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Plane table surveying with methods and examples.

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What is Plane Table Surveying?

Equipment used in plane table survey.

Plane table
Alidade for sighting (telescopic or simple)
Plumb bob and plumb fork
Spirit level
Ranging rods
Drawing sheet and drawing tools
Paper clips or screws

Plane table survey equipment is arranged in 4 steps as follows

Fixing of plane table, leveling of plane table, centering of plane table, orientation of plane table, methods of plane table surveying, intersection.

The three-point problem
The two-point problem

The Three-Point Problem

Tracing method
Lehmann method
Analytical methods
Graphical method

Tracing Method in Plane Table Surveying

Lehmann Method

Analytical Methods

Graphical method, the two-point problem.

Sadanandam Anupoju

Measuring Tape: Anatomy, Marking, and Steps to Measure

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Plane Table Surveying

In this method of surveying a table top, similar to drawing board fitted on to a tripod is the main instrument. A drawing sheet is fixed on to the table top, the observations are made to the objects, distances are scaled down and the objects are plotted in the field itself. Since the plotting is made in the field itself, there is no chance of omitting any necessary measurement in this surveying. However the accuracy achieved in this type of surveying is less. Hence this type of surveying is used for filling up details between the survey stations previously fixed by other methods. In this chapter, accessories required, working operations and methods of plane table surveying are explained. At the end advantages and limitations of this method are listed.

4.1 Plane Table and its Accessories 4.2 Working Operations 4.3 Methods of Plane Tabling 4.4 Errors in Plane Table Surveying 4.5 Advantages and Limitations of Plane Table Survey

Advantages & Disadvantages of Plane Table Survey

Advantages of Plane Table Survey

Followings are the advantages of plane table surveying

Plane Table Surveying is most suitable for preparing small‐scale maps.
Plane Table Survey is a very s…
Errors in Plane Table Surveying

Followings are the common errors occur in plane table surveying

The table must be accurately oriented once the table is shifted otherwise the lines drawn from the…
Plane Table Survey Instruments - Functions & Details

Plane table surveying is a type of surveying which can be done very fast. The necessary equipment of the plane table survey is mentioned below. Also, brief discussion and photographs of major ins…

What is Plane Table Surveying? Setup & Methods

The plane table surveying is one of the fastest and easiest methods of surveying. Plotting of plans and field observations can be done at the same time in plane table surveying. It is useful for…

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Plane Table Survey – Working, Methods, Advantages, And Uses

In this article, you will learn about the plane table survey. This type of survey is very fast because field measurement and plotting can be done simultaneously.

Let’s get started.

Table of Contents

What is Plane Table Survey?

A plane table survey is one of the fastest methods of surveying. A Surveyor can do plotting of plan and field monitoring both at the same time. In the plane table surveying, the geometrical situation of the site is plotted on the map paper using a plane table and alidade , and then topographic details are created on the map.

Plane Table Survey Equipments:

To perform a plane table survey, some equipment, tools, and objects are required. Here is the complete list of required things to perform a plane table survey.

Plane Table
Alidade for Sighting
Drawing sheets and drawing tools
Paper clips and screws
Spirit level
Chain

Plane Table Working Arrangement:

Plane table fixation:.

On the tripod stand fix the plane table.
Drawing sheets are arranged on the plane table using paper clips.
Drawing sheets are to be positioned from first to last.
The plane table should be leveled by using Spirit level ,
For small works, eye evaluation should be good.
Centered with the help of a plumbing fork.
We can use a plumbing fork to arrange plotted point over the ground point.

Orientation:

Orientation is needed when we use more than one instrument station.
Back sighting and compass are the essential tools to do orientation.
By rotating the plane table so that plotted lines in the drawing sheets will be parallel to lines on the ground.

Plane Table Surveying Methods:

Intersection

According to the radiation method, we locate the plane table at point “O” as shown below. Sight the point A, B, C, D, E by alidade, at that point we plot focuses a,b,c,d,e in the drawing sheet.

Traversing:

In this method, straight lines are connected in series. The plane table is located at one point A as shown in the figure from that point of view towards B and measures the distance AB. Now move the plane table to point B and view towards A and measure BA. At that point C from B and measure BC and repeat the same process until the last point. At last, you will get the traverse lines.

In this process of plane table surveying, the location of the plane is unknown and can be dogged by sighting it to plotted points. It can be done by two field conditions that are:

Three-Point Problem
Two-point Problem

Intersection:

From two known stations two-point rays are to be plotted to locate the point. Let us assume P and Q are the known stations. We first put the equipment on P and plot the lines by sighting stations A, B, and P. At last intersecting lines of A and B rays get us the location that is required.

Merits and Demerits of Plane Table survey

It is a Graphical surveying process using a plane table, by which a surveyor does both the plotting and fieldwork work at the same time. One of the greatest merits of the plane table is that the topographic features are mapped in full view.

From this article, we will let us know all the major merits and demerits of the plane table survey.

Advantages of Plane table Survey:

For small scale mapping, it is the most appropriate method of surveying.
It can discard all the machine and human blunders because the plotting and surveying are done at the same time on site.
Plane table surveying gets its significance in the sites where magnetic fluctuations are high and compass survey is not certain.
Plane table survey is the fastest surveying techniques.
Elimination of errors that occurs due to human mistakes in field book entry is easy.
To plot a map does not require any skilled person.
Contours and different irregular objects are perfectly represented on the map as the tract is in the sight.
Errors and inaccuracy during plotting are checked by drawing check lines.
It is one of the cheapest methods of surveying as it does not require any Surveying machines.

Disadvantages of Plane Table Survey:

Some of the Demerits of the plane table survey are as follows:

It is very lengthy and difficult to shift and re-orient the plane table from one place to another
Plane table surveying is not convenient in raining and windy places as the work of plotting are done on the field only.
To carry a plane table and its parts are not easy.
The accuracy in the plane table survey is not much high as compared to other types of surveying methods.
When the survey is to replotted to other scale or quantities are to be calculated, it will be a great inconvenience in the absence of the field notes
For Surveying large areas it is not suitable.
The plane table surveying method is not convenient in dense forest areas because the trees are very close and block the sight of an important part of the field.
You can use this method of surveying only in the daylight.

Uses Of Plane Table Surveying

Some of the key applications of plane table surveying include:

Urban Planning: Plane table surveying is an essential tool for urban planners and architects as it enables them to create accurate and detailed plans of a specific area. The method can be used to map the location of buildings, roads, and other structures, providing valuable information for urban development projects.
Topographic Surveying: Plane table surveying is also used in topographic surveying, which involves mapping the elevation and relief of an area. The method can be used to create detailed topographic maps, which are essential for engineering, construction, and land-use planning.
Archaeological Surveying: Plane table surveying is a critical tool for archaeologists as it allows them to accurately record and map archaeological sites. The technique enables them to create detailed maps of historical ruins and other archaeological features, providing valuable insights into the past.
Site Layout: Plane table surveying can be used to layout the construction site, providing all the necessary information on the location of buildings, roads, and other structures, This can be useful in construction project management as it helps to plan the project, estimate the cost and allocate resources in an efficient way.
Photogrammetry: Plane table surveying can be combined with photogrammetry to create highly detailed 3D models of an area. This technique is particularly useful in applications such as surveying large construction sites or mapping large areas of natural terrain.
Mapping small areas: Plane table surveying is also useful for creating detailed maps of small areas such as a town or city block, this can be helpful for both urban planning and architecture.

Conclusion:

I hope you have enjoyed my article on the plane table survey. It is very important for land surveyors to know different types of surveys.

I have listed some articles on the land survey. You can check out these articles to gain some more knowledge.

A plane table survey involves creating a small-scale map of an area using a plane table, alidade, and other surveying equipment. The surveyor will set up the plane table on a tripod and use the alidade to take bearings on various points in the survey area. These bearings are then plotted on the plane table to create a map of the area.

Common instruments used in a plane table survey include a plane table, alidade, spirit level, tripod, and a set of drawing instruments such as pencils and rulers.

There are several methods of plane table surveying including traversing, radiation, and intersection. Traversing involves taking a series of bearings on points in the survey area, while radiation involves taking bearings on points from a central location. Intersection involves taking bearings on a point from two different locations.

Plane table surveying has several benefits such as its portability, the ability to survey in difficult terrain and the ability to create a small-scale map of an area quickly.

Plane table surveying is often used for mapping small areas, reconnaissance surveys and for surveying in remote locations.

One limitation of plane table surveying is that it may not be as accurate as other surveying methods such as total station surveying.

There are several potential sources of error in plane table surveying such as measurement errors, errors in plotting, and errors in orientation.

Total station surveying is generally considered to be the most accurate surveying method.

Traversing is the most commonly used method in plane table surveying.

The two point problem in plane table surveying refers to the process of determining the position of a point on a map by measuring the angles to that point from two other known points. It is a technique used to establish the location of an unknown point by measuring angles to it from two known points.

Plane Table Surveying – Methods, Examples & Uses

Surveying is the preliminary and primary step to kickstart any kind of project properly.

There are different types of surveying methods available to discover the earth’s surface. The right surveying method is chosen depending on the size and existence of hindrances on the land.

The plane table surveying is one of the conventional surveying methods, which is used to measure small scale land. If the land that you are surveying is plane and absence of obstacles also influenced by the magnetic field, then the plane table survey is preferable.

What is the plane table surveying?

In surveying, when the earth’s surface is assumed to be a plane, and the curvature of the earth is omitted, it is called Plane Surveying .

The plane table surveying is a simple and easy method where the plotting and field observations are done simultaneously. The map of the land prepared while doing the fieldwork.

Moreover, plane table surveying could help to measure the land area where the compass survey method may fail due to the magnetic field.

Principle of plane table survey

Parallelism is the principle of a plane table survey. Two or more stations will be plotted to measure the land, and the drawn line passes through the station point.

The line connecting any two points is considered a straight line (AB), and the angle between any two lines is viewed as the plane’s angle (θ). Any triangle made by the plane survey is also called a plane triangle.
The Plane surveying method is suitable for surveying up to 250 km 2 area. It is used in the construction of dams, bridges & road work.

Equipment and Accessories used for plane table survey

Plane Table – Wooden board size of 750mm x 600mm
Simple Alidade and Telescopic Alidade – Optical view sight which helps to plot.
Plumb bob – Used to make a vertical reference line
Compass – Helps to draw the line measurement on the paper.
Tripod – Wooden or Aluminium material which helps to rest the Wooden board.
Ranging rod – Used to establish the points.
Spirit level – To check the level of the table.
Chain – Used to measure the distance between the plotting points.
Drawing sheet for plotting
Other accessories for drawing

We already discussed the plane table surveying instruments in detail.

Setting up the plane table

Three simple, easy steps can do the setup of a plane table survey instrument.

Levelling – Arranging and setting up the plane table over the tripod stand at comfortable, workable height, and checking the level with the help of the spirit level is known as levelling.
Centering – Centering is the process where the plane station should be fixed accurately on the centre point of the plotted mark by the help of plumb bob.
Orientation – Orientation is necessary when we fix more than two stations. It helps to keep the board parallel to the previous stations. So the line of the map can be drawn on the drawing sheet parallel to other stations.

Methods of plane tabling

Method of radiation – The whole to the part method is used in this method. Only one station will be fixed (most probably at the centre) which covers the whole area by drawing radial lines from the station.

In the picture below, I is the centre point of the station. A, B, C, D, E points are fixed by using the alidade and the distance of those points measured by the chain link.

Method of Intersection – This method is used when the radiation method is not possible due to obstacles such as mountains or rivers. From the picture, suppose the P is the point which has to be measured, but its plotting point is across the river, then it can be done by an intersecting line drawn from two stations (A, B)

A and B are fixed to point out the P. Line will be drawn from both stations and the intersecting point is noted as P.

Method of Traversing – The traverse survey contains a series of connected lines. In this survey, the length and direction of the lines will be measured by the tape. From the below picture, the length of AB is measured, and again BA is measured, then the average of the two values is drawn on the sheet, and the same is applicable for all stations.

To reduce the errors, few check lines are plotted to get the accurate land map. We can get the length of the check line by using simple triangle formulas.

Three-point problem method
Two-point problem method

Three-Point Problem Method

In the three-point method, three known points are selected which have already plotted on the map—the new station point obtained by bisecting the three points by the following method.

Tracing method – Using trace paper
Lehmann method – Using the triangle of errors method
Analytical methods – Mathematical method using length and angle
Graphical method – Known measurements will be plotted on the graph to establish the unknown point.

Tracing Method

This is more like drawing a demanding pic using tracing paper. In this method, the plane table (aka station) will be set up at one point where three known points are visible.

First plot the radiating lines (sighting three known points) on trace paper by sighting the three points. Once finished, place the tracing paper on the drawing and try to match the radiating lines passing through the corresponding points previously plotted. Finally, the position of the station will be established.

Two Point Problem Method

This is also more like a three points method. The only difference is instead of three known points, here we use two known points. There are two cases.

When two known points can be drawn on the plane table (by intersecting)

Two Point Problem Method by intersecting

When two known points could not be drawn on the plane table (does not intersect)

Two Point Problem Method by not intersecting

Important Points

Ensure the plane table has been levelled and plotted correctly for more accurate measurement recording. It should be easy to rotate at the time of orientation.
The alidade and plane table should be levelled and appropriately pivoted.
Avoid local attraction while marking the magnetic north on the paper.
Ensure the entire area and plot points can be covered on the paper by selecting a proper scale (map scale)
The lines connecting survey stations and the objects should be drawn in a dashed line.

Errors in Plane Table Surveying

Like on every surveying, the plane table will be impacted by the following errors. So try to avoid or minimize the errors.

Instrumental Errors – Defects in instruments such as alidade, uneven plane table etc.
Errors in manipulation and sighting – Defects in Setting, Levelling & orientation errors
Errors in plotting – Errors in establishing the radiating lines and known points. The defective scale of a map

Advantages of Plane Table Surveying

A rapid method of surveying
A suitable method to measure small scale lands
Human errors will be eliminated since most of the work (plotting & surveying)will be done simultaneously on the field.
No high-cost equipment required.
A suitable method to work in magnetic fluctuation areas
Since tract is in view any irregular objects and contours such as trees, ponds will be represented accurately.
No skilled personnel required to plot the map
Easy to cross-check the measurements

Disadvantages of Plane Table Surveying

Setting the plane table and orientation is a time-consuming process.
Not suitable for rough weather.
It can be done only in the day time.
Not suitable for larger areas.
Less accurate comparing other surveying methods
Not suitable in areas where viewing points will be affected by dense trees and forests.
Whole surveying instruments are heavy and awkward to carry.
Instruments used in Plane Table Surveying

Bala is a Planning Engineer & he is the author and editor of Civil Planets.

Uses of Surveying

Importance of Surveying

What is Surveying?

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5 travel myths you need to stop believing right now, canal comes alive with lighted boat parade., plane tabling survey (method of radiation).

Intersection Method of Plane Tabling

Instruments Required:

Plane Table
Plumbing Fork
Magnetic needle compass
Measuring Tape
Ranging Rods (For demonstration purpose)
28in x 22in drawing sheet
Scotch Tape
Chisel pointed Pencil
Select a suitable point P on the ground such that all the details are visible from it
Center and level the plane table over P
Mark the direction of the North on the sheet by using compass
Locate instrument station p on the sheet by using plumbing fork, such that p on sheet is exactly over P on ground
Centering the alidade on point p sight various details step by step and draw a ray from each detail along the fiducial edge of the alidade
Let the details be named as A, B, C, D, E etc.
Now measure the distances of each point from P i.e. PA, PB, PC, PD, PE and plot them to scale on the sheet as pa, pb, pc, pd, pe respectively
Joint a, b, c, d, and e to give the outline of the details

NOTE: These details may be building corners, electric towers, tree, manhole etc. But for demonstration purpose we will put ranging rods.

Significance and Applications

This is the easiest method in plane tabling. It is used when:

All the details are visible and accessible from one instrument station
The ground is level and smooth
Distances are so small that can be measured with single tape

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Plane Table Surveying: Methods and Applications

Introduction to Plane Table Surveying

Plane table surveying is a graphical method of surveying and we can plot maps directly drawing on site. This makes this method popular. Now it is used for small or medium work where higher accuracy isn’t needed. Plane table surveying gives approximate data.

The principle of plane table surveying is parallelism . It simply means that we are using the Alidade, which is used to draw lines on the drawing sheet, parallel to the sightline.

Pros and Cons of Plane Table Surveying

Pros of plane table surveying.

Drawing could be prepared while surveying. This will save time for plotting field data on the drawing sheet.
There is no need to maintain the field book.
This is less costly than theodolite survey.
There is no chance of committing any measurements since the map is prepared on the ground.

Cons of Plane Tabling

In the rainy season, plane tabling is not possible.
Plane Table Surveying could be done only in day time, at night it is not possible to carry out surveying.
Surveyor needs to carry a lot of instruments along with him.
It is an approximate method and hence couldn’t be used for a big project.
As in the case of Plane Tabling, no field data is recorded, and it would be difficult to reproduce the map.

Instruments Used in Plane Table Surveying

Plane table.

It consists of a drawing board attached to a tripod stand. There are many types of plane tables available in the market.

Simple Plane Table
Johnson Plane Table
Coast Survey Table

It is used to sight the object and draw the lines on the drawing sheet. There are two different types of alidade.

Plain Alidade
Telescopic Alidade

Spirit Level

It is used to level the plane table. Spirit Level is also known as Tube Level.

The sensitivity of spirit level depends many things.

Viscosity – The lower the viscosity of fluid used in spirit level, the higher the accuracy, and vice versa.
Radius of Curvature : The sensitivity is directly related to the radius of curvature of the vial. A larger radius means higher sensitivity, as the bubble moves more easily with smaller changes in angle

Trough Compass

It contains a magnetic needle casing in a wooden or non-metallic box. It is used to locate the north-south direction.

U Fork or Plumbing Fork

U fork is used for centering of the Plane Table. U Fork is attached with a plumb bob at the one end and another end is to be kept at the center of the drawing sheet for the centering of the Plane Table.

Methods of Plane Tabling

There are four well-known and conventional methods, though still used to do surveying with a plane table.

Intersection

Each of the above is explained below.

This method is most suitable when all the distances to be measured are small and readings should only be taken from one location.

Intersection Method

This method is suitable for locating inaccessible points from the two well-known positions on the ground. This method is useful for accurately locating points that are difficult to measure directly, such as the tops of hills or buildings.

Traversing Method

This method is used to connect the station of an open or closed traverse.

Resection Method

Resection is the general term used for the process of determining the location of the station occupied by the instrument. There are 4 ways to employ the resection method

Compass Method
Back Ray Method
Two-Point Problem
Three-Point Problem

Objectives of Plane Table Surveying

To prepare a detailed and accurate map while taking observation.
To determine the distances, angles, and directions of various points on the ground.
Establishing control points and reference marks on the ground for future surveys.

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Highway Alignment and its Requirements

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Types of Chains Used in Surveying

The straight working used to draw lines in alidade is called the fiducial edge of the alidade.

Plane Table Surveying works on the principle of Parallelism.

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A new critical plane multiaxial fatigue criterion with an exponent to account for high mean stress effect.

1. Introduction

2. materials and methods, 2.1. critical plane methods, 2.2. new critical plane method, 2.3. experimental database and numerical implementation.

Reference	Number of Data Items	Material	Reason for the Selection
Papuga [ ]	15	Various	Mean compressive loads applied
Sauer [ ]	8	14S-T aluminium	Static bending or static torsion stresses
O’Connor [ ], Chodorowski [ ]	10	NiCrMo steel	High values of mean axial tension and compressive loads
Ukrainetz [ ]	6	0.1 C steel	Mean axial tension loads. Static shear stresses on torsional fatigue loading
Grün et al. [ ]	5	25CrMo4 steel	High values of mean axial tension and compression loads
Lüpfert et al. [ ]	8	20MnCr steel	High values of static compressive loads. Only biaxial loadings considered.
Rausch [ ]	14	EN-GJV-450 cast iron	High values of mean axial tension and compression loads. Static shear stresses on torsional fatigue loading
Tovo [ ]	6	EN-GJS-400-18 ductile cast iron	Mean axial tensile and compressive loads. Static shear stresses on torsional fatigue loading
Pallarés-Santasmartas [ , ]	6	34CrMo6 steel	Mean axial tensile and compressive loads. Static shear stresses on torsional fatigue loading

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. general results for the complete database, 3.2. results for uniaxial load cases, 3.3. results for load cases with no mean stress, 3.4. results for load cases with mean stress, 3.5. results for torsional load cases, 4. conclusions, author contributions, data availability statement, conflicts of interest, nomenclature.

a, b, c, d	parameters of the critical plane criteria
κ	fatigue limit ratio κ = σ /τ
σ	fatigue limit in repeated axial loading
σ	fully reversed axial fatigue limit
σ	ultimate tensile strength
σ	normal stress amplitude on the critical plane
σ	mean normal stress on the critical plane
σ	equivalent normal stress amplitude
τ	fully reversed torsional fatigue limit
τ	alternating shear stress on the critical plane
R	load ratio

Click here to enlarge figure

Appendix A.1. Static Tensile Test

Appendix a.2. repeated axial loading fatigue test.

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Criterion	Equation (No Failure Condition)	Parameter Values
Findley (F) [ ]
Findley (F) [ ]
Robert (R) [ ]


Papuga (P) [ ]



Abasolo (A) *

		for

Complete Database: 485 Experiments	Findley	Robert	Abasolo	Papuga
Mean value of the error	8.4	3.5	3.9	−0.6
Standard deviation	17.6	10.3	9.7	7.4
Maximum value of the error	147.0	77.3	43.9	42.6
Minimum value of the error	−38.7	−36.4	−32.1	−36.4
Range of the error	185.7	113.7	76.0	78.9
Mean absolute value of the error	12.4	7.0	7.2	5.2
“Accurate” results (error range ± 5%)	40.5	49.6	49.6	63.4
“Acceptable” results (error range ± 15%)	70.0	87.4	86.0	94.4
Conservative results (error range + 5% + 40%)	41.6	36.0	36.8	17.1
Non-conservative results (error range − 5% − 40%)	12.6	13.8	13.4	19.3

Pure Axial Cases: 76 Experiments	Goodman	Gerber	Marin	Findley	Robert	Abasolo	Papuga
Mean value of the error	50.3	9.5	−8.4	8.3	4.1	2.6	−2.6
Standard deviation	109.4	52.0	23.2	28.0	16.6	10.4	10.7
Maximum value of the error	596.0	268.4	68.3	147.0	77.3	38.9	42.6
Minimum value of the error	−39.1	−52.9	−57.5	−38.7	−27.4	−25.9	−36.4
Range of the error	635.2	321.3	125.9	185.7	104.6	64.7	78.9
Mean absolute value of the error	58.9	25.5	17.6	19.0	8.8	6.6	7.7
“Accurate” results (error range ± 5%)	5.3	26.3	21.1	30.3	61.8	56.6	46.1
“Acceptable” results (error range ± 15%)	26.3	59.2	67.1	50.0	84.2	86.8	89.5
Conservative results (error range + 5% + 40%)	42.1	28.9	13.2	31.6	22.4	31.6	17.1
Non-conservative results (error range − 5% − 40%)	21.1	34.2	50.0	26.3	11.8	11.8	35.5

Pure Axial Cases with High Mean Stress (0.05 ≤ R < 1): 35 Experiments	Goodman	Gerber	Marin	Findley	Robert	Abasolo	Papuga
Mean value of the error	94.8	18.2	−14.9	18.4	10.8	8.0	−2.0
Standard deviation	147.6	73.5	27.7	35.3	21.4	11.2	14.5
Maximum value of the error	596.0	268.4	68.3	147.0	77.3	38.9	42.6
Minimum value of the error	−32.6	−52.9	−57.5	−38.7	−14.9	−9.7	−36.4
Range of the error	628.6	321.3	125.9	185.7	92.1	48.6	78.9
Mean absolute value of the error	100.4	41.2	24.9	27.3	14.0	9.4	10.8
“Accurate” results (error range ± 5%)	2.9	11.4	11.4	25.7	45.7	37.1	25.7
“Acceptable” results (error range ± 15%)	20.0	40.0	48.6	34.3	74.3	80.0	80.0
Conservative results (error range + 5% + 40%)	22.9	31.4	5.7	28.6	37.1	57.1	25.7
Non-conservative results (error range − 5% − 40%)	14.3	37.1	51.4	20.0	8.6	5.7	45.7

No Mean Stress Cases: 172 Experiments	Findley	Robert	Abasolo	Papuga
Mean value of the error	1.6	1.6	1.6	1.1
Standard deviation	5.0	5.0	5.0	3.7
Maximum value of the error	16.1	16.1	16.1	12.4
Minimum value of the error	−12.4	−12.4	−12.4	−9.7
Range of the error	28.4	28.4	28.4	22.1
Mean absolute value of the error	4.1	4.1	4.1	3.1
“Accurate” results (error range ± 5%)	70.5	70.5	70.5	81.5
“Acceptable” results (error range ± 15%)	98.8	98.8	98.8	100.0
Conservative results (error range + 5% + 40%)	21.4	21.4	21.4	13.9
Non-conservative results (error range − 5% − 40%)	8.1	8.1	8.1	4.6

Mean Stress Cases: 313 Experiments	Findley	Robert	Abasolo	Papuga
Mean value of the error	12.1	4.6	5.1	−1.5
Standard deviation	20.7	12.1	11.4	8.7
Maximum value of the error	147.0	77.3	43.9	42.6
Minimum value of the error	−38.7	−36.4	−32.1	−36.4
Range of the error	185.7	113.7	76.0	78.9
Mean absolute value of the error	17.3	9.0	9.3	6.5
“Accurate” results (error range ± 5%)	24.0	38.0	38.0	53.4
“Acceptable” results (error range ± 15%)	54.0	81.2	78.9	91.4
Conservative results (error range + 5% + 40%)	52.7	44.1	45.4	18.8
Non-conservative results (error range − 5% − 40%)	15.0	16.9	16.3	27.5

High Mean Stress Cases (0.05 ≤ R < 1): 110 EXPERIMENTS	Findley	Robert	Abasolo	Papuga
Mean value of the error	19.5	6.5	8.2	−2.3
Standard deviation	27.9	15.7	13.2	11.7
Maximum value of the error	147.0	77.3	43.9	42.6
Minimum value of the error	−38.7	−18.0	−16.6	−36.4
Range of the error	185.7	95.2	60.5	78.9
Mean absolute value of the error	25.8	11.7	12.1	9.0
“Accurate” results (error range ± 5%)	17.3	28.2	27.3	37.3
“Acceptable” results (error range ± 15%)	35.5	74.5	69.1	82.7
Conservative results (error range + 5% + 40%)	43.6	47.3	55.5	24.5
Non-conservative results (error range − 5% − 40%)	17.3	21.8	16.4	37.3

Mean Stress Cases, Pure Torsion: 33 Experiments	Findley	Robert	Abasolo	Papuga
Mean value of the error	−0.7	−4.7	−5.4	−7.5
Standard deviation	11.0	6.3	5.6	8.3
Maximum value of the error	29.1	5.8	5.4	7.7
Minimum value of the error	−31.0	−18.0	−16.6	−31.3
Range of the error	60.1	23.7	22.0	39.0
Mean absolute value of the error	7.4	5.9	5.9	8.1
“Accurate” results (error range ± 5%)	54.5	51.5	45.5	45.5
“Acceptable” results (error range ± 15%)	87.9	90.9	93.9	84.8
Conservative results (error range + 5% + 40%)	24.2	3.0	3.0	3.0
Non-conservative results (error range − 5% − 40%)	21.2	45.5	51.5	51.5

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Abasolo, M.; Pallares-Santasmartas, L.; Eizmendi, M. A New Critical Plane Multiaxial Fatigue Criterion with an Exponent to Account for High Mean Stress Effect. Metals 2024 , 14 , 964. https://doi.org/10.3390/met14090964

Abasolo M, Pallares-Santasmartas L, Eizmendi M. A New Critical Plane Multiaxial Fatigue Criterion with an Exponent to Account for High Mean Stress Effect. Metals . 2024; 14(9):964. https://doi.org/10.3390/met14090964

Abasolo, Mikel, Luis Pallares-Santasmartas, and Martin Eizmendi. 2024. "A New Critical Plane Multiaxial Fatigue Criterion with an Exponent to Account for High Mean Stress Effect" Metals 14, no. 9: 964. https://doi.org/10.3390/met14090964

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Beyond traditional visual object tracking: a survey

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Published: 26 August 2024

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Omar Abdelaziz 1 ,
Mohamed Shehata 1 &
Mohamed Mohamed 1

Single object tracking is a vital task of many applications in critical fields. However, it is still considered one of the most challenging vision tasks. In recent years, computer vision, especially object tracking, witnessed the introduction or adoption of many novel techniques, setting new fronts for performance. In this survey, we visit some of the cutting-edge techniques in vision, such as Sequence Models, Generative Models, Self-supervised Learning, Unsupervised Learning, Reinforcement Learning, Meta-Learning, Continual Learning, and Domain Adaptation, focusing on their application in single object tracking. We propose a novel categorization of single object tracking methods based on novel techniques and trends. Also, we conduct a comparative analysis of the performance reported by the methods presented on popular tracking benchmarks. Moreover, we analyze the pros and cons of the presented approaches and present a guide for non-traditional techniques in single object tracking. Finally, we suggest potential avenues for future research in single-object tracking.

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Abdelaziz, O., Shehata, M. & Mohamed, M. Beyond traditional visual object tracking: a survey. Int. J. Mach. Learn. & Cyber. (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13042-024-02345-7

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Plane Table Surveying with Methods and Examples
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PDF Civil Engineering Lab Manual Surveying -ii Department of Civil Engineering
NAME OF EXPERIMENT PAGE NO. 1 Study of plane table surveying equipments and accessories. 3-6 2 Three point problem in plane table surveying. 7-7 3 Determination of tacheometric constants and determination of horizontal distance and R.L of points using tachometry. 8-8 4 Determining a height of object by measuring vertical angle. 9-10 5
PDF CE 104 Practical Surveying Sessional (Lab Manual)
02 Plane Table Surveying 8 03 Theodolite Traverse Surveying 13 04 Leveling / Route Surveying 17 05 House Setting 21 06 Setting out a Simple Circular Curve on Field 24 07 Height Measurement 28 08 Stadia Survey/ Tacheometry 32 09 Contouring 36 10 Global Positioning System 40 11 Total Station 46 ...
Plane Table Surveying with Methods and Examples
Resection. Resection is a method of plane table surveying in which the location of the plane table is unknown and it is determined by sighting it to known points or plotted points. It is also called the method of orientation and it can be conducted by two f ield conditions as follows. The three-point problem. The two-point problem.
PDF Surveying Lab Manual
EXPERIMENTS LEARNING OUTCOMES ix LIST OF EXPERIMENTS x 1 Surveying of an area by chain and compass survey (closed traverse) & plotting. 1 2 Determine of distance between two inaccessible points with compass 11 3 Radiation method, intersection methods by plane table survey. 19 4 Levelling - Longitudinal and cross-section and plotting 27
PDF CIVIL ENGINEERING
Study of plane table surveying equipment's and accessories. Three point problem in plane table 6. traversing. 21 Study of Auto Level and Dumpy Level; To study different parts of a Transit Theodolite and Temporary 7. Adjustments. 25 To determine the distance between two inaccessible 8. points by the help of a Compass. 32 2 Department of civil ...
PDF UNIT 5 PLANE TABLE SURVEYING Plane Table Surveying
Plane Table Surveying (c) Figure 5.1 : Plane Table 5.2.3 Accessories The additional equipment to be used for surveying with plane table could be as given below : Trough Compass It is usually 15 cm long, shown in Figure 5.2(a), and is provided to plot the magnetic meridian (N-S direction) to facilitate orientation of the plane table
What is Plane Table Surveying? Setup & Methods
The plane table surveying is one of the fastest and easiest methods of surveying. Plotting of plans and field observations can be done at the same time in plane table surveying. It is useful for the following cases: It is best fitted for small-scale surveying i.e. any types of fields. It is also used in surveying industrial areas where compass ...
PDF Plane Table Surveying
Plane table at O 1 Plane table at O 2 Fig. 14.8. Intersection method of plane tabling This method is commonly employed for locating: (a) details (b) the distant and inaccessible points (c) the stations which may be used latter. 14.3.3 Traversing This is the method used for locating plane table survey stations. In this method, ray is drawn to next
Plane Table Surveying
Plane Table Surveying. In this method of surveying a table top, similar to drawing board fitted on to a tripod is the main instrument. A drawing sheet is fixed on to the table top, the observations are made to the objects, distances are scaled down and the objects are plotted in the field itself. Since the plotting is made in the field itself ...
Plane Table Surveying
The necessary equipment of the plane table survey is mentioned below. Also, brief discussion and photographs of major ins…. What is Plane Table Surveying? Setup & Methods. The plane table surveying is one of the fastest and easiest methods of surveying. Plotting of plans and field observations can be done at the same time in plane table ...
PDF Plane Table Surveying Anirudh Kumar Principle
Plane table surveying is a graphical method of survey in which the field observations and plotting are done simultaneously. It is simple and cheaper than Theodolite survey but it is mostly suitable for small scale survey. The plan on drawing sheet drawn by surveyor in the field itself so there is chance of occurrence of any mistake is very less
Experiment No. 2 Intersection Method
The plane table surveying is that method of surveying in which the fieldwork and plotting. work is done simultaneously, and no office work is necessarily required. The plane tabling is generally adapted for surveys in which high precision is not required. It. is mainly employed for small-scale or medium size mapping.
Plane Table Survey
A plane table survey involves creating a small-scale map of an area using a plane table, alidade, and other surveying equipment. The surveyor will set up the plane table on a tripod and use the alidade to take bearings on various points in the survey area. These bearings are then plotted on the plane table to create a map of the area.
Plane Table Surveying
The plane table surveying is a simple and easy method where the plotting and field observations are done simultaneously. The map of the land prepared while doing the fieldwork. Moreover, plane table surveying could help to measure the land area where the compass survey method may fail due to the magnetic field. Principle of plane table survey
(PDF) PLANE TABLE SURVEY
This type of surveying is carried out in the small area with larger scale.The study area for plane table survey was near Kathmandu University premises which include both manmade and natural features.
Radiation Method of Plane Table Survey
Center and level the plane table over P. Mark the direction of the North on the sheet by using compass. Locate instrument station p on the sheet by using plumbing fork, such that p on sheet is exactly over P on ground. Centering the alidade on point p sight various details step by step and draw a ray from each detail along the fiducial edge of ...
PDF Surveying
Thus, surveying is a basic requirement for all Civil Engineering projects. Based upon the consideration of the shape of the earth, surveying is broadly classified as geodetic surveying and plane surveying. Most of the civil engineering works, concern only with a small portion of the earth which seems to be a plane surface. Based on the purpose for
PDF Plane Table Survey
The table is turned till the line of sight bisects the ranging rod at A. The board is then clamped in this position. This method is better than the previous one and it gives perfect orientation. Methods of plane table survey: Following are the four methods by which an object might be located on paper by plane table: (1) Radiation (2) Intersection
Plane Table Surveying: Methods and Applications
Plane table surveying is a graphical method of surveying and we can plot maps directly drawing on site. This makes this method popular. Now it is used for small or medium work where higher accuracy isn't needed. Plane table surveying gives approximate data. The principle of plane table surveying is parallelism.
Plane Table Survey || Radiation Method || With Explanation
Plane table surveying is a graphical method of survey in which the field observations and plotting are done simultaneously. It is simple and cheaper than The...
PDF Rajasthan Technical University, Kota
Introduction to plane table surveying and their components, types of plane tables. 6. Introduction to leveling instruments and their components, types of leveling instruments, correction for curvature and refraction. 7. Introduction to contours, types of contours and methods of plotting contours. ... Experiment No: 2 SURVEY OF AN AREA BY CHAIN ...
eGyanKosh: Unit-5 Plane Table Surveying
DSpace JSPUI eGyanKosh preserves and enables easy and open access to all types of digital content including text, images, moving images, mpegs and data sets
Plane Table Survey by Intersection method, Practical
#Planetablesurvey #Intersectionmethod #instrumentusedinplanetable #SurveyEngineering #Surveypractical, #PlanetablesurveypracticalAlidadeके जिस ...
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The mean stress effect remains a critical aspect in multiaxial fatigue analysis. This work presents a new criterion that, based on the classical Findley criterion, applies a material-dependent exponent to the mean normal stress term and includes the ultimate tensile stress as a fitting parameter. This way of considering the non-linear effect of the mean stress, with a material-dependent rather ...
Beyond traditional visual object tracking: a survey
Single object tracking is a vital task of many applications in critical fields. However, it is still considered one of the most challenging vision tasks. In recent years, computer vision, especially object tracking, witnessed the introduction or adoption of many novel techniques, setting new fronts for performance. In this survey, we visit some of the cutting-edge techniques in vision, such as ...