egyptian mythology research papers

Creation myths and form(s) of the gods in ancient Egypt

Full page black line vignette of the deities Geb, Nut, and Shu. Geb, god of the earth, stretches out below the sky-goddess Nut, who arches overhead. They are separated by the god of air, Shu, who is supported in this task. The deceased kneels to the lower right, accompanied by her ba-spirit and surrounded by groups of gods. The Greenfield Papyrus , c. 950–930 B.C.E., 21st–22nd dynasty, papyrus, excavated at First Cache, Upper Egypt, Deir el-Bahri (the Book of the Dead of Nesitanebtashru) (© Trustees of the British Museum )

Lord of Chaos, the god Seth was associated with a distinctive and unidentified animal with squared-off ears and an elongated, down-curved snout, Karnak, Egypt (Open Air Museum, Karnak; photo: Dr. Amy Calvert)

Egypt’s mythic world, rich with creative imagery, was deeply informed by the natural world that surrounded them. The divine landscape and the stories about the beings that inhabited it continued to evolve through Egyptian history. Over time, these myths wove an elaborate tapestry of meaning and significance, often presenting layered, seemingly contradictory viewpoints that existed simultaneously without apparent conflict.

Ourobos (detail), a shrine from the tomb of Tutankhamun, 18th dynasty, New Kingdom of Egypt (Egyptian Museum, Cairo; photo: Djehouty, CC BY-SA 4.0)

Similarly, the concept of time in ancient Egypt was rather fluid; it was believed to move at different rates for certain beings and regions of the cosmos and was viewed as simultaneously linear and cyclical. Obviously, individual Egyptians experienced linear time —living their lives from birth to death—but they were also intimate with cyclical time, as evidenced in nature by the solar cycles, annual floods, and repeating astronomical patterns. They believed that an ongoing cycle of decay, death, and rebirth was what provided for the eternal consistency of the stable universe and allowed it to flourish. Fittingly, the ouroboros—the image of a snake eating its own tail and potent symbol of regeneration—originated in Egypt. 

The prehistoric peoples of the Nile region, like many other early populations, revered powers of the natural world, both animate and inanimate. While some deities, like the sun god Ra, were linked with inanimate natural phenomena, most of the first clear examples of divinities were connected to animals. Falcon gods and cattle goddesses were among the earliest and may well have developed in the context of Neolithic cattle herding .

The enigmatic scenes on this monumental macehead have been much debated. They could represent the king’s heb-sed festival, divine rituals, or a royal wedding, among other possibilities. In this view, there are divine standards being carried in the top register, while the lower register shows cattle, goats, and a kneeling human with numbers under them indicating how many were captured or being presented. Narmer Macehead, Early Dynastic Period, c. 31st century B.C.E., found in Hierakonopolis (Ashmolean Museum, Oxford)

Already in the Early Dynastic period (c. 3100–2686 B.C.E.), there is significant evidence for the existence of many deities that were represented in human, animal, or hybrid forms (usually with human bodies and animal heads). Cult objects (statues of gods) in their local shrines shown being revered by the king were depicted on objects found in royal tombs of this period and may record actual visits by the ruler to different parts of the country to engage with those deities. The dedication of such cult images and participation in their rituals by the king was one of the most essential royal duties. Around 3000 B.C.E. when Egypt was unified under a single ruler , these disparate local deities appear to have been organized into a pantheon with relationships created between them, and these connections may have sparked various mythic stories. 

The Turin king list, or the Royal Canon of Turin, papyrus

There are great challenges in the study of Egyptian mythology, not the least of which are the large gaps in our knowledge due to the whims of preservation. Our most cohesive records are texts from the later periods, which often record detailed stories that present seemingly contradictory accounts. For example, there were diverse and complementary creation myths and cosmogonies (stories about the origins of the universe) that overlap to present different aspects of their understanding of how the world and the gods came into being. In the view of the ancient Egyptians, there were seven stages to the mythical timeline of the world: 

• the chaos that existed pre-creation, 
• the emergence of the creator deity,
• the creation (by various means) of the world and the differentiation of beings, 
• the reign of the sun god, 
• direct rule by other deities, 
• rule by human kings, and 
• a return to the chaos of the primeval waters.  

At different times and in various locations, a variety of deities were identified with the creator god who emerged from the primordial waters to initiate and differentiate the cosmos. These included Ra, Atum, Khnum, Ptah, Hathor, and Isis. These myriad versions of the process of creation were connected to and promoted by cult centers, that emphasized the role of their patron deity in the process. 

The three major variations of the Egyptian creation story are commonly referred to today by the cult locations where these variations were most heavily promoted: Hermopolis (Khemnu), Heliopolis (Iunu), and Memphis (Ineb-hedj).

While they differ in the details and focus on the primacy of their own local deities, all these creation systems are also quite similar in their approach, where a chaotic, amorphous watery mass of potentiality was brought under control through the establishment of ma’at and given form through the will of a creator. Many variations on these themes appeared that fit into the basic frameworks—the emerging sun god was sometimes visualized as a falcon, a scarab beetle, or a child (among other manifestations)—but all materialized from a mound and/or primeval waters. An understanding of these overlapping creation myths, and a recognition of the fact that they existed simultaneously with no apparent conflict, hints at the complexity of the mythological world of ancient Egypt.

Creation Myths

Hermopolis—cult center of the Eight

The sun rises from the mound of creation at the beginning of time. The central circle represents the mound, and the three orange circles are the sun in different stages of its rising. At the top is the “horizon” hieroglyph with the sun appearing atop it. At either side are the goddesses of the north and south, pouring out the waters that surround the mound. The eight stick figures are the gods of the Ogdoad, hoeing the soil. “The Creation of the World,” detail in the Book of the Dead of Khensumose, c. 1075–945 B.C.E., Twenty-first Dynasty (Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna)

The Hermopolitan view (centered in Hermopolis) presented a vision of creation as a mound of earth that emerged from the primordial waters of chaos. A lotus blossom grew from this mound, opened, and revealed the newborn sun god, which brought light to the cosmos and initiated creation. Within the primeval waters were believed to be four pairs of male and female deities, known as the Ogdoad (“group of eight”) who represented elements of the pre-creation cosmos. Often represented with the heads of frogs and snakes, these chthonic beings as being associated with the primeval flood. Until the first light appeared, these beings were viewed as inert, containing the potential of creation but only “activated” when the young sun emerged from the lotus. The names of these deities, who were considered the “mothers” and “fathers” of the sun god, were masculine and feminine versions of the elements: Water (Nun & Nunet), Infinity (Heh & Hauhet), Darkness (Kek & Kauket), and Hiddenness (Amun & Amaunet).

Heliopolis —cult center of Atum

Detail of the air god Shu, assisted by other gods, holds up Nut, the sky, as Geb, the earth, lies beneath. From The Greenfield Papyrus, c. 950–930 B.C.E., 21st–22nd dynasty, papyrus, excavated at First Cache, Upper Egypt, Deir el-Bahri (the Book of the Dead of Nesitanebtashru) (© Trustees of the British Museum )

The sun god plays a primary role in the Heliopolitan creation theology. In this system, creation was enacted by a group of deities referred to as the Great Ennead. This “group of nine” consisted of the sun god, in his form as Atum, and a series of eight descendents. In this story, Atum already existed in the primordial waters (sometimes said to have been “in his egg”) and emerged alone to initiate creation. Atum was said to be “he who came into being by himself”and he then created his first two descendants, Shu (air) and Tefnut (moisture) from his bodily fluids. Shu and Tefnut then created the next pair of gods, Geb (earth) and Nut (sky), providing the physical framework for the world. Geb and Nut then produced the gods Osiris and Isis, and Seth and Nephthys. These pairs, in one sense, represented the fertile Nile valley (Osiris & Isis) and the desert that surrounded it (Seth & Nephthys), completing the primary elements of the Egyptian cosmos. As all these deities were viewed as being extensions of and proceeding from the sun god, he was generally portrayed as the ruler of the gods.

Memphis—cult center of the great craftsman Ptah

This slab was reused as a millstone, which is why it is horribly worn in that spoke pattern. If you zoom in on the image you have, you will see the vertical lines of text. The Shabako Stone, 710 B.C.E., 25th dynasty, found in Memphis, Egypt, 95 x 137 cm ( © Trustees of the British Museum )

The Memphite Theology is recorded on an important artifact now known as the Shabaka Stone. This black basalt stelae was originally set up in the ancient temple of Ptah at Memphis and preserves the only surviving copy of this religious text. According to the inscription, which is heavily damaged, the text of the stelae was copied from an ancient worm-eaten papyrus that the pharaoh Shabaka ordered to be transcribed in order to preserve it (this story, however, is debatable). The text contains references to the Heliopolitan account but then claims that the Memphite god, the chthonic Ptah, preceded the sun god and created Atum. Ptah was viewed as the “great craftsman” and the text alludes to creation being enacted through his conscious will and rational thought—the form of the earth was described as being brought about via his creative speech. 

These variations on core mythic elements may have resulted from attempts to incorporate deities that emerged at various times and locations into an existing framework of creation stories.

Netjer hieroglyph written as a wrapped pole with a flag on top. A row of netjer signs from the tomb of Ramses VI (KV9). Painted details show the pattern of the wrapping used on these divine symbols (photo: Dr. Amy Calvert)

The form(s) of the gods

The Egyptian word that modern scholars translate as “god” is netjer , which is written in hieroglyphs as a wrapped pole with a flag on top—a symbol of divine presence that dates back to Predynastic times. However, it is clear that this term encompassed not only what we would consider gods, but also deified humans, other types of supernatural beings, and even chaotic monsters (like the great serpent Apophis who was the chief foe of the sun god Ra). Spirits of the deceased ( akhu ), demon-like dwellers of the underworld, and beings called bau , which were manifestations of the gods that served as their messengers, were also feared and revered. 

The human Hunefer being led by Horus (falcon-headed) to stand before Osiris (seated), with Isis and Nephthys behind him. Judgement in the presence of Osiris, Book of the Dead, 19th Dynasty, New Kingdom, c. 1275 B.C.E., papyrus, Thebes, Egypt (British Museum)

The gods took various physical forms: anthropomorphic (human), zoomorphic (animal), hybrid (with the head of either a human or animal and the body of the opposite type), and composite (where characteristics of different deities were merged into one form). Many deities were fluid in the way they were represented and a truly fixed form for any deity was quite uncommon—sometimes, only the name clearly specifies which deity is being represented. The god Thoth, for example, was often depicted with a human body and the head of an ibis but could also be represented in fully-animal form as an ibis or as a baboon.

Capital of Hathor with a human head and bovine ears (left) and Hathor in Bovine form (right), both from the Temple of Queen Hatshepsut, Dayr al-Baḥrī, Egypt, c. 1470 B.C.E. (photos: Dr. Amy Calvert)

Few deities were shown in all three main representational modes, but there were exceptions, such as the goddess Hathor, who could be portrayed fully human, fully bovine, or as a woman with a cow head. Keep in mind that these representations were not what the gods actually looked like in the Egyptian conception. Instead, they were visualizations of the deities’ characteristics, providing physical forms that allowed for interaction with the gods.

Wall relief of The Theban Triad, Amun, Mut, and Khonsu (left to right), mortuary temple of Ramses III, Medinet Habu, Theban Necropolis, Egypt (photo: Rémih, CC BY-SA 3.0)

There were also many other types of groupings of deities, especially triads. These father-mother-child groupings, like the Theban Triad of Amun, Mut, and Khonsu, were viewed collectively in certain contexts but each still maintained their individuality. Rather different was a practice known as syncretism where different deities were merged into one body. This appears to have been an effort to acknowledge when a deity was dwelling “within” another deity when performing roles that were primarily functions of the other. Often these were combinations of similar deities or different aspects of the same god, such as Atum-Khepri, which combined the dusk and dawn manifestations of the sun god. Other examples merged deities of very different nature, such as Amun-Ra, where the “hidden one” (mentioned above) was combined with the visible power of the sun to create the “King of the Gods.” 

Ra and Osiris merged into one (center figure), tomb of Nefertari, 19th dynasty c 1290 1220 BCE, Middle Kingdom, West Thebes Egypt

Death, cycles, and the end of time

Egyptian deities were not static beings. Osiris, one of their most important gods, actually died (although the texts never directly say this, they do refer to him being dismembered, mummified, and buried) and then was transformed into the Lord of the Underworld. Others, like the sun god Ra, had cycles—Ra was believed to reach his zenith at midday (as Harakhti), grow old at the end of the day (as Atum), “die” at night, merging with Osiris in the depths of the netherworld to enact regeneration, and then was resurrected again with the dawn (as Khepri). In the Egyptian view, life led to death and then death re-emerged as new life; this cycle applied to humans and the gods alike, enabling them to become young again with eternal sameness. 

At the end of time, the Egyptians believed that all the variety of the cosmos, including the gods, would revert to the undifferentiated condition of time before creation, with everything merging back into the primeval waters of potentiality.

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Is there an Egyptian hero? The contributions of mythological and literary studies to an Egyptological subject

2017, Egypt 2015: Perspectives of Research Proceedings of the Seventh European Conference of Egyptologists 2nd-7th June 2015, Zagreb, Croatia

When one thinks of heroes the images that come to mind are usually those of great warriors and of founders of civilizations. These men cause ruptures and introduce changes in their surroundings. Except in some specific periods of Ancient Egypt’s History, the idea of rupture and change is not a favourable one to the Egyptian mindset and political ideology. This reason led some Egyptologists to believe that there is not an Egyptian hero. There is, however, a broader way to perceive this ‘hero figure’. For decades, the scholars of mythology and literature have been studying the mythical hero. What they advocate is that this figure can be found in the accounts and narratives of practically every civilization, which leads us to the question: is there an Egyptian hero?

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This article re-evaluates the significance attributed to Hecataeus' encounter with the Theban priests described by Herodotus (2.143) by setting it against the evidence of Late Period Egyptian representations of the past. In the first part a critique is offered of various approaches Classicists have taken to this episode and its impact on Greek historiography. Classicists have generally imagined this as an encounter in which the young, dynamic and creative Greeks construct an image of the static, ossified and incredibly old culture of the Egyptians, a move which reveals deeper assumptions in the scholarly discourse on Greeks and 'other' cultures in the Mediterranean world. But the civilization that Herodotus confronted in his long excursus on Egypt was not an abstract, eternal Egypt. Rather, it was the Egypt of his own day, at a specific historical moment - a culture with a particular understanding of its own long history. The second part presents evidence of lengthy Late Period priestly genealogies, and more general archaizing tendencies. Remarkable examples survive of the sort of visual genealogy which would have impressed upon the traveling Greek historians the long continuum of the Egyptian past. These include statues with genealogical inscriptions and relief sculptures representing generations of priests succeeding to their fathers' office. These priestly evocations of a present firmly anchored in the Egyptian past are part of a wider pattern of cultivating links with the historical past in the Late Period of Egyptian history. Thus, it is not simply the marvel of a massive expanse of time which Herodotus encountered in Egypt, but a mediated cultural awareness of that time. The third part of the essay argues that Herodotus used this long human past presented by the Egyptian priests in order to criticize genealogical and mythical representations of the past and develop the notion of an historical past. On the basis of this example, the article concludes by urging a reconsideration of the scholarly paradigm for imagining the encounter between Greeks and 'others' in ethnographic discourse in order to recognize the agency of the Egyptian priests, and other non-Greek 'informants'.

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This paper provides an overview of the idea of narrative as it has been applied in Egyptology. A question of this size is doomed to be reduced to a series of impressionistic observations based on partial case studies, but, in acknowledging this, such ideas serve as a point of entry into research that covers the wide scope of narrative in this discipline. This paper touches on the way Egyptian sources engage with narrative structures then moves to the more epistemologically-charged question of how narrative is employed in Egyptological literature.

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Egyptian Myth: A Very Short Introduction

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Egyptian Myth: A Very Short Introduction explores the cultural and historical background behind a wide variety of sources and objects on Egyptian mythology, from Cleopatra's Needle and Tutankhamun's golden statue, to a story on papyrus of the gods misbehaving. The world of Egyptian myth is complex. Mythology was an integral part of Egyptian culture for much of its timespan. What did the myths mean, and how have they been interpreted? How have the myths of deities such as Isis and Osiris influenced contemporary culture and become part of our cultural heritage?

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Ancient Egypt Research Paper Topics

This page serves as a comprehensive guide to ancient Egypt research paper topics , providing a wealth of resources for students delving into this intriguing period of history. From the outset, we provide an expansive list of 100 research paper topics, thoughtfully divided into ten categories, each focusing on a unique aspect of ancient Egyptian history. Further, we offer expert advice on how to choose a topic within the realm of ancient Egypt and provide practical guidance on writing a compelling and academically rigorous research paper on the chosen subject. We also introduce iResearchNet’s custom writing services, where students can order a customized research paper on any topic related to ancient Egypt.

100 Ancient Egypt Research Paper Topics

Ancient Egypt, with its rich and fascinating history, offers a wealth of research opportunities for students studying art history. Exploring the various aspects of ancient Egyptian civilization can provide valuable insights into their culture, religion, art, architecture, daily life, and more. In this section, we present a comprehensive list of ancient Egypt research paper topics that cover a wide range of subjects within the realm of ancient Egyptian history. These topics are organized into ten categories, each offering unique perspectives and avenues for exploration.

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Pharaohs and Rulers

• The role of pharaohs in ancient Egyptian society
• Hatshepsut: The female pharaoh and her reign
• Akhenaten’s religious revolution: A study of the Amarna period
• Ramses II: The great pharaoh and his achievements
• The fall of the New Kingdom: Factors and consequences
• Pharaoh Amenhotep III and his cultural contributions
• Cleopatra: The last pharaoh of Egypt
• Pharaoh Seti I and the construction of the Temple of Karnak
• Thutmose III: The warrior pharaoh and his military campaigns
• The reign of Tutankhamun: Discovery of the boy king’s tomb

Religion and Mythology

• Egyptian gods and goddesses: Roles and significance
• Rituals and religious practices in ancient Egypt
• The Book of the Dead: Beliefs about the afterlife
• The cult of Osiris: God of the dead and rebirth
• The sun god Ra and his worship in ancient Egypt
• The role of temples in ancient Egyptian religious practices
• Animal symbolism in ancient Egyptian mythology
• Mythological tales and their impact on ancient Egyptian culture
• Religious ceremonies and festivals in ancient Egypt
• Mummification and burial practices in ancient Egyptian religion

Art and Architecture

• The construction techniques and symbolism of the pyramids
• Hieroglyphics: The ancient Egyptian writing system
• Tomb paintings and their portrayal of ancient Egyptian life
• The architecture of temples: Karnak, Luxor, and Abu Simbel
• The art of jewelry and personal adornment in ancient Egypt
• Sculpture and statuary in ancient Egyptian art
• Funerary art and its significance in ancient Egyptian culture
• The use of color in ancient Egyptian art
• The influence of ancient Egyptian art on later civilizations
• The art of Amarna: A departure from traditional Egyptian style

Daily Life and Society

• Social structure and classes in ancient Egypt
• The role of women in ancient Egyptian society
• Daily life in ancient Egyptian households
• Food and cuisine in ancient Egypt
• Clothing and fashion in ancient Egyptian society
• Education and literacy in ancient Egypt
• Sports and recreation in ancient Egyptian culture
• Slavery and servitude in ancient Egypt
• Medicine and healthcare practices in ancient Egypt
• Ancient Egyptian marriage and family life

Trade and Economy

• Trade networks and routes in ancient Egypt
• Agriculture and irrigation systems along the Nile River
• Economic activities and industries in ancient Egypt
• Currency and trade in ancient Egyptian society
• Mining and quarrying in ancient Egypt
• The role of merchants in ancient Egyptian trade
• International trade relations of ancient Egypt
• Taxation and economic policies in ancient Egypt
• Economic development during the New Kingdom
• Trade with neighboring civilizations: Nubia, Mesopotamia, and the Levant

Science and Technology

• Mathematics and astronomy in ancient Egypt
• Engineering marvels: The construction of pyramids
• Medical practices and healthcare in ancient Egypt
• Ancient Egyptian understanding of anatomy and physiology
• Papyrus: The ancient Egyptian writing material
• Agricultural techniques and innovations in ancient Egypt
• Nautical technology and shipbuilding in ancient Egypt
• Astronomy and celestial observations in ancient Egypt
• Ancient Egyptian calendar systems and timekeeping
• Technological advancements in ancient Egyptian society

Temples and Monuments

• The significance and symbolism of the Sphinx
• The architecture of the Great Temple of Amun at Karnak
• The temples of Luxor: Religious sanctuaries of ancient Egypt
• Abu Simbel: The grand temple complex of Ramses II
• The Valley of the Kings: Tombs of the pharaohs
• The mortuary temple of Hatshepsut at Deir el-Bahari
• The temple of Horus at Edfu: A well-preserved ancient Egyptian structure
• The temple of Kom Ombo: A unique double temple
• The temple of Isis at Philae: A sanctuary dedicated to the goddess
• The rock-cut temples of Abu Simbel: A UNESCO World Heritage site

Literature and Texts

• The literature of ancient Egypt: Prose, poetry, and hymns
• The wisdom literature of Ptahhotep and Amenemope
• The love poetry of ancient Egypt
• The story of Sinuhe: A masterpiece of ancient Egyptian literature
• The instruction texts and moral teachings in ancient Egyptian society
• Magical and medical texts in ancient Egypt
• The Westcar Papyrus: Tales of ancient Egyptian pharaohs
• The Coffin Texts: Spells and rituals for the afterlife
• The Lamentations of Isis and Nephthys: Mourning rituals in ancient Egypt
• The Amduat: The ancient Egyptian funerary text

Religion and Pharaohs

• The divine kingship ideology in ancient Egypt
• The cult of Amun and the rise of his priesthood
• Atenism: The monotheistic revolution of Akhenaten
• The cult of Osiris and its influence on ancient Egyptian beliefs
• The role of priests and priestesses in ancient Egyptian society
• The pharaoh as a religious and political figure
• The rituals and ceremonies of temple worship in ancient Egypt
• Funerary rites and beliefs in the afterlife
• Divine queens: The role of royal women in religious practices
• The worship of animal gods and goddesses in ancient Egypt

Foreign Relations and Influence

• Ancient Egypt’s interactions with Nubia: Trade and diplomacy
• The influence of Mesopotamian culture on ancient Egypt
• Ancient Egypt and the Hittites: Wars and peace treaties
• Egyptian connections with the civilizations of the Levant
• The impact of Greek and Roman culture on ancient Egypt
• Foreign influences on Egyptian art and architecture
• The influence of ancient Egyptian religion on neighboring civilizations
• Ancient Egyptian expeditions and exploration beyond Egypt’s borders
• The role of mercenaries in ancient Egyptian military campaigns
• Egyptian artifacts and influence found in other ancient civilizations

The ancient civilization of Egypt continues to captivate the imagination of scholars and enthusiasts alike. From the enigmatic pharaohs and their grand monuments to the intricate religious beliefs and artistic expressions, the study of ancient Egypt offers endless possibilities for research and exploration. By delving into the ancient Egypt research paper topics presented here, students can uncover new insights and make meaningful contributions to the field of art history. Whether your interests lie in the tombs of the pharaohs, the spiritual beliefs of the ancient Egyptians, or the architectural wonders that still stand today, the world of ancient Egypt awaits your exploration.

Ancient Egypt: Exploring the Range of Research Paper Topics

The ancient civilization of Egypt, with its majestic pyramids, enigmatic hieroglyphs, and legendary pharaohs, continues to fascinate scholars and students alike. The study of ancient Egypt offers a treasure trove of research paper topics that shed light on the rich history, culture, and contributions of this remarkable civilization. In this section, we will embark on a comprehensive exploration of the diverse range of ancient Egypt research paper topics available in ancient Egyptian history, inviting students to delve deeper into the captivating world of ancient Egypt.

• Pharaohs and Rulers : The Pharaohs of ancient Egypt held immense power and were regarded as divine beings. Research paper topics in this category could delve into the role of pharaohs in ancient Egyptian society, examining their political, religious, and cultural significance. Students could explore the lives of famous rulers like Hatshepsut, Ramses II, and Akhenaten, analyzing their reigns, achievements, and the impact they had on the development of Egypt.
• Religion and Mythology : Ancient Egyptian religion was a complex system of beliefs, rituals, and myths that shaped every aspect of life. Topics in this category could explore the pantheon of gods and goddesses worshipped by the ancient Egyptians, the rituals and ceremonies performed in temples, and the role of religion in society. Students could also delve into the fascinating world of Egyptian mythology, examining creation stories, the afterlife, and the concept of divine kingship.
• Art and Architecture : Ancient Egyptian art and architecture are renowned for their grandeur, symbolism, and meticulous craftsmanship. Research paper topics in this category could focus on various forms of artistic expression, such as sculpture, painting, and monumental architecture. Students could explore the iconic pyramids of Giza, the stunning murals and carvings found in tombs and temples, and the techniques and materials used in ancient Egyptian art. They could also investigate the symbolic significance of motifs, such as the ankh, the lotus flower, and the eye of Horus.
• Daily Life and Society : To gain a deeper understanding of ancient Egyptian society, it is essential to examine the daily life and experiences of its people. Research paper topics in this category might include the roles and responsibilities of men and women in ancient Egyptian society, the daily routines of people from different social classes, and the importance of agriculture, trade, and craftsmanship in sustaining the civilization. Students could also explore topics such as family life, education, and the social hierarchies that existed during this period.
• Trade and Economy : Ancient Egypt was a thriving center of economic activity, with a well-developed trade network that extended across the region. Topics in this category could explore trade routes, valuable commodities, economic systems, and the impact of foreign trade on the economy of ancient Egypt. Students could analyze the importance of the Nile River as a lifeline for transportation and trade, as well as the development of specialized industries, such as weaving, pottery, and metalworking.
• Science and Technology : Despite being an ancient civilization, the Egyptians made significant advancements in various scientific and technological fields. Research paper topics in this category might focus on ancient Egyptian medicine and healthcare practices, including the use of herbal remedies and surgical techniques. Students could explore advancements in astronomy and mathematics, such as the development of the calendar and the construction of monumental structures aligned with celestial events. They could also investigate engineering marvels, such as the irrigation systems that transformed the desert into fertile land, and the construction techniques employed in building pyramids and temples.
• Temples and Monuments : The temples and monuments of ancient Egypt stand as testaments to the religious and cultural practices of the time. Research paper topics in this category could include in-depth studies of specific temples, such as Karnak or Luxor, exploring their architectural features, religious significance, and the rituals performed within them. Students could also delve into the rock temples of Abu Simbel, the grandeur of the Valley of the Kings, and the enigmatic Sphinx, investigating their historical and cultural significance.
• Hieroglyphs and Writing Systems : Ancient Egypt is renowned for its hieroglyphic writing system, which played a vital role in communication, record-keeping, and religious texts. Research paper topics in this category could explore the development and decipherment of hieroglyphs, the use of writing in ancient Egyptian society, and the significance of texts such as the Book of the Dead. Students could also investigate other forms of writing, such as hieratic and demotic scripts, and examine the role of scribes in ancient Egyptian culture.
• Nubia and Egyptian Influence : The relationship between ancient Egypt and the neighboring region of Nubia presents an intriguing area of study. Research paper topics in this category could focus on the cultural exchange, trade relations, and military conflicts between the two civilizations. Students could explore the influence of Egyptian art, architecture, and religious practices on Nubian culture, as well as the impact of Nubian rulers on Egypt during the period of Kushite rule.
• Tombs and Burial Practices : Ancient Egyptian tombs provide valuable insights into the beliefs and practices surrounding death and the afterlife. Topics in this category could explore the construction and symbolism of tombs, the rituals and ceremonies associated with burial, and the role of mummification in preserving the body for the journey to the afterlife. Students could also investigate the treasures and artifacts discovered in tombs, such as the tomb of Tutankhamun, and analyze their cultural and historical significance.

The study of ancient Egypt offers a captivating journey into a civilization that continues to captivate our imagination. The comprehensive list of ancient Egypt research paper topics invites students to explore various aspects of this remarkable civilization, including its political structures, religious beliefs, artistic achievements, societal dynamics, and technological advancements. By delving into these topics, students can gain a deeper understanding of the ancient Egyptians’ contributions to human civilization and engage in the ongoing exploration and appreciation of this extraordinary culture.

Choosing Ancient Egypt Research Paper Topics

Choosing a research paper topic can be a challenging task, especially when it comes to a subject as vast and fascinating as ancient Egypt. To help you navigate through the wealth of possibilities, this section offers expert advice on selecting the most suitable research paper topic in the field of ancient Egyptian history. By considering these tips, you can narrow down your focus, identify compelling research questions, and embark on an engaging and insightful exploration of ancient Egypt.

• Define Your Area of Interest : Ancient Egypt encompasses a wide range of topics, from pharaohs and pyramids to art and religion. Begin by identifying your area of interest within the field. Are you intrigued by the political structures of ancient Egypt, or do you find the religious practices and mythology more captivating? Defining your area of interest will help you narrow down your options and choose a topic that truly engages you.
• Consider the Available Resources : Research paper topics require access to relevant and reliable sources of information. Before finalizing your topic, consider the availability of resources such as books, scholarly articles, museum collections, and online databases. Ensure that there is ample material to support your research and provide a solid foundation for your paper.
• Explore Unexplored Areas : While ancient Egypt has been extensively studied, there are still unexplored or lesser-known aspects that offer exciting research opportunities. Look for niche topics or specific aspects of ancient Egyptian history that have not received significant attention. By exploring these unexplored areas, you can contribute to the field with fresh insights and original research.
• Narrow Your Focus : Ancient Egypt is a vast subject, spanning thousands of years and encompassing various dynasties and periods. To create a focused and manageable research paper, narrow down your focus to a specific time period, dynasty, or theme. For example, you could examine the role of women in ancient Egyptian society during the New Kingdom or explore the religious reforms of Pharaoh Akhenaten. Narrowing your focus will allow for more in-depth analysis and a more coherent research paper.
• Identify Research Gaps : As you delve into existing literature on ancient Egypt, pay attention to research gaps or unanswered questions. These gaps provide fertile ground for original research and the opportunity to contribute new insights. Identify areas where further investigation is needed or where differing viewpoints exist. By addressing these gaps, you can add value to the scholarly discourse on ancient Egyptian history.
• Incorporate Interdisciplinary Perspectives : Ancient Egypt intersects with various disciplines, including archaeology, anthropology, art history, linguistics, and more. Consider incorporating interdisciplinary perspectives into your research paper. For example, you could analyze the archaeological evidence alongside textual sources to gain a more comprehensive understanding of a specific aspect of ancient Egyptian culture. Incorporating diverse perspectives will enrich your research and provide a well-rounded analysis.
• Analyze Primary and Secondary Sources : To develop a well-supported research paper, it is crucial to engage with both primary and secondary sources. Primary sources include ancient Egyptian texts, inscriptions, and artifacts, while secondary sources encompass scholarly works, articles, and analyses. By critically evaluating primary and secondary sources, you can construct a robust argument based on evidence and scholarly interpretations.
• Consult with Your Instructor or Advisor : Seek guidance from your instructor or advisor throughout the topic selection process. They can provide valuable insights, suggest potential research directions, and offer recommendations based on their expertise. Collaborating with your instructor or advisor ensures that your chosen topic aligns with the academic requirements and expectations of your research paper.
• Balance Depth and Breadth : Striking a balance between depth and breadth is crucial when selecting an ancient Egypt research paper topic. Avoid ancient Egypt research paper topics that are too broad, as they can result in superficial analysis. Similarly, excessively narrow topics may limit the availability of sources and hinder your ability to develop a comprehensive argument. Aim for a topic that allows you to delve deeply into a specific aspect while maintaining a broader context.
• Follow Your Passion : Ultimately, choose a topic that ignites your passion and curiosity. When you are genuinely interested in the subject matter, your enthusiasm will shine through in your research and writing. Explore topics that resonate with your personal interests, academic goals, and career aspirations. By following your passion, you will be motivated to conduct thorough research, analyze the findings critically, and produce a compelling research paper.

Choosing the right research paper topic is a crucial step in conducting a successful study on ancient Egypt. By following these expert tips, you can navigate the vast landscape of ancient Egyptian history and select a topic that aligns with your interests, resources, and research goals. Remember to define your area of interest, consider available resources, explore unexplored areas, narrow your focus, identify research gaps, incorporate interdisciplinary perspectives, consult with your instructor, analyze primary and secondary sources, balance depth and breadth, and, above all, follow your passion. With these strategies in mind, you are well-equipped to embark on an engaging and enlightening exploration of ancient Egypt.

How to Write an Ancient Egypt Research Paper

Writing a research paper on ancient Egypt requires careful planning, thorough research, and effective organization. This section provides a step-by-step guide to help you navigate the process and develop a high-quality research paper that explores the fascinating world of ancient Egypt. From selecting a research question to polishing your final draft, these tips will assist you in crafting a well-structured and insightful paper.

• Select a Research Question : Begin by selecting a focused research question that will guide your study. Your question should be specific, clear, and relevant to the field of ancient Egyptian history. Consider the gaps in existing knowledge or unresolved debates within the discipline. Formulate a question that allows for in-depth analysis and generates new insights into the chosen topic.
• Conduct In-Depth Research : To build a strong foundation for your research paper, engage in comprehensive and scholarly research. Explore various sources, including books, academic journals, museum collections, and reputable online databases. Take notes, highlight key points, and critically evaluate the information gathered. Pay attention to different perspectives and interpretations to develop a well-rounded understanding of the topic.
• Create an Outline : Organize your research findings by creating a clear and logical outline for your research paper. An outline helps you structure your ideas, define the main sections of your paper, and maintain a coherent flow of information. Divide your paper into introduction, body paragraphs, and conclusion, and allocate specific points or arguments to each section. This will serve as a roadmap for your writing process.
• Write a Compelling Introduction : The introduction is the first impression of your research paper. Begin with an attention-grabbing opening sentence that hooks the reader and introduces the importance of your research topic. Provide background information on ancient Egypt and its relevance to the research question. Clearly state your research objective and preview the main points or arguments that will be explored in the paper.
• Develop Strong Body Paragraphs : The body paragraphs are where you present your research findings, analysis, and supporting evidence. Each paragraph should focus on a specific aspect or argument related to your research question. Start each paragraph with a clear topic sentence that introduces the main idea. Support your arguments with relevant examples, citations from scholarly sources, and references to primary and secondary sources.
• Analyze and Interpret Evidence : As you present your research findings, analyze and interpret the evidence in a critical and scholarly manner. Evaluate primary and secondary sources, consider different viewpoints, and demonstrate your ability to draw informed conclusions. Use direct quotations, paraphrases, and summaries to incorporate evidence and citations into your paper. Avoid plagiarism by properly citing all sources used.
• Provide Historical Context : Ancient Egypt existed in a rich historical context with its own social, cultural, and political dynamics. Provide the necessary historical context to help readers understand the significance of your research topic. Explain relevant historical events, key figures, societal structures, and cultural practices that influenced ancient Egyptian history. This contextual information will enhance the readers’ understanding of your research.
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Mythology Research Resources

Use the links below to jump directly to any section of this guide:

Mythology Fundamentals

Ancient and classical mythology, asian and oceanic mythology, african and middle eastern mythology, european mythology, mythology of the americas, additional resources for learning about mythology.

From time immemorial, human beings have attempted to answer their questions about the nature of the universe and life itself through storytelling. Myths unite us across lines of cultural difference, forming the framework by which people identify themselves and understand the wider world around them. As Joseph Campbell writes in   The Hero with a Thousand Faces , no matter how different myths are from people to people and from age to age, they all form “one, shape-shifting yet marvelously constant story that we find, together with a challengingly persistent suggestion of more remaining to be experienced than will ever be known or told” (1). This guide will provide you with websites, books, podcasts, and more that introduce the world of myth and invite deeper exploration into these fundamental stories.

The deceptively simple question, “what is mythology” produces a range of complex answers. Mythology is a category of human expression that defies uncomplicated definitions. While myths rest under the label of tradition or story or legend, they vary in their purpose and the manner in which they are told. Explore mythology’s roots and etymology through the resources below.

Mythology: Origins, Etymology, and Genre

The Wikipedia Mythology Portal

For a look at mythology in its broadest sense, visit the Wikipedia Mythology Portal. This resource links to articles on myths from around the world, and includes fun facts and featured articles and images.

"What Is Mythology?" (ThoughtCo)

This article from ThoughtCo explores the basic questions surrounding mythology, and outlines methods for study and interpretation.

CrashCourse Video: "Mythology" (YouTube)

Mike Rugnetta gives an overview of mythology in this introduction to the CrashCourse series on myth. You'll find many other CrashCourse videos, offering more specific and in-depth information, later in this guide.

Definition and Etymology of Mythology (Merriam Webster)

In this dictionary entry, learn how the roots of the word "mythology," from the Greek  mythos (story) and logos (word), emphasize its ties to oral tradition.

In Search of Myths and Heroes (PBS)

This video documentary series, hosted by Michael Wood, details some of the most well-known myths and heroes around the world. The Queen of Sheba, Shangri-La, King Arthur, and Jason and the Golden Fleece each get their own episode.

Mythology and Folklore Resources ( The Mythology Podcast )

The Mythology Podcast provides a list of resources for all things mythology and folklore, including directories, classic texts, and a blogroll.

Mythology and Folklore: Similarities and Differences

"The Meaning of Myths, Folklore, Legends, and Fairy Tales" (ThoughtCo)

Esther Lombardi parses out generic differences in this article. She explains that myths and folktales share roots in oral storytelling, but the scope of these stories is different. Myths tend to look at big-picture questions, whereas folklore is more localized.

"The Difference Between Myths, Legends, and Fairy Tales" (The Poetics Project)

Learn more about the differences and points of connection between myth and folktales, courtesy of this article from The Poetics Project.

Folktexts: Folklore and Mythology Electronic Texts (Univ. of Pittsburgh)

This resource provides a repository of texts relating to myth and folklore, from A - Z. Among them, you'll find a Chinese Creation and Flood Myth from the Miao people, Blackfoot creation and origin myths, and Apuleius's Cupid and Psyche .

Before the scientific and technological advances of modern times could help explain natural phenomena, people turned to storytelling to understand the world around them. Famous tales from the ancient world have formed the basis for many works of literature and art up to the present day. From the Mesopotamian Epic of Gilgamesh to Ovid’s Metamorphoses, myths from  civilizations of the past have retained cultural relevance well into the twenty-first century. Learn more about myths from Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, and Rome below.

Mesopotamian Mythology

"Mesopotamian Mythology: The Ancient Gods of Sumer and Babylon" (Godchecker)

Discover the Mesopotamian pantheon ("all the gods" pertaining to a certain culture) via the Godchecker website. Learn about the Epic of Gilgamesh, and discover the connection between Sumerian, Akkadian, and Mesopotamian gods.

"Mesopotamian Mythology" (Ancient-Mythology.com)

Learn more about the interaction between gods and heroes in ancient Mesopotamian myth with this website, which links to articles on Abgal, Nabu, Zu, and more.

LitCharts Study Guide for The Epic of Gilgamesh

This LitCharts Study Guide will help you get to know the most famous piece of writing from Mesopotamia. Among its many sections are resources on context, both quick-reference and detailed plot summaries, and an interactive theme wheel. 

"Great Myths and Legends: Adapa the Sage" (Univ. of Pennsylvania via YouTube)

Dr. Stephen J. Tinney presents a video lecture on flood mythology in Mesopotamia. The information presented is made possible through the recently-published text of ancient fragmentary tablets.

CrashCourse Video: "Ancient Mediterranean Pantheons" (YouTube)  

Learn more about the Sumerian deities in a continuation of Mike Rugnetta’s program on ancient Mediterranean gods.

In Our Time: The Epic of Gilgamesh (BBC)

Melvyn Bragg hosts a radio program on The Epic of Gilgamesh  with guests from leading UK universities. Learn how the tablets containing the story were gradually discovered, reassembled, and translated. 

Egyptian Mythology

Egyptian Collection: Gods and Goddesses (The British Museum)

Discover the ancient Egyptian pantheon through the British Museum’s extensive collection of artifacts devoted to the deities.

"Gods of Egypt" (Tour Egypt)

Egypt’s Ministry of Tourism presents a comprehensive web guide to ancient Egyptian gods and goddesses. You'll find pages on Aken (Ferryman of the underworld), Mut (Grandmother of the Gods), Wadjet (the serpent goddess), and many others.

The History of Egypt Podcast

This podcast's many episodes allow you to uncover Egypt’s history up to the fall of Rome, and how it intertwines with "pyramids, pharaohs, gods, and mysteries."

"11 Most Popular Myths in Ancient Egypt" (Ancientfacts.net)

This article guides you through the most popular myths of ancient Egypt, beginning with the myth of creation and ending with the Cinderella-like tale of the Girl with Rose-red slippers.

"Ancient Egyptian Mythology" ( Ancient History Encyclopedia )

Joshua Mark outlines Egyptian mythology’s structures and stories as they relate to history and society. He begins with a helpfully detailed "definition" of Egyptian mythology.

Greek and Roman Mythology

Course on the Ancient Greek Hero (edX)

Delve deeply into the myths of Greek heroes in this 17-week free online course, co-sponsored by Harvard and taught by professors from Harvard and Brandeis.

Wikipedia Article on Greek Mythology

This article provides a broad overview of ancient Greek myths, from literary and archaeological sources to modern interpretations.

In Our Time : "The Greek Myths" (BBC)

Melvyn Bragg hosts a radio program on Greek myths, "from Achilles to Zeus," with guests from leading UK universities. Learn about Penelope's shroud, Arachne's presumption, and Cerberus the three-headed dog.

GreekMythology.com  

The first website devoted exclusively to Greek myth, GreekMythology.com has operated since 1997. The site provides resources on nearly every individual god, Titan, or mortal involved in Greek mythology, and includes information on films and books which serve as a broad introduction to the topic.

Class on Greek and Roman Mythology (Coursera)

With this open online course, you can delve into the stories that comprise Greek and Roman myth with Professor Peter Struck of the University of Pennsylvania.

The Roman Empire: "Mythology" (PBS)

This article, which accompanies the PBS series on the history of ancient Rome, outlines ancient Roman myth and religious belief.

Wikipedia Article on Roman Mythology

Wikipedia offers an overview of Roman myths and religious practice. Learn about Rome's founding myth and interactions with foreign gods.

CrashCourse Video: "Greek and Roman Pantheons" (YouTube)

Watch and learn about the deities of ancient Greece and Rome with this CrashCourse video. It addresses origin stories, family relationships, and each god's "specialty."

Myths and History of Greece and Rome Podcast

This podcast overs well over 100 episodes, in which host Paul Vincent discusses the intersection between myth and history in ancient Greece and Rome.

The nations comprising Asia and Oceania are home to diverse peoples with distinct mythologies, grounded in the unique natural landscapes of the region. Some Chinese myths involve floods, while Polynesian legends tell of volcanic eruption and island formation. Further, religion and indigenous spiritual practice have influenced myths from Asia and Oceania. These include Hindu mythology in India and the Aboriginal belief in the prehistoric golden age of Dreamtime.

Indian Mythology

Wikipedia Hindu Mythology Portal

Wikipedia provides a sweeping overview of Hindu and Indian mythology and legend. You can learn about anything from demons to weapons to eschatology.

Hindu Texts (Internet Sacred Text Archive)

Read texts about the Hindu deities in English translation. This archive contains links to each of the four Vedas, the primary texts of Hinduism.

"East vs. West—The Myths that Mystify" (TED Talk)

Devdutt Pattanaik investigates the differences between Indian and Western myths, and suggests how these differences influence belief systems.

Indianmythology.com

Stories of Hindu deities and Indian epics are available in English and Hindi in this repository of mythic stories. You'll also find links to information about Indian temples.

CrashCourse Video: "Indian Pantheons" (YouTube)

Mike Rugnetta continues his exploration of mythic pantheons with this video on Indian gods. He focuses on stories that were written in Sanskrit.

Indian Mythology Archive ( The Mythology Podcast )

Learn more about the Ramayana, the Hindu goddess Kali, and monkey god Hanuman with these Mythology Podcast episodes.

Chinese Mythology

E.T.C. Werner's Myths and Legends of China (Project Gutenburg)

Read Werner’s influential and in-depth volume on Chinese mythology, first published in 1915. Learn about the goddess of mercy, the guardian of the gate of heaven, and many other stories.

Barbara Laban’s "Top 10 Chinese Myths" (The Guardian)

Author Barbara Laban shares her favorite Chinese myths in this article from The Guardian , from Sun WuKong the monkey king to the Chinese zodiac.

CrashCourse Video: "Flood Stories from China" (YouTube)

Mike Rugnetta teaches about Chinese flood stories in this CrashCourse video. He tells the story of Yu, an ancient engineer and mythical ruler.

"Chinese Myths and Legends" (Shen Yun Performing Arts)

The famous Chinese performance troupe Shen Yun provides a website with information on ancient Chinese legends.

"Chinese Mythology" (Windows to the Universe)

Explore Chinese mythological views on the ten suns, twelve moons, and story of creation on the Windows to the Universe website.

Japanese and Korean Mythology

"Mythology on the Japanese Main Island" (Shimane Prefecture)

Myths that came from the Shimane area of Japan, which is located on the main Honshu island, are explored on this website.

"Korean Mythological Gods and Stories" (Study.com)

Study.com provides an overview of Korean deities and legends. You'll learn about the mix of "shamanism, Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism, and various local myths" that inform the fluid Korean mythology.

"Japanese Mythology: 5 Ancient Myths and Legends" (Takelessons.com)

Explore five essential points of ancient Japanese mythology with this site. Included here are the Japanese creation myth, Amaterasu and the cave, Hare of Inaba, the legend of Emperor Jimmu, and more.

"Yokai" (The Mythology Podcast)

Discover one of the supernatural creatures of Japanese myth— the yokai—with The Mythology Podcast. In this episode, you'll encounter "human-headed trees, fox weddings, a trip to the underworld, and enchanted umbrellas." 

The Dangun Myth and Foundation Day ( Korea Today via YouTube)

Watch this video to learn about the mythical founding of Korea. The Dangun myth stars Korea's legendary founder, the son of the Prince of the heavens and a woman who was once a bear.

Australian and Polynesian Mythology

"Australian Aboriginal Creation Stories" (National Geographic)

This article, which accompanies Morgan Freeman's National Geographic documentary The Story of God , details creation myths of the Aboriginal Australian people.

"The Gods of Aboriginal Australia" (Godchecker)

Godchecker's introduction to the Aboriginal Australian gods includes an A - Z index, a section on the mythological golden age of Dreamtime, and tracks the latest popular Australian deities based on webpage hits.

"Maui and the Creation of the Islands" (PBS)

This video, presented by Tom Cummings of Hawaii's Bishop Museum and featuring the storyteller Kealoha Kelekolio, relays information on the Hawaiian creation myth. 

"Hawaiian Myths Tell A Story About Volcanic Activity at Kilauea" ( Forbes )

Discover how mythology interprets volcanic activity in Hawaii through this Forbes  article. You'll learn about a volcanic fight between two mythological sisters, Pele and Hi'iaka.

"Mythology of the Polynesian Islands" (Window to the Universe)

Explore legends of the Maori people, Hawai’i, and Rapa Nue (Easter) Island via the Windows to the Universe Website. You'll meet the creator god Makemake, the Maori Sky Father Rangi, and many others.

From deserts to jungles, the African continent is composed of vastly diverse geographical climates and landscapes. The mythology of the continent reflects that diversity. The populations of the Middle East, located across the Mediterranean from North Africa, also developed wide-ranging belief systems. In this section, you'll encounter myths influenced by Judaism, Islam, and Zoroastrianism.

African Mythology

CrashCourse Video: "African Pantheons and the Orishas" (YouTube)

This CrashCourse video introduces you to the deities of the Yoruba people of western Africa. It gives particular attention to the Orisha spirits.

"The Gods of Africa" (Godchecker)

Godchecker provides a list of African deities, tracing similarities and differences among the pantheons of different cultures and tribes across the continent.

Dictionary of African Mythology (Oxford Reference)

Oxford Reference hosts a dictionary of African mythology by Harold Scheub. Though full access to the text requires a subscription, you’ll be able to search abstracts and titles of legends in alphabetical organization, and connect deities and stories to specific tribes and countries.

"West African Mythology" (Windows to the Universe)

This webpage offers an introduction to the mythology of the Yoruba and Fon people. Learn about Shango, the Yoruba deity of thunder and lightning, and many others.

"Top 10 African Myths" ( The African Exponent )

African myths, ranging from the story of the Zambezi River God to the creation of the world, are collected in this article from online news outlet The African Exponent .

"Yoruba Myth, Folklore, and the Orishas" (The Mythology Podcast)

Listen to this podcast for an introduction to Yoruba religion and mythology. You'll learn about the culture's connection to divination, and learn about some of the Orishas in the Yoruba pantheon.

Arabian, Islamic, and Iranian Mythology

Radio Programs on Arabian Mythology (BBC)

In a series of radio programs hosted by the BBC, you can listen and learn about touchstones of Arabian myth, from jinn to the One Thousand and One Nights .

Wikipedia Article on "Islamic Mythology"

Wikipedia’s entry on Islamic mythology discusses the supernatural events, beings, and sacred places that figure in the Qur'an.    

"Iranian Mythology: Gods and Goddesses" (Circle of Ancient Iranian Studies)

This post from the Circle of Ancient Iranian Studies offers brief descriptions of each god and goddess in the Persian pantheon, from Agas (demoness of illness) to Zurvan (god of infinite time and space). 

Video on Zoroastrianism (Khan Academy)

This video details the rise of the ancient Iranian religion Zoroastrianism. You'll encounter Zarathustra, Ahura Mazda, and the Avesta.

Jewish Mythology

Wikipedia Article on "Jewish Mythology"

The Wikipedia entry on Jewish mythology provides a good point of departure for further exploration. Learn about the creation myth in Genesis (which is shared with Christianity), and find links to separate articles on Jewish apocrypha, Merkabah mysticism, and more.

"Eight Fascinating Jewish Myths" (BeliefNet.com)

This article provides an overview of mythology associated with Judaism, from golem to Solomon’s vampire. Learn about the many sources for Jewish myth, from the Talmud to Kabbalistic literature.

"Solomon’s Ring" ( Myths and Legends Podcast )

In this podcast, hear the story of King Solomon’s magical ring. Purportedly a gift from God, the ring allowed him to control demons and had quite a few other impressive powers, too. 

"Turning to the Angels to Save Jewish Mythology" ( Ha'aretz )

Read about the legend of the Watchers and the mythology of angels in this article from an Israeli newspaper, which connects Judaic myth with the wider world of the ancient Middle East.

Mythology from the Northern climes features snow queens and fae, cattle raids and golden eggs. Here, you can find information on some of the most influential myths of the European continent and the British isles. You'll discover tensions and continuities between ancient, pagan myths and the Christian tradition which dominated the region from the Middle Ages onward.        

Russian and Slavic Mythology          

"5 Most Popular Tales from Slavic Mythology" (Slavorum)

Familiarize yourself with popular Slavic myths through this article. You'll learn about the god Rod, who came to earth in a golden egg, and why the lord of darkness Chernobog wanted to capture the universe.

"The Gods of Slavic Mythology" (Godchecker)

Here, Godchecker provides information on the pantheons of Russia and Eastern Europe. The A - Z index will introduce you to Baba-Yaga, Mikula, Zorya and more.

"What is Known About Slavic Mythology" (Culture.pl)

This article presents a broad overview of deities and myths from across Eastern Europe. Learn about Perun, the most important god in the Slavic pantheon, and his many incarnations.

"Russian and Slavic Mythological Creatures" (Study.com)

Learn about spirits and creatures featured in Russian and Slavic myths via Study.com. The article introduces both single-figure creatures and spirits.

Celtic Mythology

"The Gods of Celtic Mythology" (Godchecker)

Learn more about the ancient Celtic pantheon through Godchecker. You'll read about the power of the Druids, and meet "megalithic military mother goddess" Morrigan.

"Irish Mythology" (Luminarium)

Let Luminarium introduce you to Ireland’s ancient Celtic deities and heroes, from the legendary heroes Fionn mac Cumhail and Cú Chulainn to the gods Danu and Dagda.

"Celtic Mythology: The Mythological Cycles" (Sacredfire.net)

This webpage offers information about the different mythic story-cycles, along with an introduction to some of the more famous Celtic tales like Tain bo Cualinge.

The Celts Documentary: "Sacred Groves" (BBC)  

The third episode in the BBC's series on the Celts focuses on Celtic mythology and its relation to the pagan religious practice of Druidism.

Norse Mythology

"Viking and Norse Mythology" (History on the Net)

A collection of information on Norse gods and creatures, from giants to land spirits, is available on this website. Learn about Freya and Baldur, along with Yggdrasil and the nine worlds.

CrashCourse Video: "The Norse Pantheon" (YouTube)

Meet the Norse gods Loki, Thor, Freya, Odin and more in this video. CrashCourse recommends that you watch this video before Ragnorok, as it may not be available when the universe ends.

In Our Time : "The Norse Gods" (BBC)

Here, host Melvyn Bragg moderates a conversation on the Norse pantheon. Learn about Valhalla, Thor and his hammer, and an all-important ash tree.

The Norse Mythology Blog

Dr. Karl Seigfried blogs here about Norse religion and mythology. You'll find posts on everything from mythology's influence on current events to shield-maidens.

"Norse Gods and Goddesses" (Mythologian.net)

In this post, delve into stories of Norse gods and goddesses and their rise and fall to Ragnarok (“the twilight of the gods”).

Ancient Native American tribes held many different beliefs about the nature of the universe in North America. Meanwhile, in South America, native peoples such as the Aztec and Inca had their own visions of gods and the wider world around them. Spanning two continents, mythology of the Americas varies as widely as the rainforests, plains, and tundra in which they were formed.

Mythology of the Indigenous Peoples of North America

Wikipedia Article on "Mythologies of Indigenous Peoples of North America"

The Wikipedia portal to Native American mythology is organized by tribe and region for a comprehensive introduction to pantheons and legends.

"Inuit Mythology" (Windows to the Universe)

The Windows to the Universe site provides information on Inuit myths. Here, you'll be introduced to the Inuit deities of the sun, moon, and sea.

"Mythology of North American Indians" (Windows to the Universe)

Here, you can find introductions to myths of the Algonquin, Pawnee, Navajo, and Lakota tribes. Learn about the Algonquian tribe's many names for the full moon, and the connection between coyotes and the Milk Way in Navajo myth. 

Native American Mythology Resource Guide (Touro College)

The Touro College library provides an introductory resource guide to Native American myth, including book selections and web resources.

Central and South American Mythology

"Aztec Mythology" (Windows to the Universe)

Windows to the Universe lays out Aztec myths related to celestial deities and planets. Learn about the moon goddess Coyolxauhqui and the sun god Huitzilopochtli.       

"Aztec Creation Myth: The Legend of the Fifth Sun" (ThoughtCo)

Did you know the Aztecs believed their world had been created and destroyed four times before? In this ThoughtCo article, read about the Aztecs’ calendar, mythology, and their vision of the world’s creation.

Smithsonian National Museum of the American Indian: "The Creation Story of the Maya" (YouTube)

Watch this short Smithsonian video about the Popol Vuh, the book detailing the Mayan creation story. You'll discover tales of the Hero Twins and the creation of the sky.

"Mythology of the Mayas" (Windows to the Universe)

The Mayans’ mythological understanding of the planets and elements is described here. Learn about how the Mayans' detailed astronomical knowledge informed their mythology.

"The Gods of Mayan Mythology" (Godchecker)

Godchecker introduces the Mayan pantheon here. Discover information on Cabrakan (God of the mountains), the hero twins Hunahpu and Xbalanque, and the World-tree.

"Amazon Mythology" (Windows to the Universe)

Windows to the Universe uncovers the mythology of the Mamaiurans, an Amazon Indian people living in Brazil. You'll learn about the moon god Iae, and why the Mamaiurans had to share daylight with the king of the birds.

"The Gods of South America" (Godchecker)

Like other Godchecker pages, this introduction to the gods of Brazil, Peru, and Chile includes an A - Z index of gods and a list of the latest popular deities. 

"Inca Mythology" (Windows to the Universe)

Explore Incan mythology of the sun and earth on this webpage. You'll find brief introductions to the generous sun god Inti and his wife Pachamama.

"Incan Mythology: The Golden Gods of the Andes" (Godchecker)

Godchecker provides an introduction to the Incan deities. Meet the potato goddess Axomamma, and discover how the health goddess Cocomamma met an unfortunate end.

Resources for Teaching Mythology

Sharing mythology from around the globe with students allows them to appreciate unique stories and connect cross-cultural ideas, and also helps them understand the origins of literature, history, and the arts.  With the following tools, you can create lesson plans and find inspiration for assignments and assessments.        

Teaching Tips from Mythweb

Ideas for creative writing assignments and etymological explorations abound in this aggregated list of lesson plans and activities to teach students about mythology.

"Mythology" (Windows to the Universe)

This resource from the National Earth Science Teachers Association draws comparisons between mythology and the natural world. You can delve into specific myths about planets and astrological phenomena, family trees of deities, and myths by region.

MythFun.com

The Myth Man’s website provides a colorful spin on Greek myth, telling stories of heroes, gods, and creatures alongside a look at mythology’s influence on contemporary life. It also offers two mythology quizzes.

"Myths, Folktales, and Fairy Tales": Teacher’s Activity Guide (Scholastic)

Well-known publisher Scholastic has collaborated with authors to create resources that inspire students to learn about and write their own larger-than-life stories.

Mythologyteacher.com

English teacher Zak Hamby has compiled a website of teaching materials and sample lesson plans for educators looking to teach Greek, Roman, and Norse myths to their students.

ArtsEdge: "Myths and Heroes" (The Kennedy Center)

Nested under ArtsEdge's "Myths and Heroes" section, you'll find lesson plans about myths for students from fifth through twelfth grades.

"Folktales, Fairytales and Mythology" (National Endowment for the Humanities)

Several back-to-school lesson plans and resources are available courtesy of the NEH, including one on Greek mythology and another on "Navigating Ancient Worlds."

Teacher Resources in Latin, Greek, Mythology and Classics (American Classical League)

The ACL provides information on teaching tools, resources, and links on the classical world for educators and students alike. You'll need to create an account to access the content.

Mythology resources (Teachers Pay Teachers)

Search for lesson plans and assessments on mythology, created by teachers for teachers, for varying grade levels. You'll find entire unit plans along with individual activities.

The resources below will help you delve deeper into the world of mythology, inside or outside of the classroom.  Fundamental texts in the study of mythology are covered here, along with podcasts and encyclopedias to empower you to discover new myths.

A Complete Encyclopedia of Myths and Legends

This alphabetized online encyclopedia contains A - Z entries on characters and tropes from myths worldwide. You'll find entries on trees in mythology, the  Bhagavad Gita , Micronesian mythology, and much more.

Encyclopedia Mythica (Pantheon.org)

Encyclopedia Mythica provides over 7,000 web articles relating to myths from around the globe, organized by geographical region and special interest content areas.

Mythology Podcasts (PlayerFM)

PlayerFM has aggregated an up-to-date list of the best mythology podcasts, including Jason Weisner’s popular Myths and Legends .

LitCharts Study Guide to Margaret Hamilton’s Mythology

Explore Hamilton’s famous 1942 book, which serves as a comprehensive introduction to the Greek, Roman, and Norse gods, with this LitCharts study guide.

Bulfinch’s Mythology Online (Project Gutenberg)  

Access Thomas Bulfinch’s formative work on mythology, first published in 1867. It's available in several electronic formats via Project Gutenberg.

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Ultimate Guide to Egyptian Mythology

Egyptian mythology focuses on the fundamental order of the universe, explaining the patterns of the natural world through divine actions. Of particular importance are the creation myths, the constant struggle against disorder, and the cycles of death and rebirth.

Egyptian Gods

The pantheon of deities responsible for maintaining cosmic order in ancient Egypt

Egyptian gods and goddesses were incarnations of both natural phenomena, such as the sun, and social phenomena, like knowledge. Egypt itself was ruled by a pharaoh who claimed to be the gods’ representative on earth, and who acted as a mediator between mankind and the divine.

Popular Resources

World Mythology (HUM 1015)

• Start Here!
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Database: Artstor

With approximately 300 collections composed of over 2 million images, find artifacts from the Smithsonian, treasures from the Louvre, and panoramic, 360-degree views of architectural wonders.

Mexico, Chiapas, Palenque Region, Maya. Incense-Burner Support. c. 600-900. Artstor, library-artstor-org.ccco.idm.oclc.org/asset/AMICO_CL_103802232

Painted incense stand with bowl. 1200-1000 BCE. Artstor, library-artstor-org.ccco.idm.oclc.org/asset/LESSING_ART_10313048841

Below you will find common mythic themes and elements for certain world mythologies. Also included are some ideas for research paper topics for each culture. You will notice that some mythic themes and elements are common across different cultures and mythologies (for example Greek and Roman).  

Note:   The following information can be found using the Gale Virtual Reference Library Philosophy & Religion database provided under the  Database and Internet Links   tab, and the course study outline available in the Start Here!  tab. 

Universal Themes

Common Universal Themes in World Mythology

Creation and the Ordering of the Cosmos/Reality Afterlife and immortality Gender Roles - social roles and ideals  Deities - relation to the divine, nature Acquisition of Fire/Technology Geophysical Phenomenon (e.g. Flood or Apocalyptic myths; Time)

Common Themes in Greek Mythology:

-Obedience to a higher being or beings

-Human behavior; explaining consequences of good and bad behavior

-Relationships between men and women to one another

-War and military honor; Creation of Heroes

-explaining the destructive forces of natural disasters

-passage of time and life, including the afterlife

Paper Ideas:

- A potter creating artistic pots depicting the relationship between Zeus and Athena, or other characters from Greek mythology.(Why are you depicting that scene; what does the myth mean to you?)

- A home owner, with a family, and a stranger come to the home asking for shelter (Xenos, Theos)

- A Greek solider explaining his experience during the Trojan War

- A young Greek person has a dream about crossing the River Styx and seeing a deceased relative (describe the journey, how did you get to the underworld, did you meet other characters from Greek mythology there?)

Common Themes in Roman Mythology: 

-Celebration of Virtues (Honor, Bravery, Self-Sacrifice, and piety) 

-Gods and Goddess represent Virtue (deities do not possess the same human-like weaknesses and vices)

-War and Military Honor 

-Founding of Rome (Romulus and Remus story)

- A roman general speaks to his troops before a major battle (explain how the deities might favor those who demonstrate virtues listed above)

- Comparison of Greek and Roman Gods and/or Goddesses from the perspective of a Roman scholar

- You are an advisor to an Emperor of Rome, and have been tasked with explaining ways to honor the gods and goddess with a ceremony or festival  

India/Hindu

Common Themes in India/Hindu Mythology:

Importance of nature (sacred Animals, Trees, and mountains for example)

Eschatology,Death, Reincarnation of the soul

Ritualistic festivals and devotion to gods and goddesses

- Parents explain why good behavior is important to a child (Dharma, reincarnation ) 

- A village elder explains the significance of a sacred Tree within the village

- a young person talks about the forms of Vishnu, and how they see Vishnu in their daily lives, to a sibling. 

Common Themes in Norse Mythology: 

- Bravery/courage while facing a harsh fate

-Impending destruction of man and deities

-struggle between good and evil 

- focus on nature (fire, ice, trees, rainbows are all natural elements that appear in Norse Mythology)

- Creation of Sagas to honor ancestors 

Paper Ideas: 

- An elder member of a Viking family writes a saga describing the heroic efforts of a late family member

- You are part of the valkyries, and are selecting fallen warriors to enter Valhalla ( explain why a certain warrior makes it in to Valhalla, while another may be left out)

North American

Common Themes in North American Mythology:

-Bridge the gap between hunter/gatherer culture and settlement culture

-Varied beliefs according to unique history of events and geographic relationships

-Animal Spirits (e.g. Buffalos, wolves, rabbits are different types of animal spirits that appear in North American mythologies). 

-Origin stories (Commonalities in stories due to mass migration across Bering Straight and later spreading of tribes across North America)

-Sacred pieces; pipes, drums, robes, 

-Gender roles (e.g. Buffalo Woman & Handsome Stranger 

- You are a young warrior sent on a vision quest; describe what you are doing, and how it relates to the mythology of your culture, why is your vision quest important? 

- As a Navajo elder, you must explain the significance of the four sacred mountains of the Navajo and how the Navajo came to be.  

- You are a Creek woman explaining the story of the Lucky Hunter and the Corn Woman to your children (Creek Indian creation myth).

- You are a Ute Indian tribesman, and you spotted a wolf and a coyote while wondering your territory.  Explain the symbolism that these two creatures mean to your tribe.  Is it good or bad that you saw these two animals? Should you be concerned at the sight of a wolf or coyote? 

Meso-American

Common Themes in Meso-American Mythologies:

-Developed stable and sophisticated cultures early (as compared to Europe and China for example)

-astronomical observation and creation of complex calendars; movements of planets tracked (e.g. Venus) 

-architecture ( pyramid builders)

-The mystery and mists of time; development of corn

-The use of slaves

-Human sacrifice

-The Green Man (The maintenance of the cycle of nature)

- You are a member of the Mayan civilization.  Explain the significance of your birth date, does the date have any baring on the outcome of your life or your fate? 

- As a high priest in the Mayan culture, you must keep the deities happy and appeased.  What rituals and practices do you use, and why is this beneficial for your culture? ( NOTE : a paper like this can be graphic, please do not focus your paper on graphic or inappropriate images and themes.  Human sacrifice and bloodletting are examples of practices that occurred in Meso-American cultures, do not include graphic details of these practices, but instead explain how and why such rituals were practiced in these civilizations .)

- You are an Aztec elder and want to explain the origins of the civilization to a young family member.  You explain the 4 suns (or worlds) that came before your time, and explain their significance to the civilization. 

Common Themes in Egyptian Mythology

-Creation Myth (e.g. World, Ennead of Heliopolis,)

-Afterlife ( i.e. Myths of Osiris, Book of the Dead, mummies & pyramids )

-Numerous cults and rituals to deities (e.g. Cult of Isis ) 

-Solar Myths; Sun deities and the cycle of their daily movement

-The idea of Order ( ma at )- reflecting notions of truth, cooperation and Justice

-The influence of Egyptian Myths and rituals (e.g. Greeks and Romans borrow mythological elements and deities to fit their cultures)

-  You are an Egyptian watching the sun rise over the Nile River, explain the significance of this daily occurrence,  where did the sun go when it was night? What do you believe happened to the sun or deities that are associated with the sun during the night?

- You are an ancient scholar, you are studying the Cult of Osiris.  You have read or been told the story of Osiris by Egyptians, and discover that Plutarch, a Roman Historian, has also recorded a version of the story of Osiris.  Do you notice any variation in the Egyptian version of the story whe comparing it with Plutarch's version?

- You are an Egyptian farmer working lands near the Nile. Which gods and/or goddesses do you rely on for a healthy and bountiful crop? Do you feel that they help or do the deities seem to be against you? Why would the deities favor you or want to destroy you? 

Common Themes in Celtic Mythology:

- Celtic cultures were diverse and deities and myths were localized depending on the tribe.  

- Oral tradition of myth telling; most tales not recorded in text ( recorded versions of Celt tales come from Roman sources; Romans and Celts were enemies, thus Roman accounts are often unfavorable views of the Celtic culture). 

- Myths of the Otherworld ; How to get to the Otherworld; The use of Burial mounds ( sidhe),  importance of geographic features (e.g. lakes, caves)

- Magic, Magicians, and supernatural events (e.g. the magic cauldron or kettles) 

- Epic and perilous adventure stories; mysterious and dangerous lands; larger than life heroes

- Romance, love, and tricksters can be found any many tales. 

- As a Druid priest, you are teaching the tale of Dagda. What role does Dagda play as a member of the religious sect of Celtic culture? Do you have any magic powers as a Druid priest?

- You are Celtic hunter that has come across another tribe of Celts that you are not familiar with.  Discuss the differences in your tribes with a member from the new tribe you have found.  Are your deities the same? Do they have the same names? Did you hear a new version of a old tale? 

- You are a Roman solider that just fought a band of Celtic warriors.  You have taken a Celt warrior prisoner, and having spent a lot of time in the region, can understand the what the prisoner is saying. Explain the conversation.  Is the warrior praying to a certain deity? Does the warrior tell you anything about the Celtic culture and beliefs? 

Common Themes in Chinese Mythology :

- Complex and old mythology (Chinese history, mythology, and reality intertwine). 

- Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism factor into Chinese Mythology.

-Changing dynasties means more or less emphasis on particular deities in the pantheon of Chinese gods and goddesses.

- creation of the cosmos and human beings out of chaos (e.g. Pan Gu and the creation of the world) 

- nature; Explanations of natural phenomena; Animism used often to explain the natural world.

- Astronomical observation and the use of myth to explain the origins of stars, the sun, the moon and their movements.

- moral issues.

- ancestor worship (became more important to Chinese culture with the rise of the Zhou Dynasty)

- An elderly member of your family has recently passed away after a long life.  Explain how your family views the passing of your relative based on chinese mythology.  Do you think your relative was favored by the deities, or does their death make you think that your ancestor crossed the deities somehow? Will your family do any rituals or ceremonies to honor your ancestors? 

- As an ancient Chinese astronomers, you explain various myths that account for the sun, moon, and the appearance of the Milky Way in the night sky.

-  You are a Chinese hunter/fisherman and are hoping to pass down your skills to your children.  You tell them the legend of the three Sovereigns and explain how this story is important to understand if the children want to be successful as hunters/fishermen. 

Common Themes in Japanese Mythology:

- Creation Myth (creation of the islands of Japan)

- Focus on nature; Everything in nature has a  kami --  a spirit or soul. 

- Many centuries myths were orally transmitted; 712 CE myths recorded in the  Kojiki  for Emperor; Another text, the  Nihongi  created around 720 CE contains more legends and myths, as well the genealogy of the imperial family (both text contain elements of Taoism). 

- Gods granting divine rights to Japanese Emperor

- The importance of mirrors as a mythic symbol

- Rituals to honor the Gods and Goddesses (e.g.kagura dances) 

-  You have grown up in a mountainous region of Japan, and have heard tales of the  tengu,  or trickster spirits that are part human and part bird, and inhabit the area. You have figured out a way to play a trick on the  tengu,  who do not like being on the opposite end of tricks.  What did you do and how did the tengu respond to your trickster ways?

- You serve the Japanese Imperial family as a scribe and/or scholar. You are writing a personal journal entry to yourself questioning the divine origins of the Imperial family.  Do you believe that they are truly descendents from the gods and goddesses as Japanese mythology claims? Why or why not?

- As a Japanese rice farmer, you harvest the most important crop for the civilization. Discuss the various deities and legends that help you cultivate this important food crop. (e.g.  Inari,  Amaterasu) 

Common Themes in Arthurian Legend:

-   A blend of Celtic Myth, history, and medieval romance; Arthurian Legend factor in to the Mythology of the British Isles (Britain, Ireland, Wales).

-  King Arthur may or may not have really existed

- Many Characters in early Arthurian Legends based on older Celtic myth characters (e.g. Merlin and Myrddin)

-  Equality amongst Knights of the Round Table.

- Magic Powers, supernatural beings, and epic quests part of Arthurian legends.

- Loyalty and human weakness explored in Arthurian legends.

- King Arthur is considered a timeless, or eternal king; Scholars have seen similarities between King Arthur and Sun Gods (die and set in the west, but reborn)

- Legends transform over time (Search for Magic cauldron becomes search for Holy Grail); Medieval writers create new Arthurian legends

Paper Ideas:  

- You are a medieval scholar and you have a new take on the Legend of King Arthur and his sword, Excalibur. Why do you need to retell this tale? What is different in your telling of the legend compared to other versions of the this legend? 

- Suppose that King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table did exist, and you are an aspiring Knight, hoping to be amongst those that set at the Round Table.  How would you gain favor with the King? Describe what it takes to be a Knight of the Round Table.  

- Compare an Arthurian Legend with the Celtic myth from which it originated.  How are they similar? How do they differ? (e.g. Merlin compared to Myrddin ; Quest for the magic cauldron compared with quest for the Holy Grail). 

Polynesian Mythology

Common Themes in Polynesian Mythology:

-Polynesia consists of several islands and cultures located in the Pacific Ocean (  Ranging from Midway and Hawaii in the north to New Zealand in the south, the triangular area called Polynesia also includes Tahiti, Samoa, Tonga, Tuamotu, the Cook Islands, and the Pitcairn Islands).

-Though slight variations in mythologies exist based on particular island cultures, many of the basic themes, gods, and stories are shared throughout Polynesia. 

- Large emphasis on nature; Myths and legends explain the importance of the Ocean to Polynesian cultures.

- Creation myths very important to Polynesian Cultures (e.g. Ao and Po Hawaiian Myth; Te Po, Te Kore, Rangi, and Papi Moari myth)

- Yams and sweet potatoes are stable crops of Polynesian cultures, and have their own myths and legends surrounding them.

- Humans must deal with uncooperative or unfriendly gods in someway (e.g. myth of Maui) 

-  As a yam farmer on the island of Samoa, you have had a dismal crop and need to explain to your family why the deities cursed you this harvest. Using myths, explain what went wrong, and if possible, how to correct this problem for the next harvest. 

- You have grown up in the ancient Hawaiian culture, and experience the arrival of European explorers coming to your shore for the first time.  Based on your myths, how do you interpret the arrive of of these entities? Are they human? Is this a good or bad sign from the Gods and Goddesses?  

- As an experienced sailor from Tahiti, you are about to embark on a trip across the ocean.  Are there rituals that will help you have a safe voyage? Are their mythical creatures or certain deities you should worry about while you prepare for the voyage? Explain your thoughts as you load your craft for the ocean voyage. 

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Research paper on egyptian mythology

Type of paper: Research Paper

Topic: History , War , Culture , Mythology , Middle East , God , Character , Egypt

Published: 12/09/2019

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Egyptian history is full of myths and has always been fascinating for the readers since time immemorial. There are several mythical characters in the Egyptian stories that continue to attract the readers to the ancient civilization of Egypt. Myths help in providing the old indigenous account of culture, traditions to newer generations from the older ones. Egyptian myths have been transferred to newer generations from older generations and remind Egyptians of their glorious past. This paper discusses the Egyptian myth, other related aspects and the Egyptian mythical character Seth. Seth is considered as the god of chaos in Egypt. This character is identified as the adversary of the Egyptian god Osiris. Since Seth was the god of chaos and adversary of Osiris, he is often portrayed as the negative `character but he was not completely negative because only he had the capacity to control the chaotic situations. Seth became very powerful and significant during the second dynasty of Egypt and he took the place of Horus as the guardian of pharaohs during the third millennium BC. Seth was defeated in an eight year long war with the Horus and lost the guardianship of pharaohs. In the deadly war, Seth tore the left eye of Horus but lost his leg and testicles. This war turned out to be a real detrimental war for him. Apart from losing his limbs, Seth lost the kingship and was thrown out from the soil of Egypt. He was also forced to compromise with Horus and to return his eye to him. Horus was declared the winner by the council of gods and was reinstated at his previous position. Seth was ousted from the Egypt but later on he was arranged to be a part of the sun. The character of Seth has a significant role in the Egyptian mythology. Seth is portrayed as a human being with undetermined facial features. The character has been portrayed differently in many Egyptian books. On of the most famous and significant Egyptian book “the book of dead” recognizes him as “lord of the northern sky”. He has been said responsible for the clouds and storms. His appearance was fearful and people as well animals were afraid of him. The character of Seth represents simultaneously antagonist and protagonist in the Egyptian mythology and has been a substance of curiosity for the readers since the beginning. Seth is a powerful figure of the Egyptian mythology that has been portrayed negatively due to some of his negative deeds. The origin of Seth is considered at a foreign place other than the Egypt and perhaps this is the reason why Seth is depicted in a negative role throughout the Egyptian myths. After having observed the abovementioned account of the Egyptian mythology and a character of the Egyptian myths, it is clear that myths are a very important part of any culture. These myths provide very significant information related to the culture and the traditions. The character of Seth is a very significant character of Egyptian mythology and attracts the attention of readers. The character represents the negative powers but it does not make his significance smaller in any ways. The character of Seth in the Egyptian mythological history is as important as other mythical characters are.

Works Cited

Muller, W. Max. Egyptian Mythology. Massachusetts: Kessinger Publishing, 1918. Pinch, Geraldine. Egyptian Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Goddesses, and Traditions of Ancient Egypt. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.

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Egyptian Art

The Met collection of ancient Egyptian art consists of approximately 30,000 objects of artistic, historical, and cultural importance, dating from about 300,000 BCE to the 4th century CE. A signifcant percentage of the collection is derived from the Museum's three decades of archaeological work in Egypt, initiated in 1906 in response to increasing interest in the culture of ancient Egypt.

History of the Department

The Department of Egyptian Art was established in 1906 to oversee the Museum's already sizable collection of art from ancient Egypt. In the same year, the Museum's Board of Trustees voted to establish an Egyptian Expedition to conduct archaeological excavations in Egypt. Between 1906 and 1935, The Met's Egyptian Expedition worked at a number of important sites, including Lisht in the north and Thebes in the south and the objects gifted to The Met by the Egyptian antiquities service form the core of our collection. Over the years, the Department of Egyptian Art has also been able to acquire, through purchase and bequest, several important private collections.

In addition to interpreting and caring for the permanent collection of ancient Egyptian art, the staff of the Department of Egyptian Art continues to excavate at the Museum's concessions in Egypt under the oversight of the Supreme Council of Antiquities of the Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities.

What's On View

When the Lila Acheson Wallace Galleries of Egyptian Art opened in 1983, the goal of the new installation was to present The Met's entire collection of Egyptian art. Today, most of the collection remains on view in thirty-eight galleries for the visitor's enjoyment. These galleries are organized so that a visitor moving through them can "travel" through Egyptian history, starting with the rise of the state in the Predynastic Period (ca. 4500 B.C.), presented in Gallery 101, and ending in Gallery 138 with the last phase of Rome's occupation of Egypt (A.D. 400).

Several galleries emphasize particular themes within this chronological framework, drawing the visitor's attention to important tomb groups, objects that reflect daily life, or fascinating funerary traditions.  Set in the context of Egyptian history, these objects reflect the aesthetic values, religious beliefs, and everyday life of the ancient Egyptians over the approximately 5,000 years this remarkable civilization existed. The collection is particularly well known for the Old Kingdom offering chapel of Perneb's mastaba in Gallery 100 (ca. 2450 B.C.); a set of delicate wooden models from the Middle Kingdom tomb of Meketre in Gallery 105 (ca. 1990 B.C.); the incomparable jewelry of Princess Sithathoryunet of Dynasty 12 in Gallery 111 (ca. 1897–1797 B.C.); royal sculpture of the Middle Kingdom in Gallery 111 (ca. 1991–1783 B.C.); temple statues of Dynasty 18's female pharaoh Hatshepsut in Gallery 115 (ca. 1473–1458 B.C.); and the nested coffins of Dynasty 21 in Gallery 126 (ca. 1070–945 B.C.). In 2016, the galleries of Ptolemaic art (ca. 332–30 B.C.) were reinstalled and this important collection is displayed to great advantage in the floor to ceiling cases of Gallery 134. 

The department also exhibits its invaluable collection of tempera or ink facsimiles that faithfully reproduce paintings in ancient Egyptian tombs. These were largely produced between 1907 and 1937 by members of the Graphic Section of the Museum's Egyptian Expedition. Each year, a thematic selection of these facsimiles is displayed in Gallery 132 as a small exhibition.

Click here for more information about our departmental rotations .

The Temple of Dendur  is a destination for Met visitors. Completed by 10 B.C., the Roman emperor Augustus — who had succeeded Cleopatra VII, the last of the Ptolemaic rulers of Egypt — commissioned this temple to honor the great goddess Isis. Worshipped here as well were two brothers, sons of a local Nubian ruler; the esteem in which the brothers were regarded in this region, about fifty miles south of modern Aswan, may explain why Augustus chose Dendur as a place to erect a temple. During The International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia , the 2,000 year old temple was dismantled to protect it from the rising waters of Lake Nasser following the completion of the Aswan High Dam. The government of Egypt presented the Temple of Dendur as a gift to the people of the United States in recognition of the American contribution to this historic campaign.

Collection Highlights

See highlights of Egyptian art in The Met collection.

Special Installations

Framing the Past

Learn about the facsimile rotation in Gallery 132 on view until November 1, 2024.

Of Interest

Tutankhamun: Commemorating 100 Years

Explore the Egypt of Tutankhamun.

Temple of Dendur: Celebrating Fifty Years

Explore the ancient Temple of Dendur at The Met with essays by curators and other digital content.

William the Hippo: Celebrating 100 Years

Enjoy essays and other digital media about William, the ancient Egyptian hippo and unofficial mascot of The Met.

Related Content

Publications

Discover The Met's many publications on Egyptian art and architecture.

Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History

Browse richly illustrated essays on Egyptian art and architecture.

Blog Articles

Read fresh perspectives on Egyptian art and architecture from curators and others at the Museum.

Watch videos on Egyptian art at The Met—lectures, interviews, exhibition previews, and more.

Collection Insights

Explore new research on objects from the Department of Egyptian Art.

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Meet the Staff

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Egyptian Art Annals

Catch up with past volumes of our annual newsletter.

Curatorial Friends Group

The Friends of Egyptian Art brings together patrons and collectors in support of the department.

The thousand-year-old mystery of the giant snake found in drawings across the world

Archaeologists have discovered one of the world’s largest collections of ancient art, showing giants and monsters walking the Earth.

In a remote area of South America , a British-led research team has discovered more than a thousand prehistoric engravings – including the world’s largest examples of prehistoric rock art. However, the archaeologists believe that the examples found so far are only the “tip of a vast ancient artistic iceberg” – and that many more still await discovery.

It’s thought likely that the thousand-square-mile area (the size of Dorset) may well contain around 10,000 ancient engravings. The largest discovered so far is a 43-metre-long engraving of a giant serpent. Others portray giant centipedes, larger-than-life animals – and immense 10-metre-tall human-like figures.

The engravings – discovered along the Colombia/Venezuela border – portray everything from stingrays and vultures to monkeys and crocodiles, from dogs and jaguars to turtles and frogs.

There are also a large number of geometric engravings (mainly concentric circles, grid patterns and dot-filled triangles), representing as yet unidentified objects.

It’s one of the biggest concentrations of rock art in the world – rivalling others such as the French Dordogne region, Alpine northern Italy, Western Australia, and South Africa in terms of volume.

But by far the most unusual aspect of the engravings is the uniquely monumental nature of some of them. Around 60 of the 1,000 discovered so far have dimensions in excess of 10 metres. As well as the 43-metre serpent, they include two 10-metre-tall human-like figures (which could be spirits, or gods, or possibly shamans), an 11-metre-long centipede, and what is probably a four-metre-tall giant insect (potentially a butterfly).

“Our field research in Colombia and Venezuela is, for the very first time, revealing a previously largely unknown and unrecorded ancient culture in this remote part of South America,” said one of the project’s leaders, Dr Philip Riris of Bournemouth University’s department of archaeology and anthropology. “We hope that this will allow the modern world to appreciate the long-lost artistic and other achievements of the people who lived there many centuries before European colonisation,” he added.

The giant snakes (seven of them, measuring between 16 and 43 metres in length) are particularly significant because they may be part of a much wider global “mega-serpent” tradition.

Academic research published by numerous scholars over the years suggests that, unlike most other animal-related religious belief systems, snake worship, known to anthropologists as ophiolatry, was once a major worldwide phenomenon. It featured (and in some cases still features) in religious systems and mythologies in virtually every part of the world – from prehistoric Europe and ancient Egypt to Aboriginal Australia and ancient America.

Classical Greek mythology was rich in supernatural snake monsters and other snake-related beings, as was ancient Middle Eastern, European, Mexican, African, Chinese, Japanese and Indian mythology.

Serpents were often associated with the creation of humanity or of particular tribes; with immortality; and with the curing of disease. Depending on the culture, they can be regarded as benevolent or evil (or as capable of being both) – and were sometimes even seen as symbols of royalty.

The unusually wide global distribution of snake mythology and religious iconography suggests that the phenomenon is extremely ancient – and that humans worldwide have, for potentially tens of thousands of years, felt compelled to specifically placate and revere serpents. That is almost certainly because snakes posed (and still pose) a greater threat to humans than any other animal (apart from disease-carrying insects).

Still today, around 20,000 people die every year from venomous snake bites (compared with just 100 per year from lion attacks and 500 per year from encounters with crocodiles). What’s more, another 400,000 or so people are bitten and envenomed by snakes every year, even if they don’t die.

In ancient times, when humans lived much closer to the natural environment (and continually hunted and gathered in that environment), snakes were almost certainly, proportionately, an even greater threat to humanity – a threat that needed to be appeased and therefore worshipped, revered and placated.

As with the newly discovered Colombian and Venezuelan examples, other ancient cultures often portrayed serpent deities or spirits as truly monumental giant creatures. In California, Ohio, Peru and elsewhere, there are portrayals of truly gargantuan serpents writhing across local landscapes. The biggest, a vast 900-year-old 411-metre-long earthwork representing a giant snake, can still be seen on a hilltop in southern Ohio.

The newly discovered Colombian engravings were made by ancient Native American people – probably between around 700 and 1000 AD. They are among the most difficult-to-access examples of outdoor prehistoric art in the world. That’s because the prehistoric artists who engraved them often did so high up on near-vertical cliff faces. It would have been challenging, difficult and dangerous work.

The 43-metre-long giant serpent, for instance, is located three-quarters of the way up a 200-metre-high cliff. Some evidence suggests that, in ancient times, it functioned as an oracle – allowing the serpent to “speak” to the local population, through a shaman or other intermediary (much as oracles worked in other parts of the world, including ancient Greece and ancient Egypt).

The thousand engravings so far discovered by the archaeological team are located in 157 clusters along a 110-mile stretch of the Orinoco River. The first European explorers to penetrate the region were 16th-century German and English treasure-hunters, searching for the fabled gold of El Dorado. Those adventurers (including England’s Sir Walter Raleigh) never found the legendary city, or the gold. But now, modern explorers have succeeded in discovering an archaeological treasure trove – giant artworks that will help change the academic world’s understanding of a remarkable long-lost ancient culture.

“We hope that our research work will help ensure that the extraordinary artistic heritage of the Orinoco valley is protected, and that local indigenous and mixed-heritage communities will become involved in that process,” said Riris.

A groundbreaking paper, devoted entirely to describing the newly recorded and globally important Orinoco rock art, is being published on Tuesday – written by the Orinoco project’s three main archaeologists: Philip Riris of Bournemouth University, Jose Ramon Oliver of University College London, and Natalia Lozada Mendieta of the University of the Andes in Bogota, Colombia. Published by the scholarly UK-based archaeological journal Antiquity , it will be available free online.

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