandragupta-11.
For a few years, Narsimha Gupta ruled in Magadha while at the same time Vainya Gupta ruled over the eastern part of the empire and Bhanu Gupta ruled in the West.
Budha Gupta who ascended the throne in 477 A.D. was not the ruler of a consolidated empire, but rather, the head of a federal state.
After him, even that semblance of unity was overthrown and different Gupta princes or rulers took opposite side in the struggles and political convulsions of their period.
This, certainly, helped in bringing about the downfall of the empire.
The policy adopted by the Guptas in the conquered areas was to restore the authority of local chiefs or kings once they had accepted Gupta suzerainty. In fact, no efforts were made to impose a strict and effective control over these regions.
Hence it was natural that whenever there was a crisis of succession or a weak monarchy within the Gupta empire these local chiefs would reestablish their independent authority. This created a problem for almost every Gupta King who had to reinforce his authority.
The constant military campaigns were a strain on the state treasury. Towards the end of the fifth century A.D. and beginning of I sixth century A.D. taking advantage of the weak Gupta emperors, many regional powers reasserted their authority, and in due course declared their independence
From the time of Kumaragupta I the north-west borders had been threatened by the Hunas a Central Asian tribe which was successfully moving in different directions and was establishing pockets of rule in northwestern. northern and western India. But their attacks were repulsed during that period.
During the reign of Skandagupta , the Huns tried repeatedly to conquer the Gupta Empire territories but were defeated by Skandagupta.
They could move quickly and being excellent archers they seem to have attained considerable success not only in Iran but also in India.
Towards the end of the fifth century A.D. the Huna chief Tormana was able to establish his authority over large parts of western India and in central India. Mihirakula, his son, further extended the dominions.
The Huna attacks dealt a severe blow to the Gupta authority particularly in northern and western regions.
The struggle with Hunas disrupted the international trade (Indo-Roman trade) of north-western India and eroded one of the most important financial bases of the Guptas.
The Gupta Empire was affected by the expansion of the Vakataka kingdom. The Vakatakas had created a powerful kingdom in South-west.
Samudra Gupta had not harmed them while Chandra Gupta II had entered into a matrimonial alliance with them by marrying his daughter Prabhavati to the then Vakataka ruler Rudrasen II.
But when the Gupta empire weakened, the Vakataka rulers tried to take advantage of it.
Narendra Sen attacked the territories of the empire in Malwa, Kosala and Mekhala during the period of Budha Gupta which weakened the authority of the Guptas in Madhva Pradesh and Bundelkhand. Afterwards, the Vakataka ruler Hansen also attacked the boundaries of the empire.
These attacks of the Vakataka rulers were primarily responsible for weakening the authority of the Guptas in Malwa, Gujarat and Bundelkhand and encouraging their governors to assert their independence.
Later, Skanda Gupta succeeded in eliminating completely the threat posed by Pushyamitras to the empire from the South. But this campaign did create financial pressure on the state.
Yasodharmana of Malwa (belonged to Aulikara feudatory family) overthrown Hunas north-western regions. However, he successfully challenged the authority of Guptas and set up, in 532, pillars of victory commemorating his conquest of almost the whole of north India.
Yasodharman’s rule was short lived, but it meant a severe blow to the Gupta empire.
The Maukharis rose to power in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, and had their capital at Kannauj. It seems that by 550 Bihar and Uttar pradesh had passed out of Gupta hands.
By the beginning of the sixth century we find independent princes issuing land grants in their own rights in northern Madhya Pradesh although they use the Gupta era in dating their charters.
After the reign of Skandagupta, hardly any Gupta coin or inscription has been found in western Malwa and Saurashtra.
The Gandas wrested Bengal from the Guptas.
The prince of Thanesar established their power in Haryana.
The weak Gupta rulers failed to check the disintegration of the empire.
Some historians argue that this process of fuedalization with the issue of land grants first to religious and later to secular beneficiaries resulted in loss of revenue and diminished administrative control over the kingdom.
Further, the growing importance of Samantas weakened the central authority.
The Huna invasions probably disrupted Indo-Roman trade relations and the tax revenues that came with it.
As Maitrakas established their power in Gujarat and western Malwa. The Gupta lost their authority in western India.
This must have deprived the Guptas of the rich revenue from trade and commerce and crippled them economically.
The Gupta state may have found it difficult to maintain a large professional army on account of the growing practice of land grants for religious and secular purposes, which was bound to reduce their revenue .
It further affected their income.
The migration of a guild of silk-weavers from Gujarat to Malwa in A.D. 473 and their adoption of non-productive professions shows that there was not much demand for cloth produced by them .
After middle of 5th century the Gupta kings made desperate attempt to maintain their gold currency by reducing the content of pure gold in it. But this proved of no avail.
Further, constant invasions and rebellions heavily taxed the financial and military resources of the empire. It also disrupted the internal trade routes. All these adversely affected their income.
This brought about a negative influence on their military strength and that also contributed, partially, to their downfall.
Narsimha II was inclined towards Buddhism and it is stated that he once captured Mihirakula but left him free on the advice of his Buddhist mother.
It is suggested that the founding of Nalanda University by Kumaragupta and of Buddhist learning and the patronage extended by Buddhagupta are index of their tilt towards Buddhism that advocates non-violence .
However, there is no any conclusive evidence to prove that they disowned their royal duties and spent their lives as ascetics, embracing Buddhist philosophy.
A few scholars have expressed the view that the invasions of the Hunas were primarily responsible for the downfall of the Gupta empire. But it is not generally accepted.
The Hunas were defeated so severely by Skanda Gupta that they did not dare to invade the empire for about the next fifty years .
And, when they started their attacks again the empire had already become weak because of its internal dissensions. Of course, the Huna Kings Toramana and Mihirakula succeeded in penetrating deep into the Indian territories as far as the borders of Magadha.
But then, at that time, they were not fighting against the lively and mighty Gupta empire but against its ghost. The mighty Gupta empire was already dead. At that time it existed only in name.
The Kingdom of Toramana did not cross the river Indus and
Mihirakula was defeated twice here, once by Narsimha Gupta II and once by Yasodharman of Malwa.
Thus, the Hunas neither directly contributed to the downfall of the Gupta empire nor were they capable of it.
However, it is accepted that their attacks, no doubt, put a heavy pressure on the financial and military resources of the empire and therefore, were partially responsible for its downfall.

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The Guptas | History - Gupta's Administrative System | 11th History : Chapter 7 : The Guptas

Chapter: 11th history : chapter 7 : the guptas, gupta's administrative system.

Gupta’s Administrative System

During the Gupta age, political hierarchies can be identified by the titles adopted. Kings assumed titles such as maharajadhiraja , parama-bhattaraka and parameshvara. They were also connected with gods through epithets such as parama-daivata (the foremost worshipper of the gods) and parama-bhagavata (the foremost worshipper of Vasudeva Krishna). Some historians have suggested that the Gupta Kings claimed divine status. For example, Samudragupta is compared to Purusha (Supreme Being) in the Allahabad inscription. These assertions can be seen as reflections of an attempt to claim divine status by the king.

Minister and other Officials

Seals and inscriptions make a mention of official ranks and designations, whose precise meaning is often uncertain. The term “kumaramatya” occurs in six Vaishali seals, which suggests that this title represented high-ranking officer associated with an office ( adikarana ) of his own. The designation “amatya” occurs on several Bita seals, and the “kumaramatya” seems to have been pre-eminent among amatyas and equivalent in status to princes of royal blood. Kumaramatyas were attached to the king, crown prince, revenue department or a province. One of the Vaishali seals refers to a kumaramatya who seems to have been in charge of the maintenance of the sacred coronation tank of the Lichchavis.

Individuals holding the ranks of kumaramatya sometimes had additional designations as well, and such ranks were hereditary. For example, Harisena, composer of the Allahabad prashasti (inscriptions of praise), was a kumaramatya, sandhivigrahika and mahadandanayaka, and was the son of Dhruvabhuti, a mahadandanayaka.

Council of Ministers

The Gupta king was assisted by a council of mantrins (ministers). The Allahabad prashasti refers to an assembly or council, presumably of ministers, which was known as the Sabha. The various high-ranking functionaries included the sandhivigrahika or mahasandhivigrahika (minister for peace and war), who seems to have been a high-ranking officer in charge of contact and correspondence with other states, including initiating wars and concluding alliances and treaties.

High-ranking officials were called dandanayakas, and mahadandanayakas were high-rankingjudicialormilitaryofficers.One of the seals mentions a mahadandanayaka named Agnigupta. The Allahabad prashasti refers to three mahadandanayakas. All these suggest that these posts were hereditary by nature. Another person had a designation mahashvapati (commander of the cavalry), indicating military functions.

Division of the Empire

The Gupta Empire was divided into provinces known as deshas or bhuktis . They were administered by governors who were usually designated as uparikas. The uparika was directly appointed by the king and he, in turn, frequently appointed the head of the district administration and the district board. Uparika carried on the administration “with the enjoyment of the rule consisting of elephants, horses and soldiers”, indicating his control over the military machinery as well. The fact that the uparika had the title maharaja in three of the Damodarpur plates indicates his high status and rank in the administrative hierarchy. The Eran pillar inscription of Budhagupta, dated Gupta year 165 CE, refers to maharaja Surashmichandra as a lokpala, governing the land between the Kalinndi and Narmada rivers. Lokpala here seems to refer to a provincial governor.

The provinces of the Gupta Empire weredividedintodistrictsknownasvisayas, which were controlled by officers known as vishyapatis. The vishyapatis seems to have been generally appointed by the provincial governor. Sometimes, even the kings directly appointed the vishyapatis. Prominent members of the town assisted the vishyapati in administrative duties.

Administrative Units below the District level

The administrative units below the district level included clusters of settlements known variously as vithi, bhumi, pathaka and peta. There are references to officials known as ayuktakas and vithi-mahattaras. At the village level, villagers chose functionaries such as gramika and gramadhyaksha. The Damodarpur copper plate of the reign of Budhagupta mentions an ashtakula-adhikarana (a board of eight members) headed by the mahattara. Mahattara has a range of meanings including village elder, village headman, and head of a family community. The Sanchi inscription of the time of Chandragupta II mentions the panch-mandali, which may have been a corporate body.

Seals and inscriptions mention military designations such as baladhikrita and mahabaladhikrita (commander of infantry and cavalry). The standard term “senapati” does not occur in Gupta inscriptions, but the term could be found in some Vakataka epigraphs. A Vaishali seal mentions the ranabhandagar-adhikarana, which is the office of the military storehouse. Another Vaishali seal mentions the adhikarana (office) of the dandapashika, which may have been a district-level police office.

The officials connected specifically with the royal establishment included the mahapratiara (chief of the palace guards) and the khadyatapakita (superintendent of the royal kitchen). A Vaishali seal mentions a person both as a mahapratihara and a taravara. The top layer of the administrative structure also included amatyas and sachivas, who were executive officers in charge of various departments. The system of espionage included spies known as dutakas. The ayuktakas were another cadre of high-ranking officers.

GUPTA ADMINISTRATION

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Ancient Indian History

Gupta Empire: Rulers, Polity, Administration & More

The Gupta Empire, spanning from approximately 320 to 550 CE, is often celebrated as the “Golden Age” of India due to its remarkable advancements in culture, science, and political stability. This era is significant for its flourishing of art, literature, and scientific achievements, which laid the foundation for future developments in Indian history. This article aims to study in detail the key aspects of the Gupta Period, including its political structure, cultural contributions, and scientific advancements and other related aspects.

About Gupta Empire

The Gupta Empire was an ancient Indian empire founded by Sri Gupta. It stretched across northern, central, and southern parts of India between 320 and 550 CE.
The Gupta Empire is called the Golden Age of India due to its achievements in the arts, architecture, sciences, religion, and philosophy.
During this Gupta Empire, India witnessed a renaissance in cultural and intellectual pursuits, with significant contributions from figures like Kalidasa in literature and Aryabhata in science.
The Gupta rulers fostered an environment of stability and prosperity, facilitating advancements in various fields and leaving a lasting legacy on Indian civilisation.

History of Gupta Empire

At the beginning of the fourth century A.D., no powerful empire existed in India.
Both the Satavahanas and the Kushans, who had emerged as major political powers in the Deccan and the North, respectively, after the breakup of the Mauryan Empire, ended in the middle of the third century A.D.
Several minor powers occupied the political space, and some new ruling families were emerging.
Against this backdrop, the Guptas, a family of uncertain origins, began to build an empire at the beginning of the fourth century A.D.
The ancestry and early history of the Gupta family are little known and have naturally given rise to various speculations. Various historians have given different ancestry to the Guptas, like Vaishya, Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Ikshvaku clan etc.
At the end of the third century A.D., the original kingdom of the Guptas comprised Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. However, Uttar Pradesh seems to have been a more important province for the Guptas than Bihar because early Gupta coins and inscriptions were mainly found in that state.
As per the inscriptions, Sri Gupta was the founder of the Gupta dynasty, and Ghatotkacha was the next to follow him. Chandragupta was the first independent ruler.

Capital of Gupta Empire

The Gupta Empire’s capital was Pataliputra , in present-day Patna, Bihar.
The Gupta Empire was a central political, economic, and cultural hub during the Gupta period.
Known for its strategic location at the confluence of the Ganges and Son rivers, Pataliputra was a thriving centre of administration and trade, facilitating the growth and prosperity of the Gupta Empire.
The city’s significance was further enhanced by its role in promoting learning and artistic achievements, which flourished under Gupta rule.

Founder of Gupta Empire

The founder of the Gupta Empire was Chandragupta I , who ascended to the throne around 320 CE.
Chandragupta I established the Gupta dynasty and laid the foundation for a golden age in Indian history.
His reign marked the beginning of significant advancements in various fields, including science, art, and literature, setting the stage for the empire’s expansion and prosperity under his successors.

Rulers of Gupta Empire

The Gupta Empire was ruled by powerful and influential monarchs who established a golden age in Indian history.
The rulers of the Gupta Empire were known for their effective governance, military prowess, and patronage of the arts and sciences.
Their reign marked a period of significant economic prosperity, cultural development, and political stability, which laid the foundation for the flourishing civilisation of the Gupta Empire.
The contributions of the Gupta Empire were instrumental in shaping the cultural and intellectual landscape of the time.

All the important Gupta Empire rulers have been discussed in detail in the following section.

Chandragupta I (C. 319-335 AD)

Chandragupta-I was the son of Ghatotkacha and is considered the real founder of the Gupta Empire.
He married the Lichchhavi princess named Kumara Devi.
After declaring his independence in Magadha, he enlarged his kingdom with the help of a matrimonial alliance with the Lichchhavis.
There needs to be concrete evidence to determine the boundaries of his kingdom. However, it is assumed that it covered parts of Bihar, U.P., and Bengal.
Chandragupta-I is also said to have started a new era from 319 to 320 A.D., which marked the date of his accession. This era came to be known as the Gupta Samvat or Gupta era.
During the times of his son Samudragupta, the kingdom grew into an empire.

Samudragupta (335-380 AD)

Chandragupta-I’s son and successor, Samudragupta, enlarged the Gupta kingdom enormously.
His court poet Harishena wrote a glowing account of his military exploits. In a long inscription engraved at Allahabad, the poet enumerates the peoples and countries that were conquered by Samudragupta.

Harishena also referred to him as Kaviraj, which meant that he was not only a patron of poetic arts but also a poet himself. Samudragupta also assumed the title of Vikramanka.
He performed Ashvamedha Yajna, the first Ashvamedha Yajna after Pushyamitra Shunga.
The places and the countries conquered by Samudragupta can be divided into ﬁve groups.
Samudragupta’s prestige and inﬂuence spread even outside India. According to a Chinese source, Samudragupta granted permission to Ceylon king Meghavarman to build a Buddhist monastery at Bodhgaya.
According to the inscription at Allahabad, Samudragupta never experienced defeat, and in this sense, he is called the Napoleon of India.
Samudragupta uniﬁed the greater part of India under him, and his power was felt in a much larger area.
Samudragupta laid the military foundations of the Gupta empire, and his successors built upon these foundations.
Prithivyah Pratham Veer was the title of Samdudragupta.

Chandragupta II (C. 380 – C. 415 CE)

The reign of Chandragupta II saw the high watermark of the Gupta Empire. He extended the limits of the empire through marriage, alliance, and conquest.
The Gupta inscriptions mention Chandragupta-II as Samudragupta’s successor.
However, based on literary sources, some copper coins, and inscriptions, it is suggested that the successor was Samudragupta’s other son, Ramagupta. Visakhadatta’s drama “Devichandraguptam” mentions that Chandragupta-II killed his elder brother Ramagupta and ascended the throne.
Chandragupta II entered into matrimonial alliances with the Nagas by marrying Princess Kuberanaga, whose daughter Prabhavati was later married to Rudrasena-II of the Vakataka family. Thus, Chandragupta exercised indirect control over the Vakataka kingdom in central India.
Due to his control over the Vakataka kingdom, Chandragupta II conquered western Malwa and Gujarat, which had been under the Sakas’ rule for about four centuries.
The conquest of Sakas was the most important event of Chandragupta-II’s reign. He destroyed the Saka chieftain Rudrasena III and annexed his kingdom.
The conquest gave Chandragupta the western sea coast, which was famous for trade and commerce. This contributed to the prosperity of Malwa and its chief city, Ujjain, which seems to have been Chandragupta II’s second capital.
Chandragupta-II is identified with “King Chandra,” whose exploits are mentioned in the Mehrauli Iron Pillar in the Qutab Minar complex in Delhi.
According to this inscription, Chandra crossed the Sindhu region of seven rivers and defeated Valhikas (who were identified as Bactria). Some scholars identify Chandragupta-II with the hero of Kalidasa’s work “Raghuvamasa” because Raghu’s exploits appear comparable with those of Chandragupta.
The Mehrauli inscription also mentions Chandragupta’s victory over enemies from Vanga (Bengal).

Chandragupta II adopted the title of “Vikramaditya”, which had been ﬁrst used by a Ujjain ruler in 58 B.C. as a mark of victory over the Sakas.
The Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hsien (399-414) visited India during Chandragupta’s time and wrote an elaborate account of the people’s lives.
In his memoirs, he vividly describes the places he visited and the specific social and administrative aspects related to them.
However, he does not mention the king’s name in his accounts. He speaks highly of the King of Madhya-desa, the region directly ruled by the Gupta monarch in this period.
Numerous scholars adorned Chandragupta II’s court at Ujjain, collectively known as the Navratnas, or the nine gems.
Chandragupta II was the first ruler to assume the ‘Param Bhagvat’ title.

Kumaragupta I (415 – 455 AD)

Chandragupta-II was succeeded by his son Kumaragupta also known as Mahendraditya.
The Damodarpur Copper Plate inscriptions (433 A.D. and 447 A.D.) refer to him as Maharajadhiraja and show that he appointed the governor (Uparika) of Pundravardhana bhukti (or province) being the biggest administrative division in the empire.
The last known date of Kumaragupta is from a silver coin dated 455 A.D. (Gupta Era 136).
The wide area over which his inscriptions are distributed indicates that he ruled over Magadha and Bengal in the east and Gujarat in the west.
It has been suggested that in the last year of his reign, the Gupta Empire faced a foreign invasion (a Hun invasion), which was checked by the efforts of his son Skandagupta.
He maintained a cordial relationship with the Vakatakas, established through matrimonial alliances earlier.
He established the Nalanda University in Bihar.

Skandagupta (455 – 467 AD)

Skandagupta, who succeeded Kumaragupta-I, was the last powerful Gupta monarch. He assumed the titles of Vikramaditya, Devaraj and Sakapan.
Skandagupta’s most significant achievement was defeating the Pushyamitras and throwing back the Huns, who had troubled the Gupta Empire since his father’s reign.
These wars adversely affected the empire’s economy, and the gold coinage of Skandagupta bears testimony to that.
Skandagupta minted fewer types of gold coins than earlier rulers. He appears to have been the last Gupta ruler to mint silver coins in western India.

However, the Junagadh inscription of his reign tells us about the public works undertaken during his times.
This indicates that the state undertook the task of public works.
The last known date of Skandagupta is 467 A.D. from his silver coins.

Later Guptas

There is not much clarity on the order of successors of Skandagupta.
The division of the Gupta Empire into many parts had already begun towards the close of Skandagupta’s reign.
Thus, an inscription from western Malwa, recorded in Skandagupta’s last year, does not refer to him but to some other rulers beginning with Chandragupta-II.
Inscriptions mention some of Skandagupta’s successors: Budhagupta, Vainyagupta, Bhanugupta, Narasimhagupta Baladitya, Kumaragupta-II, and Vismigupta.
It is unlikely they all ruled over a vast empire, as Chandragupta-II and Kumaragupta-I had done earlier.
The Guptas continued to rule until about 550 A.D., but by then, their power had already become insignificant.

Polity & Administration of Gupta Empire

The polity and administration of the Gupta Empire are as follows:

A range of ministers and officials managed military and other affairs under the king’s direction.
The Gupta Empire did not have an overly elaborate bureaucracy due to the effective decentralisation of administrative authority through land grants and friendly Samanta contracts with subdued neighbours.

This is evidenced by the Allahabad Pillar Inscription, which notes that Samudragupta did not kill or destroy his enemies but brought them under suzerainty.
In the Gupta Empire, a Samanta was a neighbouring subsidiary ruler, a friendly tributary of the Gupta overlords.
This is one reason that, unlike the Mauryan period, the Gupta Empire had a manageable bureaucracy.

The Gupta Empire administration was highly centralised. The king was at the top, wielding absolute power but often guided by a council of ministers.
The Gupta empire was divided into provinces called Bhuktis , each governed by a Uparika or provincial governor and further subdivided into Vishayas (districts) managed by officials called Vishayapatis .
Local administration involved village assemblies, which were essential in managing local affairs.
The Guptas maintained a strong bureaucratic system and relied on feudal lords and guilds for regional governance and tax collection. This system contributed to the Gupta empire’s long-lasting stability and prosperity.

Read our detailed article on Gupta Polity and Administration .

Economy of Gupta Empire

The developments in the economy of the Gupta Empire is as follows:

The economy during the Gupta period was characterised by flourishing trade, a well-functioning guild system, flourishing manufacturing industries, and a high standard of living.
Of course, agriculture was the main occupation of the people, but other occupations, like commerce and the production of crafts, had become specialized occupations in which different social groups were engaged.

Read our detailed article on Gupta Economy .

Guild System of Gupta Empire

A guild is an association of artisans or merchants who oversee the practice of their craft in a particular area.
In Gupta Era, the activities of Guilds increased considerably. Guilds came to acquire considerable autonomous power. These trade guilds were both politically and economically influential.
Guilds could control one trade in a province and wield economic dominance. Moreover, they became politically influential and also started maintaining militias.

Read our detailed article on Guild System .

Science and Technology of Gupta Empire

The developments in the science and technology of the Gupta Empire are as follows:

Gupta science and technology witnessed remarkable advancements, marking the period as a golden age of intellectual development in ancient India.
Scholars like Aryabhata and Varahamihira made significant contributions to mathematics and astronomy, with Aryabhata’s work on zero and the decimal system being particularly influential.
In medicine, Sushruta and Charaka authored seminal texts on surgery and herbal medicine.
The period also saw advancements in metallurgy, exemplified by the Iron Pillar of Delhi, which showcased sophisticated metalworking techniques.
These innovations reflect the Gupta era’s profound impact on scientific and technological progress.

Read our detailed article on Gupta Science & Technology .

Society in Gupta Empire

The developments in the society of the Gupta Empire are as follows:

Chandragupta II was a patron of art and literature. Samudragupta is represented on his coins playing the veena, and Chandragupta II is credited with maintaining nine luminaries or great scholars in his court.

In ancient India, art was mainly inspired by religion. Few survivors of non-religious art from ancient India exist. Buddhism gave great impetus to art in the Mauryan and post-Mauryan periods.
It led to the creation of massive stone pillars, the cutting of beautiful caves and the raising of high stupas or relic towers.
The stupas appeared as dome-like structures on round bases mainly of stone—numerous images of the Buddha.

Read our detailed article on Gupta Society .

Art and Architecture of Gupta Empire

The developments in the art and architecture of the Gupta Empire are as follows:

Gupta art and architecture represent a pinnacle of classical Indian artistic expression, characterised by refinement and grandeur.
Gupta sculpture is renowned for its elegant, graceful forms and intricate detailing, exemplified in works such as the Ajanta and Ellora Caves and the Udayagiri Caves.
The period is marked by the development of temple architecture, with the emergence of the Nagara style, characterised by its curvilinear shikhara (spire).
In the Ajanta Caves, Gupta paintings display vibrant colours and intricate narratives of Buddhist Jataka tales.
The era’s art and architecture reflected the cultural and religious dynamism of the time and laid the foundations for subsequent artistic traditions in India.

Read our detailed article on Gupta Art and Architecture.

Literature of Gupta Empire

The developments in the literature of the Gupta Empire are as follows:

Gupta literature flourished during the Gupta period (c. 320–550 CE) and is renowned for its contributions to Sanskrit literature and drama.
Classical Sanskrit literature saw significant development, with notable figures like Kalidasa , who penned masterpieces such as Shakuntala and Meghaduta, showcasing the richness of poetic and dramatic expression.
The era also saw the creation of important epic and devotional texts, including portions of the Mahabharata and Ramayana, as well as philosophical works by authors like Aryabhata .
Gupta literature is characterised by its use of sophisticated language, intricate poetic forms, and thematic diversity, reflecting the cultural and intellectual vibrancy of the period.

Read our detailed article on Gupta Literature .

Inscriptions of Gupta Empire

Gupta inscriptions are crucial historical sources from the Gupta period (c. 320–550 CE), offering insights into the era’s administration, culture, and religious practices.
Inscribed on various materials such as stone, copper plates, and pillars, these inscriptions document royal edicts, land grants, and religious dedications.
Notable examples include the Allahabad Pillar Edict of Samudragupta, which celebrates his military conquests and accomplishments.
Gupta inscriptions provide valuable information about the Gupta empire’s political and social organization, the spread of Hinduism, and the administrative practices of the Gupta rulers.

Read our detailed article on Gupta Inscriptions .

Decline of Gupta Empire

Towards the end of the 6th century, the Gupta Empire began falling. Some of the salient factors that contributed towards the disintegration of the Gupta empire are as follows:

Although the Gupta king Skandagupta initially tried effectively to stem the march of the Hunas into India, his successors proved to be weak. They could not cope with the Huna invaders, who excelled in horsemanship and possibly used metal stirrups.
They could move quickly, and being excellent archers, they seem to have attained considerable success in Iran and India.
No efforts were made to impose strict and effective control over these regions.
Hence it was natural that whenever there was a crisis of succession or a weak monarchy within the Gupta empire, these local chiefs would re-establish their independent authority.
This created a problem for almost every Gupta King who had to reinforce his authority.
The constant military campaigns were a strain on the state treasury.
Towards the end of the fifth century A.D. and beginning of sixth century A.D. taking advantage of the weak Gupta emperors, many regional powers reasserted their authority and in due course, declared their independence.
The governors appointed by the Gupta kings in north Bengal and their feudatories in Samatata or south-east Bengal tended to become independent.
Issuance of Land Grants : The Gupta Empire may have found it diﬁcult to maintain a large professional army due to the growing practice of land grants for religious and other purposes, which was bound to reduce its revenues.
The migration of a guild of silk weavers from Gujarat to Malwa in A.D. 473 and their adoption of non-productive professions show that there was little demand for the cloth they produced.
Besides the reasons quoted above, divisions within the imperial family, concentration of power in the hands of local chiefs or governors, and a loose administrative structure contributed to the disintegration of the Gupta empire.

Importance of Gupta Empire

The importance of the Gupta Empire can be seen as follows:

The Gupta Empire was one of the world’s largest political and military empires. It was ruled by members of the Gupta dynasty from around 320 to 600 CE and covered most parts of Northern India.
The peace and prosperity established during the reign of the Gupta rulers enabled the pursuit of scientific and artistic endeavours.
Significant achievements were made in the arts, literature, and religion. Sanskrit poetry, drama, and art grew in importance, resulting in the Gupta period being known as the classical age of Indian culture and arts.
Major scientific advances were realized in astronomy, medicine, and mathematics. The decimal system of numerals, which included the concept of zero, was developed.

The Gupta Empire’s legacy is profound, reflecting a period of exceptional cultural and intellectual achievement that has left an indelible mark on Indian history. From flourishing classical Sanskrit literature and sophisticated artistic expressions to groundbreaking advancements in science and technology, the Gupta Period represents a high watermark in India’s historical and cultural evolution. Despite its eventual decline due to internal weaknesses and external pressures, the impact of the Gupta Empire endures, underscoring its importance as a cornerstone of ancient Indian civilisation.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Who was the founder of gupta empire.

Chandragupta I was the founder of the Gupta Empire.

What is the Gupta Empire best known for?

The Gupta Empire is best known for its “Golden Age of India,” which was marked by significant achievements in the arts, science, mathematics, astronomy, and literature.

Why is the Gupta Empire important?

The Gupta Empire is important for its Golden Age of cultural, scientific, and mathematical advancements, including the concept of zero and significant achievements in literature and art. The Gupta Empire provided political stability, fostering economic growth and intellectual development.

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Cheras Empire: History, Rulers, Administration & More

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The salient features of the administrative system of the guptas | history.

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The Salient Features of the Administrative System of the Guptas are as follows:

Contemporary inscriptions and literary sources throw light on the polity and administrative system of the Gupta period. Land and land relations acquired central stage in the economic life of the period and flourishing trade of the post Mauryan- pre-Gupta period declined sharply in this period.

Image Courtesy : lh3.googleusercontent.com/-5pZiKHM-nxI/TttfA_CsisI/13.JPG

The period was also marked by the growing significance of land grants which led to decentralization of political authority of the king and finally gave birth to feudalism in Indian history.

The law of the primogeniture was not firmly established, and sometimes elder sons were passed over in favour of younger sons. The king appointed ministers, commanders, governors etc. He received the obeisance of his vassals and princes. His pompous titles Paramesvara, Maharajadhiraja, Paramabhattaraka indicate the existence of lesser princes and chiefs with whom he had to come to terms in his empire.

The maintenance of the Varnasrama Dharma appear as an important royal duty in Gupta inscription imposed upon the king, who is described as the giver of thousands of gold coins. The second change noticeable in the Gupta kingship is not qualitative but quantitative and relates to its divine associations. They are compared to Vishnu as regards their function of preserving and protecting the people, and Laxmi, wife of Vishnu and goddess of prosperity appears on many Gupta coins.

Ministers called by different names such as Mantrin, Amatya or sachiva may have restrained the despotic activities of the king, although inscriptions give very little idea of their functions and no idea of their corporate existence. Undoubtedly some individual ministers such as Harisena were powerful because of having combined posts of the Mahadan- danayaka, Kumaramatya, Sanhivigrahika in the same person. And then the post became hereditary in the same family for several generations. Such families must have played an important part in politics.

Ministers or advisers formed part of the higher bureaucracy of the Guptas. Among the other high officers we may take special notice of the Sandhivigrahika, who are not known to earlier inscription. Like the Mahamatras under Ashoka and the Amatyas under the Satavahanas, the Kuma- ramatyas formed the chief cadre for recruiting high functionaries under the Guptas. Literally translated as the minister of peace and war, the Sandhivigrahika first appears under Samudragupta whose Amatya Harisena holds this title.

We have the famous example of Harisena, who held the several important portfolios. We hear of Kumaramatya who held the offices of the Mahasvapti and Mahadanayka. We have no precise idea about the mode of payment to the officers under the Gupta Empire. The discovery of numerous Gupta’s gold coins and their use in land transaction in Bengal coupled with the prevalence of the tax known as Hiranya would suggest that at least higher officers were paid in cash.

Three grades of military commands came into existence, namely those of Mahabaladhikrta, Mahadanayaka and Senapati. The cavalry, the elephant corps and perhaps also the infantry were organized under separate commands. Civil officials such as Amatyas, Kumaramatyas, etc. performed military functions or were promoted to the rank of high military officers.

A ministers hailing from Pataliputra accompanied Chandragupta II on his campaign to Western India. Similarly military officers may have performed civil functions.

The taxation system of the Guptas was not so elaborate and organised like that of the Arthasastra of Kautilya. The villagers paid in kind certain customary miscellaneous dues, which could be measured but these are not specified. They also paid hiranya or gold, but what it actually meant cannot be said. The artisans also had to pay some imposts, and traders were subjected to customs on commodities of trade, which were levied and collected by the custom officer.

Guptas evolved the first systematic provincial and local administration. This was primarily concerned with the collection of revenues and maintenance of law and order. The core, of the empire directly controlled by the Guptas was divided -into a number of provinces. A Gupta province was smaller than a Mauryan province, but much larger than a modem division.

The Bhukti was the largest administrative unit under the Guptas and there were at least six such divisions over Bengal, Jharkhand. Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh. It was placed in charge of an Uparika. The exact connotation of this high officer is obscure, probably in origin it had something to do with the collection of Uparikara, an additional impost on the peasants in addition to the fixed annual share of the produce.

The officer was undoubtedly a governor appointed by the Gupta King, but the literal meaning of the term Bhukti suggests that the territory placed under his charge was intended to be enjoyed rather than governed by him in its own interest. It is a pity that we have no information regarding the functions of the head of the Bhukti.

The Bhukti was divided into V’isayas or districts, whose number is not known. The visayas of Rajgriha, Pataliputra and Gaya were included in Megadhbhukti which, if we believe the geographical details in the Spurious Nalanda grant of Samudragupta, also included Krimila Visaya, roughly corresponding to Munger, Lakhisarai, Shekhpura, Jamui, Khagria and Begusarai districts and extending over both the north and south of the Ganges.

In Tirabhukti, Vaisali was the headquarter of a Visaya, although it is mentioned as such in only one seal and here to the reading is doubtful. In Pundravardhan bhukti, now in Bangladesh, the Visaya of Kotivarsa was a famous administrative unit.

The Visaya was in charge of the Kumaramatya in early times, but later it came to be placed under the Visayapati. Ordinarily in Bengal, Jharkhand and Bihar the Visayapati was the head of the local office or Adhikarna. But in one case in western U.P. he was placed in charge of a district called Bhoga.

We have some idea of the way the district governor maintained his power in the Visaya of Kotivarsa. He based his authority on the force consisting if elephants, cavalry and infantry, whose cost was defrayed probably out of the revenues supplied by the district. Perhaps every district had a strong military contingent to back civil authority in times of need.

The Visaya was divided into Vithis. In Bihar we know of Nandivithi, whose headquarters lay 2 miles to the northwest of Surajgarha in South Munger. But several vithis are known from Bengal, and in one case we have full information about the composition of the committee which took part in its government.

The vithi consisted of villages which formed the lowest unit of administration; several of these are mentioned in Gupta inscriptions and seals. The leading part in managing the affairs of the village was taken by its gramika and elders known as the mahattama, mahattaka or mahattara.

The term Gramadhipati and Gramasyadhipati used in contemporary texts would suggest that the village headman was treated as the lord of the village. If we rely on a passage from the Kamasutra of Vatsyayana, perhaps in western India, where this text was composed, the village headman called Gramadhipati Ayuktaka tended to become all powerful.

The expanding scope of the village administration is a significant aspect of the Gupta polity. This did not come to happen because the state raised too many taxes to maintain a large official apparatus nor had too many copper coins to pay minor employees. Naturally many of the functions once performed by the central government devolved on the village administration, which was dominated by feudal and influential elements.

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History of the Gupta Empire

Read this article to learn about the whole history of the Gupta Empire. It’s Foundation, Rulers, Administration, Economy, Social Developments, Culture and Literature !

After centuries of political disintegration an empire came to be established in A.D. 319, under the Guptas. Although the Gupta Empire was not as large as the Maurya Empire, it kept north India politically united for more than a century, from A. D. 335 to 455.

The ancestry and early history of the Gupta family are little known, and have naturally given rise to various speculations.

But very likely they were initially a family of landowners who acquired political control in the region of Magadha and parts of eastern Uttar Pradesh. Uttar Pradesh seems to have been a more important province for the Guptas than Bihar, because early Gupta coins and inscriptions have been mainly found in that region.

The COININDIA Coin Galleries: Gupta: Samudragupta

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Hence Uttar Pradesh seems to have been the place from where the Guptas operated and fanned out in different directions. Probably with their centre of power at Prayag they spread in the neighbouring regions. The Guptas were possibly the feudatories of the Kushanas in Uttar Pradesh, and seem to have succeeded them without any wide time-lag.

The Guptas enjoyed certain material advantages. The centre of their operations lay in the fertile land of Madhyadesha covering Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. They could exploit the iron ores of central India and south Bihar. Further, they took advantage of their proximity to the areas in north India which carried on silk trade with the Byzantine Empire.

On account of these favourable factors, the Guptas set up their rule over Anuganga (the middle Gangetic basin), Prayag (modern Allahabad), Saket (modern Ayodhya) and Magadha. In course of time this kingdom became an all-India empire.

The Early Guptas :

An inscription tells us that Sri Gupta was the first king and Ghatotkacha was the next to follow him with the title Maharaja. This title was often borne by feudatory chiefs. The Poona copper plate inscription of Prabhavati Gupta describes Sri Gupta as the Adhiraja of the Gupta dynasty.

In the Riddhapura copper plate inscription, it is stated that Sri Gupta belonged to the Dharan Gotra.

Chandragupta I (A.D. 319-320 to 335):

The first Gupta ruler of consequence was Chandragupta I, son of Ghatotkacha. By marrying a Lichchhavi Princes Kumaradevi he sought to gain in prestige, though Vaishali does not appear to have been a part of his kingdom. His rule remained confined to Magadha and parts of eastern Uttar Pradesh (Saketa and Prayaga). He took the title of Maharajadhiraja, and his accession in about A.D. 319-20 marked the beginning of Gupta era.

Samudragupta (A.D. 335-380):

Chandragupta I was succeeded by his son Samudragupta probably in A.D. 325. Samudragupta became the ruler after subduing his rival Kacha, an obscure prince of the dynasty. His conquests are known from a lengthy eulogy composed by his court-poet Harishena and inscribed on an Asokan pillar at Allahabad. This account contains a long list of states, kings and tribes which were conquered and brought under various degrees of subjugation.

The list can be divided into four categories:

1. The first category includes the twelve states of Dakshinapatha with the names of their kings who were captured and then liberated and reinstated. They were Kosala, Mahakantara, Kaurata, Pishtapura, Kottura, Erandapalli, Kanchi, Avamukta, Vengi, Palakka, Devrashtra and Kushthalpura.

2. The second category includes the names of the eight kings of Aryavarta, who were violently exterminated; prominent of them were Rudradwa, Ganapatinaga, Nagasena, etc.

3. The third category consists of the rulers of the forest states (atavirarajyas) who were reduced to servitude and the chief of the five Border States (pratyantas) and nine tribal republics that were forced to pay all kinds of taxes obey his orders and came to perform obeisance.

The five Border States were Samtata (South-east Bengal), Kamarupa (Assam), Nepala (Nepal), Davaka (Assam) and Kartipura (Kashmir). The nine tribal republics were the Malavas, Yaudheyas, Madrakas, Abhiras, Prarjunas, Arjunayanas, Sarakinakas, Kavas and Kharaparikas.

4. The fourth category consists of the Daivaputra Shahi Shahanushahi (Kushanas), the Shaka-, Murundas, the dwellers of Sinhala (Ceylon) and all the other islands who paid tribute to the King.

Harishena, the court poet of Samudragupta rightly describes him as the hero of a hundred battles, and Vincent Smith calls him the ‘Napoleon of India’. But inspite of his preoccupation with political and military affairs, he cultivated music and poetry. Some of his gold coins represent him as playing on the lyre.

The Guptas were followers of the Brahmanical religion and Samudragupta performed the Asvamedha sacrifice. However, he fully maintained the tradition of religious toleration. According to a Chinese source, Meghavarman, the ruler of Sri Lanka was granted permission by Samudragupta to build a monastery at Bodha Gaya.

Chandragupta II (A.D. 380-412):

Samudragupta was succeeded by his younger son Chandragupta II. But, according to some scholars, Samudragupta who died shortly before A. D. 380 was succeeded by his eider son Ramagupta. The drama Devichandraguptam of Vishakhadatta suggests that Ramagupta suddenly attacked by the Sakas, made peace with them on condition that his queen Dhruvadevi was to be surrendered to the Saka chief.

This infuriated his younger brother Chandragupta, who went himself in the disguise of the queen to the Saka chief and killed him. Then he murdered his royal brother Ramagupta and married the queen. The official records of the Guptas, however do not refer to Ramagupta and trace the succession directly from Samudragupta to Chandragupta II.

Devichandraguptam of Vishakhadatta:

The reign of Chandragupta II saw the high watermark of the Gupta Empire. He extended the limits of the empire by marriage alliance and conquests. Chandragupta II married Kuberanaga of the Naga family. The Nagas were a powerful ruling clan and this matrimonial alliance helped the Gupta ruler in expanding his empire.

The marriage of his daughter Prabhavati by his wife Kubernaga with the Vakataka king Rudrasena II helped him to establish his political influence in the Deccan. With his great influence in this area, Chandragupta II conquered western Malwa and Gujarat from the Shaka Kshatrap, Rudrasimha III.

The conquest gave Chandragupta the Western sea coast, famous for trade and commerce. This contributed to the prosperity of Malwa, and its chief city Ujjain. Ujjain seems to have been made the second capital of Chandragupta II.

‘King Chandra’ whose exploits has been mentioned in the Mehrauli Iron Pillar Inscription, which is located in the Qutub-Minar complex in Delhi is identified by many scholars with Chandragupta II. According to this inscription, Chandra crossed the Sindhu region of seven rivers and defeated Valhikas (identified with Bacteria). It also mentions Chandragupta’s victory over enemies from Vanga (Bengal).

Chandragupta II adopted the title of Vikramaditya which had been first used by an Ujjain ruler in 57 B.C. as a mark of victory over the Saka Kshatrapas of western India. An important incident which took place during his reign was the visit of Fa-Hien, a Chinese pilgrim, who came to India in search of Buddhist texts. The court of Chandragupta II at Ujjain was adorned by numerous scholars including Kalidasa and Amarasimha.

Kumaragupta I (412-454 A.D.) :

Chandragupta II died about A.D. 413 and was succeeded by his son Kumaragupta who enjoyed a long reign of more than forty years. He performed the Asvamedha sacrifice, but we do not know of any military success achieved by him.

He maintained intact the vast empire built up by his two predecessors. Towards the close of his reign the empire was menaced by hordes of the Pushyamitras probably a tribe allied to the Hunas which were defeated by the Crown prince Skandagupta.

Skandagupta (454-467 A.D.):

Skandagupta, who succeeded Kumaragupta I, was perhaps the last powerful Gupta monarch. To consolidate his position he had to fight the Pushyamitras, and the country faced Huna invasion from access the frontiers in the north-west. However, Skandagupta was successful in throwing the Huns back.

This heroic feat entitled him, like Chandragupta II, to assume the title of Vikramaditya. It appears that these wars adversely affected the economy of the empire, and the debased gold coinage of Skandagupta bears testimony to these. Moreover, he appears to have been the last Gupta ruler to mint silver coins in western India.

The Junagarh inscription of his reign tells us about the public works undertaken during his times. The Sudarsana lake (originally built during the Maurya times) burst due to excessive rains and in the early part of his rule his governor Parnadatta and his son Chakrapalita got it repaired. The last known date of Skandagupta is 467 A.D. from his silver coins.

The last days of the Gupta Empire :

Skandagupta died about A.D. 467 and the line of succession after him is very uncertain. Purugupta, a son of kumaragupta, ruled for some time and was succeeded by his son Budhagupta whose earliest known date is A. D. 477 and the latest A.D. 495. He was succeeded by his brother Narasimhagupta Baladitya.

A king named Kumaragupta II is known to have reigned in A.D. 474. This indicates internal dissension which continued after the end of Budhagupta’s reign. He was succeeded by his son and grandson, Kumaragupta III and Visnugupta – the three reigns covered the period A.D. 500-550. Two otherkinos, Vainyagupta (A.D. 507) and Bhanugupta (A.D. 510) ruled in Samatataand Nalandaand in Eran respectively. The Guptas continued to rule till about 550 A.D., but by then their power had already become very insignificant.

Fall of the Empire :

The successors of Chandragupta II had to face an invasion by the Hunas from Central Asia in the second half of the fifth century A.D. Although in the beginning, the Gupta king Skandagupta tried effectively to stem the march of the Hunas into India; his successors proved to be weak and could not cope with the Huna invaders. By 485 A.D. the Hunas occupied eastern Malwa and a good portion of Central India. Thus, the Huna attacks caused a major blow to the Gupta authority particularly in northern and western regions of the empire.

The Huna power was soon overthrown by Yashodharman of Malwa, who successfully challenged the authority of the Guptas and set up, in 532 A.D., pillars of victory commemorating his conquest of J almost the whole of northern India. Yashodharman’s rule was short-lived, but it meant a severe blow to the Gupta Empire.

The policy adopted by the Guptas in the conquered areas was to restore the authority of local chiefs or kings once they had accepted Gupta suzerainty. In fact, no efforts were made to impose a strict and effective control over these regions. Hence it was natural that whenever there was a crisis of succession or a weak monarchy within the Gupta Empire these local chiefs would re-establish their independent authority.

Divisions within the imperial family, concentration of power in the hands of local chiefs or governors, loose administrative structure of the empire, decline of foreign trade, growing practice of land grants for religious and other purposes, etc. contributed towards the disintegration of the Gupta Empire.

Gupta Administration :

Unlike the Mauryas, the Guptas adopted such pompous titles as Parameshvara Maharajadhiraja, Paramabhattaraka, etc., which imply the existence of lesser kings with considerable authority within the empire. Besides, the Guptas added other epithets claiming for themselves super-human qualities which raised them almost to the level of gods. In fact, in the Allahabad Pillar Inscription, Samudragupta is referred to as a god dwelling on earth. Kingship was hereditary, but royal power was limited by the absence of a firm practice of primogeniture.

Council of Ministers and other officials :

The Guptas continued the traditional machinery of bureaucratic administration but it was not as elaborate as that of the Mauryas. The Mantri (chief-minister) stood at the head of civil administration. Among other high imperial officers were included the Mahabaladikrta (commander-in-chief), the Mahadandanayaka (general) and the Mahapratihara (chief of the palace guards).

The Mahabaladhikrta, probably corresponding to the Mahasenapati of the Satavahana kings, controlled a staff or subordinate officers such as the Mahashvapati (chief of cavalry), Mahapilupati (officer in charge of elephants), Senapati and Baladhikrta. A high ranking official, heard for the first time in the Gupta records was the Sandhivigrahika (the foreign minister).

A link between the central and the provincial administration under the Guptas is furnished by the class of officers called Kumaramatyas and Ayuktas. The Kumaramatyas were the high officers and the personal staff of the emperor and were appointed by the king in the home provinces and possibly paid in cash. Recruitment was not confined to the upper varnas only and several offices came to be combined in the hands of the same person, and posts became hereditary.

This naturally weakened the royal control. The Ayuktas were entrusted with the task of restoring the wealth of kings conquered by the emperor and sometimes placed in charge of districts or metropolitan towns.

The numerical strength of the Gupta army is not known. In contrast to the Mauryas, the Guptas do not seem to have possessed a big organized army. Probably troops supplied by the feudatories constituted the major portion of the Gupta military strength. Also, the Guptas did not enjoy a monopoly of elephants and horses, which were essential ingredients of military machinery.

All this lead to the increasing dependence on feudatories, who wielded considerable authority at least on the fringes of the empire. Chariots receded into the background, and cavalry came to the forefront.

The Mahabaladhikrta (commander-in-chief) controlled a staff or subordinate officers as mentioned above. The army was paid in cash and its needs were well looked after by an officer-in-charge of stores called Ranabhandagarika.

Revenue Administration :

Land revenue was the main source of the state’s income besides the fines. In Samudragupta’s time we hear of an officer Gopasramin working as Akshapataladhikrita whose duty was to enter numerous matters in the accounts registers, recover royal dues, to check embezzlement and recover fines.

Another prominent high official was Pustapala (record-keeper). The Gupta kings maintained a regular department for the proper survey and measurement of land as well as for the collection of land revenue.

Provinces, Districts and Villages :

The provinces or divisions called bhuktis were governed by Uparikas directly appointed by the kings. The province was often divided into districts known as Vishayas which were ruled by Kumaramatyas, Ayuktas or Vishayapatis. His appointment was made by the provincial governors.

Gupta inscriptions from Bengal shows that the Municipal board – Adhisthanadhikarana associated with itself renresentation from major local communities: the Nagarasresthi (guild president), the chief merchant Sarthavaha, the chief artisan – Prathama Kulika and the chief scribe – Prathama Kayastha. Besides them were the Pustapalas – officials whose work was to manage and keep records.

The lowest unit of administration was the village. In eastern India, the vishayas were divided into vithis, which again was divided into villages. The Gramapati or Gramadhyaksha was the village headman. The Gupta inscriptions from north Bengal show that there were other units higher than the villages such as the Rural Board – Asthakuladhikarana which comprised of the village elders – Mahattaras and also included the village headman – Gramika and the householders Kutumbins.

With the absence of any close supervision of the state, village affairs were now managed by the leading local elements. No land transactions could be affected without their consent. The village disputes were also settled by these bodies with the help of Grama-vriddhas or Mahattaras (village elders). The town administration was carried on by the mayor of the city called Purapala.

Gupta Economy:

Agriculture :.

The agricultural crops constituted the main resources which the society produced and the major part of the revenue of the state came from the agriculture. It is argued by many scholars that the state was the exclusive owner of the land. The most decisive argument in favour of the exclusive state ownership of land is in the Paharpur copper plate inscription of Buddhagupta. It appears that though the land was to all intents and purposes that of the peasants, the king claimed its theoretical ownership.

Various types of land are mentioned in the inscriptions; land under cultivation was usually called Kshetra, Khila was the uncultivable land, Aprahata was the jungle or forest land, Gopata Sarah was the pasture land and Vasti was the habitable land.

Different land measures were known in different regions such as Nivartana, Kulyavapa and Dronavapa. The importance of irrigation to help agriculture was recognized in India from the earliest times. According to Narada, there are two kinds of dykes the bardhya which protected the field from floods and the Khaya which served the purpose of irrigation.

The canals which were meant to prevent inundation were also mentioned by Amarasimha as jalanirgamah. The tanks were variously called, according to their sizes, as the vapi, tadaga and dirghula. Another method for irrigation was the use of ghati-yantra or araghatta.

Land Grants :

The sources of the Gupta period suggest that certain important changes were taking place in the agrarian society. Feudal development surfaced under the Guptas with the grant of fiscal and administrative concessions to priests and administrators. Started in the Deccan by the Satavahanas, the practice became a regular affair in Gupta times.

Religious functionaries were granted land, free of tax, forever, and they were authorised to collect from the peasants all the taxes which could have otherwise gone to the emperor. Religious grants were of two types: Agrahara grants were meant for the Brahmanas which meant to be perpetual, hereditary and tax-free, accompanied with the assignment of all land revenue.

The Devagrahara grants were made to secular parties such as writers and merchants, for the purpose of repair and worship of temples. The secular grants were made to secular parties and are evident from a grant made by the Uccakalpa dynasty.

According to it, two villages were bestowed as a mark of favour, in perpetuity with fiscal and administrative rights upon a person called Pulindabhatta. Epigraphic evidence of land grants made to officers for the administrative and military services is lacking, though such grants cannot be ruled out.

In fact, certain designations of administrative officers such as bhagika and bhogapalika suggest that some of the state officials may have been remunerated by land grants.

Position of Peasantry :

The land grants paved the way for feudal development in India. Several inscriptions refer to the emergence of serfdom, which meant that the peasants were attached to their land even when it was given away. Thus in certain parts of the country the position of independent peasants were under- mined, and they were reduced to serfs or semi-serfs. The repression of the peasantry was also caused by the right of subinfeudation granted to the recipients of land grants.

They were often authorised to enjoy the land, to get it enjoyed, to cultivate it or get it cultivated. The donated land could thus be assigned to tenants on certain terms. This also implied the donee’s right to evict the tenants from their land. The practice of subinfeudation therefore reduced the permanent tenants to the position of ten- ants-at-will. The position of peasants was also undermined from the Gupta period onwards on account of the imposition of forced labour (Vishti) and several new levies and taxes.

Crafts Production and Industry :

Crafts production covered a wide range of items. Texts like Amarakosha of Amarasimha and Brihat Samhita which are generally dated to this period, list many items, give their Sanskrit names and also mention different categories of craftsmen who manufactured them.

Many important sites like Taxila, Ahichchhatra, Mathura, Rajghat, Kausambi and Pataliputra have yielded many craft products like earthen wares, terracottas, beads made of different stones, objects of glass, items made of metals, etc.

Different varieties of silk, cloth, called Kshauma and Pattavastra are mentioned in the text of this period. An inscription of fifth century from Mandasor in western Malwa refers to a guild of silk weavers who had migrated from south Gujarat and settled in the Malwa region. Among the various industries that flourished in the Gupta period, mining and metallurgy certainly occupied the top position.

The Amarakosha gives a comprehensive list of metals. Of all the metals, iron was the most useful, and blacksmiths were only next to the peasants in the rural community. The most eloquent evidence of the high stage of development which metallurgy had attained in the Gupta period is the Mehrauli iron pillar of King Chandra, usually identified as Chandragupta II.

Contemporary literature also testifies to the wide use of jewellery by the people of the time. A significant development of the period in metal technology was the manufacture of seals and statues, particularly of the Buddha.

Ivory work remained at a premium, as did stone cutting and carving, sculpture being very much in favour at this time. The cutting, polishing and preparing of a variety of precious stones – jasper, agate, carnelian, quartz, lapis – lazuli, etc., were also associated with foreign trade.

Pottery remained a basic part of industrial production, though the elegant black – polished ware was no longer used, instead an ordinary red ware with a brownish slip was produced in large quantities, some of it being made to look more opulent by the addition of mica in the clay which gave the vessels a metallic finish.

Trade and Commerce :

There was not much material change in the trade routes, commercial organization, currency systems, trade practices, etc. during the period. Like the previous phase, we have reference to two types of merchants in the Gupta period, namely Sresthi who was usually settled at a particular place and enjoyed an eminent position and the Sarthavaha who was a caravan trader. The articles of internal trade included all sorts of commodities for everyday use, chiefly sold in villages and town markets.

On the other hand, luxury goods formed the principal articles of long distance trade. Narada and Brihaspati laid down many regulations to govern the trade practices of the time. Compared to the earlier period, there was a decline in long-distance trade. Silk and spices were the chief Indian export articles of Indo-Roman trade. But by the middle of the sixth century silk worms were secretly brought overland from China and introduced into the Byzantine Empire. This produced an adverse effect on India’s trade with the west.

Later, the expansion of the Arabs under the banner of Islam may have further disrupted India’s trade. Indian merchants meanwhile had begun to rely more heavily on the South-East Asian trade. The establishment of Indian trading stations in various parts of South-east Asia meant the diversion of income to this region. The commercial prosperity of the Gupta era was the concluding phase of the economic momentum which began in the preceding period.

Guilds, (nigama, sreni) continued as the major institution in the manufacture of goods and in commercial enterprise. They remained almost autonomous in their internal organization, the government respecting their laws which were generally drafted by a larger body, the corporation of guilds, of which each guild was a member.

Each guild had a president called Prathama or Pravara. Some of the industrial guilds, such as the silk weaver’s guilds had their own separate corporation which was responsible for large-scale projects, such as endowments for building a temple, etc.

The Buddhist church or Sangha was by now rich enough to participate in commercial activities. The rate of interest on loans varied according to the purpose for which money was required. The high rates demanded during the Mauryan period on loans to be used for overseas trade were no longer demanded, indicating an increased confidence in overseas trade. The average rate was now twenty percent per annum as against two hundred and forty of the earlier period. The lowering of the rate of interest also indicates the greater availability of goods and the consequent decrease in rates of profit.

Commercial decline is indicated by the paucity of coins of common use. The Guptas issued the largest number of gold coins (dinaras) in ancient India; but these hardly flowed into day-to-day private economic relations. Copper and silver coins of the period are few. Fa-Hien tells us that cowries became the common medium of exchange.

It is, therefore argued that economy in the Gupta period was largely based on self-sufficient units of production in villages and towns, and that money economy was gradually becoming weaker at this time.

Languishing trade explains the decline of urban centres at least in the Gangetic plains, which formed the heartland of the Gupta Empire.

Social Developments:

Land grants to the brahmanas on a large scale suggest that the brahmana supremacy continued in Gupta times. The term dvija was now beginning to be used increasingly for the brahmanas. The greater the emphasis on brahmana purity the greater was the stress laid on the impurity of the outcaste. The Varna system seems to have been considerably modified owing to the proliferation of castes.

The khastriya caste swelled up with the influx of the Hunas and subsequently of the Gurjars who joined their ranks as Rajputs. The increase in the number of shudra castes and untouchables was largely due to the absorption of backward forest tribes into the settled Varna society. Often guilds of craftsmen were transformed into castes.

It has been suggested that transfers of lands or land revenues gave rise to a new caste, that of the kayasthas (scribes) who undermined the monopoly of the brahmanas as scribes. The position of the shudras improved in this period and they were now permitted to listen to the epics and the Puranas. They were also allowed to perform certain domestic rites which naturally brought fee to the priests.

All this can be attributed to a change in the economic status of the shudras. The practice of untouchability became more intense than in the earlier period. Penance was provided to remove the sin arising out of touching a chandala.

Fa-Hien informs us that the chandala, entering the gate of a city or market place, would strike a piece of wood to give prior notice of his arrival so that men could avoid him. The Varna system did not always function smoothly. The Shanti Parva of the Mahabharata, which may be assigned to the Gupta period, contains at least nine verses which stress the need of combination of the brahmanas and the kshatriyas; these may indicate some kind of concerted opposition from the vaishyas and shudras.

The Anushashana Parva of the Mahabharata represents the shudras as destroyer of the king. Most of the legal texts of the period took the Dharmashastra of Manu as their basis and elaborated upon it. A number of such works were written during this period, the best know being those of Yajnavalkya, Narada, Brihaspati and Katyayana. The joint family system, which became an essential feature of Hindu caste-society, was prevalent at the time.

Status of Women :

The status of women continued to decline. In a patriarchal set-up the men began to treat women as items of property, so much so that a woman was expected to follow her husband to the next world. The practice of sati (self-immolation at the funeral pyre of the husband) gained approval of the jurists.

But it seems to have been confined to the upper classes. The first memorial of a saf/dated A.D. 510 is found at Eran in Madhya Pradesh. Lawgivers of the period, almost unanimously advocated early marriage; some of them preferred even pre-puberty marriage. Celibacy was to be strictly observed by widows.

Women were denied any right to property except for stridhana in the form of jewellery, garments, and similar other presents made to the bride on the occasion of her marriage. They were not entitled to formal education.

In the Gupta period, like shudras, women were also allowed tolisten to epics and the Puranas, and advised to worship Krishna. But women of higher orders did not have access to independent sources of livelihood in pre-Gupta and Gupta times. The fact that women of the two lower varnas were free to earn their livelihood gave them considerable freedom, which was denied to women of the upper varnas.

Social life :

Prosperous town dwellers seem to have lived in comfort and ease. The Kamasutra describes the life of a well-to-do citizen as one devoted to the pleasures and refinements of life. Theatrical entertair- ment was popular both in court circles and outside. Dance performances and music concerts were held mainly in the homes of the wealthy and the discerning.

Gambling, animal fights, athletics and gymnastics were an important part of sporting events. Amusements of various kinds in which the general public participated were essential to the various festivals, whether religious or secular.

Contrary to Fa-Hien’s statement that vegetarianism was customary in India, meat was commonly eaten. Drinking of wine and the chewing of betel-leaf was a regular practice.

Culture of the Gupta Age :

The Gupta period is called the Golden Age of ancient India. This may not be true in the political and socio-economic fields because of several unhappy developments during the period.

However, it is evident from the archaeological findings that the Guptas possessed a large amount of gold, whatever might be its source, and they issued the largest number of gold coins.

Princes and richer people could divert a part of their income for the support of those engaged in art and literature. Both Samudragupta and Chandragupta II were patrons of art and literature. Samudragupta is represented on his coins playing the lute (veena) and Chandragupta II is credited with maintaining in his court nine luminaries or great scholars. The Gupta period witnessed Golden Age only in the fields of art, literature etc.

Gupta Arts and Architecture :

Religion was intimately connected with the developments in architecture and plastic arts.

Earlier developments in plastic arts seem to have culminated in the Gupta sculpture. The most important contribution of Gupta sculpture is the evolution of the perfect types of divinities, both Buddhist and Brahmanical.

A large number of Buddha images have been unearthed at Sarnath, and one of them is justly regarded as the finest in the whole of India. Stone and bronze images of Buddha have also been found at Mathura and other places.

The images of Siva, Vishnu and other Brahmanical gods are sculptured in some of the finest panels of the Deogarh temple (Jhansi district). Of the Brahmanical images perhaps the most impressive is the Great Boar (Varaha), at the entrance of a cave in Udayagiri.

The art of casting metals reached a degree of development. Fa-Hien saw an over 25 metre high image of the Buddha made of copper, but it is not traceable now. The Bronze Buddha, found at Sultanganj, is 71/2 feet high and is a fine piece of sculpture. The Iron Pillar of Delhi, near the Qutub-Minar, is a marvellous work belonging to the early Gupta period.

Architecture:

The Gupta period was poor in architecture. The doctrine of bhakti and the growing importance of image worship led to the construction of the free standing temple with its sanctuary (garbha griha), in which the central cult image was placed. The Gupta period marks the beginning of Indian temple architecture. The temples are simple and impretentious structures, but their bearing upon later developments is of great significance. The following well defined types may be recognized.

1. Flat roofed, square temple with a shallow pillared porch in front.

2. Flat rooted, square temple with a covered ambulatory around the sanctum and proceeded by a pillared porch, sometimes with a second story above.

3. Square temple with a low and squat sikhara (tower) above.

4. Rectangular temple with an apsidal back and a barrel – vaulted roof above.

5. Circular temple with shallow rectangular projections at the four cardinal faces.

The first three types of may be regarded as the forerunners of medieval Indian temple styles. Representative examples of the first include temple No. XVII at Sanchi, Kankali Devi temple at Tigawa and Vishnu and Varaha temples at Eran.

The nucleus of a Temple (garbha – griha) with a single entrance and a porch (mandapa) appears for the first time as an integrated composition in this type of Gupta temples. The second type is represented by Parvati temple at Nachna Kuthara and the Siva temple at Bhumara (both in M P). This group of temples shows many of the characteristic features of the dravida style.

Notable examples of the third type are seen in the so called Dasavatara Temple at Deogarh (Jhansi district) and the brick temple at Bhitargaon (Kanpur district). The importance of this group lies in the innovation of a shikhara or tower that caps the sanctum, the main feature of the nagara style.

The fourth type is represented by a temple at Ter (Sholapur district) and the Kapoleshvara temple at Aihole. The fifth is represented by a solitary monument known as Maniyar Matha at Rajgir, Bihar.

The rock-cut caves continue the old forms to a large extent, some of the caves at Ajanta and Ellora (Maharashtra) and Bagh (M.P.) may be assigned to the Gupta period. Both Chaitya and Vihara caves were excavated at Ajanta and the Vihara cave No. XVI and XVII and the Chaitya cave no. XIX are thebest artistic monuments of the Gupta period.

The earliest of the Brahmanical shrines are to be seen in group of caves at Udayagiri (MP.). The caves at Mogulrajapuram, Undavalli and Akkannamadanna in the Andhra country beiong to the Gupta period.

Stupas were also built in large numbers, but the best are found at Sarnath (Dhamekh Stupa), Rajgir (Jarasindha – k.a – Baithak), Mirpur Khan in Sindh and at Ratnagiri (Orissa).

Paintings :

The art of painting reached its height of glory and splendour in this age. The most important examples of the Gupta paintings are to be found on the wall frescos of the Ajanta caves, the Bagh caves. The Gupta painters also painted incidents from the life of Buddha during the Gupta period.

Cave No. XVI at Ajanta has the scene known as “Dying Princess”. Cave no. XVII has been called a picture gallery. At Ajanta other prominent cave paintings are cave no. XIX, I and II.

Gupta Literature:

Sanskrit language and literature after centuries of evolution, through lavish royal patronage reached to the level of classical excellence. Sanskrit was the court language of the Guptas.

1. The Puranas had existed much before the time of the Guptas in the form of bardic literature; in the Gupta age they were finally compiled and given their present form.

2. The period also saw the compilation of various Smritis or the law-books written in verse. The Smritis of Yajnavalkya, Narada, Katyayana and Brihaspati were written during this period.

3. The two great epics namely the Ramayana and the Mahabharata were almost completed by the 4th century A.D.

4. The Gupta period is remarkable for the production of secular literature. Among the known Sanskrit poets of the period, the greatest name is that of Kalidasa who lived in the court of Chandragupta II. The most important works of Kalidasa were the Abhijnanashakuntalam (considered to be one of the best hundred literary works in the world) Ritusamhara, Malavikagnimitra, Kumarasambhava, Meghaduta, Raghuvamsha and Vikrama Urvashiyam. Shudraka wrote the drama Mrichcbhakatika or the little Clay cart. Vishakadatta is the author of the Mudrarakshasa, which deals with the schemes of the shrewd Chanakya.

The Devichandraguptam another drama written by him, has survived only in fragments.

5. The Gupta period also saw the development of Sanskrit grammar based on Panini and Patanjali. This period is particularly memorable for the compilation of the Amarakosha by Amarasimha, who was a luminary in the court of Chandragupta II. A Buddhist scholar from Bengal, Chandragomia, composed a book on grammar, named Chandravyakaranam.

6. Buddhist and Jaina literature in Sanskrit were also written during the Gupta period Buddhist scholars Arya Deva, Arya Asanga and Vasubandhu of the Gupta period were the most notable writers. Siddhasena Divakara laid the foundation of logic among the Jainas. The Gupta age witnessed the evolution of many Prakrit forms such as Suraseni used in Mathura and its vicinity, Ardhamagadhi spoken in Oudh and Bundelkhand, Magadhi in Bihar and Maharashtri in Berar.

Science and Technology :

Aryabhata, was the first astronomer to pose the more fundamental problems of astronomy in A.D. 499. It was largely through his efforts that astronomy was recognized as a separate discipline from mathematics. He calculated n to 3.1416 and the length of the solar year to 365.3586805 days, both remarkably close to recent estimates.

He believed that the earth was sphere and rotated on its axis, and that the shadow of the earth falling on the moon caused eclipses. He is also the author of Aryabhattiyam, which deals with algebra, arithmetics and geometry.

Varahamihira, who lived towards the end of the fifth century wrote several treatises on astronomy and horoscopy. His Panchasiddhantika deals with five schools of astronomy, two of these reflect a close knowledge of Greek astonomy. The Laghu-Jataka, BrihatJataka and Brihat Samhita are some of his other important works.

Hastayurveda or the veterinary science, authored by Palakalpya attests to the advances made in medical science during the Gupta period. The Navanitakam, a medical work, which is a manual of recipes, formula and prescriptions, was compiled during this period.

The Political History of Northern India: Post Gupta Period

The break-up of the Gupta Empire was followed by the rise of a number of independent states. Northern India was divided into three main kingdoms, those of the later Guptas of Magadha, the Maukharis, and the Pushyabhutis.

Rise and Growth of the Gupta Empire
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IAS Preparation
NCERT Notes for UPSC
NCERT Notes Gupta Empire

Gupta Empire - Facts about Gupta Dynasty (NCERT Ancient History for UPSC)

In Ancient India, the Gupta Dynasty ruled the mid-to-late 3rd century (approximately) to 543 AD. Founded by Sri Gupta, the dynasty rose to fame with rulers like Chandragupta-I, Samudragupta, etc. An important topic in the History syllabus, it is also important for the IAS Exam . This article will provide you with useful notes on the Gupta Empire. These notes will also be useful for other competitive exams like banking PO, SSC, state civil services exams, and so on.

Civil services aspirants can also refer to articles related to the Gupta Empire from the links mentioned in the table below:

Gupta Dynasty (UPSC Notes):- Download PDF Here

Origin of Gupta Empire

Gupta Empire - NCERT Notes on Gupta Empire| Gupta Empire's Territorial Extent

The decline of the Mauryan empire resulted in the rise of two major political powers – the Kushanas and the Satavahanas in the north and south respectively. Both these empires brought political unity and economic growth in their respective areas. The Kushan reign in north India came to an end around c.230 CE and then a good part of central India came under the domain of the Murundas (possible kinsmen of the Kushanas).

The Murundas ruled for only 25 – 30 years. Around the last decade of the 3rd century CE (about 275 CE), the dynasty of the Guptas came to power. The Gupta empire established its control over a good part of the former dominions of both the Kushanas and the Satavahanas . The Guptas (possibly Vaishyas) kept northern India politically united for more than a century (335 CE- 455 CE).

The Guptas are believed to have been feudatories of the Kushanas .
The original kingdom of the Guptas comprised Uttar Pradesh and Bihar with their centre of power at Prayag (U.P).
The Guptas set up their rule over the fertile plains of the Madhyadesha, also known as Anuganga (the middle Gangetic basin), Saketa (U.P Ayodhya), Prayag (U.P) and Magadha (mostly Bihar).
The Guptas made good use of the iron ore reserves in central India and south Bihar and also took advantage of their proximity to the areas in north India which carried on silk trade with the Byzantine empire (eastern Roman empire) .
The Gupta period in ancient India is referred to as the “Golden Age” because of the numerous achievements in the field of arts, literature, science and technology. It also brought about the political unification of the subcontinent.

Gupta Empire – Kings

A brief about the kings of the Gupta dynasty is given in the table below:

Given below is the video curated by experts in line with the CSE Syllabus , based on the rise of Gupta Empire in the country. Candidates can get detailed information about the Gupta period by referring to the vide given below:

Gupta Empire – Chandragupta I (320 – 335 CE)

Was the son of Ghatotkacha.
Chandragupta Ⅰ is considered to be the founder of the Gupta Era which started with his accession in 319 – 320 CE.
He strengthened his position by a matrimonial alliance with the Lichchhavis (Nepal). He married Kumaradevi, a princess of the Lichchhavi clan and this added to the power and prestige of the Gupta family (Vaishyas).
He extended his kingdom through conquests. His territory extended from the Ganges River to Prayaga by 321 AD.
He issued coins in the joint names of his queen and himself.
He assumed the title of Maharajadhiraja (great king of kings).
He was successful in building a small principality into a great kingdom.
His empire consisted of Uttar Pradesh, Bengal and parts of modern Bihar, with Pataliputra as its capital.
He is considered the first great king of the Gupta Empire.

Gupta Empire – Samudragupta (c. 335/336 – 375 CE)

The Gupta kingdom was enlarged enormously by Chandragupta Ⅰ’s son and successor Samudragupta.
The Allahabad Pillar Inscription (Prayaga – Prashasti) gives a detailed account of his achievements. He followed the policy of war and conquest . This long inscription was composed by his court poet, Harisena, in chaste Sanskrit . The inscription is engraved on the same pillar that carries the inscription of peace-loving Ashoka.
Group Ⅰ – Includes rulers of Ganga-Yamuna doab , who were defeated. He uprooted nine Naga rulers and annexed their territories.
Group Ⅱ – Includes rulers of the eastern Himalayan states and some frontier states such as the princes of Nepal, Assam, Bengal, etc. who surrendered to his might. It also includes parts of Punjab.
Group Ⅲ – Includes the forest kingdom situated in the Vindhya region (central India) known as atavika rajyas and forced their rulers into servitude. The conquest of this region helped him to move towards the south.
Group Ⅳ – Includes twelve rulers of eastern Deccan and south India who were defeated and his power reached as far as Kanchi (Tamil Nadu), where the Pallavas were forced to recognise his suzerainty . It is important to mention that Virasena was the commander of Samudragupta during his southern campaign. In the south, he adopted the policy of political conciliation and reinstated the defeated kings on their thrones. These states acknowledged his suzerainty and paid him tributes and presents .
Group Ⅴ – Includes the Shakas of western India and Kushana rulers of north-west India and Afghanistan. Samudragupta swept them out of power.
Though he had spread his influence over a vast area, and even received tributes from many kings of south-east Asia, Samudragupta exercised direct administrative control mainly over the Indo-Gangetic basin. According to Chinese sources, Meghavarman, the ruler of Sri Lanka, sent a missionary to Samudragupta for permission to build a Buddhist temple at Bodh Gaya.
After conquering the territories, Samudragupta celebrated by performing the asvamedha (horse sacrifice). He issued coins with the legend “restorer of the asvamedha” . It is because of his military achievements that Samudragupta was hailed as the ‘ Indian Napoleon’.
He was equally great in his personal accomplishments. The Allahabad Pillar Inscription speaks of his magnanimity to his foes, his polished intellect, his poetic skills, and his proficiency in music. He is known by the title Kaviraja (king among poets) because of his ability in composing verses. His image depicting him with veena (lyre) is found in the coins issued by him. He is also credited with promoting Sanskrit literature and learning, characteristic of his dynasty.
He was an ardent follower of Vaishnavism but was tolerant of other religions . He showed a keen interest in Buddhism and was the patron of the great Buddhist scholar Vasubandhu.
Legends on his coins include epithets such as Apratirathah (invincible), Vyaghra-Parakramah (brave as a tiger), Parakramah (brave).

Gupta Empire – Chandragupta II (c. 376 – 413/415 CE)

Samudragupta was succeeded by his son – Chandragupta Ⅱ. But according to some scholars, the immediate successor was Ramagupta, the elder brother of Chandragupta Ⅱ. But there is little historical proof for this.
During Chandragupta Ⅱ’s reign, the Gupta dynasty reached its peak by expanding territories through conquests as well as by marriage alliances . He married Kuberananga , a Naga princess and had a daughter, Prabhavati with her. He married Prabhavati to a Vakataka prince, Rudrasena Ⅱ (Deccan). After the death of her husband, Prabhavati ruled the territory as regent to her minor sons with the help of her father. Thus Chandragupta Ⅱ indirectly controlled the Vakataka kingdom.
Chandragupta Ⅱ’s control over the Vakataka kingdom in central India proved quite advantageous for him. It helped him to conquer Gujarat and western Malwa , which was under the rule of Shakas for about four centuries by that time. The Guptas reached the western sea coast which was famous for trade and commerce. This contributed to the prosperity of Malwa and its main city Ujjain, which was also Chandragupta Ⅱ’s second capital.
An Iron Pillar inscription at Mehrauli in Delhi indicates that his empire included even north-western India and Bengal . He adopted the title ‘Vikramaditya’ (powerful as the sun) and Simhavikrama .
He issued gold coins (Dinara), silver coins and copper coins. On his coins, he is mentioned as Chandra .
During his reign, a Chinese traveller, Fa-Hien visited India and wrote a detailed account about the life of its people.
The Udaigiri cave inscriptions refer to his digvijaya , that is, his conquest of the whole world.
Kalidasa – He wrote Abhijnashakuntalam, one of the best hundred literary works in the world and also the earliest Indian work to be translated to European languages.
Amarasimha – His work Amarakosha is a vocabulary of Sanskrit roots, homonyms and synonyms. It has three parts containing around ten thousand words and is also known as Trikanda .
He composed Pancha Siddhantika, the five astronomical systems.
His work Brihadsamhita is a great work in the Sanskrit language. It deals with a variety of subjects like astronomy, astrology, geography, architecture, weather, animals, marriage and omens.
His Brihat Jataka is considered to be a standard work on astrology.
Dhanvantri – He is considered to be the father of Ayurveda.
Ghatakarapara – An expert in sculpture and architecture.
Shanku – An architect who wrote the Shilpa Shastra.
Kahapanaka – An astrologer who wrote Jyotishya Shastra.
Vararuchi – Author of Prakrit Prakasha, the first grammar of the Prakrit language.
Vetala Bhatta – Author of Mantrashastra and was a magician.

Kumaragupta Ⅰ (c. 415 – 455 CE)

Kumaragupta Ⅰ was the son and successor of Chandragupta Ⅱ.
Adopted the titles of ‘Shakraditya’ and ‘Mahendraditya’.
Performed ‘asvamedha’ sacrifices.
Most importantly, he laid the foundation of Nalanda University which emerged as an institution of international reputation.
At the end of his reign, peace did not prevail on the north-west frontier due to the invasion of the Huns of Central Asia . After occupying Bactria, the Huns crossed the Hindukush mountains, occupied Gandhara and entered India. Their first attack, during Kumaragupta Ⅰ’s reign, was made unsuccessful by prince Skandagupta .
The inscriptions of Kumaragupta Ⅰ’s reign are – Karandanda, Mandsor, Bilsad inscription (oldest record of his reign) and Damodar Copper Plate inscription.

Skandagupta (c. 455 – 467 CE)

Adopted the title ‘Vikramaditya’ .
Junagarh/Girnar inscription of his reign reveals that his governor Parnadatta repaired the Sudarshan lake.
After Skandagupta’s death, many of his successors like Purugupta, Kumaragupta Ⅱ, Buddhagupta, Narasimhagupta, Kumaragupta Ⅲ and Vishnugupta could not save the Gupta empire from the Huns. Ultimately, the Gupta power totally disappeared due to a variety of reasons.

Decline of Gupta Empire

The various reasons that led to the fall of the Gupta empire are discussed below:

Hun Invasion

The Gupta prince Skandagupta fought bravely and successfully against the early Huns’ invasion. However, his successors proved to be weak and could not check the Huns’ invasion. The Huns showed excellent horsemanship and were expert archers which helped them to attain success, not only in Iran but also in India. In the latter half of the 5th century, the Hun chief Toramana conquered large parts of western India, up to Eran near Bhopal in central India. By 485 CE, Huns had occupied Punjab, Rajasthan, Kashmir, eastern Malwa and a large part of central India. Toramana (in 515 CE) was succeeded by his son Mihirkula , who was a tyrant ruler as is mentioned in the Rajatarangini by Kalhana and Hieun-Tsang refers to him as a persecutor of Buddhists . Mihirkula was defeated and the Huna power was overthrown by Yashodharman of Malwa, Narasimha Gupta Baladitya of the Gupta empire and the Maukharis . However, this win over Huns could not revive the Gupta empire.

Rise of Feudatories

The rise of feudatories was another factor that led to the fall of the Gupta empire. Yashodharman of Malwa (belonged to the Aulikara feudatory family ) after defeating Mihirkula successfully challenged the authority of the Guptas and set up, in 532 CE, pillars of victory commemorating his conquest of almost the whole of northern India. Although Yashodharman’s rule was short-lived, it certainly gave a huge blow to the Gupta empire. The other feudatories too rose in rebellion against the Guptas and ultimately became independent in Bihar, Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Valabhi, Gujarat, Malwa and so on . It is important to mention that after the reign of Skandagupta (467 CE) hardly any coin or inscription has been found in western Malwa and Saurashtra.

Economic decline

By the end of the 5th century, the Guptas had lost western India and this must have deprived the Guptas of the rich revenues from trade and commerce and hence crippled them economically. The economic decline of the Guptas is indicated by the gold coins of later Gupta rulers, which have less percentage of gold metal. The practice of land grants for religious and other purposes also reduced the revenues which resulted in economic instability.

The fall of the Gupta empire led to the emergence of numerous ruling dynasties in different parts of northern India e.g, Pushyabhutis of Thanesar, Maukharies of Kannauj and the Maitrakas of Valabhi . In peninsular India, the Chalukyas and the Pallavas emerged as the strong powers in Deccan and northern Tamil Nadu respectively . Get UPSC exam details related to the post Gupta period, curated by experts for the reference of IAS aspirants at the video given below:

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Gupta Administration
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Governance and Administration of the Gupta Empire: Structure and Function

Administration of the Gupta Empire: Structure, Officials and Judicial System

B. Administration of the Gupta Empire

Officers in the Gupta Empire

C. Division of the Empire (Bhuktis →Vishyas→Vithi→Villages)

D. Judicial System

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Gupta Empire: Rulers, Polity, Administration & More

About Gupta Empire

History of Gupta Empire

Capital of Gupta Empire

Founder of Gupta Empire

Rulers of Gupta Empire

Chandragupta I (C. 319-335 AD)

Samudragupta (335-380 AD)

Chandragupta II (C. 380 – C. 415 CE)

Kumaragupta I (415 – 455 AD)

Skandagupta (455 – 467 AD)

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Economy of Gupta Empire

Guild System of Gupta Empire

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