defense studies phd

Security Studies

Topics of study include:

• Grand strategies of the major powers.
• Arms competitions.
• Coercive diplomacy.
• Proliferation of weapons of mass destruction.
• Rapid shifts in regional and global distributions of capabilities.
• Insurgency, civil war, and regional political instability.
• Military force composition and capability.
• Civil-military relations.
• Innovations in military technologies.

The cluster combines social science training in international security and national defense policy, focused study of specific regions of the world, and exploration of the technical and scientific aspects of proliferation, weapons innovations, terrorist and counterterrorist operations, and insurgency and counterinsurgency warfare. This is an in-residence program, though absences may be taken for approved field research.

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Military, Security and Strategic Studies

Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

Thesis-based program

Program overview.

Our PhD program addresses a critical need for analysts who can study and assess the multitude of security threats that exist around the world, emphasizing the importance of both a theoretical and policy perspective. This thesis-based degree is focused on interdisciplinary work and is designed to help students interact with military officers, government personnel, security-focused NGOs, and military scholars. With flexible programs, leading scholars in a variety of disciplines, and highly competitive funding packages, we strive to ensure our PhD students achieve success in their strategic studies.

Completing this program

Core Courses: Classics of Strategy, Advanced Analysis of International Relations and Strategic Studies.

Block Week Course:  Students will complete Military and Strategic Studies: Questions and Methods in the week preceding their first term.

Additional Courses:  May include arctic security, Canadian military studies, U.S. security, ethics and morality, intelligence, and other topics.

Candidacy: Students will complete both oral and written candidacy exams.

Thesis:  Students are required to submit and defend an original research thesis.

Banking, Police Service, Government, Military Procurement, Oil and Gas, NATO, Advocacy Groups.

A PhD in military and strategic studies is usually considered a final degree.

Students are required to prepare a thesis and successfully defend in an open oral defense.

Three core courses and three electives

Learn more about program requirements in the Academic Calendar

Classroom delivery

Time commitment.

Four years full-time; six years maximum

A supervisor is required, and must agree to oversee the student's research before admission will be granted

See the Graduate Calendar for information on  fees and fee regulations,  and for information on  awards and financial assistance .

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Admission Requirements

A minimum of 3.70 on a four-point scale over all completed graduate courses in the master's program; 3.40 in the undergraduate program over the last 60 units or two years of study.

Minimum education

A completed Master's degree.

Work samples

A representative piece of written work, normally a master's thesis chapter or major research paper.

• A detailed statement of the proposed thesis research
• A completed application to the Centre, along with supporting documentation
• All post-secondary transcripts

Reference letters

Test scores, english language proficiency.

An applicant whose primary language is not English may fulfill the English language proficiency requirement in one of the following ways:

• Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL ibt)  score of 97 (Internet-based, with no section less than 20).
• International English Language Testing System (IELTS)  score of 6.5 (minimum of 6.0 in each section).
• Pearson Test of English (PTE)   score of 68, or higher (Academic version).
• Canadian Academic English Language test (CAEL)  score of 70 (70 in some sections – up to the program, 60 in all other).  
• Academic Communication Certificate (ACC)  score of A- in one or two courses (up to the program), “B+” on all other courses.  
• Cambridge C1 Advanced or Cambridge C2 Proficiency  minimum score of 191.

*Please contact your program of interest if you have any questions about ELP requirements

January 15 for all documentation

If you're not a Canadian or permanent resident, or if you have international credentials, make sure to learn about international requirements

Learn more about this program

Centre for military, security & strategic studies.

Social Sciences 856 2500 University Drive NW Calgary, AB, T2N 1N4

Contact the Graduate Program Administrator

Visit the departmental website

University of Calgary 2500 University Drive NW Calgary, AB, T2N 1N4

Visit the Faculty of Arts website

Related programs

If you're interested in this program, you might want to explore other UCalgary programs.

Course-based MSS

Thesis-based MSS

Anthropology

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Strategic studies.

This Area of Concentration helps you to learn why and how international actors employ hard power with particular emphases on military affairs, intelligence, and terrorism and irregular warfare.

Area of Concentration Courses

A minimum of four courses are required to earn this Area of Concentration within the MA in Global Security Studies degree.

U.S. Security in a Disordered World - 470.606

Introduction to terrorism studies - 470.611, congress and the making of foreign policy - 470.630, security issues in south asia - 470.632, transnational organized crime: gangsters of the global underworld - 470.633, challenges of transnational security - 470.640, russian national security policy - 470.653, deterrence in the 21st century - 470.654, energy, security, and defense - 470.657, radicalization and deradicalization in terror networks - 470.659, human security - 470.663, fundamentals and applications in cybersecurity - 470.664, the politics and process of american foreign policy - 470.668, the challenge of change: innovation in military affairs - 470.685, strategies in insurgent and asymmetric warfare - 470.704, american military history from the world wars to today - 470.706, resisting tyranny: strategic nonviolent conflict - 470.713, china's impact on global security - 470.725, cyber policy, strategy, conflict and deterrence - 470.740, trade and security - 470.744, terrorist financing analysis and counterterrorist finance techniques - 470.745, iran: security policy of a revolutionary state - 470.746, modern conflict in the middle east - 470.750, politics and security in the middle east - 470.751, understanding modern war - 470.756, defense policy - 470.767, great power competition - 470.775, technology and terrorism - 470.777, technology of weapons of mass destruction - 470.784, nuclear proliferation and non-proliferation - 470.785, international/non-governmental organizations and civil society in conflict zones - 470.789, the constitution and national security - 470.795, research study seminar - 470.855, the art & practice of intelligence - 473.600, strategic culture analysis - 473.605, introduction to intelligence in the five eyes community - 473.609, rise and fall of intelligence - 473.622, assessing foreign militaries - 473.642, intelligence and counterterrorism - 473.660, tough neighborhood: a history of u.s.-central american relations - 450.612, the global cold war - 450.781, media relations - 480.660, intercultural communication - 480.687, state-specific information for online programs.

Students should be aware of state-specific information for online programs . For more information, please contact an admissions representative.

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Program Requirements

Your doctorate advisor  can help you choose your electives to meet your goals and needs.

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Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in Intelligence and Global Security

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This distinctive program is designed to educate, train and prepare candidates to advance in national security-based academic, government (including intelligence, military and law enforcement agencies), and private sector communities.

Considering today’s complex global security threats this degree will provide doctoral candidates with a comprehensive, multidisciplinary understanding of the confluence of threats posed by terrorist groups, lone actors, para-military guerrilla groups, rogue states’ regular armies, cyber criminals (including state actors and terrorists), climate change, governance breakdowns, and public health threats such as the naturally-occurring biological-based infectious diseases (such as the COVID-19 pandemic). This multidisciplinary program draws on the university’s robust programs in counterterrorism, cybersecurity, computer science, critical infrastructure, and others.

The Ph.D. in Intelligence and Global Security program will enable the graduating students to apply theoretical, conceptual, and practical ‘real-world’ skills in intelligence and security studies in their doctoral dissertations that are essential to enter and advance in the public and private intelligence and national security sectors.

This degree provides a path for current professionals in the Intelligence and Global Security field to explore new ground in the critical field of Intelligence and Global Security. The completion of the Ph.D. in Intelligence and Global Security program requires the student to produce, present, and defend a doctoral dissertation after receiving the required approvals from the student’s Committee and the Ph.D. Review Board.

Why Capitol?

Learn around your busy schedule

Program is 100% online, with no on-campus classes or residencies required, allowing you the flexibility needed to balance your studies and career.

Proven academic excellence

Study at a university that specializes in industry-focused education in technology fields, with a faculty that includes many industrial and academic experts.

Expert guidance in doctoral research

Capitol’s doctoral programs are supervised by faculty with extensive experience in chairing doctoral dissertations and mentoring students as they launch their academic careers. You’ll receive the guidance you need to successfully complete your doctoral research project and build credentials in the field. 

Key Faculty

Vice President

Professor of Practice

Adjunct Professor

Degree Details

This program may be completed with a minimum of 60 credit hours, but may require additional credit hours, depending on the time required to complete the dissertation/publication research. Students who are not prepared to defend after completion of the 60 credits will be required to enroll in RSC-899, a one-credit, eight-week continuation course. Students are required to be continuously enrolled/registered in the RSC-899 course until they successfully complete their dissertation defense/exegesis.

The student will produce, present, and defend a doctoral dissertation after receiving the required approvals from the student’s Committee and the PhD Review Boards.

Prior Achieved Credits May Be Accepted

Student Outcomes: 

Upon graduation, graduates will be able to:

• Integrate and synthesize theory and intel within the field of Intelligence and Global Security
• Demonstrate advanced knowledge and competencies in Intelligence and Global Security
• Analyze theories, tools and frameworks used in Intelligence and Global Security.
• Execute a plan to complete a significant piece of scholarly work in Intelligence and Global Security
• Critique human skills and practices for selecting teams that work in Intelligence and Global Security

Tuition & Fees

Tuition rates are subject to change.

The following rates are in effect for the 2024-2025 academic year, beginning in Fall 2024 and continuing through Summer 2025:

• The application fee is $100
• The per-credit charge for doctorate courses is $950. This is the same for in-state and out-of-state students.
• Retired military receive a $50 per credit hour tuition discount
• Active duty military receive a $100 per credit hour tuition discount for doctorate level coursework.
• Information technology fee $40 per credit hour.
• High School and Community College full-time faculty and full-time staff receive a 20% discount on tuition for doctoral programs.

Find additional information for 2024-2025 doctorate tuition and fees.

I compared multiple programs from different universities and I do believe that Capitol Tech offers the best program for this degree. Capitol Technology University also has a great reputation at my organization.

-Alpha Diallo PhD in Intelligence and Global Security

Capitol Tech demonstrates a robust, interesting, and convincing multidisciplinary intelligence and global security program which draws from a host of programs in counterterrorism, cybersecurity, computer science, and critical infrastructure and suits my research interests.

-Anthony Ibhawaegbele PhD in Intelligence and Global Security

Need more info, or ready to apply?

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PhDs in Defence and Security: Leadership, Management and Governance

The Centre for Defence Management and Leadership  (CDML) is a specialised research and teaching unit, comprising experienced and dedicated researchers. It has developed a world class reputation in defence and security studies, and is lauded for the rigour, originality, international perspective and policy relevance of its doctoral programme.

The Centre has delivered short training and long degree-bearing courses in over 100 countries. Students are typically employed in central government, defence industry and the Armed Forces, and their doctoral studies resonate with their professional activities, including, for example, defence engagement, conflict resolution, gender studies, humanitarian and relief operations, international conflict and security law, defence budgeting and public finance. PhD candidates are required to attend an initial one-week induction programme. Thereafter, regular progress reviews are undertaken to ensure students receive continuous advice and guidance. Cranfield is well-known for providing close and supportive supervision, and students will be allocated primary and associate supervisors to offer mentorship across the entire period of doctoral registration.

Research thematics

Doctoral research programmes are offered in a broad array of defence and security leadership, law and management fields. Candidates are invited to submit research proposals that fit into any of the following broad subject areas:

Potential supervisors

Interested applicants are encouraged to consult with Centre academics regarding interest in supervising particular research projects. It is advisable that contact is made prior to formal submission of an application. Please see below for academic names, respective e-mail addresses, broad disciplinary fields and also URL links for access to their teaching, research and publication details.

Leadership and Management

• Bryan Watters      [email protected]
• Iftikhar Zaidi      [email protected]
• Robby Allen      [email protected]
• Dennis Vincent     [email protected]

International Law

• David Turns  (Visiting Fellow)    [email protected]

Policy, Strategy and Governance

• Ron Matthews  (Visiting Professor)    [email protected]
• Dr Lloyd Parsons       [email protected]
• Dr Caroline Micklewright      [email protected]

Economic and Financial Management

• Irfan Ansari      [email protected]

Research Students

Find out more about our current research students and their areas of research .

Mode of study

Students can register for a three-year full-time PhD programme, and may be based at either Cranfield Defence and Security, Shrivenham or in their home country

Part-time registration is also available. The study period extends to six years, though it is possible for students to submit their doctoral thesis for examination from the three-year point. Candidates will not be based at Shrivenham and may undertake their doctoral studies while in full-time employment at any location in the United Kingdom or overseas.

Annual fees

How to apply.

CDML is one of seven focused Centres that form part of the Cranfield Defence and Security (CDS) Faculty. It is located on the edge of England’s beautiful Cotswold region, just an hour West of London. The application process is uncomplicated, having the following requirements:

• Completion of an online application form
• A clear and concise research aim/problem/question
• Reference to the original contribution to knowledge
• Brief identification of the seminal literature in the chosen field
• Explanation of the research methodology for data collection
• Emphasis on the research programme’s policy relevance
• Compliance with the minimum entry requirements: a 2.1 first degree and/or master’s qualification, along with at least five years relevant professional experience

For further application information, please access more details about applying for a research degree.

Centre for Defence Management and Leadership

Download Research Yearbook

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Defense and Strategic Studies Major

Defense & strategic studies.

Defense and strategic studies gives cadets the skills to succeed anywhere. Graduates can incorporate elements of national power, civil-military relations, strategic decision-making, and theories of international relations to analyze U.S. and foreign defense strategies.

Offered by the Department of Military Instruction .

Defense and Strategic Studies (DSS) is an interdisciplinary major focused on understanding conflict, war, security, and defense by emphasizing a wide array of methodological approaches from the fields of military science, political science, international relations, economics, history, anthropology, and sociology to frame and analyze national and international security issues.

The Defense and Strategic Studies program is committed to teaching the next generation of future leaders in the Profession of Arms and as defense intellectuals in the civil sector. DSS majors are uniquely educated in the nuances of security and strategy through a rigorous interdisciplinary lens that delves deep into central issues of strategy, innovation, history, culture, the domains of war, and the elements of national power. Our cadets not only grasp the intricacies of national power and strategic decision-making on national and international scales, but they learn to apply timely knowledge to frame complex issues, develop viable and innovative solutions, and communicate effectively to diverse audiences.

Recognizing that strategy is pivotal in any competitive environment, from businesses to militaries, this program instills the analytical mindset and methodologies necessary to develop, execute, and assess impactful strategies. By exploring the moral intricacies of conflict, the dynamics of diverse cultures, and the contemporary innovations shaping defense, our cadets are prepared to lead across the spectrum of global challenges. Graduates emerge as warrior scholars, poised to excel in the Army and beyond, equipped with enhanced problem-solving, communication, and decision-making capabilities for the artful application of security and strategy.

This major offers an honors track.

DSS gives Cadets the skills to succeed anywhere. Graduates can incorporate elements of national power, civil-military relations, strategic decision-making, and theories of international relations to analyze U.S. and foreign defense strategies. Graduates are well-versed in the geographic security areas of interest to the Nation such as Africa, the South China Sea, Eastern Europe, the Arctic, the Middle East, and South America.

West Point Graduate Scholarship Program

Read an Army Futures Command Strategist’s MWI articles on preparing leaders for future war.

Read more about Defense and Strategic Studies in the West Point Association of Graduates magazine

Read the AY24-25 DSS Newsletter

Learn more about the DMI faculty and staff.

Contact the Program Director, LTC Jessica Caddell

To learn more about this area of study, visit the Department of Military Instruction .

Core Courses

• DS320: Introduction to Strategic Studies
• DS370: U.S. Strategy and Policy
• DS455: Comparative Defense Policy
• DS495: Research Methods and Strategic Studies

Complementary Support Courses

Choose 3 from a list of 11 interdisciplinary courses from various academic departments at USMA. Course topics include cyber policy, law, applied statistics, history, anthropology, military geography, among others. You can view a full list of CSCs here.

DSS Electives

Choose 3 from a list of 12 DSS Specific Electives, including Military Innovation, Strategic and Persuasive Communication, Special Operations Theory and Practice, Irregular Warfare Theory and Practice,  Domains of War, among others.

Choose 2 from a list of 40+ courses from nearly every academic departments at USMA. 

Integrative Experience for the Major

• Option 1: DS496 - Strategic Studies Thesis
• Option 2: DS497 - Strategic Studies Capstone
• Option 3: DS498 - Leadership in Future War

Degree Types:

• Option 1: DSS
• Option 2: DSS with Thesis
• Option 3: DSS Honors with Thesis

To learn more, view the full Defense and Strategic Studies Major Curriculum.

Academic Individual Advanced Development (AIAD) internships provide cadets with experiential learning opportunities in various fields, implementing concepts from their education in defense and strategic studies.  See other scholarship opportunities for DSS majors . Learn about Projects Day .

Honor Societies: Golden Key - International Honour Society Phi Kappa Phi - Oldest and Largest Collegiate Honor Society

To learn more about enrichment for this area of study, visit the Department of Military Instruction , the Modern War Institute , or the West Point Simulation Center .

Institutional Accreditation (Middle States Commission on Higher Education - MSCHE) - USMA was first accredited by  MSCHE  in 1949 and has been reaccredited each successive decade.

Middle States accreditation was reaffirmed in 2021 ( Copy of current statement of accreditation ).

The next program accreditation visit is scheduled in 2027-2028.  

Public Policy PhD in National Security Studies Strategize, Mobilize, Protect

Credit Hours

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100% online, 8-week courses

Transfer in up to 50% of the degree total

Help Protect America’s Future by Pursuing a Public Policy PhD in National Security Policy

Do you want to play an integral role in creating effective policies designed to keep our nation safe? Perhaps you’ve worked in the public sector or national defense for some time, and you’re searching for a valuable, terminal degree that can help you maximize your earning potential and take your career to new heights. If you have a passion for public policy and national defense and you’d like to prepare for a research-based career that allows you to serve as an advocate for policies you believe in, our PhD in Public Policy – National Security Policy is a great option.

Throughout American history, the United States has faced countless domestic and international security threats. The study of national security challenges isn’t just an academic subject — it is crucial to America’s sovereignty. At Liberty, we recognize the importance of studying public policy and national security, and we’ve designed our public policy PhD in national security studies program with full awareness of the national security challenges that the United States faces. Our PhD in Public Policy – National Security Policy has been designed to help you anticipate and confront both foreign and domestic threats.

Through our flexible and affordable online courses, you will study a wide range of national security issues — including operational strategy, lawmaking, policy implementation, and law enforcement — that can help equip you to combat foreign and domestic threats to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. Liberty University’s PhD in Public Policy – National Security Policy can provide you with well-rounded training in the essential theories and practices of government and policymaking while also giving you deep insight into national security challenges and potential solutions.

Ranked in the Top 10% of Niche.com’s Best Online Schools in America

• What Sets Us Apart?
• Private Nonprofit University
• 600+ Online Degrees
• No Standardized Testing for Admission
• Transfer in up to 75% of an Undergrad Degree
• Transfer in up to 50% of a Grad/Doctoral Degree

Why Choose Liberty’s PhD Degree in Public Policy – National Security Policy?

This degree is more than an ordinary PhD in national security and strategic studies online. Our public policy and national security PhD can help make you a principled, well-rounded public policy expert who has an advanced understanding of national security policy, public policy, and political science.

By specializing in national security, you can become better equipped to manage the most challenging security issues of our time. The knowledge and applicable biblical values you gain through this program can help you make a greater legislative impact on policymaking. With these tools, you can be equipped to conduct research, work with policymakers, and implement laws that help increase the quality of life for the people in your jurisdiction.

Our PhD in Public Policy – national security studies is taught by a distinguished group of expert professors who have a vested interest in your success. We realize that college is about more than writing essays and taking exams, which is why our professors are available for mentorship and professional guidance. You can learn from the experience of our instructors as you work towards the completion of your public policy PhD and pursue job positions upon graduation.

At Liberty, you’ll benefit from nearly 40 years of learning, growing, adapting, and innovating for the distance learner. You can be confident that we’ve taken the time to learn what’s important to you, and we look forward to working with you to accomplish your personal and career goals. Each course within our public policy doctoral program is taught from a Christian worldview, and we believe our focus on ethics and moral decision-making as they relate to public policy development helps set us apart from other universities.

What Will You Study in Our Doctoral Degree in Public Policy – National Security Studies?

Our online doctoral degree in public policy – national security can help train you to effectively shape national security policies in the areas of legislation, communications, politics, and international relations. This degree allows you to take advanced courses in policy and governmental functions as well as conduct in-depth, meaningful research as you write your dissertation.

Liberty’s public policy online PhD in security studies is divided into 4 sections: core policy courses, research-focused courses, national security courses, and a dissertation sequence. In the public policy section of this PhD program, you will study the foundations of public policy, natural law, government, and the Gospel’s role in public policy. You will also explore the Founding Era, the US Constitution, contemporary challenges to the Constitution, federalism, and competing visions of statesmanship.

The research courses of our online doctorate in public policy – national security studies offer an overview of quantitative and qualitative research methods for policymakers, policy analysis and research design, and data analysis for policymakers. This section of our PhD program in public policy administration and national security is designed to prepare you for the research you will conduct as you write your dissertation.

Our national security courses will guide you through studies in the relationship between public policy and national security efforts, historic national security policies, and research in national security policy. Your dissertation consists of 5 sequential courses that conclude with a dissertation defense where you will present your findings to our Helms School of Government faculty.

Through our PhD in Public Policy – National Security, you can become a more knowledgeable and prepared professional who is capable of navigating complex policy issues and mitigating national security threats. Whether you want to work in the defense sector, as a member of a legislative body, or at a think tank, our public policy PhD in national security studies can help you accomplish your career goals. Partner with us and take your career to new heights.

Potential Career Opportunities

Our PhD in Public Policy – national security studies is designed to help equip you for a number of career options. By successfully completing our public policy and national security PhD program, you can become prepared to pursue the following career options:

• Counterterrorism analyst
• Federal agent
• Government employee
• Intelligence analyst
• National security policy researcher
• Professor (higher education)
• Senior public policy analyst

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• A non-refundable, non-transferable $50 application fee will be posted on the current application upon enrollment (waived for qualifying service members, veterans, and military spouses – documentation verifying military status is required) .
• Send official college transcripts (mailed as sealed, unopened copies or sent via a direct electronic transcript system). A regionally or nationally accredited master’s degree with at least a 3.0 GPA is required for admission in good standing.
• Applicants whose native language is other than English must submit official scores for the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) or an approved alternative assessment. For information on alternative assessments or TOEFL waivers, please call Admissions or view the official International Admissions policy .

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If you are sending in a preliminary transcript for acceptance, you must:

• Be in your final term and planning to start your doctoral degree after the last day of class for your master’s degree.
• Complete a Master’s Self-Certification Form confirming your completion date. You may download the form from the Forms and Downloads page or contact an admissions counselor to submit the form on your behalf.
• Submit an official transcript to confirm that you are in your final term. The preliminary transcript must show that you are within 6 credit hours of completion for a 30-48 credit hour master’s degree or within 9 credit hours of completion for a 49+ credit hour master’s degree.
• Send in an additional, final official transcript with a conferral date on it by the end of your first semester of enrollment in the new doctoral degree.

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An acceptable official college transcript is one that has been issued directly from the institution and is in a sealed envelope. If you have one in your possession, it must meet the same requirements. If your previous institution offers electronic official transcript processing, they can send the document directly to [email protected] .

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*Credits taken below 7 and above 15 credit hours per semester are charged at the part-time rate of $395/credit hour.

Eligible current and former service members and their spouses may qualify for a special rate of $300/credit hour ( learn more ), but the $300/credit hour doctoral military rate cannot be combined with the First Responder Discount .

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Liberty University is regionally accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools Commission on Colleges (SACSCOC).

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This program is mostly offered in an 8-week course format with no set login times!

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Degrees - department of national security affairs, regional studies curricula, security studies curricula.

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The National Security Affairs Department offers fully accredited programs leading to the Master of Arts in Security Studies. Master of Arts degrees always entail concentration in a particular regional or topical specialty, which is noted as part of the degree.

In addition to the Master of Arts Degree and Certificate Programs listed here, the NSA Department offers a small, rigorous and highly competitive PhD program, Curriculum 694, which leads to the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Security Studies. NSA conducts cutting-edge research through various Navy and other U.S. government sponsored projects.

IWP scholar-practitioners teach all the arts of statecraft in a setting that encourages discussion and debate and thoroughly prepares students for career success.

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IWP offers seven master’s degrees with a curriculum that includes statecraft, history, American political philosophy, the Western moral tradition, economics, and moral leadership.

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The Doctor of Statecraft and National Security (Professional) (DSNS) is a degree tailored towards national security professionals, as opposed to those who wish to pursue a teaching career. This program is designed to educate national security professionals in the art of employing the integrated instruments of national power to achieve the ends of policy.

52 Credit Hours (beyond an MA) Three years to complete with full-time student status

The Doctor of Statecraft and National Security (Professional) (DSNS) is a degree tailored towards national security professionals, as opposed to those who wish to pursue a teaching career. In contrast to most Ph.D. programs, it avoids extreme specialization in favor of a broad-gauged understanding of the integrated use of the instruments of national power to achieve the ends of policy.

Program Learning Outcomes

Students will be able masterfully to:

• Understand the main ideological currents of the modern era and their impact on U.S. and foreign behavior.
• Demonstrate expertise in one of the major instruments of statecraft (diplomacy; economics; public diplomacy and strategic influence; intelligence; military).
• Integrate the various instruments of statecraft into national strategy.
• Exhibit knowledge of the culture, political landscape, security challenges, and U.S. interests in a selected region of the world.
• Appreciate the principles of the American founding and the Western moral tradition as applied to national security and foreign policy.

Prerequisite Knowledge: Students will be responsible for, and will be tested on, the following outcome which includes basic elements not already required in the curriculum for this program: “Students will demonstrate an extensive understanding of the national security field including policy, process, and implementation; history; theories; and geography.” Students without a background in these topics should take the relevant courses IWP offers as prerequisites under the guidance of their Doctoral Advisors.

(Note: Students will be responsible for, and will be tested on, the following outcome which includes basic elements not already required in the curriculum for this program. Students without background on these topics should take the relevant courses IWP offers as prerequisites under the guidance of their Doctoral Advisors.)

I am looking to apply my knowledge, rather than develop theory… When I talk about issues in the federal system, my professors understand where I am coming from.

– Dr. Curt Klun (’23)

Doctor of Statecraft and National Security Requirements

To earn the degree of Doctor of Statecraft and National Security, the student will:

• Successfully complete the required courses and electives. All DSNS courses are taught as enhanced versions of our MA courses, which entail: extra readings; a more challenging exam; a longer, more robust paper; and an additional 4-6 meetings with the professor outside of the MA class, which can occur during office hours, and the length can be based on the professor’s judgment of the student’s needs.
• Pass an oral thesis defense in each area of study: 1) Principles of Statecraft and Strategy; 2) Functional Specialty; and 3) Regional Specialty. Note: A student will complete the Principles of Statecraft area of study first. Once he or she has passed the oral defense, the student may then take courses in both the Functional and Regional areas of study. 
• Pass a final written comprehensive examination at the end of one’s studies consisting of a philosophical essay question and strategy memorandum.
• Deliver a paper of 75 pages that demonstrates mastery in each area of study (three 75-page papers in total).

The program is designed to provide students with the flexibility to customize their curriculum according to their interests and needs. This degree is not meant as preparation primarily for teaching, but for those who are or who wish to become national security professionals.

IWP doctoral students are required to take 52 credits within 3 areas of study : Principles of Statecraft and Strategy (20 credits); Functional Concentration (16 credits); Regional concentration (16 credits)

Principles of Statecraft and Strategy

Four required classes, totaling 8 credits:

• 6060 (enhanced version of IWP 606 ): Ideas and Values in International Affairs Two credits
• 6080 (enhanced version of IWP 608 ): Sources of American Political Thought Two credits
• 6150 (enhanced version of IWP 615 ): Western Moral and Political Thought Two credits Note: Students who have taken either 606, 608, or 615 (or all three) should consult with their doctoral advisors to identify suitable substitutions.
• 6900 Principles of Strategy Two credits

Two of the following classes, 4 credits each:

• 6090 (Enhanced version of IWP 609 ): Economic Statecraft and Conflict
• 6280 (Enhanced version of IWP 628 ): Military Strategy: Theory and Practice
• 6360 (Enhanced version of IWP 636 ): The Art of Diplomacy
• 6370 (Enhanced version of IWP 637 ): Public Diplomacy
• 6050 (Enhanced version of IWP 605 ): Intelligence and Policy

IWP 9900 Thesis Research/Writing, 4 credits

Functional Concentration

• Any combination of enhanced classes equaling 12 credit hours ( Note: Selected courses will automatically have the number ‘0′ added to the end of the course number to indicate doctoral level.)
• 9910 Thesis Research (Functional), 4 credits

Regional Concentration

• Any combination of enhanced classes equaling 12 credit hours (Note: Selected courses will automatically have the number ‘0′ added to the end of the course number to indicate doctoral level.)
• 9920 Thesis Research (Regional), 4 credits

The IWP education has been immensely valuable to me. I have not found the core curriculum anywhere else.

– Dr. Matthew Jenkins (’23)

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Main navigation, aging studies phd student defends dissertation.

Roberts smiles with his dissertation committee.

• August 9, 2024
• School of Aging Studies

Mitch Roberts, PhD , successfully defended his dissertation, “Technology and Aging: Maintaining, Improving and Understanding Health and Wellness.” Roberts' defense chairperson was Autar Kaw, PhD. His co-major advisors were Debra Dobbs, PhD , and Carla VandeWeerd, PhD. His committee members were Gizem Hueluer, PhD, Lindsay Peterson, PhD , and Ali Yalcin, PhD. Roberts will continue to work full time as a clinical research manager at the UF Health Precision Health Research Center in The Villages. 

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Student Centric Webinar on “Efficacy of Counter Terrorism Mechanism in India: A Case Study", Celebrating Army Day on 15 January 2021.

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Guest Lecture by Lord Karan Bilimoria, CBE, Chancellor, University of Birmingham; Independent Peer, House of Lords, UK on ‘Hard and Soft Power in Post COVID World: With Special Reference to UK & India’, 4 September 2020.

‘Student Centric’ joint online seminar was conducted by Amity Institute of Defence & Strategic Studies (AIDSS) in collaboration with Centre for Land Warfare Studies (CLAWS) and National Maritime Foundation (NMF) on a defence-oriented subject of “China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) & its Implications on India’s National Security” at the Amity University, Noida on 25 March 2021.

"Navigating Towards a Sustainable Blue Economy", A joint webinar organised by Raisina House and Amity Institute of Defence and Strategic Studies (AIDSS), 08 June 2021.

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Virtual Seminar Observance of Martyrs Day (Shaheed Diwas) to Pay Homage to Mahatma Gandhi and all Freedom Fighters on 30 Jan 2022.

Amity Institute of Defence and Strategic Studies (AIDSS), Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Noida Campus organised a strategically important and insightful Panel Discussion on “Resurgence of China: Geo-Strategic and Security Challenges for South & South-East Asia and Indo Pacific Region” on Saturday, 12 February, 2022.

Virtual Global Seminar organised by Amity Institute of Defence & Strategic Studies (AIDSS), Amity University Uttar Pradesh (AUUP) and University of Birmingham, UK on 29 April 2022, Friday from 10.00 a.m. to 05.15 p.m. on the subject “Emerging Global Multipolarity and Strategic Transition In World Order” (Context of Russia-Ukraine Conflict).

Amity University organised Virtual Joint Global Seminar on “ Asian Resurgence Strategic Rebalancing and New Geo-Political Challenges” on 27 Jul 2022.

Amity Institute of Defence & Strategic Studies (AIDSS), Amity University Uttar Pradesh (AUUP) in collaboration with Chanakya Forum, New Delhi organised a very discerning Joint Symposium of strategic importance on the theme, “Information Warfare” conducted by Maj Gaurav Arya, Media Icon, Founder and Editor-in-Chief Chanakya Forum (Think Tank), on Tuesday, 23 August 2022.

Amity Centre for Defence & Strategic Analysis (ACDSA), Amity University Uttar Pradesh (AUUP)   organized an insightful  Virtual Global Seminar of strategic importance  on the theme,  “Asian Conundrum and the Emerging Strategic Dilemmas” on 29 November, 2022.

Amity Centre for Defence & Strategic Analysis (ACDSA), Amity University Uttar Pradesh (AUUP) in collaboration with Centre for Air Power Studies (CAPS), New Delhi are jointly organized an insightful Virtual Seminar of strategic importance on the theme, “China’s Nuclear Modernisation and Strategy”  on  31 May 2023.

Joint Virtual Seminar Organised by Centre for Air Power (CAPS) and Amity Centre for Defence and Strategic Analysis (ACDSA) on 17 Jan 2024.

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The Amity Journal of Defence & Strategic Studies (AJDSS) is a bi-annual journal published in June & December every year. Articles and Book Reviews may be sent to the Editor as per the guidelines contained in the journal. Advertisement enquiries concerning space and charges may also be sent to the Editor. Editor Lt. Gen. (Dr) S K Gadeock, AVSM (Retd.) Director General, AIDSS.  

Chinese Geopolitics in the 21st Century 'A Post Pandemic Perspective, Authored by Brig (Dr) Anand Tewari (Retd), HoI, Director & Professor AIDDS.  

Hybrid Warfare The Changing Character of Conflict Editor Brig Vikrant Deshpande, Ph.d Scholar, AIDSS .

Non-Contact Warfare, An Appraisal of China's Military Capabilities Author Brig Vivek Verma, Ph.d Scholar, AIDSS.

Framing the Mahabharata Against the Evolution of Early south Asian Society Author Col Saikat Bose, Ph.D Scholar, AIDSS .

Boots, Hooves and Wheels and the Social Dynamics Behind South Asian Warfare Author Col Saikat Bose, Ph.D Scholar, AIDSS.

Socio Economic Transformation: Through Ex-Servicemen Article by Lt Gen (Dr) SK Gadeock, AVSM (Retd)  and Col Nishant Sharma, Indian Defence Review Volume 31 (2), April – June 2016.

Western Front-Mechanised Operations Article by Lt Gen (Dr) SK Gadeock, AVSM (Retd), Chanakya Forum Think Tank (Online Paper) May 2021.

Future Conventional Warfare with Integrated Battle Groups (IBGs) on the Indian Western Front By Lt Gen (Dr) SK Gadeock, AVSM (Retd),  AJDSS Journal, Volume 2, Issue 1, 2020.

India and United Nations – Role in Peaceful Conflict Resolution of the Russia-Ukraine War by Lt Gen (Dr) SK Gadeock, AVSM (Retd), Chanakya Forum Think Tank (Online Paper) Vol 1, 2022.  

“From War to Peace, Wisdom and Leadership-Ex-Servicemen’s Role in Good Governance and Rural Development” by Lt Gen (Dr) SK Gadeock, AVSM (Retd).  

Through The Looking Glass Iran and Its Foreign Relations by Dr Anu Sharma, Assistant Professor, Amity Institute of Defence & Strategic Studies (AIDSS).

Holistic Growth Model of Village to State Level Through Empowered Ex-Servicemen Leadership By Lt Gen (Dr) SK Gadeock, AVSM (Retd) JDSS Volume 3, Issue 1, January 2021

Eternal Spectre of Insurgency in North East (NE) India Holistic Growth Model of Village to State Level Through Empowered Ex-Servicemen Leadership, Article by Lt Gen (Dr) SK Gadeock, AVSM (Retd), South Asian Defence Strategic Review, Volume 15, Issue 1 (March – April 2021).

Preparations, Strategy and Planning for War : Future Battlefield Milieu, Article by Lt Gen (Dr) SK Gadeock, AVSM (Retd), Raksha Anirveda & Journal Aug 2022.

I ran – Evolution from Rich Cultural Heritage to a Regional Power in Perpetual Conflict, Article by Lt Gen (Dr) SK Gadeock, AVSM (Retd),Chanakya Forum Think Tank Online Publication Jan 2022.

Time to Foolproof Our Defence Strategy's Future Readiness, Article by Raksha Anirveda & Journal May 2023.

Potential of Wargaming in Enhancement of Professional Military Education , Lt Gen (Dr) SK Gadeock, AVSM (Retd), Indian Defence Review 12 Feb 2024

Making Sense of the Israel - Iran Conundrum, Article by Dr Anu Sharma and Dr Aparaajita Pandey, Financial Express 16 April 2024.

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AU to launch new PhD in Intelligence, Defense, and Cybersecurity Policy

Augusta University has received approval from the University System of Georgia Board of Regents to offer a first-of-its-kind PhD in Intelligence, Defense, and Cybersecurity Policy that will be known as AU’s PhD in national defense.

The new program, the first PhD program offered by Pamplin College of Arts, Humanities, and Social Sciences at AU, will offer students extensive core work with required credit hours in research methods, intelligence studies, strategic cybersecurity and traditional security studies. The aim of the program is to give students a broad-based understanding of security studies.

“It makes sense to extend what we are doing with the Master of Arts in Intelligence and Security Studies program by adding a first-of-its-kind PhD in national defense,” said Kim Davies , PhD, dean of Pamplin College. “Dr. Craig Albert and the faculty involved in building this new PhD have done a tremendous job creating a rigorous, state-of-the-art program that will provide students with a strong, broad-based understanding of security studies, especially as it pertains to the United States’ national security and its stature in the international arena.”

Developed as a professional degree, it is designed for academic and government professionals and includes coverage of theory and practice. The program is designed to enhance the strategic and practical knowledge of students already working in national defense, as well as those who are looking to secure careers with the Department of Defense (DoD), other federal agencies or academic institutions and think tanks aligned with the defense community.

The program’s hybrid-online instructional method will feature a mixture of mostly synchronous courses with some asynchronous options, opening the program to interested applicants nationwide, particularly those already in the workforce. This expands its potential reach to the entire nation, including all DoD sites, bases and federal agencies.

“We already have a solid foundation with the MAISS program, and this new PhD in Intelligence, Defense, and Cybersecurity Policy will make AU a favored destination for students seeking an opportunity at the forefront of innovative education for intelligence professionals.” Craig Albert, PhD, director of AU’s Master of Arts in Intelligence and Security Studies (MAISS) program and soon-to-be director of the new PhD program

The PhD in Intelligence, Defense, and Cybersecurity Policy is designed to give students a comprehensive understanding of theory, policy, doctrine and strategy to help bolster the nation’s security and help protect its vital national interests. This program is not about coding, mathematics and computer and cyber sciences, but focuses on security studies, U.S. national security and intelligence analysis and prediction.

“The PhD in Intelligence, Defense, and Cybersecurity Policy is the first of its kind in the world, and fills a gap in the educational market and within the defense industry,” said Craig Albert , PhD, graduate director of AU’s Master of Arts in Intelligence and Security Studies (MAISS) program and soon-to-be director of the new PhD program. “The program is designed to be a renaissance of security studies, where every student will learn the full spectrum of the genre, from intelligence analysis, propaganda and disinformation/misinformation operations to data analytics and methodology, as well as more traditional coursework, including terrorism studies, counterterrorism, theories of warfare, and cyber intelligence and policy.”

As the nation and intelligence community seek new paths forward in areas like combatting propaganda, cyberwar and cyberterrorism, influence and social media operations, great power competition, medical intelligence and traditional coursework in security and national defense strategy and policy, AU has designed the program to produce graduates who can support Georgia’s vital role in national security.

“As a graduate of the MAISS program at Augusta University and an employee of the DoD, the AU PhD program will allow me to not only further my own education but better help protect the United States from potential threats,” said Grayson LaHatte, a 2022 MAISS graduate . “The MAISS program provides incredible opportunities for students and I have no doubt the PHD program will help solidify Augusta University as a top tier national defense university.”

According to the Jobs EQ Education Report, there are roughly 36,000 jobs available in Georgia within intelligence analysis, cyber security and national security. The growing number of national security-related jobs, as well as those related to cybersecurity, highlight the need for advanced training to support the workforce need.

Georgia plays a pivotal role in the intelligence community, particularly in national defense, as the state is home to several federal agencies including the Centers for Disease Control, as well as 13 Department of Defense sites. Among those sites are Fort Eisenhower , home to the U.S. Army Cyber Command , and Fort Moore , home of the Western Hemisphere Institute for Security Cooperation Army Maneuver Center of Excellence . Fort Eisenhower also hosts offices of the National Security Agency and Central Security Service.

“Georgia and specifically Augusta are already firmly established at the center of the United States’ intelligence and cybersecurity mission, and it is our vision for Augusta University to become the academic hub for intelligence studies worldwide,” said Albert. “We already have a solid foundation with the MAISS program, and this new PhD in Intelligence, Defense, and Cybersecurity Policy will make AU a favored destination for students seeking an opportunity at the forefront of innovative education for intelligence professionals.”

Milledge Austin

Milledge Austin is the manager of external communications for Communications and Marketing at Augusta University. Contact him to schedule an interview on this topic or with one of our experts at [email protected].

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What? Why? How? A list of potential PhD defense questions

In August 2020, I defended my PhD successfully. In the preceding months, I had generated a list of potential defense questions by using various different sources (websites, other defenses I watched, colleagues, and my supervisors). The list ended up helping me a lot. Today I shared this list with a colleague who is soon defending, and I thought: Why not share it publicly?

Note: The questions were compiled with a Finnish PhD defense in mind. In Finland, the defense is at the very end of the research process, and no changes to the PhD will be made after the event. The defense is also a public event.

The list was last edited: November 3rd, 2022

Title and cover.

• Why did you choose this title? Were there any other kinds of titles you were considering?
• Why did you choose this photo/image as your thesis cover? (if there is one)

Topic and contribution to the field

• Why did you choose this research topic?
• Why do you think this topic is important? For whom is it important?
• What do you think your work has added to the discipline/field/study of this topic?
• How is your study original?
• [Your topic] seems to be something that is usually studied discipline X. However, your thesis represents discipline Y. How did you navigate the interdisciplinarity of your work?

Paradigm/theory/concepts

• How did you decide to use this particular conceptual/theoretical framework?
• How did your chosen framework help you to explore your research problem?
• How would someone using another theoretical framework interpret your results?
• What are the shortcomings of this particular theory/conceptual framework?
• How would you describe/define/summarise … [insert a term]
• In your work, you introduce a new concept/theory. Why did you decide to do that instead of using an existing concept/theory?
• Could you describe your theoretical/methodological framework in a way that the audience also understands it? (for public defenses)

Literature review

• Why did your literature review cover these areas but not others?
• The literature review looks very tidy – doesn’t anything challenge it?
• Why did you (not) include the work by X in your study?
• Which scholar(s) have you been influenced by the most?

Research question(s)

• How did you come to formulate this particular research question / these research questions?
• How did your research questions/problem changed during the research process?
• Were there research questions you decided to add/remove during the research process?
• Why don’t you have a research question?
• How did you decide to use these particular methods of data collection/analysis? Were there other options you considered?
• Why did you choose quantitative/qualitative/mixed methods approach?
• What informed your choice of methods?
• What are the advantages/disadvantages of the chosen methods?
• How did you select your participants/this particular data?
• Describe how you generated your data.
• Why did you analyse your data in this way? What other ways were there available? Why didn’t you choose those methods?
• If you could still improve this measure/procedure/etc., how would you do it?
• How would you explain the low/high response rate of your survey?
• How did you triangulate your data?
• If you could do your study all over again with unlimited resources, how would you do it?
• How do you explain the discrepancy between your findings and the findings of previous studies?
• Did you expect these kinds of results? Why (not)?
• What is the most important result of your work?
• Who should care about your work and the results?
• How generalizable are your findings and why?
• Were there any other ways to present your results?
• Based on your findings, how would you develop [your topic]?
• What is common or different to these substudies included in your dissertation?
• What did [your approach] reveal that other approaches could not have reveal?
• What did you not see because you did your work [in this way]?
• How could [x] now be rethought in the light of COVID-19?
• What kinds of implications do your results have for further research/practice/policy?

Research process

• How did your own position/background/bias affect your research?
• Describe your researcher positionality.
• What were the biggest challenges during the research process?
• Were there any surprises during your research, pleasant or unpleasant?
• What was the most interesting part of your work?
• How did you address research ethics during your research?
• What implications do your findings have for [your topic]?
• What do you see as the problems in your study? What limitations do these impose on what you can say? How would you address these limitations in future studies?
• What could you not study in the end? Why?
• What kind of a dissertation did you want to do originally? Why did your plans change?
• If you could now redo the work, what would you differently?
• Is there anything else that you would like to tell us about your thesis which you have not had the opportunity to tell us during the defense?

Future research

• What do you plan to do next with your data?
• What would be the next logical study to do as a follow-up to this one?
• What will you study next?
• How does gaining a doctorate advance your career plans?

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Preparing for a PhD Defense

Table of contents, preparing to start, nominate a faculty member to serve as chair for your defense, selecting a defense date, international students and work visas, registration categories for defense, dissertation writing and guidelines, preparing your dissertation for defense, registering your dissertation for the final oral exam, know the rituals.

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Final corrected copies of the dissertation, publishing your final dissertation, binding your final dissertation, before defense.

Before you can start your thesis you must:

• Complete all courses, exams, and research requirements
• Meet with your advisory committee to ensure that everyone agrees that the work is ready to defend
• Decide on a date for the defense
• Inform your graduate administrator that you have started the process to prepare for your defense

A chair is appointed for each PhD oral defense to monitor and promote fairness and rigor in the conduct of the defense. To help eliminate pre-established judgments on the candidate’s work, the chair should be from a different program/department than the student. For more information about chair responsibilities, read the instructions for the chair .

You must identify a faculty member to serve as chair for your defense. The chair must be:

• A current full-time faculty member at assistant professor rank or higher
• Outside the department offering the degree program, or outside your advisor's department (interdisciplinary degree programs only)
• Someone who has not had prior involvement in your research

The selection of the chair is subject to the approval of the department/program, th Arts, Sciences and Engineering dean of graduate education and postdoctoral affairs, and the University dean of graduate studies.

The chair must be physically present during the entire defense, including the public oral presentation (if applicable) and the questioning session. The chair is welcome to read and comment on the dissertation and/or the defense presentation, but this is not required. The chair does not need to be an expert in your research area.

It is your responsibility to get a copy of the final dissertation to the chair at least one week prior to the defense.

You should begin scheduling the actual defense date three months in advance to ensure that your advisor, committee members, and chair are able to be present and that rooms are available on the date and time selected.  

Defenses can be held on any day the University’s Graduate Studies Office is open (not weekends, evenings, holidays, or the days between Christmas and New Year’s). Check the  academic calendar  for important dates and deadlines.

Use the  PhD calendar  to determine the deadline dates for getting your paperwork to the Office of Graduate Education and Postdoctoral Affairs and department committee.

When all committee members and your chair agree to a specific date and time for the defense, inform your graduate administrator as soon as you possibly can, but no later than six weeks prior to your defense date . Your graduate administrator will advise you of any program-specific requirements for the defense as well as work with you to prepare for your thesis defense. They will also help you determine who will schedule the room for your thesis defense.

You should provide your committee members at least two weeks to read and comment on your dissertation before the date you need to register your dissertation.

Participating Via Video Conferencing

While you, your advisor, and the chair must all be physically present in the room for the defense, other committee members are allowed to participate in the defense remotely via Skype or other video conferencing technology so long as all committee members agree to the arrangement. This must also be approved by the AS&E dean of graduate education and postdoctoral affairs and the University dean of graduate studies before the dissertation is registered for defense.

Someone other than you and your committee must handle the IT setup and be on standby for any problems. If anyone involved finds that remote participation is interfering with the defense, he or she can request that the defense be rescheduled.

We strongly recommend that international students meet with an  International Services Office (ISO)  representative as soon as permission to start writing is granted. The ISO will provide information on visa options, documentation, and timelines for applying for a visa for employment in the United States.

You will register for one of the following categories while preparing your defense:

• 999: Dissertation —Indicates the PhD student has completed all of the requirements for the degree except the dissertation and is in residence as a full-time student
• 995 : Continuation of Enrollment —Indicates the PhD student has completed all of the requirements for the degree except the dissertation and is not in residence as a full-time student

See the registration page for more information about these categories.

The Preparing Your Doctoral Dissertation manual is a great resource to help you bring your dissertation up to the required standard of organization, appearance, and format for the University of Rochester. Before preparing the defense copy of your dissertation, check the contents of the manual carefully to help avoid mistakes that can be time-consuming and costly to correct.

Before beginning your dissertation, you should consult with your advisor for your department or program’s preferred style guide (APA, MLA, Chicago).

Including material produced by other authors in your dissertation can serve a legitimate research purpose, but you want to avoid copyright infringement in the process. For detailed instructions on avoiding copyright infringement, please see ProQuest’s  Copyright Guide .

The University requires that you provide copies of the dissertation to your committee members and exam chair. You should check with your committee members to see if they prefer printed or electronic copies (or both). Printed copies do not need to be printed on heavyweight, expensive paper unless there is the need to do so for figures and images. 

Printing and binding a dissertation can be expensive. You can use the Copy Center or FedEx Office to print and bind your dissertation.

In order to register your dissertation, you or your graduate administrator will need to create a record on the Graduate Studies PhD Completion website . This record will include:

• Degree information
• Past degrees
• Contact information
• The defense version of your dissertation as a PDF
• Other relevant documents

The version of your dissertation attached to your online record is considered the registration copy.

When your PhD completion record is finalized, committee members will receive emails with links to access your record and approve your dissertation to progress to defense. You’ll need to provide copies of the dissertation identical to the registration copy to all members of your committee, including the chair, at least two weeks before the record is finalized. Everyone but the chair is required to comment or sign off on the dissertation before it is submitted.

There may be deadlines for registering your dissertation specific to your program. Consult with your graduate administrator to ascertain those deadlines and follow them carefully.

After all committee members have provided their approval, your thesis will be reviewed by your faculty director/department chair, the AS&E dean of graduate education and postdoctoral affairs, and the office of the University dean of graduate studies. When all of these officials have approved your committee and dissertation for defense, your dissertation is considered registered. You will be able to track these approvals in your online record and will receive a confirmation email when approvals are complete.

The GEPA Office and the AS&E dean of graduate education and postdoctoral affairs, as well as the University Graduate Studies Office, may make corrections to the PDF of your dissertation. This annotated copy of your dissertation, along with the original version, will be stored in the PhD completion website. You are not allow to distribute updated versions of your dissertation prior to the defense, but be sure to incorporate any corrections before uploading your final dissertation to ProQuest®. 

After the defense, if the committee has required major revisions to be approved by one or more of its members, it is your responsibility to provide them with the corrected final version for their approval.  They will be asked to submit written confirmation of that approval to the University Graduate Studies Office. Failure to do so could delay conferral of your degree.

After the defense, you will receive additional instructions by email for completion of all PhD degree requirements.

It is important to walk into the defense knowing that your committee wants you to pass. Even if criticism is harsh, it is meant to be constructive. The defense is not solely an opportunity for the committee to compliment and congratulate you for the work you have done. It is also meant to challenge you and force you to consider tough questions.

The Defense

The best way to prepare for your defense is to regularly attend the defenses of your colleagues throughout your graduate program, not just several weeks prior to your own defense.

You can also talk to people in your department who already defended to find out what their defenses were like. You should also speak with your advisor to get a sense of his/her specific expectations of a defense.

Guidelines for Presentations

Use PowerPoint or Other Software to Create Slides

You should prepare a presentation of the research that comprises the thesis. Your slides should encapsulate the work and focus on its most salient contributions. In preparing, ask yourself these questions: “What do I want people to know about my thesis? What is the most important information that I can present and talk about?”

Here are some basic tips:

• Use text large enough to be read by the audience (especially text from figures)
• Ensure graphics and tables are clear
• Don’t clutter your slides—if necessary, have things come up on mouse clicks
• Use spell check and proofread your slides
• Practice your presentation with your peers
• Work on pronunciation, if required
• Time your presentation to ensure it will fit the allotted time while allowing time for questions

If your defense includes a public lecture, we recommended that you do a trial run a day or two before in the room that has been booked for your lecture. This will allow you to familiarize yourself with the space and the equipment and to address any problems that arise during the trial run. 

Plan your public lecture to allow enough time for questions. Present enough information so that the audience understands what you did, why you did it, what the implications are, and what your suggestions are for future research.

Friends and family are welcome to attend your public lecture. Faculty and students in the audience are given the opportunity to ask questions.

Plan to dress professionally for the defense in the same way you would if presenting a paper at a conference or for a job interview. You will be standing for a long time on the day of your defense. You might want to keep this in mind when selecting the shoes you will wear for your defense.

Essentials for your public lecture include:

• Your presentation
• A laser pointer
• A copy of your dissertation
• A pen or pencil
• A bottle of water 

You will be asked to leave the room while your committee reviews your program of study, and decides whether:

• The thesis is acceptable/not acceptable
• Whether members will ask sequential questions or whether each member will be allotted a specific time period for questioning

The person to start the questioning is designated. You will be called back into the examining room and questioning will begin. After all questions have been addressed, you will be asked to leave the room while your committee decides the outcome of the exam. You will be asked to return to the room to be informed of the outcome by the chair of your exam committee.

• Listen  to the entire question no matter how long it takes the faculty member or student to ask it (take notes if necessary).
• Pause and think  about the question before answering.
• Rephrase  the question.
• Answer  the question to the best of your ability; if you do not know the answer, remain calm and say so in a professional way.
• Remember  that no one will know the ins and outs of the thesis and your research materials as well as you.  You  are the foremost expert in the thesis topic and  YOU know the research involved. Be positive!

Possible outcomes include:

• Acceptable with minor or no revisions (no further approval required)
• Acceptable with major revisions in content or format (in this case, one or more committee members must be responsible for overseeing and approving the major revisions before the final copies are submitted)
• Not acceptable

After the Defense

You can submit the final corrected copies of your dissertation as soon as you address any remaining comments that were brought up during the defense or noted in the registration copy of your dissertation, which will be returned to you usually within a few days before or after the defense. You can take up to one semester following the defense to address any comments, during which you can remain a full-time student. Your degree conferral date will depend on when you submit the final corrected copies of your dissertation.

The day after your defense, you will receive an email from the University dean of graduate studies that provides instructions on how to:

• Submit the final corrected copies of your dissertation through ProQuest
• Provide authorization for the release of your dissertation through UR Research
• Complete a mandatory online exit survey
• Verify to the University dean of graduate studies’ office that the dissertation has been submitted

The University of Rochester requires all doctoral candidates to deposit their dissertations for publication with ProQuest Dissertation Publishing and with the University libraries. Hard copies are not required. The library receives an electronic copy of the dissertation from ProQuest, but students must give the University permission to obtain it.

For questions regarding publishing through ProQuest, contact Author Relations at [email protected] or (800) 521-0600 ext. 77020.

Check with your graduate administrator to see if your department wants a bound copy of your dissertation, and, if so, how the cost of binding is covered.

If you want a bound copy for yourself or your family, you can purchase one through ProQuest .

• Introduction
• Conclusions
• Article Information

Crosses indicate monthly homicide rates; blue solid lines, smoothed trends for observed rates; orange dotted lines, smoothed seasonality for observed rates; red dotted lines represent the enactment of SYG laws; and blue dotted lines, the smoothed trend for the counterfactual (ie, the expected trend in the absence of an SYG law).

IRR indicates incidence rate ratio, given as rate per 100 000 population.

Note each plot is grouped by US region (Midwest, Northeast, South, West) and ordered by estimated effect size. FE indicates fixed-effects.

eMethods. Stand Your Ground and Self-Defense Laws by State

eAppendix. Evidence of Nonlinear Trends, Nonpenalized Approach, and Restricted Linear Analyses

eFigure 1. Visualization of the Multiple Baselines Using Staggering of the Enactment of SYG Laws and Multiple Locations Using 23 SYG States During the Study Period, 1999 to 2017

eFigure 2. Data Visualization Showing the Suspected Coding Error in the Data for Race in Texas From September 2007 to February 2009

eFigure 3. Plots Showing Imputed Data by Bounded Random Sampling to Correct for the Suspected Coding Error in the Data for Race in Texas From September 2007 to February 2009

eFigure 4. Plots of Partial Autocorrelation Functions for GLMM With Linear Trends and GAMs for Homicide and Firearm Homicide

eFigure 5. Estimated Associations of SYG Laws With Monthly Homicide Rates Across the US

eFigure 6. Estimated Associations of SYG Laws With Monthly Firearm Homicide Rates Across the US

eFigure 7. Estimated Associations of SYG Laws With Monthly Suicide Rates Across the US

eFigure 8. Estimated Associations of SYG Laws With Monthly Firearm Suicide Rates Across the US

eFigure 9. Estimated Associations of SYG Laws With Monthly Homicide and Firearm Homicide Rates in SYG States by Restricted ITS Models With Linear Trends

eFigure 10. Forest Plot of Fixed-Effects Meta-analysis Pooling Restricted ITS Models With Linear Trends for the Association of SYG Laws With Homicide and Firearm Homicide Rates in SYG States

eFigure 11. State-Specific Associations of SYG Laws With Monthly Homicide Rates Estimated by Separate ITS Models With Nonlinear Trends for Each SYG State

eTable 1. Self-defense Laws Across All 50 US States (Excluding District of Columbia)

eTable 2. Intervention SYG States, Comparison Non-SYG States, and Excluded States

eTable 3. Outcomes and Their Corresponding Selected Cause of Death Group and ICD-10 Details

eTable 4. Data Outliers Caused by 1-Off Events

eTable 5. AIC Values for Different Combinations of Polynomials for Modelling State and National Trends in GLMMs for Homicides

eTable 6. Monthly Counts of Homicide, Firearm Homicide, Suicide, and Firearm Suicide in the Absence and Presence of SYG Laws

eTable 7. Estimated Associations of SYG Laws With Homicide and Firearm Homicide Rates Across the US Using Nonpenalized GLMMs With Polynomials

eTable 8. Estimated Association of SYG Laws With Homicide and Firearm Homicide Rates by Race Across the US Using Data With Suspected Errors

eReferences

• Error in Figure 3 JAMA Network Open Correction April 6, 2022
• State-Specific Heterogeneity in the Association of Stand Your Ground Laws With Firearm Violence JAMA Network Open Invited Commentary February 21, 2022 Michael Siegel, MD, MPH

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Degli Esposti M , Wiebe DJ , Gasparrini A , Humphreys DK. Analysis of “Stand Your Ground” Self-defense Laws and Statewide Rates of Homicides and Firearm Homicides. JAMA Netw Open. 2022;5(2):e220077. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.0077

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Analysis of “Stand Your Ground” Self-defense Laws and Statewide Rates of Homicides and Firearm Homicides

• 1 Department of Social Policy and Intervention, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
• 2 Department of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia
• 3 Department of Public Health, Environments and Society, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
• 4 Centre for Statistical Methodology, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom
• Invited Commentary State-Specific Heterogeneity in the Association of Stand Your Ground Laws With Firearm Violence Michael Siegel, MD, MPH JAMA Network Open
• Correction Error in Figure 3 JAMA Network Open

Question   Are “stand your ground” (SYG) laws associated with increases in violent deaths, and does this vary by US state?

Findings   In this cohort study assessing 41 US states, SYG laws were associated with an 8% to 11% national increase in monthly rates of homicide and firearm homicide. State-level increases in homicide and firearm homicide rates reached 10% or higher for many Southern states, including Alabama, Florida, Georgia, and Louisiana.

Meaning   These findings suggest that SYG laws were associated with increased homicides each year and that the laws should be reconsidered to prevent unnecessary violent deaths.

Importance   Most US states have amended self-defense laws to enhance legal immunities for individuals using deadly force in public. Despite concerns that “stand your ground” (SYG) laws unnecessarily encourage the use of deadly violence, their impact on violent deaths and how this varies across states and demographic groups remains unclear.

Objective   To evaluate the association of SYG laws with homicide and firearm homicide, nationally and by state, while considering variation by the race, age, and sex of individuals who died by homicide.

Design, Setting, and Participants   This cohort study used a controlled, multiple-baseline and -location interrupted time series design, using natural variation in the timings and locations of SYG laws to assess associations. Changes in homicide and firearm homicide were modeled using Poisson regression analyses within a generalized additive model framework. Analyses included all US states that enacted SYG laws between 2000 and 2016 and states that did not have SYG laws enacted during the full study period, 1999 to 2017. Data were analyzed from November 2019 to December 2020.

Exposures   SYG self-defense laws enacted by statute between January 1, 2000, to December 31, 2016.

Main Outcomes and Measures   The main outcomes were statewide monthly rates of homicide and firearm-related homicide (per 100 000 persons) from January 1, 1999, to December 31, 2017, grouped by characteristics (ie, race, age, sex) of individuals who died by homicide.

Results   Forty-one states were analyzed, including 23 states that enacted SYG laws during the study period and 18 states that did not have SYG laws, with 248 358 homicides (43.7% individuals aged 20-34 years; 77.9% men and 22.1% women), including 170 659 firearm homicides. SYG laws were associated with a mean national increase of 7.8% in monthly homicide rates (incidence rate ratio [IRR],1.08; 95% CI, 1.04-1.12; P  < .001) and 8.0% in monthly firearm homicide rates (IRR, 1.08; 95% CI, 1.03-1.13; P  = .002). SYG laws were not associated with changes in the negative controls of suicide (IRR, 0.99; 95% CI, 0.98-1.01) or firearm suicide (IRR, 1.00; 95% CI, 0.98-1.02). Increases in violent deaths varied across states, with the largest increases (16.2% to 33.5%) clustering in the South (eg, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana). There were no differential associations of SYG laws by demographic group.

Conclusions and Relevance   These findings suggest that adoption of SYG laws across the US was associated with increases in violent deaths, deaths that could potentially have been avoided.

Every year, more than 19 000 people in the United States die from homicide, and most of these violent deaths are attributable to injuries sustained from firearms. Rates of homicide and firearm homicide are markedly higher in the US than any other high-income county. 1 - 3 In 2020, the US saw a further upsurge, with homicide rates increasing by approximately 30%. 4 These deaths are preventable; yet there is limited evidence on how current legislation and policy may not only be failing to prevent harm but may also be contributing to it. 5

“Stand your ground” (SYG) laws, also known as shoot first laws, overwrite the common law principle of a “duty to retreat,” creating the possibility for individuals to use deadly force in self-defense in public as a first, rather than last, resort (eMethods in the Supplement ). 6 Florida was the first state to enact an SYG law by statute in 2005, and then 23 states enacted SYG laws soon after, between 2006 and 2008. Although the uptake was initially concentrated in the South, by 2021, thirty states had enacted SYG laws, and this number continues to increase as a raft of ongoing bills make their way through state legislatures. 7

Advocates claim that SYG laws enhance public safety by deterring predatory crime through an increased threat of retaliatory violence. 8 Critics, on the other hand, argue that the laws are unnecessary, and may threaten public safety by emboldening the use of deadly violence in public encounters in which violence and injury that could have safely been avoided. 9 There are also concerns that the laws exacerbate social inequalities in experiencing violent crime, since implicit and explicit biases of threat perception discriminate against and cause disproportionate harms among minority groups, such as Black people. 10 - 12 Anecdotally, critics’ concerns have been realized in an increasing number of shootings of young Black men (eg, Trayvon Martin, Jordan Davis, and Markeis McGlockton) where self-defense has been claimed. 12 These high-profile incidents underline the controversy surrounding SYG laws and have served to galvanize the Black Lives Matter movement. 13

Although previous studies have associated SYG laws with increases in homicide, 14 - 17 a 2021 systematic review highlighted key weaknesses of the current evidence. 18 First, the national impacts of SYG laws are undetermined because there is a lack of studies with robust study designs. 18 Second, very few studies examine the differential impacts of SYG laws on demographic groups, including racial or ethnic minority groups. Third, there is a marked discrepancy between US-wide analyses and single-state analyses. US-wide analyses report either no associations or small increases in homicide associated with enacting SYG laws 15 , 18 - 20 ; whereas single-state analyses, which almost exclusively evaluated Florida’s SYG law, identify substantial increases in homicide (24% to 27%). 14 , 21 , 22 The generalizability of the evidence beyond Florida remains unclear.

Since the laws continue to be adopted across the US, with 2 states passing SYG bills in early 2021 and 14 states currently having SYG bills under active consideration, 7 it is crucial to advance the evidence on SYG laws across the US and whether the laws show differential associations by state and demographic group. Our study aims to fill this gap. We obtained restricted access mortality data by special request to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) that includes all medical records on causes of death from January 1, 1999, to December 31, 2017. We used an interrupted time-series (ITS) design that exploited temporal and state variation in the enactment of the laws to strengthen the evidence on the outcomes associated with enacting SYG laws across the US.

Ethical approval was waived by Departmental Research Ethics Committee (DREC), University of Oxford, because the study uses fully anonymized administrative data previously collected by government bodies and official sources. The data cannot be traced back to an individual. We followed relevant recommendations set out in the Guidelines for Reporting Evaluations based on Observational Methodology ( GREOM ) and Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology ( STROBE ) reporting guideline. The study protocol and statistical analysis plan ( https://osf.io/s6xp4/ ) and analytical code ( https://osf.io/vmx2y/ ) have been made freely available at the Open Science Framework.

We used a multiple-baseline and -location ITS design to estimate the association of SYG laws with changes in homicide and firearm homicide rates across the US, both at the national and state levels. The staggered adoption of SYG laws across states offers a unique opportunity to reduce confounding in ITS (pre-post) evaluations by including states that did not enact SYG laws in the control group. 23 , 24 Observed and unobserved state- and time-varying confounding is therefore minimized, as the same confounding would have to present at all 23 different timings in each of the 23 states that enacted SYG laws while not occurring in any of the 18 states that did not have SYG laws enacted during the study period.

We defined an SYG law as a legislative statute that extended the legal right to use lethal force in self-defense to anywhere the individual has the right to be (ie, public places) (eMethods in the Supplement ). We systematically investigated self-defense laws in all 50 US states and classified each state by their variant of self-defense law (eMethods, eTable 1, and eFigure 1 in the Supplement ). States were included in the analysis if they were classified as an SYG state, enacting SYG laws between January 1, 2000, and December 31, 2016. A reduced period of 2000 to 2016 was used to ensure that at least 12 months in the preintervention and postintervention period for modeling purposes. States were also included if they could serve as a comparison non-SYG state by not having an SYG law enacted by statute or upholding SYG law principles through case law, throughout the study period. We included 41 states in the analyses: 23 SYG states and 18 non-SYG states (eTable 2 in the Supplement ). We excluded the remaining 9 states from the analyses because 2 states (Utah and Iowa) lacked sufficient data during the study period to model trends and 7 states upheld principles of SYG law by case law even if not encoded in a statute. Including these states in the analysis would dilute the contrast between SYG and non-SYG states and bias estimates owing to intervention contamination effects. 25

We modeled time series data for state-level monthly counts of homicide (primary outcome) and firearm homicide (secondary outcome) between January 1999 to December 2017 (eMethods, eFigure 2, eFigure 3, and eTable 3 in the Supplement ). Outcome data were obtained by special request from the CDC’s Restricted Use Vital Statistics, which provided microdata on Multiple Cause of Death based on coroner determinations of cause of death for more than 99% of all deaths in the US. We further stratified outcomes by race (White vs Black and other races), age group (0-19, 20-34, and ≥35 years), and sex (male and female). Race was determined by medical death certificates in accordance with standards set forth by the Office of Management and Budget. Other races includes all races other than White or Black under the main categories of American Indian, Asian, and Pacific Islander. We stratified outcomes by race to determine whether the SYG laws had differential assoications by population subgroup, including by race. We identified and excluded any outliers from 1-event mass death events (eg, the September 11, 2001, terrorist attack) from the analyses (eMethods and eTable 4 in the Supplement ).

We used negative control outcomes of suicide and firearm suicide to check for time-varying confounding. 26 We selected these outcomes because we hypothesized that they would be similarly affected by changes over time that might confound the association between SYG law enactment and changes in homicide and firearm homicide but would not be affected by the intervention itself. Such time-varying confounders included economic shifts (eg, an economic recession), changes in recording practices, and changes in firearm regulation and availability.

We ran Poisson regression analyses within a generalized additive model (GAM) framework to estimate the association of SYG laws with homicide and firearm homicide. Outcomes were modeled as a quasi-Poisson distribution owing to evidence of overdispersion. State population sizes by state and year, disaggregated by race, age group, and sex as relevant, were used as an offset variable to model rates per 100 000 persons directly. Our main exposure was a dummy variable indicating the presence of SYG law across groups (SYG vs non-SYG states) and over time (before and after SYG laws were enacted in SYG states). The dummy variable thus reflects a group-by-time interaction: 0 for non-SYG states and for the pre-enactment period in SYG laws and 1 for the postenactment period in SYG states. GAMs, as opposed to generalized linear mixed models (GLMMs), were used because there was significant evidence that long-term trends violated assumptions of linearity (eAppendix, eFigure 4, and eTable 5 in the Supplement ). GAMs can more flexibly smooth nonlinear trends while penalizing overfitting through generalized cross-validation. 27 To check the robustness of this penalization approach, we present estimates from nonpenalized GLMMs in the eAppendix in the Supplement .

Informed by a previous systematic review, 18 we hypothesized that the outcomes associated with SYG laws would follow a step-change pattern (ie, abrupt sustained change in level). The adoption of SYG laws was therefore estimated as a fixed effect, comparing differences in rates before and after SYG laws were enacted in the 23 SYG states, as well as with the 18 non-SYG states, while adjusting for seasonality and state-specific long-term trends. Both seasonality and long-term trends were modeled independently for each outcome. Seasonality was modeled using harmonics (Fourier series of pairs of sine and cosine functions) to smooth smaller repeating patterns in a year (ie, seasons). 24 , 28 State-specific trends were independently smoothed by specifying a factor-by-curve interaction to allow for differences in long-term trends between states. 29 The smoothness of trends was constrained to be equal across states to prioritize model parsimony and because there was no theoretical reason to assume that states should be smoothed to a differential degree. The equation for the base model is outlined in the eMethods in the Supplement . Results can be interpreted as the relative risk of monthly homicides or firearm homicides in the presence vs absence of SYG laws (ie, incidence rate ratio [IRR]). Model fit was checked through an analysis of the residuals, including data visualizations and inspection of the distribution of autocorrelations.

Stratified analyses were conducted to investigate whether associations of SYG laws with violent deaths differed by race, age group, and sex. Formal tests assessed whether the estimates varied across demographic groups. Specifically, approximate Wald tests (also known as Z -tests ) were used to compare stratified model estimates and test for differences within each demographic group (eg, White vs Black and other races). 30 These model comparisons were used to assess whether SYG laws were differentially associated with violent deaths by subgroup.

We also investigated state-by-state differences in estimates of the enactment of SYG laws by fitting separate quasi-Poisson regression models as interrupted times series analyses for each SYG state. Here, the main exposure is a dummy variable coding the absence (0) and presence (1) of SYG laws within SYG states alone, and thus implements a segmented regression analysis. 24 , 31 In these ITS models, we smoothed nonlinearity in long-term trends in 2 ways: fitted cubic terms for long-term trends and restricted the period to 3 years (ie, 36 months) before and after SYG laws were enacted, and we assumed fitted linear long-term trends (eAppendix in the Supplement ). State-level ITS models estimates were then pooled in fixed-effects meta-analyses. All analyses were conducted in R statistical software version 3.6.3 (R Project for Statistical Computing); the multiple location and baseline ITS GAMs were fitted using the R package mgcv while the simple ITS models were pooled using metafor . 32 , 33  P values were 2-sided, and statistical significance was set at P  < .05. Data were analyzed from November 2019 to December 2020.

The analysis included 41 states with 248 358 homicides (43.7% individuals aged 20-34 years; 77.9% men and 22.1% women), including 184 495 homicides in 23 SYG states and 63 863 homicides in 18 non-SYG states, and 170 659 firearm homicides, including 129 831 firearm homicides in 23 SYG states and 40 828 firearm homicides in 18 non-SYG states). The Table and eTable 6 in the Supplement present monthly rates and counts during the study period. Between 1999 and 2017, trends in monthly homicide and firearm homicide rates varied between states and did not follow simple linear trends. While there were gradual declines between 1999 and 2014, approximately half of all states experienced an uptick in homicide rates in recent years, irrespective of whether states had or had not enacted SYG laws ( Figure 1 ; eFigure 5 and eFigure 6 in the Supplement ). The negative control outcomes of suicide and firearm suicides rates mostly showed increasing trends from 1999 to 2017 (eFigure 7 and eFigure 8 in the Supplement ). Between 1999 and 2017, homicide and suicide rates were higher in states with SYG laws (mean [SD]: 0.55 [0.25] homicides per 100 000 persons and 1.24 [0.38] suicides per 100 000 persons) compared with non-SYG states (mean [SD]: 0.31 [0.22] homicides per 100 000 persons and 1.03 [0.45] suicides per 100 000 persons) ( Table ). Within SYG states and compared with the period before SYG laws were enacted, after SYG laws were enacted there were higher rates of homicide (mean [SD], 0.54 [0.26] vs 0.55 [0.25] homicides per 100 000 population) and suicide (mean [SD], 1.13 [0.35] vs 1.32 [0.38] suicides per 100 000 population).

The enactment of SYG laws was associated with a mean national increase of 7.8% in monthly homicide rates (IRR, 1.08; 95% CI, 1.04-1.12; P  < .001) and 8.0% in monthly firearm homicide rates (IRR, 1.08; 95% CI, 1.03-1.13; P  = .002) ( Table and Figure 1 ; eFigure 6 in the Supplement ). SYG laws were not associated with changes in the 2 negative control outcomes: suicide (IRR, 0.99; 95% CI, 0.98-1.01; P  = .58) or firearm suicide rates (IRR, 1.00; 95% CI, 0.98-1.02; P  = .94) (eFigure 7 and eFigure 8 in the Supplement ). Separate ITS analyses for SYG states only, pooled via meta-analyses, estimated higher increases of 9.9% for homicide (IRR, 1.10; 95% CI, 1.07-1.13; P  < .001) and 10.8% for firearm homicide (IRR, 1.11; 95% CI, 1.07-1.15; P  < .001). No changes were observed for the negative control suicide outcomes.

The penalization approach was tested by fitting a series of nonpenalized GLMMs using polynomials to model nonlinear trends at the national and state level (eAppendix in the Supplement ). Results from the GLMMs replicated our main findings, with associated increases of 9.5% for homicide (IRR, 1.09; 95% CI, 1.07-1.12; P  < .001) and 9.1% for firearm homicide (IRR = 1.09; 95% CI, 1.06-1.12; P  < .001) (eTable 7 in the Supplement ). Nonlinear models were further supplemented by restricting the study period to a smaller temporal window (ie, 36 months before and after the enactment of SYG laws) and fitting state-specific ITS models with linear trends (eAppendix in the Supplement ). Consistently, these linear models identified an 8.9% increase for homicide (IRR, 1.09; 95% CI, 1.05-1.13; P  < .001) and a 9.2% increase for firearm homicide (IRR, 1.09; 95% CI, 1.04-1.14; P  < .001) following the enactment of SYG laws (eFigure 9 and eFigure 10 in the Supplement ). There continued to be no association between SYG laws and suicide (IRR, 0.99; 95% CI, 0.97-1.02; P  = .46) or firearm suicide (IRR, 0.99; 95% CI, 0.96-1.02; P  = .47).

No statistically significant differences by race, age group, or sex of individuals who died by homicide were identified ( Table ; eTable 8 in the Supplement ). However, stratified models showed more pronounced increases in some demographic groups ( Figure 2 ). The largest increases were seen for White individuals (IRR, 1.10; 95% CI, 1.05-1.15; P  < .001) and for males (IRR, 1.08; 95% CI, 1.04-1.13; P  < .001). There was inconsistent evidence that the enactment of SYG laws was associated with increases for persons aged 0 to 19 years or females. The main models (GAMs) identified no significant associations, whereas supplementary models (GLMMs) estimated significant associations (eTable 7 in the Supplement ). This is likely because the subgroups of individuals aged 0 to 19 years and females had the smallest number of individuals who died by homicide, thus model estimation suffered from low counts and increased uncertainty (eTable 6 in the Supplement ).

Associations of SYG laws with violent deaths differed by state ( Figure 3 ). Large increases for homicide and firearm homicide rates were associated with the enactment of SYG laws in Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, and Missouri. These increases ranged from 16.2% to 33.5%, with firearm homicides typically showing larger increases than total homicides. SYG laws were not significantly associated with changes in homicides or firearm homicides rates in a handful of states, including Arizona, Indiana, Michigan, Nevada, Oklahoma, Texas, and West Virginia. We explored between-state heterogeneity by visualizing state-specific associations across the US, which showed that larger associations clustered in Southern states ( Figure 3 ; eFigure 11 in the Supplement ).

This cohort study found that the enactment of SYG laws was associated with an abrupt and sustained 8% to 11% national increase in monthly homicide and firearm homicide rates, contributing an extra 58 to 72 homicides each month. This monthly increase alone exceeds total rates of homicides in most Northern and Western European countries today. 34 Estimates are consistent with previous studies 15 , 17 ; but this study advances the evidence by examining SYG laws over an extended timeframe and using enhanced mortality data to investigate differential associations by state and demographic group.

Although the enactment of SYG laws was not associated with significant change in violent deaths in all states, there was no evidence that SYG laws were associated with decreases in homicide or firearm homicide. Our analyses show that increases in homicide associated with SYG laws were not restricted to Florida. 14 , 21 , 22 Comparable changes were observed in at least 8 other states at different times across the US, although the largest increases clustered in the South and in states that were early adopters of SYG laws (2005-2007). The association between SYG laws and increases in violent deaths cannot be attributed to distortion by a single state outlier (eg, Florida), 18 but may be attributed to time-varying confounders specific to the South and/or the early enactment of SYG laws. The between-state heterogeneity suggests that SYG laws alone may not be sufficient in explaining increases in homicide. Understanding the factors shaping these differential associations between states, such as regions endorsing the use of self-protective violence, 35 existing state firearm legislation, and firearm availability, is key to understanding how and why legally expanding the right to use deadly violence in public is associated with increases in homicides in some states but not others.

Despite concerns that SYG laws exacerbate social inequalities in experiencing violent crime, 13 we did not find differential associations by demographic group. SYG laws were associated with mean increases in homicide and firearm homicide rates irrespective of race, age group, or sex of individuals who died by homicide . 18 At least in terms of homicide, these findings do not lend support for the claim that SYG laws widen racial disparities. However, our analyses are based on causes of death and thus can only examine homicide. We do not examine nonfatal injury, patterns of racial concordance between the deceased and the defendant, or patterns in legal outcomes (eg, conviction or acquittal rates) following enactment of SYG laws. Owing to the ongoing context of racism in the US 10 - 12 and previous studies showing multiple pathways through which SYG laws may exacerbate social injustice (eg, via racialized threat perceptions), 36 , 37 future research should aim to assess the disproportional impacts and implications of SYG laws for disadvantaged groups, such as Black individuals.

This study has some limitations. Our study period was limited to ending in December 2017 because this was the most recent available data at the time of conducting the research. Five additional states have since enacted SYG laws, which we were unable to evaluate as they fell outside our study period. Iowa was also excluded from the analyses because its SYG law was enacted in July 2017, so it had insufficient time points to model the postintervention period. Most SYG states included in this study were early adopters of SYG law, with 74% adopting the law between October 2005 and September 2007. This limited variation in the enactment timing reduces the generalizability of our findings to more recent adoptions of SYG laws. Low homicide counts among demographic groups, especially for persons aged 0 to 19 years and females, restricted modeling power and certainty for estimating associations for these subgroups. Nevertheless, these findings echoed the limited number of analyses that have previously investigated distributional outcomes associated with SYG laws. 18 Although the design and advanced statistical modeling used here minimize confounding, it is still possible that the unobserved heterogeneity across states and changes that occurred around the same time of each SYG enactment mean our estimates reflect the outcomes associated with SYG laws plus a spurious effect from confounding. The most likely source of confounding is that the as-if-random assumption of the timings of SYG law enactment across states was violated owing to another factor (eg, high-profile self-defense cases, changes in societal attitudes, coordinated campaigns by lobbyists), 38 causing both the enactment of SYG law and increases in violent deaths in the state. 39 However, in the absence of a feasible randomized clinical trial, we present strong alternative evidence by controlling for observed and unobserved confounding by design and including a series of robustness checks.

This cohort study found that the staggered adoption of SYG laws in US states was associated with increases in homicide and firearm homicide rates across the US. These increases reach 10% and higher in several Southern states, while no states had significant reductions in violent deaths, as advocates often argue when justifying these laws. The accumulation of evidence established in this and other studies point to harmful outcomes associated with SYG laws. Despite this, SYG laws have now been enacted in most states, and the uptake of new SYG bills continues to be popular, unnecessarily risking lives.

Accepted for Publication: December 11, 2021.

Published: February 21, 2022. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.0077

Correction: This article was corrected on April 6, 2022, to delete an extraneous box in Figure 3 .

Open Access: This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the CC-BY License . © 2022 Degli Esposti M et al. JAMA Network Open .

Corresponding Author: Michelle Degli Esposti, PhD, Department of Social Policy and Intervention, University of Oxford, Barnett House, 32 Wellington Sq, Oxford OX1 2ER, United Kingdom ( [email protected] ).

Author Contributions: Drs Degli Esposti and Humphreys had full access to all of the data in the study and take responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis.

Concept and design: Degli Esposti, Gasparrini, Humphreys.

Acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data: All authors.

Drafting of the manuscript: Degli Esposti, Humphreys.

Critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content: All authors.

Statistical analysis: Degli Esposti, Gasparrini, Humphreys.

Obtained funding: Gasparrini, Humphreys.

Administrative, technical, or material support: Degli Esposti, Gasparrini, Humphreys.

Supervision: Wiebe, Humphreys.

Conflict of Interest Disclosures: None reported.

Funding/Support: This work was funded by grant No. 18-38016 from the Joyce Foundation.

Role of the Funder/Sponsor: The Joyce Foundation had no role in the design and conduct of the study; collection, management, analysis, and interpretation of the data; preparation, review, or approval of the manuscript; and decision to submit the manuscript for publication.

Disclaimer: The views expressed in this publication are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the Joyce Foundation.

Additional Contributions: Jason Gravel, PhD (Temple University), provided technical assistance in data processing, and David Kirk, PhD (University of Oxford), assisted with data troubleshooting and providing insightful comments on the manuscript. Neither Drs Gravel nor Kirk received compensation for their contributions.

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