gender reassignment surgery pdf

• DOI: 10.5114/ait.2021.109446
• Corpus ID: 240153954

Gender reassignment surgery – a narrative overview of anaesthetic considerations and implications

• Priyanka Mishra , Amborish Nath , +1 author R. Kain
• Published in Anaesthesiology Intensive… 1 October 2021
• Medicine, Psychology

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Supporting statements, 3 citations, the role of a multidisciplinary approach in gender affirmation surgery: what to expect and where are we currently, analgesic benefits of regional anesthesia in the perioperative management of transition-related surgery: a systematic review, genital reconstructive surgery for the transmasculine patient: an overview for the obgyn practitioner, 26 references, perioperative anaesthetic concerns in transgender patients: indian perspective, what surgeons need to know about gender confirmation surgery when providing care for transgender individuals: a review, care of the patient undergoing sex reassignment surgery, the perioperative care of the transgender patient., pharmacotherapy considerations in the management of transgender patients: a brief review, temporal trends in gender-affirming surgery among transgender patients in the united states, two-stage versus one-stage sex reassignment surgery in female-to-male transsexual individuals, oestrogen and anti-androgen therapy for transgender women., when gender identity doesn't equal sex recorded at birth: the role of the laboratory in providing effective healthcare to the transgender community., feminizing genitoplasty in adult transsexuals: early and long‐term surgical results, related papers.

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• Review Article
• Published: 12 April 2011

Gender reassignment surgery: an overview

• Gennaro Selvaggi 1 &
• James Bellringer 1  

Nature Reviews Urology volume  8 ,  pages 274–282 ( 2011 ) Cite this article

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Gender reassignment (which includes psychotherapy, hormonal therapy and surgery) has been demonstrated as the most effective treatment for patients affected by gender dysphoria (or gender identity disorder), in which patients do not recognize their gender (sexual identity) as matching their genetic and sexual characteristics. Gender reassignment surgery is a series of complex surgical procedures (genital and nongenital) performed for the treatment of gender dysphoria. Genital procedures performed for gender dysphoria, such as vaginoplasty, clitorolabioplasty, penectomy and orchidectomy in male-to-female transsexuals, and penile and scrotal reconstruction in female-to-male transsexuals, are the core procedures in gender reassignment surgery. Nongenital procedures, such as breast enlargement, mastectomy, facial feminization surgery, voice surgery, and other masculinization and feminization procedures complete the surgical treatment available. The World Professional Association for Transgender Health currently publishes and reviews guidelines and standards of care for patients affected by gender dysphoria, such as eligibility criteria for surgery. This article presents an overview of the genital and nongenital procedures available for both male-to-female and female-to-male gender reassignment.

The management of gender dysphoria consists of a combination of psychotherapy, hormonal therapy, and surgery

Psychiatric evaluation is essential before gender reassignment surgical procedures are undertaken

Gender reassignment surgery refers to the whole genital, facial and body procedures required to create a feminine or a masculine appearance

Sex reassignment surgery refers to genital procedures, namely vaginoplasty, clitoroplasty, labioplasty, and penile–scrotal reconstruction

In male-to-female gender dysphoria, skin tubes formed from penile or scrotal skin are the standard technique for vaginal construction

In female-to-male gender dysphoria, no technique is recognized as the standard for penile reconstruction; different techniques fulfill patients' requests at different levels, with a variable number of surgical technique-related drawbacks

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Principles and outcomes of gender-affirming vaginoplasty

Sexual function of transgender assigned female at birth seeking gender affirming care: a narrative review

The effect of early puberty suppression on treatment options and outcomes in transgender patients

Change history, 26 april 2011.

In the version of this article initially published online, the statement regarding the frequency of male-to-female transsexuals was incorrect. The error has been corrected for the print, HTML and PDF versions of the article.

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Selvaggi, G., Bellringer, J. Gender reassignment surgery: an overview. Nat Rev Urol 8 , 274–282 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1038/nrurol.2011.46

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Error bars represent 95% CIs. GAS indicates gender-affirming surgery.

Percentages are based on the number of procedures divided by number of patients; thus, as some patients underwent multiple procedures the total may be greater than 100%. Error bars represent 95% CIs.

eTable.  ICD-10 and CPT Codes of Gender-Affirming Surgery

eFigure. Percentage of Patients With Codes for Gender Identity Disorder Who Underwent GAS

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Wright JD , Chen L , Suzuki Y , Matsuo K , Hershman DL. National Estimates of Gender-Affirming Surgery in the US. JAMA Netw Open. 2023;6(8):e2330348. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.30348

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National Estimates of Gender-Affirming Surgery in the US

• 1 Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, New York
• 2 Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles

Question   What are the temporal trends in gender-affirming surgery (GAS) in the US?

Findings   In this cohort study of 48 019 patients, GAS increased significantly, nearly tripling from 2016 to 2019. Breast and chest surgery was the most common class of procedures performed overall; genital reconstructive procedures were more common among older individuals.

Meaning   These findings suggest that there will be a greater need for clinicians knowledgeable in the care of transgender individuals with the requisite expertise to perform gender-affirming procedures.

Importance   While changes in federal and state laws mandating coverage of gender-affirming surgery (GAS) may have led to an increase in the number of annual cases, comprehensive data describing trends in both inpatient and outpatient procedures are limited.

Objective   To examine trends in inpatient and outpatient GAS procedures in the US and to explore the temporal trends in the types of GAS performed across age groups.

Design, Setting, and Participants   This cohort study includes data from 2016 to 2020 in the Nationwide Ambulatory Surgery Sample and the National Inpatient Sample. Patients with diagnosis codes for gender identity disorder, transsexualism, or a personal history of sex reassignment were identified, and the performance of GAS, including breast and chest procedures, genital reconstructive procedures, and other facial and cosmetic surgical procedures, were identified.

Main Outcome Measures   Weighted estimates of the annual number of inpatient and outpatient procedures performed and the distribution of each class of procedure overall and by age were analyzed.

Results   A total of 48 019 patients who underwent GAS were identified, including 25 099 (52.3%) who were aged 19 to 30 years. The most common procedures were breast and chest procedures, which occurred in 27 187 patients (56.6%), followed by genital reconstruction (16 872 [35.1%]) and other facial and cosmetic procedures (6669 [13.9%]). The absolute number of GAS procedures rose from 4552 in 2016 to a peak of 13 011 in 2019 and then declined slightly to 12 818 in 2020. Overall, 25 099 patients (52.3%) were aged 19 to 30 years, 10 476 (21.8%) were aged 31 to 40, and 3678 (7.7%) were aged12 to 18 years. When stratified by the type of procedure performed, breast and chest procedures made up a greater percentage of the surgical interventions in younger patients, while genital surgical procedures were greater in older patients.

Conclusions and Relevance   Performance of GAS has increased substantially in the US. Breast and chest surgery was the most common group of procedures performed. The number of genital surgical procedures performed increased with increasing age.

Gender dysphoria is characterized as an incongruence between an individual’s experienced or expressed gender and the gender that was assigned at birth. 1 Transgender individuals may pursue multiple treatments, including behavioral therapy, hormonal therapy, and gender-affirming surgery (GAS). 2 GAS encompasses a variety of procedures that align an individual patient’s gender identity with their physical appearance. 2 - 4

While numerous surgical interventions can be considered GAS, the procedures have been broadly classified as breast and chest surgical procedures, facial and cosmetic interventions, and genital reconstructive surgery. 2 , 4 Prior studies 2 - 7 have shown that GAS is associated with improved quality of life, high rates of satisfaction, and a reduction in gender dysphoria. Furthermore, some studies have reported that GAS is associated with decreased depression and anxiety. 8 Lastly, the procedures appear to be associated with acceptable morbidity and reasonable rates of perioperative complications. 2 , 4

Given the benefits of GAS, the performance of GAS in the US has increased over time. 9 The increase in GAS is likely due in part to federal and state laws requiring coverage of transition-related care, although actual insurance coverage of specific procedures is variable. 10 , 11 While prior work has shown that the use of inpatient GAS has increased, national estimates of inpatient and outpatient GAS are lacking. 9 This is important as many GAS procedures occur in ambulatory settings. We performed a population-based analysis to examine trends in GAS in the US and explored the temporal trends in the types of GAS performed across age groups.

To capture both inpatient and outpatient surgical procedures, we used data from the Nationwide Ambulatory Surgery Sample (NASS) and the National Inpatient Sample (NIS). NASS is an ambulatory surgery database and captures major ambulatory surgical procedures at nearly 2800 hospital-owned facilities from up to 35 states, approximating a 63% to 67% stratified sample of hospital-owned facilities. NIS comprehensively captures approximately 20% of inpatient hospital encounters from all community hospitals across 48 states participating in the Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project (HCUP), covering more than 97% of the US population. Both NIS and NASS contain weights that can be used to produce US population estimates. 12 , 13 Informed consent was waived because data sources contain deidentified data, and the study was deemed exempt by the Columbia University institutional review board. This cohort study followed the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology ( STROBE ) reporting guideline.

We selected patients of all ages with an International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, Tenth Revision ( ICD-10 ) diagnosis codes for gender identity disorder or transsexualism ( ICD-10 F64) or a personal history of sex reassignment ( ICD-10 Z87.890) from 2016 to 2020 (eTable in Supplement 1 ). We first examined all hospital (NIS) and ambulatory surgical (NASS) encounters for patients with these codes and then analyzed encounters for GAS within this cohort. GAS was identified using ICD-10 procedure codes and Common Procedural Terminology codes and classified as breast and chest procedures, genital reconstructive procedures, and other facial and cosmetic surgical procedures. 2 , 4 Breast and chest surgical procedures encompassed breast reconstruction, mammoplasty and mastopexy, or nipple reconstruction. Genital reconstructive procedures included any surgical intervention of the male or female genital tract. Other facial and cosmetic procedures included cosmetic facial procedures and other cosmetic procedures including hair removal or transplantation, liposuction, and collagen injections (eTable in Supplement 1 ). Patients might have undergone procedures from multiple different surgical groups. We measured the total number of procedures and the distribution of procedures within each procedural group.

Within the data sets, sex was based on patient self-report. The sex of patients in NIS who underwent inpatient surgery was classified as either male, female, missing, or inconsistent. The inconsistent classification denoted patients who underwent a procedure that was not consistent with the sex recorded on their medical record. Similar to prior analyses, patients in NIS with a sex variable not compatible with the procedure performed were classified as having undergone genital reconstructive surgery (GAS not otherwise specified). 9

Clinical variables in the analysis included patient clinical and demographic factors and hospital characteristics. Demographic characteristics included age at the time of surgery (12 to 18 years, 19 to 30 years, 31 to 40 years, 41 to 50 years, 51 to 60 years, 61 to 70 years, and older than 70 years), year of the procedure (2016-2020), and primary insurance coverage (private, Medicare, Medicaid, self-pay, and other). Race and ethnicity were only reported in NIS and were classified as White, Black, Hispanic and other. Race and ethnicity were considered in this study because prior studies have shown an association between race and GAS. The income status captured national quartiles of median household income based of a patient’s zip code and was recorded as less than 25% (low), 26% to 50% (medium-low), 51% to 75% (medium-high), and 76% or more (high). The Elixhauser Comorbidity Index was estimated for each patient based on the codes for common medical comorbidities and weighted for a final score. 14 Patients were classified as 0, 1, 2, or 3 or more. We separately reported coding for HIV and AIDS; substance abuse, including alcohol and drug abuse; and recorded mental health diagnoses, including depression and psychoses. Hospital characteristics included a composite of teaching status and location (rural, urban teaching, and urban nonteaching) and hospital region (Northeast, Midwest, South, and West). Hospital bed sizes were classified as small, medium, and large. The cutoffs were less than 100 (small), 100 to 299 (medium), and 300 or more (large) short-term acute care beds of the facilities from NASS and were varied based on region, urban-rural designation, and teaching status of the hospital from NIS. 8 Patients with missing data were classified as the unknown group and were included in the analysis.

National estimates of the number of GAS procedures among all hospital encounters for patients with gender identity disorder were derived using discharge or encounter weight provided by the databases. 15 The clinical and demographic characteristics of the patients undergoing GAS were reported descriptively. The number of encounters for gender identity disorder, the percentage of GAS procedures among those encounters, and the absolute number of each procedure performed over time were estimated. The difference by age group was examined and tested using Rao-Scott χ 2 test. All hypothesis tests were 2-sided, and P  < .05 was considered statistically significant. All analyses were conducted using SAS version 9.4 (SAS Institute Inc).

A total of 48 019 patients who underwent GAS were identified ( Table 1 ). Overall, 25 099 patients (52.3%) were aged 19 to 30 years, 10 476 (21.8%) were aged 31 to 40, and 3678 (7.7%) were aged 12 to 18 years. Private insurance coverage was most common in 29 064 patients (60.5%), while 12 127 (25.3%) were Medicaid recipients. Depression was reported in 7192 patients (15.0%). Most patients (42 467 [88.4%]) were treated at urban, teaching hospitals, and there was a disproportionate number of patients in the West (22 037 [45.9%]) and Northeast (12 396 [25.8%]). Within the cohort, 31 668 patients (65.9%) underwent 1 procedure while 13 415 (27.9%) underwent 2 procedures, and the remainder underwent multiple procedures concurrently ( Table 1 ).

The overall number of health system encounters for gender identity disorder rose from 13 855 in 2016 to 38 470 in 2020. Among encounters with a billing code for gender identity disorder, there was a consistent rise in the percentage that were for GAS from 4552 (32.9%) in 2016 to 13 011 (37.1%) in 2019, followed by a decline to 12 818 (33.3%) in 2020 ( Figure 1 and eFigure in Supplement 1 ). Among patients undergoing ambulatory surgical procedures, 37 394 (80.3%) of the surgical procedures included gender-affirming surgical procedures. For those with hospital admissions with gender identity disorder, 10 625 (11.8%) of admissions were for GAS.

Breast and chest procedures were most common and were performed for 27 187 patients (56.6%). Genital reconstruction was performed for 16 872 patients (35.1%), and other facial and cosmetic procedures for 6669 patients (13.9%) ( Table 2 ). The most common individual procedure was breast reconstruction in 21 244 (44.2%), while the most common genital reconstructive procedure was hysterectomy (4489 [9.3%]), followed by orchiectomy (3425 [7.1%]), and vaginoplasty (3381 [7.0%]). Among patients who underwent other facial and cosmetic procedures, liposuction (2945 [6.1%]) was most common, followed by rhinoplasty (2446 [5.1%]) and facial feminizing surgery and chin augmentation (1874 [3.9%]).

The absolute number of GAS procedures rose from 4552 in 2016 to a peak of 13 011 in 2019 and then declined slightly to 12 818 in 2020 ( Figure 1 ). Similar trends were noted for breast and chest surgical procedures as well as genital surgery, while the rate of other facial and cosmetic procedures increased consistently from 2016 to 2020. The distribution of the individual procedures performed in each class were largely similar across the years of analysis ( Table 3 ).

When stratified by age, patients 19 to 30 years had the greatest number of procedures, 25 099 ( Figure 2 ). There were 10 476 procedures performed in those aged 31 to 40 years and 4359 in those aged 41 to 50 years. Among patients younger than 19 years, 3678 GAS procedures were performed. GAS was less common in those cohorts older than 50 years. Overall, the greatest number of breast and chest surgical procedures, genital surgical procedures, and facial and other cosmetic surgical procedures were performed in patients aged 19 to 30 years.

When stratified by the type of procedure performed, breast and chest procedures made up the greatest percentage of the surgical interventions in younger patients while genital surgical procedures were greater in older patients ( Figure 2 ). Additionally, 3215 patients (87.4%) aged 12 to 18 years underwent GAS and had breast or chest procedures. This decreased to 16 067 patients (64.0%) in those aged 19 to 30 years, 4918 (46.9%) in those aged 31 to 40 years, and 1650 (37.9%) in patients aged 41 to 50 years ( P  < .001). In contrast, 405 patients (11.0%) aged 12 to 18 years underwent genital surgery. The percentage of patients who underwent genital surgery rose sequentially to 4423 (42.2%) in those aged 31 to 40 years, 1546 (52.3%) in those aged 51 to 60 years, and 742 (58.4%) in those aged 61 to 70 years ( P  < .001). The percentage of patients who underwent facial and other cosmetic surgical procedures rose with age from 9.5% in those aged 12 to 18 years to 20.6% in those aged 51 to 60 years, then gradually declined ( P  < .001). Figure 2 displays the absolute number of procedure classes performed by year stratified by age. The greatest magnitude of the decline in 2020 was in younger patients and for breast and chest procedures.

These findings suggest that the number of GAS procedures performed in the US has increased dramatically, nearly tripling from 2016 to 2019. Breast and chest surgery is the most common class of procedure performed while patients are most likely to undergo surgery between the ages of 19 and 30 years. The number of genital surgical procedures performed increased with increasing age.

Consistent with prior studies, we identified a remarkable increase in the number of GAS procedures performed over time. 9 , 16 A prior study examining national estimates of inpatient GAS procedures noted that the absolute number of procedures performed nearly doubled between 2000 to 2005 and from 2006 to 2011. In our analysis, the number of GAS procedures nearly tripled from 2016 to 2020. 9 , 17 Not unexpectedly, a large number of the procedures we captured were performed in the ambulatory setting, highlighting the need to capture both inpatient and outpatient procedures when analyzing data on trends. Like many prior studies, we noted a decrease in the number of procedures performed in 2020, likely reflective of the COVID-19 pandemic. 18 However, the decline in the number of procedures performed between 2019 and 2020 was relatively modest, particularly as these procedures are largely elective.

Analysis of procedure-specific trends by age revealed a number of important findings. First, GAS procedures were most common in patients aged 19 to 30 years. This is in line with prior work that demonstrated that most patients first experience gender dysphoria at a young age, with approximately three-quarters of patients reporting gender dysphoria by age 7 years. These patients subsequently lived for a mean of 23 years for transgender men and 27 years for transgender women before beginning gender transition treatments. 19 Our findings were also notable that GAS procedures were relatively uncommon in patients aged 18 years or younger. In our cohort, fewer than 1200 patients in this age group underwent GAS, even in the highest volume years. GAS in adolescents has been the focus of intense debate and led to legislative initiatives to limit access to these procedures in adolescents in several states. 20 , 21

Second, there was a marked difference in the distribution of procedures in the different age groups. Breast and chest procedures were more common in younger patients, while genital surgery was more frequent in older individuals. In our cohort of individuals aged 19 to 30 years, breast and chest procedures were twice as common as genital procedures. Genital surgery gradually increased with advancing age, and these procedures became the most common in patients older than 40 years. A prior study of patients with commercial insurance who underwent GAS noted that the mean age for mastectomy was 28 years, significantly lower than for hysterectomy at age 31 years, vaginoplasty at age 40 years, and orchiectomy at age 37 years. 16 These trends likely reflect the increased complexity of genital surgery compared with breast and chest surgery as well as the definitive nature of removal of the reproductive organs.

This study has limitations. First, there may be under-capture of both transgender individuals and GAS procedures. In both data sets analyzed, gender is based on self-report. NIS specifically makes notation of procedures that are considered inconsistent with a patient’s reported gender (eg, a male patient who underwent oophorectomy). Similar to prior work, we assumed that patients with a code for gender identity disorder or transsexualism along with a surgical procedure classified as inconsistent underwent GAS. 9 Second, we captured procedures commonly reported as GAS procedures; however, it is possible that some of these procedures were performed for other underlying indications or diseases rather than solely for gender affirmation. Third, our trends showed a significant increase in procedures through 2019, with a decline in 2020. The decline in services in 2020 is likely related to COVID-19 service alterations. Additionally, while we comprehensively captured inpatient and ambulatory surgical procedures in large, nationwide data sets, undoubtedly, a small number of procedures were performed in other settings; thus, our estimates may underrepresent the actual number of procedures performed each year in the US.

These data have important implications in providing an understanding of the use of services that can help inform care for transgender populations. The rapid rise in the performance of GAS suggests that there will be a greater need for clinicians knowledgeable in the care of transgender individuals and with the requisite expertise to perform GAS procedures. However, numerous reports have described the political considerations and challenges in the delivery of transgender care. 22 Despite many medical societies recognizing the necessity of gender-affirming care, several states have enacted legislation or policies that restrict gender-affirming care and services, particularly in adolescence. 20 , 21 These regulations are barriers for patients who seek gender-affirming care and provide legal and ethical challenges for clinicians. As the use of GAS increases, delivering equitable gender-affirming care in this complex landscape will remain a public health challenge.

Accepted for Publication: July 15, 2023.

Published: August 23, 2023. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.30348

Open Access: This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the CC-BY License . © 2023 Wright JD et al. JAMA Network Open .

Corresponding Author: Jason D. Wright, MD, Division of Gynecologic Oncology, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, 161 Fort Washington Ave, 4th Floor, New York, NY 10032 ( [email protected] ).

Author Contributions: Dr Wright had full access to all of the data in the study and takes responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis.

Concept and design: Wright, Chen.

Acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data: All authors.

Drafting of the manuscript: Wright.

Critical review of the manuscript for important intellectual content: All authors.

Statistical analysis: Wright, Chen.

Administrative, technical, or material support: Wright, Suzuki.

Conflict of Interest Disclosures: Dr Wright reported receiving grants from Merck and personal fees from UpToDate outside the submitted work. No other disclosures were reported.

Data Sharing Statement: See Supplement 2 .

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• v.111(47); 2014 Nov

Satisfaction With Male-to-Female Gender Reassignment Surgery

Jochen hess.

1 Department of Urology at the University Hospital Essen

Roberto Rossi Neto

2 Clinica Urologia, General Hospital Ernesto Simoes Filho, Salvador, Brasilien

Herbert Rübben

Wolfgang senf.

3 Department of Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, University of Essen

The frequency of gender identity disorder is hard to determine; the number of gender reassignment operations and of court proceedings in accordance with the German Law on Transsexuality almost certainly do not fully reflect the underlying reality. There have been only a few studies on patient satisfaction with male-to-female gender reassignment surgery.

254 consecutive patients who had undergone male-to-female gender reassignment surgery at Essen University Hospital’s Department of Urology retrospectively filled out a questionnaire about their subjective postoperative satisfaction.

119 (46.9%) of the patients filled out and returned the questionnaires, at a mean of 5.05 years after surgery (standard deviation 1.61 years, range 1–7 years). 90.2% said their expectations for life as a woman were fulfilled postoperatively. 85.4% saw themselves as women. 61.2% were satisfied, and 26.2% very satisfied, with their outward appearance as a woman; 37.6% were satisfied, and 34.4% very satisfied, with the functional outcome. 65.7% said they were satisfied with their life as it is now.

The very high rates of subjective satisfaction and the surgical outcomes indicate that gender reassignment surgery is beneficial. These findings must be interpreted with caution, however, because fewer than half of the questionnaires were returned.

Culturally, gender is considered an obvious, unambiguous dichotomy. The term “gender identity” denotes the consistency of one’s emotional and cognitive experience of one’s own gender and the objective manifestations of a particular gender. In gender identity disorder, one’s own anatomical sex is objectively perceived but is felt to be alien, whereas the term “gender incongruence” refers to a difference between an individual’s gender identity and prevailing cultural norms. Finally, gender dysphoria is the suffering that results. The treatment guidelines of the World Professional Association of Transgender Health (WPATH) state that gender identity need not coincide with anatomical sex as determined at birth. Transgender identity should therefore be considered neither negative nor pathological ( 1 ). Unfortunately, gender incongruence often leads to discrimination against the affected individual, which can favor the development of psychological complaints such as anxiety disorders and depression ( 2 – 4 ). While some transgender individuals are able to realize their gender identity without surgery, for many gender reassignment surgery is an essential, medically necessary step in the treatment of their gender dysphoria ( 5 ). Research conducted to date has shown that gender reassignment surgery has a positive effect on subjective wellbeing and sexual function ( 2 , 6 , 7 ). The surgical procedure (penile inversion with sensitive clitoroplasty) is described in eBox 1 .

Surgical procedure for penile inversion vaginoplasty

• Open the scrotum.
• Remove both testicles, including the spermatic cord, from the superficial inguinal ring.
• Make a circular cut around the skin of the shaft of the penis under the glans and prepare the skin of the shaft of the penis as far as the base of the penis.
• Separate the urethra from the erectile tissue.
• Separate the neurovascular bundle from the erectile tissue.
• Perform bilateral resection of the erectile tissue.
• Create a space for the neovagina between the rectum and urethra or prostate (the prostate is left intact).
• Invert the skin of the shaft of the penis and close the distal end.
• Insert a placeholder into the neovagina (= the inverted skin of the shaft of the penis).
• Create passages for the neoclitoris (former glans penis) and urethra and then fix in place.
• Inject fibrin glue into the neovagina.
• Position the neovagina, including the placeholder.
• Adjust the labia majora.
• During a second operation six to eight weeks after the first, the vaginal entrance is constructed and minor plastic corrections are made if necessary.

Surgery lasts an average of approximately 3.5 hours. Preservation of the neurovascular bundle results in a sensitive clitoroplasty. The most common complications in short-term postoperative recovery include superficial wound healing problems around the external sutures. In the medium and long term there is a risk of loss of depth ( 23 , 24 , 30 , e15 , e23 , e25 ) or breadth ( 24 , 30 , e11 , e19 , e25 ) of the neovagina in particular. These problems usually result from inconsistent dilatation ( e27 ).

No official figures are available on the prevalence of transgender or gender-nonconforming individuals, and it is very difficult to arrive at a realistic estimate. There is no central reporting register in Germany. Furthermore, figures for those who seek medical help for gender dysphoria would in any case give only an imprecise idea of the true prevalence. The global prevalence of transgender individuals has been estimated at approximately 1 per 11 900 to 1 per 45 000 for male-to-female individuals and approximately 1 per 30 400 to 1 per 200 000 for female-to-male individuals ( 1 ). Weitze and Osburg estimate prevalence in Germany at 1 per 42 000 ( 8 ). In contrast, De Cuypere et al. ( 9 ) suppose a prevalence of 1 per 12 900 for Belgium. Biosnich et al. ( 10 ) estimate prevalence among US veterans at 1 per 4366. This compares to an estimated prevalence of 1 per 23 255 in the general population. Even if percentages of transgender individuals in different parts of the world are comparable, it is highly likely that cultural differences will lead to differing behavior and expression of gender identity, resulting in differing levels of gender dysphoria ( 1 ). The ratio of male-to-female to female-to-male transgender individuals varies greatly. Although it was given as approximately 3:1 by van Kesteren ( 11 ), it is 2.3:1 according to Weitze and Osburg ( 8 ) and 1.4:1 according to Dhejne ( 3 ). Garrels ( 12 ) found a gradual decrease in the difference between the two figures in Germany, with the ratio decreasing from 3.5:1 (in the 1950s and 60s) to 1.2:1 (1995 to 1998) ( Table 1 ).

MTF: male-to-female; FTM: female-to-male

Criteria for diagnosis

Transsexualism is primarily a problem of gender identity (transidentity) or gender role (transgenderism) rather than of sexuality ( 13 ). In Germany, it is diagnosed according to ICD-10 (10 th revision of the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems).

Criteria for diagnosis include the following:

• Feeling of unease or not belonging to biological gender
• Desire to live and be accepted as a member of the opposite sex
• Presence of this desire for at least two years persistently
• Wish for hormonal treatment and surgery
• Not a symptom of another mental disorder
• Not associated with intersex, genetic, or gender chromosomal abnormalities.

Psychological aspects of transsexualism

According to Senf, no disruption to an individual’s identity is comparable in scale to the development of transsexualism ( 14 ). Transsexualism is a dynamic, biopsychosocial process which those affected cannot escape. An affected individual gradually becomes aware that he or she is living in the wrong body. The feeling of belonging to the opposite sex is experienced as an unchangeable, unequivocal identity ( 14 , 15 ). The individual therefore strives to change his or her inner identity. This change is associated with a change in psychosocial role, and in most cases with hormonal and/or surgical reassignment of the body to the desired gender ( 14 ). Coping with the development of transsexualism poses enormous challenges to those affected and often leads to a considerable psychological burden. In some cases this results in mental illness. Transsexualism itself need not lead to a mental disorder ( 14 ). Psychotherapeutic support is beneficial and is a major part of standard treatment and the examination of transsexual individuals in Germany ( 15 ).

This study aimed to evaluate the effect of male-to-female gender reassignment surgery on the satisfaction of transgender patients.

Data collection

Retrospective inquiry involved consecutive inclusion of 254 patients who had undergone male-to-female gender reassignment surgery involving penile inversion vaginoplasty at Essen University Hospital’s Department of Urology between 2004 and 2010. All patients received a questionnaire ( eBox 2 ) by post, with a franked return envelope. The questions were contained within a follow-up questionnaire developed by Essen University Hospital’s Department of Urology ( 16 ). Because the process was anonymized, patients who had not sent back the questionnaire could not be contacted. The diagnosis of “transidentity” had been made previously following specialized medical examination and in accordance with ICD-10.

Questionnaire

1. How satisfied are you with your outward appearance?

A) Very satisfied

B) Satisfied

C) Dissatisfied

D) Very dissatisfied

2. How satisfied were you with the gender reassignment surgery process?

C) Mostly satisfied

D) Dissatisfied

E) Very dissatisfied

3. How satisfied are you with the aesthetic outcome of your surgery?

4. How satisfied are you with the functional outcome of your surgery?

5. How satisfied are you with your life now, on a scale from 1 (very dissatisfied) to 10 (very satisfied)?

6. How do you see yourself today?

A) As a woman

B) More female than male

C) More male than female

D) As a man

7. Do you feel accepted as a woman by society?

A) Yes, completely

D) No/Not sure

8. Has your life become easier since surgery?

B) Somewhat easier

C) Somewhat harder

9. Have your expectations of life as a woman been fulfilled?

C) Mostly not

D) Not at all

10. How easy is it for you to achieve orgasm?

A) Very easy

B) Usually easy

C) Rarely easy

D) Never achieve orgasm

11. If you compare your orgasm earlier as a man and now as a woman, what is your orgasm like now?

A) More intense

B) Equally/Roughly equally intense

C) Less intense

Statistical evaluation was performed using SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences, 17.0). Correlation analyses were performed using SAS (Statistical Analysis System, 9.1 for Windows). The distribution of categorical and ordinal data was described using absolute and relative frequencies. Fisher’s exact test was used to compare categorical and ordinal variables in independent samples. The Mann–Whitney U-test was used to compare satisfaction scale distribution of two independent samples. This nonparametric test was used in preference to the t -test because the Shapiro–Wilk test indicated that distribution was not normal. Spearman’s correlation analysis was performed.

A total of 119 completed questionnaires were returned, all of which were included in the evaluation. This represents a response rate of 46.9%. Because the questionnaires were anonymous, no data on patients’ ages could be obtained. The average age of a comparable cohort of patients at Essen University Hospital’s Department of Urology between 1995 and 2008 ( 17 ) was 36.7 years (16 to 68 years). The median time since surgery was 5.05 years (standard deviation: 1.6 years; range: 1 to 7 years). Not all patients had completed the questionnaire in full, so for some questions the total number of responses is not 119.

Following surgery, 63 of 103 patients (61.2%) were satisfied with their outward appearance as women, and a further 27 (26.2%) were very satisfied ( Figure 1 ). 45.5% ( n = 50) were very satisfied with the gender reassignment surgery process, 30% ( n = 33) satisfied, 22.7% ( n = 25) mostly satisfied, and 1.8% ( n = 2) dissatisfied. Figure 2 shows the high rates of subjective satisfaction with the aesthetic outcome of surgery. Overall, approximately three-quarters (70 of 94 responses) reported that they were satisfied or very satisfied. A further 21 (22.3%) were mostly satisfied. Figures for satisfaction with the functional outcome of surgery were similar ( Figure 3 ). A total of 67 of 93 respondents (72%) were satisfied or very satisfied. A further 18 patients (19.4%) were mostly satisfied. Table 2 compares the rates of subjective satisfaction with aesthetic and functional outcome with other studies.

How satisfied are you with your outward appearance? (103 responses)

How satisfied are you with the aesthetic outcome of your surgery? (94 responses)

How satisfied are you with the functional outcome of your surgery? (93 responses)

*1 Functional satisfaction includes satisfaction with depth and breadth of the neovagina and satisfaction with penetration or intercourse

*2 Aesthetic satisfaction includes satisfaction with appearance of external genitalia

In order to gather information on patients’ general satisfaction with their lives, they were asked to place themselves on a Likert scale ranging from 1 (“very dissatisfied”) to 10 (“very satisfied”). Of the total of 102 respondents, 7 (6.9 percent) selected scores from 1 to 3 (2 × 1, 1 × 2, 4 × 3) and 39 (38.2%) scores from 4 to 7 (4 × 4, 16 × 5, 8 × 6, 11 × 7). 56 patients (54.9%) placed themselves in the top third (32 × 8, 13 × 9, 11 × 10). 88 of 103 participants (85.4%) felt completely female following surgery, and 11 (10.7%) mostly female ( Figure 4 ). 69 of 102 women (67.6%) saw themselves as fully accepted as women by society, 25 (24.5%) mostly, and 6 (5.9%) rarely. Two women (2.0%) were not sure of their answer to this question. Of 95 respondents, 65 (68.4%) answered with a clear “Yes” that their life had become easier since surgery. 14 (14.7%) found life somewhat easier, 9 (9.5%) somewhat harder, and 7 (7.4%) harder. Expectations of life as a woman were completely fulfilled for 51 of 102 (50.0%) women, and mostly for 41 (40.2%). The expectations of 6 (5.9%) patients were mostly not fulfilled, and those of 4 (3.9%) were not fulfilled at all.

How do you see yourself today? (103 responses)

There was a correlation between self-perception as a woman (“How do you see yourself today?”) and perceived acceptance by society ( r = 0.495; p <0.01). There was also a correlation between self-perception and answers to whether life had become easier since surgery ( r = 0.375; p <0.01) and whether expectations of life as a woman had been fulfilled ( r = 0.419; p <0.01). Patients who saw themselves completely as women reported higher scores for current satisfaction with their lives than patients who only saw themselves as more female than male ( r = 0.347; p <0.01).

Patients were asked how easy they found it to achieve orgasm. A total of 91 participants answered this question: 75 (82.4%) reported that they could achieve orgasm. Of these, 19 (20.9%) still achieved orgasm very easily, 39 (42.9%) usually easily, and 17 (18.7%) rarely easily. Participants were also asked to compare their experience of orgasm before and after surgery (more intense/the same/less intense). Over half of those who answered this question (43 of 77, 55.8%) experienced more intense orgasm postoperatively, and 16 patients (20.8%) experienced the same intensity.

According to Sohn et al. ( 18 ), subjective satisfaction rates of 80% can be expected following gender reassignment surgery. Löwenberg ( 19 ) reported 92% general satisfaction with the outcome of gender reassignment surgery. The study by Imbimbo et al. ( 20 ) found a similarly high satisfaction rate (94%); however, subjective assessment of general satisfaction and the question of whether or not patients regretted the decision to undergo gender reassignment surgery were queried in one combined question. It is likely that most patients do not actually regret their decision to undergo surgery, even though general postoperative satisfaction is limited. Löwenberg’s figures also show this ( 19 ): 69% of those asked were satisfied with their overall life situation, but 96% would opt for surgery again. In the authors’ own study population, general satisfaction with surgery was achieved in 87.4% of patients. Regardless of surgical results, over half of patients (54.9%) were in the top third (“completely satisfied”) and a further 38.2% in the middle third (“fairly satisfied”) of the general life satisfaction scale.

A retrospective survey performed by Happich ( 21 ) found more than 90% satisfaction with gender reassignment. Sexual experience following surgery is a very important factor in satisfaction with gender reassignment. It depends essentially on the functionality of the neovagina. Figures for satisfaction with functional outcome range from 56% to 84% ( 16 , 19 , 20 , 22 , 23 ). In the authors’ population, satisfaction with function was 72% (“very satisfied” and “satisfied”) or 91.4% (including also “mostly satisfied”). According to Happich ( 21 ), satisfaction with sexual experience is positively correlated with satisfaction with outcome of surgery. Other studies ( 16 , 23 – 25 ) have also found surgical outcome to be one of the essential factors in postoperative satisfaction. Löwenberg ( 19 ) also found a correlation between satisfaction with surgery and satisfaction with aesthetic appearance of the external genitalia. In our study, almost all patients (98.2%) were satisfied with the gender reassignment surgery process ( n = 50, 45.5% “very satisfied”; n = 33, 30% “satisfied”; n = 25, 22.7% “mostly satisfied”).

The Imbimbo et al. working group ( 20 ) reported 78% satisfaction with aesthetic appearance of the neogenitalia (36% “very satisfied,” 32% “satisfied,” 10% “mostly satisfied”). Happich found 82.1% satisfaction with outcome of surgery (46 of 56 patients). Of these, 33.9% of patients reported high satisfaction and 48.2% good to medium satisfaction ( 21 ). A similar value was obtained in the survey by Hepp et al. ( 22 ). Löwenberg ( 19 ) found higher values (94%) for satisfaction with aesthetic outcome of surgery. This population included 106 male-to-female transgender individuals who underwent surgery at Essen University Hospital’s Department of Urology between 1997 and 2003. In the population described here (254 patients, 2004 to 2010) satisfaction with aesthetic outcome was still higher (96.8%).

Orgasm was possible for 82.4% of study participants. The ability to achieve orgasm was lower than in an earlier study population ( 16 ). Figures in the literature vary widely (29% to 100%) and sometimes include small case numbers ( Table 3 ). Overall, the figures for this study match those of comparable studies of a similar size. Finally, it is not clear why more than half the participants experienced orgasm more intensely following surgery than preoperatively. One possible explanation is that postoperatively patients were able to experience orgasm in a body that matched their perception.

Limitations

The response rate of less than 50% must be mentioned as a shortcoming of this study. This may have led to a bias in the results. If all patients who did not take part in the survey were dissatisfied, up to 50.1% and 54.6% would be dissatisfied with aesthetic or functional outcome respectively. According to Eicher, the suicide rate in transgender individuals following successful surgery is no higher than in the general population ( 26 ), so suicide is a very unlikely reason for nonparticipation. Contacting transfemale patients for long-term follow-up after successful surgery is generally difficult (2, 3, 22, 23, 25, 27, 28). This may be because a patient has moved since successful surgery, for example, ( 21 ). Postoperative contact is particularly difficult in countries such as Germany which have no central registers. Response rates to surveys in retrospective research are between 19% ( 28 ) and 79% ( 29 ). Goddard et al. obtained a response rate of 30% in a retrospective survey following gender reassignment surgery ( 30 ). A follow-up survey performed by Löwenberg et al. had a similar response rate, 49% ( 19 ). It is also possible that the positive results of our survey represent patients’ wish for social desirability rather than the real situation. However, this cannot be verified retrospectively.

Taking into account the limitations mentioned above, the high rates of subjective satisfaction with outward female appearance and with aesthetic and functional outcome of surgery indicate that the study participants benefited from gender reassignment surgery.

Key Messages

• At the core of the transsexual experience lies the awareness that one is a member of a realistically perceived anatomical sex (matching of genotype and phenotype), but a subjective feeling of belonging to the other gender.
• Change to the gender inwardly identified with is associated with a change in psychosocial role and in most cases with hormonal and surgical reassignment of the body to the desired gender.
• Although transsexualism itself is not a mental disorder, it can favor the development of mental problems.
• Transsexualism is a dynamic, biopsychosocial process which affected individuals cannot escape.
• The high rates of subjective satisfaction with outward female appearance and with aesthetic and functional outcome of surgery indicate that study participants benefited from gender reassignment surgery.

Acknowledgments

Translated from the original German by Caroline Devitt, M.A.

Conflict of interest statement

Dr. Hess has received reimbursement of conference fees and travel expenses from AMS American Medical Systems.

The other authors declare that no conflict of interest exists.

• Open access
• Published: 19 August 2024

Discontinuing hormonal gender reassignment: a nationwide register study

• Riittakerttu Kaltiala   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2783-3892 1 ,
• Mika Helminen 2 ,
• Timo Holttinen 3 &
• Katinka Tuisku 4  

BMC Psychiatry volume  24 , Article number:  566 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Metrics details

With increasing numbers of people seeking medical gender reassignment, the scientific community has become increasingly aware of the issue of detransitioning from social, hormonal or even surgical gender reassignment (GR). This study aimed to assess the proportion of patients who discontinued their established hormonal gender transition and the risk factors for discontinuation.

A nationwide register-based follow-up was conducted. Data were analysed via cross-tabulations with chi-square statistics and t tests/ANOVAs. Multivariate analyses were performed via Cox regression, which accounts for differences in follow-up times.

Of the 1,359 subjects who had undergone hormonal GR in Finland from 1996 to 2019, 7.9% discontinued their established hormonal treatment during an average follow-up of 8.5 years. The risk for discontinuing hormonal GR was greater among later cohorts. The hazard ratio was 2.7 (95% confidence interval 1.1–6.1) among those who had accessed gender identity services from 2013 to 2019 compared with those who had come to contact from 1996 to 2005. Discontinuing also appeared to be emerging earlier among those who had entered the process in later years.

Conclusions

The risk of discontinuing established medical GR has increased alongside the increase in the number of patients seeking and proceeding to medical GR. The threshold to initiate medical GR may have lowered, resulting in a greater risk of unbalanced treatment decisions.

Trial registration number (TRN)

Not applicable (the paper does not present a clinical trial).

Peer Review reports

In gender medicine, transition refers to people with sex-discordant gender identities making changes in their lives to live in their experienced gender, socially (appearance, name, personal pronouns), juridically (identity documents) or medically (hormonal and surgical medical interventions that modify secondary sex characteristics ) . Detransition refers to people aborting their initiated transition and reversing it, totally or partially, to live in a sex-accordant role by reversing the abovementioned steps of transition.

Recent decades have witnessed an exponential increase in those seeking medical interventions to support their transition (medical gender reassignment, GR), with an increasing share of younger individuals of the female sex [ 1 , 2 ]. Psychiatric morbidity among people who contact specialized gender identity services (GISs) has increased simultaneously [ 2 , 3 ] and is particularly pronounced among the youngest age groups [ 4 ].

It has long been assumed that very few patients embarking on medical GR regret their choice and seek to reverse it. From the 1970s to the 2010s, estimates of those regretting their initiated GR were only in the region of 2% [ 5 , 6 ]. However, more recent research suggests that alongside the increase in the number of people accessing medical gender reassignment, reversing the initiated transition seems to be increasing [ 7 ]. In recent samples, 20–30% of those who initiated hormonal GR discontinued hormonal treatment in four to five years [ 8 , 9 ]. It is possible that some patients discontinue hormonal treatment because they have reached their transition goals. Some changes, such as lowering of the voice, can be reached with relatively short hormonal treatments and are permanent, while maintaining some other changes require permanent treatment.

People abandoning their gender transition have reported various reasons for doing so, such as coming to terms with their natal sex, concerns about medical complications, attributing gender dysphoria to reasons other than gender identity, such as trauma or mental disorders, finding that the transition did not alleviate distress, struggles with sexual orientation and discrimination [ 10 , 11 ]. More importantly, those who have detransitioned have repeatedly reported that before their embarking on medical GR, insufficient attention was given to their mental health and psychosocial problems, which, in retrospect, they believed played a major role in their desire to transition. They have expressed concerns that assessments for medical gender reassignment were too superficial, with no search for explanations for their distress beyond an assumed stable sex-discordant identity requiring transition. [ 10 , 11 ]. This contradicts calls to lower the threshold for medical gender reassignment [ 12 , 13 ]. Several recent national guidelines and recommendations [ 4 , 14 , 15 ], however, emphasize the appropriate treatment of psychiatric comorbidities and associated difficulties as well as a psychosocial intervention facilitating identity exploration as first-line interventions for gender dysphoria before considering medical interventions, particularly for young people.

In Finland, gender identity assessments potentially leading to medical GR interventions are conducted at two of the country’s five university hospitals. Services for legal adults (> 18 years) have been available since the early 1990s [ 16 ] and became available to minors in 2011 [ 17 ]. The national guidelines require minors presenting with feelings of gender dysphoria to first undergo psychosocial intervention to support identity exploration and to receive appropriate treatment for any severe mental disorders [ 14 ], after which they can proceed to the centralized GIS, where diagnostic assessments are carried out by specialized mental health teams. Both GISs have separate diagnostic teams for minors and for adults. Hormonal GR interventions are initiated at the same hospitals in gynecological outpatient clinics, and after stabilization, hormonal treatment is transferred to services in the patients’ places of residence. Genital surgeries with gender identity indication are nationally centralized to one university hospital and require recommendations from both nationally centralized diagnostic GIS units. Psychiatric treatment for any concomitant mental health condition is provided at the specialized secondary care or primary health care facility in the patient’s place of residence. Until 2022, diagnostic assessments at the nationally centralized GIS were also a prerequisite for registered sex change, but since 3 April 2023, legal adults have been granted legal GR on the basis solely of their own request. Medical GR remains nationally centralized and is available case-by-case after a comprehensive diagnostic assessment by a multidisciplinary mental health team, as outlined in the national guidelines [ 14 , 18 , 19 ].

An important ethical principle in all medicine is to not harm. A more severe or life-threatening condition may justify greater risks in its treatment. In medical gender reassignment, hormonal and surgical interventions are performed on physically healthy bodies. If the patient subsequently regrets the changes brought by the treatments, not to mention undesired side effects, this can be considered harmful. As in other Western countries, alongside the vastly increasing number of referrals to the GIS, increasing numbers of younger people with increasingly common psychiatric needs have initiated medical GR in Finland [ 2 ]. This may be followed by increasing numbers of people who later feel otherwise about their medical GR. On the other hand, the purpose of the nationally centralized and comprehensive assessment before medical GR is to ensure reasoned treatment decisions and satisfactory patient outcomes, avoiding possible regrets. This may counteract the risks related to the more complex presentations among those seeking medical GR. Those abandoning their gender transitions have repeatedly claimed that the distress accompanying their situation is not appropriately addressed [ 20 ]. It is crucial to take seriously the desire to reverse medical GR and to ascertain its likelihood and predictors to target medical GR safely and provide appropriate services for those opting out of treatment that has resulted in irreversible changes in a healthy pretreatment body. In the present study, we referred to national registry data to determine which patients are likely to discontinue hormonal GR. More specifically, we asked:

How commonly did people who proceeded to hormonal GR after assessment in the nationally centralized GIS from 1996 to 2019 discontinue their established hormonal GR?

What are the predictors of discontinuation in terms of age, age at admission to the GIS, direction of transition, surgical treatment, psychiatric treatment needs and cohort effects?

Has the risk of discontinuing hormonal GR changed over time?

Design and setting

A register-based follow-up study was conducted using information held in health care registers in Finland. These comprehensive and reliable national registers can be used to study large patient groups and collate information from different registers (on an individual level) via the unique personal identity code assigned to each permanent resident of Finland. Register data can be applied for research purposes from the Finnish Social and Health Data Permit Authority Findata and Statistics Finland. Data extraction, linkages and pseudonymization are carried out by these authorities, and researchers are allotted a special secure connection for pseudonymized data only. Analyses producing unduly precise information potentially enabling a person to be identified must be amended to ensure the anonymity of the persons included. The present study obtained ethical approval from the ethics committee of Tampere University Hospital (R20040R) and relevant permissions from Findata (THL/5188/14.02.00/2020) and Statistics Finland (TK/1016/07.03.00/2020). In accordance with Articles 6e and 9i and j of Regulation (EU) 2016/679 of the European Parliament and of the Council [ 21 ], no individual informed consent was needed.

A personal identity code is assigned at birth (or upon obtaining Finnish citizenship). This indicates sex (male or female). Legal sex change entails a new identity code. People are listed in the national registers according to their currently valid personal identity code. This code serves to retrieve data from various registers (including earlier data under the original identity code). Researchers cannot obtain information about identity code changes (changes in juridical sex). Researchers using the data never see the actual identity codes.

Data extraction

Subjects referred to either of the two nationally centralized GISs were identified from the hospital databases of Tampere and Helsinki University Hospitals. The first contact with a diagnostic team in either of the two GISs was recorded as the index date. The Finnish Social and Health Data Permit Authority Findata combined the lists from the two hospitals. A total of 3,665 individuals were identified as having contacted the nationally centralized gender identity units between 1996 and 2019. Of these, 1,359 had initialized and embarked on feminizing or masculinizing hormonal treatment (see below, next paragraph) and formed the subjects of the present study.

The register of the Social Insurance Institution of Finland (KELA), with information on prescription medications purchased and information on reimbursement, was used to obtain information on hormonal GR in the clinical GD group. Persons diagnosed with F64.0 (since 2020, also F64.8) in the nationally centralized gender identity units are entitled to special reimbursement (code 121) for their hormonal treatment, as are patients suffering from specified endocrine disorders. In the treatment of gender dysphoria, special reimbursement is available when hormonal treatment has continued for more than a year. The data on prescription medications were collected up to the end of 2021.

The Care Register for Health Care [ 22 ] was used for information on all treatment contacts to specialist-level psychiatric services from 1994 to 2022. The register, which has been in operation since 1994, includes all outpatient and inpatient contacts with specialist-level health services in Finland. For all contacts, admission and discharge dates were extracted. The Care Register for Health Care was further used to provide information on gender reassignment surgeries.

The Population Register provided information on those deceased and their dates of death.

Discontinuing hormonal GR

Subjects entitled to special reimbursement for hormonal treatments were considered to have discontinued their hormonal GR if they had purchased no hormones for more than 12 months before the end of the data collection or, if deceased, for 12 months or more before their death, or if they had been purchasing specially reimbursed feminizing hormones but had later switched to masculinizing hormones, or vice versa. To obtain reimbursements for prescription medications from the Social Insurance Institution of Finland (KELA), these medications can be purchased for only three months at a time. Thus, not purchasing them for over a year means that they are most likely not being taken. The last date of purchase of the originally prescribed hormonal GR medication was recorded. Patients who discontinue hormonal GR may require birth-sex accordant hormonal replacement to detransition after gonad removal or if their natural hormone production does not resume. For subjects whose specially reimbursed hormone treatment had changed from masculinizing to feminizing or vice versa, the last date of purchase of the originally initiated type of hormonal GR was recorded.

Types and durations of hormonal GR

In the analyses, hormonal GR was divided into feminizing and masculinizing. The duration of hormonal GR with special reimbursement was calculated in months from the dates of first and last/latest purchase of the originally initiated masculinizing/feminizing hormones.

Time variables

The subject’s year of birth was used in the analyses as a continuous variable. The year of initial contact with the GIS (index year) was categorized into intake cohorts with the first contact with the GIS in 1996–2005 vs. 2006–2012 vs. 2013‒2019. As the inclusion period did not fall into three even periods, the first period, with a clearly lower case load, was extended.

Age at first contact with the GIS (index date) was calculated from the dates of index contact and birth. Age in years was used in bivariate analyses as a continuous variable. In multivariable analyses, age was divided into adolescent (up to 22 years old) and adult (23+) at index contact.

Gender reassignment surgeries

The gender reassignment surgeries recorded were genital surgery (vaginoplasty, phalloplasty/metoidioplasty) and chest masculinization.

Specialist-level psychiatric treatment contact

Specialist-level psychiatric treatment contacts other than those related to gender identity assessment were recorded. Having received specialist-level psychiatric treatment was used in the analyses as a comprehensive dichotomous variable (yes/no). Furthermore, having specialist-level psychiatric treatment contact before entering the GIS (yes/no) was used, as was having specialist-level psychiatric treatment two or more years after entering the GIS (yes/no).

Statistical analyses.

Bivariate associations between discontinuing hormonal GR and the explanatory variables were studied via cross-tabulations with chi-square statistics (Fisher’s exact test where appropriate) and the Mantel‒Haenszel test for categorical variables and t tests and ANOVA for continuous variables. Multivariate associations were studied via Cox regression, accounting for differences in follow-up times. Discontinuing hormonal GR was entered as the dependent variable. The independent variables entered were (1) direction of hormonal treatment (masculinizing/feminizing), year of birth and index year cohort; (2) GR surgeries; (3) age at first entering the GIS (adolescent vs. adult); and (4) and, finally, having received specialist-level psychiatric treatment (yes/no). Hazard ratios (HRs) with 95% confidence intervals are given. The cut-off for statistical significance was considered p  < 0.05.

There were 1,359 people who, after having been assessed in the nationally centralized GIS, had purchased masculinizing or feminizing hormones with a special reimbursement code. The mean (sd) age of the participants on admission to the GIS was 25.6 (9.3) years, and 49.1% of them were under 23 years of age. In total, 467 (34.4%) had received feminizing treatment, and 892 (65.6%) had received masculinizing treatment. At index contact with the GIS, those who subsequently initiated feminizing GR were older than those who proceeded to masculinizing GR (29.7 (11.1) vs. 23.4 (7.3) years, p  < 0.001). The mean (sd) duration of hormonal GR was 62.0 (57.0) months, with a median of 44.5 months, with no difference between masculinizing and feminizing treatments. Genital surgeries were more commonly performed on those who had proceeded to feminizing treatment (46.7% vs. 14.9%, p  < 0.001). Among those on masculinizing treatment, 41.5% had undergone chest masculinization. Among all patients proceeding to hormonal GR, 57.4% had ever had treatment contact with specialist-level psychiatric care.

A total of 107 subjects (7.9% of those who had started hormonal GR and obtained special reimbursement for it) had not been purchasing GR hormones for at least a year before the end of data collection (or before the subject died) or had changed from feminizing GR to masculinizing treatment, or vice versa. These were considered to have discontinued hormonal GR. Among those who had obtained feminizing GR, 10.5% had discontinued hormonal treatment, and among those who had obtained masculinizing GR, 6.5% ( p  = 0.004). Those who discontinued hormonal GR were slightly older at the index contact and at their latest purchase of specially reimbursed hormones than those who continued hormonal GR. The two groups had used hormonal GR for comparable periods. Those who discontinued and those who stayed on hormonal GR had comparable specialist-level psychiatric treatment contacts. (Table  1 )

Those who discontinued and those who continued hormonal GR had equally common specialist-level psychiatric treatment contact before contacting the GIS (15.3% vs. 17.8%, p  = 0.5) as well as two or more years after entering the GIS (59.9% vs. 57.0%, p  = 0.2).

Changes across intake cohorts

The basic characteristics of the subjects changed across intake cohorts. The mean (sd) age among those who had contacted the GIS from 1996 to 2005 and subsequently proceeded to hormonal GR was 31.1 (7.9); from 2006 to 2012, it was 25.7 (9.3); from 2013 to 2019, it was 24.8 (9.2) years ( p  < 0.001); and the proportion of adolescents (< 23-year-olds) was 13.7% vs. 48.9% vs. 53.6% ( p  < 0.001). The proportion of those seeking change towards masculinity increased, and the same change was observed among those discontinuing hormonal GR. The proportion of those with specialist-level psychiatric treatment contacts fluctuated between cohorts among those continuing hormonal GR but remained unchanged among those who discontinued it (Table  1 ).

Multivariable analyses

The hazard ratio (HR) for discontinuing hormonal GR was greater among those in the latest intake cohort (2013–2019) as compared to those in the earliest cohort (1996–2005) when the type of hormonal GR (masculinizing vs. feminizing) and year of birth were accounted for (Table  2 Model 1) and when surgical GR (Table  2 Model 2), age at index admission (adolescent vs. adult) (Table  2 Model 3) and, finally, specialist-level psychiatric treatment contact (Table  2 Model 4) were added. Genital surgeries were associated with a decreased HR for the discontinuation of hormonal GR. Earlier year of birth was very slightly but statistically significantly associated with increased HR for discontinuing hormonal GR in the first models but levelled out in subsequent models.

Confirmatory analyses

Because the oldest individuals in the sample may have discontinued hormonal GR due to reaching the age of natural decline in hormonal levels, the final model was repeated among individuals younger than 60 at the end of data collection, but this did not change the findings.

A further confirmatory analysis was carried out using data from those subjects whose index contact was before 2018 because of the rather short follow-up times among those who had started their gender identity assessments in 2018 or 2019. This caused no changes to the findings presented in Table  2 .

Changes in the discontinuation of hormonal GR over time

Survival curves for the three index date cohorts suggested that the discontinuation of hormonal GR emerged in a shorter time from the earliest to the latest intake cohort (Fig.  1 ). To explore this further, discontinuation within two years of obtaining special reimbursement for hormonal GR was scrutinized among those with index dates before 2018. Among the two earlier intake cohorts (combined due to small cell frequencies in the original categories), 1.3% of those who had started hormonal GR discontinued it within two years; among the latest intake cohort, 2.9% ( p  = 0.06).

Time (in years)* to discontinuing hormonal gender reassignment in the different intake cohorts (1 = 1996–2005, 2 = 2006–2012, 3 = 2013–2019). *modeled by Cox regression

In this nationally representative register study covering subjects proceeding to hormonal GR over three decades, 7.9% discontinued their established hormonal GR. The risk for discontinuing hormonal GR was greater in the latest intake cohort (2013–2019) than in the earliest cohort (1996–2005). Genital surgeries were associated with a decreased risk of discontinuing hormonal GR. Over the decades, the time to discontinuation grew shorter.

The proportion of those who discontinued treatment was smaller than that reported in the most comparable study [ 9 ] from the USA, where almost one-third of adolescents and young adults discontinued their hormonal GR within four years. The relatively low discontinuation rate in our study may be due to the comprehensive assessment in the nationally centralized GIS before initiating hormonal treatments. When severe psychiatric comorbidities are present, great care is taken in considering physical interventions [ 2 , 14 , 17 ]. The proportion of those who discontinued their established hormonal GR was nevertheless manifold compared with earlier reports of proportions regretting medical transition among samples who had initiated their treatments between the 1960s and 2010s [ 5 , 6 ]. However, both of those reports focused on actively expressed regrets, and in the latter study [ 6 ], the proportion lost to follow-up—with later development thus unknown—was high. The proportion discontinuing their established hormonal GR in the present study was comparable to the proportion defined as detransitioners (those who discontinued treatment and reverted to living in their original gender role) in a register-based study of 175 subjects initially assessed in 2017–18 in the UK [ 7 ]. However, in that UK study, a clearly greater additional share of the studied group also subsequently disengaged from the treatments or did not adhere to their treatment plan. In a study evaluating the situation of people diagnosed with GD in a specified GP practice population [ 8 ] and, as noted, in a register study in the USA [ 9 ], much greater shares discontinued their medical GR. Direct comparisons among these studies are not feasible because of their different focuses and methodologies. However, together with the most recent studies, our study suggests that discontinuing hormonal GR is a significant phenomenon in gender medicine, and studies reporting the experiences of detransitioners [ 10 , 11 ] suggest that it is often related to profound psychological distress.

In multivariate models accounting for differences in follow-up times and for changes in patient characteristics across intake cohorts, the risk of discontinuing hormonal GR was almost threefold among those patients who had contacted the GIS from 2013 to 2019 compared with those who had contacted the GIS from 1996 to 2005. Our findings also suggest that the time to discontinuation of hormonal GR may have shortened among the later patients; however, in the latest intake cohort, more discontinuations may still emerge, and this will eventually affect the final conclusions about the average time to discontinuation. The proportion of subjects who discontinued after short use, a maximum of two years of specially reimbursed medication use, nevertheless appeared to have increased. (This will mean a maximum of three years of total use, given the rules on special reimbursement). Over the whole study period, the number of people seeking GR increased manifoldly [ 2 ], as did the number of subjects proceeding to hormonal GR. Alongside with this, the risk of discontinuing established medical GR has also increased. The populations seeking medical GR may have changed in a way that limits positive treatment outcomes. It is already known that subjects currently seeking medical GR are, unlike earlier, predominantly birth-registered females, who are younger than before and present with more psychiatric comorbidities than before [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 20 ]. These observations may suggest that an increasing share of GD patients actually do not present with achieved, consolidated identity [ 20 , 23 ]. In particular, medical transition early in terms of identity development may increase the risk of unbalanced treatment decisions, and this risk appears to have increased towards the present day, with detransitioning as the next step. Greater attention to gender identity issues and GR in the media and social media as well as assertive advocacy for medical GR may play a role in these developments [ 20 , 24 , 25 ].

Somewhat unexpectedly, the need for specialist-level psychiatric care did not differentiate those who continued and those who discontinued hormonal GR. Approximately one in six of the patients who had started hormonal GR, both those who later discontinued and those who continued the treatment, had needed specialist-level psychiatric treatment before embarking on gender identity assessments. This number was clearly less than that of all patients who were in contact with the GIS [ 2 ]. It is expected that the two groups would be comparable at the time of the decision to initiate medical GR and suffer fewer psychiatric comorbidities than those who could not start medical GR. However, psychiatric treatment needs increased vastly after the index contact with the GIS in both groups who proceeded to medical GR, those who subsequently discontinued it and those who continued on hormonal GR. A more detailed analysis of the nature of psychiatric needs and subsequent identity struggles is needed to better understand the discontinuation of medical GR in the future. According to the multivariable analyses, the risk for discontinuing hormonal GR did not differ between those who had initially contacted the GIS during adolescence (< 23 years) and those who had contacted in adulthood. This may be due to assessments being particularly cautious with younger patients, whereas with middle-aged subjects, self-determination may be accorded greater significance.

Having undergone genital surgeries was predictive of a decreased risk of discontinuing hormonal treatments. This may be due to strict treatment protocols requiring psychological stability as part of eligibility for genital surgeries. A recommendation letter is required from both the nationally centralized GIS for gender surgeries to ensure both the patient’s capacity to consent and that their psychological and psychosocial resources will suffice to recover from major surgery.

Methodological considerations.

A strength of the present study is the use of nationwide registry data over three decades. The registers are comprehensive since treatment providers are required by law to report to them all the information on which this study relies. The subjects were identified in the databases of the hospitals where the nationally centralized GISs operate, thereby ensuring the reliability of sampling. The long inclusion period made it possible to analyse changes over time. A limitation is that only subjects who had obtained the special reimbursement code for their hormonal GR were included. There may be subjects who discontinued hormonal GR before their entitlement to special reimbursement (which can take place after a year), and their number is not known. Another limitation is that registers include no information on the reasons for discontinuing hormonal GR. Given the ample publicly funded health services and the special reimbursement for hormonal GR, financial problems are an unlikely reason. Further changes in identity, medical complications or concerns over them, not being helped by GR or social reasons, may contribute [ 10 , 11 , 20 ]. It is also possible that some achieved their goals and therefore discontinued, although this seems implausible in the case of discontinuation after many years. A more profound understanding of the reasons for discontinuing medical GR will require studies using information elicited directly from patients. A further limitation is that regarding the need for psychiatric treatment, this research focused on specialist-level service contacts reflecting severe psychiatric needs. Mild to moderate mental disorders are treated in primary health care. Thus, the need for psychiatric treatment was likely somewhat underestimated in the present study. A limitation is that the possible use of hormonal GR through unofficial routes was not addressed. Publicly funded medical GR interventions are possible only through nationally centralized gender identity services. Obtaining hormonal GR via unofficial routes would likely be related to medical GR not being considered timely in the official treatment route. This finding may suggest that the discontinuation of hormonal GR can be more common among those who obtain hormones unofficially. We combined minors (< 18 at intake to the GIS) and late adolescents (18–22-year-olds at intake) because before 2011, minors entered the assessments only occasionally. Brain development, personality development and identity consolidation continue well beyond the age of reaching legal adulthood [ 23 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 ]. Finally, discontinuing hormonal GR, desisting from identifying in a sex-discordant way, detransitioning and regretting medical GR are concepts referring partly to the same phenomenon but not totally overlapping [ 20 ]. A register-based study cannot reach these nuances.

Discontinuing established medical GR appears to be less common in Finland than reported elsewhere. This is likely due to careful, comprehensive assessment before initiating physical treatments. The risk of discontinuing established medical GR has nevertheless increased alongside increases in the number of patients seeking and proceeding to medical GR. In later intake cohorts, discontinuation also appears to emerge earlier. The threshold to initiate medical GR may have decreased, resulting in greater risks of suboptimal decisions. More research is needed on practically all aspects of detransitioning from medical GR.

Data availability

The authors are not allowed to give the data to any party. Information about how to apply Finnish register data for research purposes can be found in www.findata.fi.

Abbreviations

• Gender dysphoria

Gender identity service

Hazard ratio

Confidence interval

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This research has received funding from the Wihuri Foundation and the Suomen Kulttuurirahasto. The funders had no role in the conceptualization, design, data collection, analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

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RK, MH, TH and KT all contributed substantially to the design of the work; TH and RK curated the data; RK performed the analyses; MH consulted in statistical analyses; RK, MH, TH and KT interpreted the results; RK had the main responsibility of drafting the manuscript; MH, TH and KT participated in drafting the manuscript and approved the version submitted. All the authors have agreed both to be personally accountable for the author’s own contributions and to ensure that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work, even ones in which the author was not personally involved, are appropriately investigated, resolved, and the resolution documented in the literature. All the authors reviewed and approved the manuscript.

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Kaltiala, R., Helminen, M., Holttinen, T. et al. Discontinuing hormonal gender reassignment: a nationwide register study. BMC Psychiatry 24 , 566 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-024-06005-6

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After presidential hopeful (and current U.S. vice president) Kamala Harris picked Minnesota Gov. Tim Walz to be her running mate on Aug. 6, 2024, rumors began to circulate that he had signed a bill allowing gender-reassignment surgery for children:

The above post ( archived ) by conservative television and podcast host Megyn Kelly had been viewed 2.4 million times as of this writing, and had received 70,000 likes. People responded to the claim with outrage, warning that Walz would "destroy" the country: 

After examining the text of the law, and in light of current standards of gender-affirming care, however, we have rated the claim "False." Here is what's true:

First, on March 8, 2023, Walz signed an executive order protecting the right of gender-diverse adults and parents of gender-diverse children to seek and obtain gender-affirming medical care. The same order turned Minnesota into a sanctuary state for gender-diverse people from other states to seek and obtain gender-affirming medical care, shielding them from extradition or sanctions.

Second, in April 2023, Walz signed a bill into law that protected gender-diverse people, including children, who have obtained gender-affirming care in Minnesota from "out-of-state" interference, thereby enshrining Minnesota's status as a sanctuary state for gender-diverse people seeking care . 

The same bill gave Minnesota courts " temporary emergency jurisdiction " if a child from another state seeking gender-affirming care had been unable to obtain it. Contrary to Kelly's claim, however, which the Republican Donald Trump/J.D. Vance presidential ticket also helped spread , in such a situation the state, under this legislation, did not give itself the right to claim custody of the child. Instead, it claimed jurisdiction to rule in custody disputes. The legislation allowed a path to conflict resolution for parents and a child who disagree on whether the child should obtain care, Kat Rohn, executive director of LGBTQ+ advocacy organization OutFront, told The Washington Post .  

Based on Snopes' reading, the legislation granted Minnesota courts jurisdiction over custody matters if the child was present in the state, including if the child had arrived in Minnesota for the purpose of seeking gender-affirming health care. The mechanism of "temporary emergency jurisdiction" already existed, but the new legislation amended it to include cases where the child had been unable to obtain gender-affirming care.

Neither the executive order nor the new law consecrated a right to "gender reassignment surgery for children," however. Both texts emphasized access to gender-affirming health care. Further, a word search revealed no mention of "surgery" in either document. This made sense, as gender-affirming health care includes a large array of interventions. 

It was also consistent with the current standard of such care , which in childhood allowed for psychological and medical support for a social transition, such as adopting other names, choosing other pronouns, and being able to present oneself as part of one's chosen gender. It may also allow for treatment that slows puberty, which is reversible. However, the same guidance recommends that irreversible procedures — notably, genital surgery — should be delayed until adulthood.

HF 146 1st Engrossment - 93rd Legislature (2023 - 2024). https://www.revisor.mn.gov/bills/text.php?number=HF146&version=1&session=ls93&session_year=2023&session_number=0. Accessed 8 Aug. 2024.

Nirappil, Fenit. 'Walz Made Minnesota a "Trans Refuge", Championing Gender Affirming Care'. The Washington Post, 7 Aug. 2024, https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2024/08/07/tim-walz-minnesota-trans-refuge-bill/. https://archive.is/PC3Xd.

Rascouët-Paz, Anna. 'No, Biden Didn't Say Kids Should Be Allowed to Get "Transgender Surgery"'. Snopes, 23 May 2024, https://www.snopes.com//fact-check/biden-gender-affrming-surgery/.

Walz, Tim. EO 23-03, 8 Mar. 2023, https://mn.gov/governor/assets/EO%2023-03%20Signed%20and%20filed_tcm1055-568332.pdf.

By Anna Rascouët-Paz

Anna Rascouët-Paz is based in Brooklyn, fluent in numerous languages and specializes in science and economic topics.

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County loses bias lawsuit over health plan denial of gender reassignment surgery

• Jan 26, 2022

A former Yellowstone County, Montana, employee has been awarded $66,500 in damages because the county’s health benefits plan denied payment for gender-confirming health care, the Associated Press reports. Eleanor Anderson Maloney, a transgender woman and former prosecutor in the county attorney’s office, filed a complaint in 2019 after she was denied health care related to sex reassignment in 2018.

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Missouri now requires proof of surgery or court order for gender changes on IDs

COLUMBIA, Mo. — Missouri residents now must provide proof of gender-affirmation surgery or a court order to update their gender on driver’s licenses following a Revenue Department policy change.

Previously, Missouri required doctor approval, but not surgery, to change the gender listed on state-issued identification.

Missouri’s Revenue Department on Monday did not comment on what prompted the change but explained the new rules in a statement provided to The Associated Press.

“Customers are required to provide either medical documentation that they have undergone gender reassignment surgery, or a court order declaring gender designation to obtain a driver license or nondriver ID card denoting gender other than their biological gender assigned at birth,” spokesperson Anne Marie Moy said in the statement.

LGBTQ rights advocacy group PROMO on Monday criticized the policy shift as having been done “secretly.”

“We demand Director Wayne Wallingford explain to the public why the sudden shift in a policy that has stood since at least 2016,” PROMO Executive Director Katy Erker-Lynch said in a statement. “When we’ve asked department representatives about why, they stated it was ‘following an incident.’”

According to PROMO, the Revenue Department adopted the previous policy in 2016 with input from transgender leaders in the state.

Some Republican state lawmakers had questioned the old policy on gender identifications following protests, and counterprotests, earlier this month over a transgender woman’s  use of women’s changing rooms  at a suburban St. Louis gym.

“I didn’t even know this form existed that you can (use to) change your gender, which frankly is physically impossible genetically,” Republican state Rep. Justin Sparks said in a video posted on Facebook earlier this month. “I have assurances from the Department of Revenue that they are going to immediately change their policy.”

Life Time gym spokesperson Natalie Bushaw previously said the woman showed staff a copy of her driver’s license, which identified her as female.

It is unclear if Missouri’s new policy would have prevented the former Life Time gym member from accessing women’s locker rooms at the fitness center. The woman previously told the St. Louis Post-Dispatch that she has had several gender-affirming surgeries.

Life Time revoked the woman’s membership after the protests, citing “publicly available statements from this former member impacting safety and security at the club.”

The former member declined to comment Monday to The Associated Press.

“This action was taken solely due to safety concerns,” spokesperson Dan DeBaun said in a statement. “Life Time will continue to operate our clubs in a safe and secure manner while also following the Missouri laws in place to protect the human rights of individuals.”

Missouri does not have laws dictating transgender people’s bathroom use. But Missouri is among at least 24 states that have adopted laws  restricting or banning  gender-affirming medical care for minors.

“Missouri continues to prove it is a state committed to fostering the erasure of transgender, gender expansive, and nonbinary Missourians,” Erker-Lynch said.

Australian transgender woman wins landmark case against female-only app

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Reporting by Renju Jose in Sydney; Editing by Edwina Gibbs

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