pollution in lebanon essay

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The Devastating Impact of Lebanon’s Environmental Failures

Peter S. Germanos is the former head judge for the military court of Lebanon, is a professor of law at Saint Joseph University.

Samara Azzi is a venture capitalist based in Geneva. 

International cooperation and support—with appropriate safeguarding measures to prevent the misappropriation of funds—are crucial for Lebanon to effectively combat environmental degradation and work toward a more sustainable future.

For decades, Lebanon has suffered under a systematic and intentional mismanagement of country resources and capital, with devastating repercussions. Poverty rates in Lebanon have skyrocketed, and the healthcare and education systems have crumbled, leaving millions vulnerable.

Less discussed but no less dangerous is the environmental degradation that the country ’ s elite have allowed to occur. Lebanon’s deteriorating environment adds another layer of tragedy to the widespread economic crisis; sewage contaminates drinking water, generators spew toxic fumes, excessive groundwater usage renders it saline, and irrigation with sewage water contaminates agricultural produce. The price for Lebanese is becoming increasingly well documented. Cancer cases have surged , and the Lebanese people can expect to continue to suffer in the future as well. 

This situation was not, however, a foregone conclusion, or due solely to global climate change outside of Lebanese control. Rather, Lebanon ’ s significant environmental degradation is due in large part to systemic corruption and a total lack of effective regulation. Understanding the scope of this issue is vital to realizing what the people of Lebanon are facing, along with developing a plan to address some of these interconnected environmental and governance challenges.

Lebanon’s Generator Problem

Case in point is Lebanon’s ubiquitous reliance on generators to bridge the gap between the state’s limited electricity generation and Lebanese electricity needs. Daily, Lebanon’s electricity shuts off, leaving residents in a moment of darkness before private generators—often owned by corrupt businessman–take over. The resulting pollution interacts with numerous facets of Lebanon’s environmental degradation, and helps highlight how interconnected these issues are.

Fossil Fuels and Climate Change: Lebanon, like the rest of the world, is experiencing the impacts of climate change. This includes rising temperatures, changing precipitation patterns, and more frequent extreme weather events. These changes can exacerbate existing man-made environmental issues and pose additional challenges for the country. The burning of fossil fuels in generators releases carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. Lebanon's heavy reliance on generators adds to the overall carbon footprint of the country and exacerbates global climate challenges. This dependence on fossil fuels not only exposes the country to global energy market fluctuations and supply chain disruptions, but it makes transitioning to greener sources of energy nearly impossible.

Waste Management Issues : Lebanon has struggled with proper waste management for years, leading to the accumulation of garbage in many areas. Due to unpredictable blackouts and soaring fuel prices, generators have become the only reliable source of energy for many Lebanese citizens. The regular use of generators results in the accumulation of waste products such as used oil, filters, and other components. In the absence of proper disposal mechanisms and recycling facilities, this waste can contribute to environmental degradation and pose challenges for waste management. This can have long-term environmental consequences, affecting the quality of water resources and posing risks to ecosystems and human health. This issue became a rallying call in 2015-2016 during the “ You Stink” anticorruption protests, and again during the 2019 movement, yet Lebanon ’ s waste management issues remain unaddressed.

Air Pollution: Lebanon's air quality has been severely affected by factors such as vehicle emissions, industrial activities, and the widespread use of generators during power shortages. These pollutants can cause respiratory problems, cancer, and other health issues in humans and animals.

Moreover, generators create significant noise pollution, impacting both urban and rural environments. Prolonged exposure to high levels of noise can lead to stress, sleep disturbances, and other health issues for individuals living in close proximity to these generators.

Deforestation: Lebanon has faced deforestation due to illegal logging, urbanization, and agricultural expansion. Trees play a vital role in maintaining ecological balance, and their loss can lead to soil erosion, disrupted water cycles, and reduced biodiversity. Lebanon ’ s cedar forests were once a point of pride and an ecological landmark, with a history spanning thousands of years. Now, the Lebanese cedar tree is listed as vulnerable, and is threatened by man-made forest fires and a black market for cedar wood fuel. Lebanon ’ s increasingly cost-prohibitive fuel market and lack of access to reliable electric heating sources has driven increased deforestation as a means to provide basic fuel and survive winter temperatures, which in turn will further erode the resources available for future generations.

Lebanon’s Dwindling Resources: Water and Land Degradation

Lebanon’s generators are but one facet of the country’s pollution problem. Just as worrying is the significant degradation of the country’s natural resources, once an important feature of the Lebanese economy and sense of identity. Lebanon's bodies of water, including rivers and coastal areas, now suffer from pollution due to illegal ground wells, untreated sewage, industrial discharges, and agricultural runoff. This pollution poisons aquatic life and contaminates drinking water sources. In addition to pollution, Lebanon’s marine environments now face pressures from overfishing. Depletion of the country’s fish stocks threatens the delicate balance of marine ecosystems while carrying dire economic implications for local fishermen.

On land, the situation is equally bleak. Unsustainable agricultural practices, including overgrazing and improper irrigation, have led to widespread land degradation. This improper stewardship of arable land results in reduced agricultural productivity, loss of biodiversity, and increased vulnerability to natural disasters like landslides and floods.  Addressing these challenges requires good governance and a comprehensive approach, including the implementation and enforcement of environmental laws, promoting sustainable practices in agriculture and industry, investing in waste management infrastructure, and raising awareness among the public about the importance of environmental conservation.

While Lebanon has numerous NGOs, few focus on environmental concerns, and in several cases when international efforts to coordinate with local NGOs have been attempted, there have been several cases of this money siphoned off due to the country’s rampant corruption. Nevertheless, international cooperation and support—with appropriate safeguarding measures to prevent the misappropriation of funds—are crucial for Lebanon to effectively combat environmental degradation and work toward a more sustainable future.

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Lebanon’s Environmental Problems and Solutions

Introduction, major environmental and ecological problems, works cited.

The Republic of Lebanon is an Arabic country located in the Middle East where it is bordered by Syria to the north and east while Israel is located on its south. It is also bordered by the vast Mediterranean Sea to the west where the coastline stretches 225 kilometers. Its location ensures that the country enjoys a rich history characterized by early civilization and Arab culture. The capital city of Lebanon is Beirut and the country’s population is estimated at more than 4.5 million people. However, persistent problems mainly conflict with its neighbors and civil strife fuelled by armed groups in the country has led to slow growth in economic growth and development. Moreover, the country has been by calamities such as natural disasters such as floods, economic downturns, and environmental calamities that have resulted in massive destruction of property and loss of lives. This essay will discuss the problems that have rocked Lebanon in the recent past.

The Republic of Lebanon has been plagued by various problems which threaten its development. Environmental pollution and deterioration in the world have elicited much concern from environmental watchdogs and the public. Lebanon has not been spared from this vice owing to its industries which are among the main contributors, especially in the greater Beirut area. Air, water, and land pollution are the main types of pollution that have rocked Lebanon. The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) noted that the impact of environmental deterioration is hard to quantify owing to the magnitude of its effects. Many deaths and human suffering have resulted from the disorders brought by the effects of pollution. Diseases commonly associated with environmental pollution are mainly respiratory infections, water-borne diseases, and cancers which lead to many premature deaths.

Water pollution particularly in south Lebanon along the Mediterranean Sea has hit the fishing industry hard. According to Inter Press Service, the southerners have been affected by pollution and oil spills which have resulted in difficult and unsanitary living conditions. The port of Ouiza has seen its beaches littered with tones of garbage and oil spills which render the area inhabitable. The Inter Press Service noted that the region had eight dumping sites which were not properly managed thus causing huge and irreparable damage to the environment. The most visible and damaging is the huge Costa Brava dumping ground where most of the wastes from the neighboring towns are dumped by politically connected individuals. The wastes find its way into the sea where it interferes with fishing by entangling the fishing nets.

The sea is also polluted by the release of sewage from the two million inhabitants and industrial waste that flows directly without adequate treatment to remove traces of heavy metals and other compounds. More importantly, the fishing practices employed by the Lebanese fishermen also account for environmental destruction since they do not encourage the regeneration of fauna and flora. The use of dynamite fishing method and substandard mesh net that catch small sizes of fish are among the practices. Oil spills from the bombed Jiweh power plant and the anticipated spills from the Panamanian ship that sank in December 2009 have worsened the situation in the Lebanon coastline (Alami). The plant was estimated to have released more than 25000 tonnes of oil into the eastern side of the Mediterranean Sea. The oil spill caused massive and extended damage which was thought to have affected the neighboring countries particularly Cyprus and turkey. The oil spill led to large-scale deaths of marine fish and threatened the existence of fauna and flora in the sea. Although the oil spill was cleared after weeks of inaction, the effects will be felt in the next 10 years (UNEP). The delay in a clearing was caused by a lack of enough resources to launch a concerted control program and the continuous bombing by the Israel troops.

The magnitude of the damage to the habitat, the coastline, and the economy made the government declare the oil spill as the worst ecological disaster in Lebanon history. According to Black, the cost to the economy was estimated at $230 million while the real cost to the economic livelihoods in the medium and long-term effects may not be easily quantified. Nevertheless, the oil spill was controlled with the assistance of the United Nations and other donor countries before extensive and irreversible damage occurred. Tonnes of thickening materials were utilized to contain the slick. The effects that are believed to plague the country in the next 10 years include bioaccumulation of heavy metals which may result in harmful health effects as witnessed in Japan where mercury spills led to bioaccumulation in fish. The tourism sector also suffered a lot owing to the oil traces being driven by the waves into the coastline. Beaches became inhabitable thus putting away the potential domestic and foreign tourists while at the same time denying the southerners to make a living from selling fish and ornaments to the tourists (Black).

Air pollution has become one of the greatest challenges in developing countries. Beirut and the other Lebanese cities continue to experience poor air quality. The main contributors are the transportation industry and the industrial sector. The vehicles, buses, and trucks are responsible for the brownish haze that is spotted in Mount Sannine and the heavy smog that engulfs the major towns. It’s not uncommon to find city residents choking in exhaust fumes particularly in road junctions and major passageways.

Another contributor to air pollution is the persistent conflicts that target industries, forests, factories, and thermal plants. It is estimated that more than 25000 tonnes of oil burned after the bombing of the Jewish power station while thousands of hectares were burned down after bombs hit the indigenous Lebanese forests (UNEP 45). A thick cloud of smoke riddled with oil remains was evident in the combat areas and more in the surroundings of the Jiweh power station. The same situation was replicated in the Beirut international airport where more than 400000 tonnes were burned releasing fumes that caused serious environmental and health effects. The 2006 conflict is believed to have caused massive pollution due to the combustion of fuels and chemicals stored in the industries. A lot of carbon monoxide, methane, soot, particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, and other toxic fumes were released as a result of the combustion (UNEP 45). According to Newell, Lebanon was ranked 90th out of the 149 countries which were involved in the 2008 Environmental Performance Index (EPI). Particulate matter and exhaust fumes from vehicles and industries are the main pollutants in the Lebanon atmosphere.

The air quality in Lebanon is worsened by the combination of its climate and the extensive pollution levels from human activities (Newell para 5). Air pollution is believed to cause serious economic and health effects to the Lebanese people (UNEP 45). High numbers of airborne related diseases consume a lot of the residents’ savings while at the same time causing strain to the healthcare system in Lebanon (Newell para 8-9). According to UNEP, an increase of 10 PPP in the atmosphere translated to adverse effects for the Lebanese (45). An estimated 2800 emergency room visits and 3000 admissions and more than 80 deaths occur as a result of the rise (Salpie, Nuwayhid & Chaaban chap 4). Some efforts have been made to rectify the situation in Lebanon owing to the persistent lobbying and campaigning done by the green line organization. Regular and systematic monitoring of pollution levels has helped the employment of small-scale mitigation measures in the country. However, lack of political will becomes the major hindrance to the achievement of meaningful reforms and regulations on pollution.

Land pollution is another major problem that the Lebanon government has failed to sensitize the people. This is perpetuated by the random dumping of kitchen wastes and garbage in the roadsides and estates. The failure to utilize basic and inexpensive methods of waste management has led to the piling of wastes in the major cities.

The effects of this illegal dumping include high levels of odors and anesthetic sights in the urban and rural areas. The improper dumping of large wastes is also responsible for harboring pests and vectors that spread germs that cause serious diseases in humans (UNEP).

The pesticides and other chemicals used in agricultural practices cause cancers and organ failures in farmers and affect the reproductive patterns of the animals thus threatening their existence. The pesticides also leach causing groundwater pollution thus interrupting the natural cycle of water. The laxity on the part of authorities in handling violators has impacted negatively in controlling the extent of pollution. However, the introduction of taxation measures and minimal recycling measures has helped in reducing the pollution menace (Picow para 8). The 2006 conflict also led to ecological injuries to Beirut and adjoining areas. Tonnes of hazardous are still deeply buried in the bombed zones where chemicals and fuel gushed from these facilities and found their way into the ground. It is believed that the bombing of Beirut airport resulted in the burying of toxic chemicals and tonnes of unexploded ordinances in the south of Beirut (UNEP 160).

Other environmental problems that Lebanon experiences include groundwater contamination, solid waste management, inadequate and damaged wastewater and sanitation infrastructure and hazardous waste contamination (UNEP). Solid waste management is a major problem due to the lack of proper legislation framework.

The collapse of the Sidon municipality garbage dump in 2008 caused to an environmental emergency in south Lebanon. About 150 tonnes of waste was swept into the sea by storms and earthquakes. The extent of pollution was not immediately known while pollution reduction measures took time to implement due to the persistent storms. The sanitation infrastructure in the southern Lebanon is inadequate leading to release of untreated waste water directly into the sea thus posing risk to marine life (UNEP 46). The hospitals in Lebanon do not have the required equipment and facilities to effectively manage the hazardous health care waste (UNEP 45). This has resulted in reckless dumping which is compounded by bombings that bring them to the surface. This scenario is responsible for the surface and ground water contamination evident during storms. Ground water contamination occurred in Tyre when Ghabris detergent factory was bombed leading to large scale chemical spill that contaminated soil and water (UNEP 160).

Lebanon is vulnerable to catastrophic disasters such as floods, earthquakes, forest fires, windstorms and land slides due to its location and geography. The natural disasters have cost the country more than 600 lives and directly affected more than 100, 000 people over the last three decades. The worst disaster was in 1955 when floods claimed 440 lives. The 1992 windstorm left massive destruction which affected the 20000 Lebanese families and claimed more than 25 lives (The OFDA/CRED International Disaster Database).

Serious forest fires occurred in the summer of 2009 where more than 15 million square meters of cover were razed. Most of these fires are started by farmers who burn their land before planting. The calamities are worsened by the windy and too dry weather conditions that are witnessed in Lebanon during the summer period. More importantly, the forest cover is been depleted in unprecedented way particularly during the war conflicts that resulted in bombing of several thousands hectares. The destruction also consumed most of the treasured cedar groves which are believed to have existed in the historical biblical times. The Lebanese is usually left helpless owing to lack of technocrats to fly the limited numbers of helicopter that are pivotal in the control and monitoring of the fires (Picow para 3). Fires are contributors of air pollutants particularly when they occur in large scale.

Earthquakes are not new to Lebanon with the historians arguing that Beirut has been grounded seven times in its history. The most catastrophic earthquake took place in 1759 with a magnitude of 7.4 and claimed thousands of lives and brought the city of Beirut to the ground. The latest earthquake hit Lebanon on 1st march, 2010 which registered 3.8 on the Richter scale. The quake was felt 50 kilometres along the Sidon coastline but caused no damage and loss of lives. Lebanon is vulnerable to earthquakes because of its location. The minutes shocks produced annually by the Yammouneh fault and the Mount Lebanon thrust lines are responsible for the earthquakes. Other factors include its location between the Arabic and African tectonic plates. Scientists believe the current lull in earthquake activity could be due to seismic cycle processes.

The Lebanese government has put several seismic monitor centres to help in the prediction of major earthquakes with the aim of averting massive loss of lives and property. The seismic activity centres are on high alerts particularly after the recent huge earthquakes in Haiti, Turkey and Chile that have led to losses worth billions of dollars. There is also the proposition by the scientists that a huge earthquake is imminent owing to the end of the 1500 years cycle since the last disastrous earthquake of the 551 A.D (National geographic news 1). It is therefore expected that Lebanon will experience several earthquakes, albeit of small magnitudes, in the year 2010. According to the National Geographic News, the faults responsible are found deep in the Meditererrean Sea. Experts have advised the people to build houses which can withstand high magnitude earthquakes especially along the coastline (National Geographic News).

Windstorms are evident in Lebanon which has led to loss of property and lives. Damage and destruction of buildings are not uncommon with many lives being lost. Windstorms have been blamed for bringing down airplanes which claim many lives. Recently, the wife of an ambassador and tens of others were killed when an Ethiopian bound airbus crashed due to wind storms. The windstorms lead to visibility problems leading to disruption of transport systems (BBC news). The storms also play a bigger role in dispersing and spreading pollutants to several areas buoyed by the topography of Lebanon. The latest stormy weather was reported in February 2010 where snows and storms were expected at around 700 meters and temperature ranges of 6 to 13 degrees Celsius. Major disruptions lasting several days have been witnessed in Lebanon caused by widespread windstorms.

Regular flooding occurs in Lebanon due to the huge amounts of conventional rainfall and storms. The floods lead to traffic jams and destruction of buildings with weak structures. The storms are also believed to fuel the spread of water borne diseases particularly during the previous four epidemics that rocked south and north Lebanon. Diseases commonly transmitted include typhoid, hepatitis and dysentery. The floods carry waste water from the towns draining into rivers thereby exposing humans to diseases. There is widespread presence of bacteriological pollution in all major sources of waters around the year. The inadequacy of solid and liquid waste systems exposes the ground and surface waters to pollution.

The environmental problems facing Lebanon need urgent action in order to avoid further destruction of marine and human life. Concerted efforts to minimize the pollution and multilevel approaches must be applied. National efforts are pivotal in the setting of clear policies and mandates that will b instrumental; in guiding the whole process. A thorough framework for enforcing environmental laws and regulations should be devised particularly in containing the solid waste menace in major towns. Enacting and enforcing the laws will assure the resident minimal pollution levels and industries taken responsible for pollution.

This will lead to application of polluter pay principle thus ensure the industries are charged for the clearance of the pollutants. The use of alternative and renewable energy sources such as wind and hydro power that do not release pollutants of harmful nature must be embraced (UNEP).

The utilization of advanced technology in the treatment of sewage will be useful in averting the release of raw sewage and industrial waste water effluents into the sea. Use of proper and cost effective waste disposal methods would also play a big role in helping alleviating the waste problem. This can also be enhanced by the application of reduce, recycle and reuse (3R’S) process that employs a multifaceted approach in solid waste control. The environmental conservation campaign can be integrated in the green life awareness with the aim of maximizing on the achievement of the campaign.

Regular and continuous monitoring of seismic activity should be enhanced with the aim of predicting the occurrence of the earthquakes. Laying down of intensive emergency plans is also imperative to reducing human suffering during the post disaster era (National geographic news 1). The conflicts in Lebanon seem to add to the environmental problem witnessed within its territorial boundaries. Proper mechanisms must be put in place to allow for diplomatic ways of solving their disputes. The meteorological department should provide accurate and regular forecast on the occurrence of windstorms and floods so that the people can be well equipped to mitigate the effects.

Lebanon, like any other country, is faced with ecological disasters and environmental problems which have negative impacts to the economy and human population. Over reliance in imports has led to the proliferation of substandard products which have a short shelf life. This adds to the waste load particularly the highly reactive electromagnetic wastes in the country. The economic cost of clearing the waste is enormous compared to the value of the imported products

Floods, pollution and windstorms have caused a lot of destruction and loss of lives. Air and water pollution which occur as a result of costly conflicts with the neighbours have threatened the existence of marine and human life. The bombing of Jiweh led to the most catastrophic ecological disaster in Lebanon history. It caused huge economic loss to the country and its full impact is expected to be felt in the next 10 years. Lebanon is prone to earthquakes due to its location with a huge one likely to strike any time soon. The Lebanese authorities have put seismic activity monitors to ensure minimal destruction and loss of lives in the event of earthquakes. The Lebanese authorities have put minimal measures to mitigate the country from the effects of these disasters. More measures at individual and organizational level are required to mitigate the effects of these disasters. It is only through concerted efforts that effectiveness in minimisation of destruction due to disasters will be achieved.

Alami, Mona. ‘’Coastal Pollution Threatens Fisher folk.’’ Inter Press News 2010. Web.

Black, Richard. ‘’Environmental ‘crisis’ in Lebanon. ’’ BBC News 2006. Web.

Inter Press Service.’’Coastal pollution threatens Lebanon’s fishermen.’’ Daily  Star  2010. Web.

National Geographic News. ‘’Major Quake, Tsunami Likely in Middle East, Study Finds’’. 2007. Web.

Newell, David. ‘’Air supply: The air quality in Lebanese cities leaves some choked up’’. NOW 2008. Web.

Picow, Maurice. ‘’Lebanon’s Environment Inaction May Affect Entire’’. Green  Prophet News  2010. Web.

Salpie S., Djoundourian, Nuwayhid, Iman and Chaaban, Farid. ‘’Quantification of health impact of air pollution in a developing country’’. International Journal of Applied Environmental Sciences 8. (2007): 21-26. Web.

The OFDA/CRED International Disaster Database. Top 10 disasters in Lebanon. 2003. Web.

UNEP – United Nations Environmental Programme. Lebanon: Post-Conflict Environmental Assessment. Nairobi: UNEP, 2007. Print.

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Lebanon: A Paradise of Waste and Pollution

• العربية ( Arabic )

Khaled Suleiman

In order to breathe unpolluted air in Lebanon, you either need to go and stand on top of some mountain or simply leave the country. But in the city, forget it.

  In order to breathe unpolluted air in Lebanon, you either need to go and stand on top of some mountain or simply leave the country. But in the city, forget it. Beirut’s streets are lined with sad, orphan trees, living in isolation and fighting heat and thirst. The lack of oxygen affects them a lot more severely than it does humans because they are planted in and surrounded by concrete. They breathe car exhaust.

According to the World Health Organization, Beirut’s pollution has already exceeded environmental standards three times. Numbeo, the world’s largest database of user contributed data about cities and countries worldwide, ranks Lebanon the 6th most polluted country in the world, preceded only by Mongolia, Myanmar, Afghanistan, Ghana and Bangladesh. Lebanon’s pollution index is 87.65 %, exceeding that of Nigeria, Egypt and China.

Lebanese activists have sounded alarms over the construction of waste incinerators inside their city. Through the International Platform for Change, they launched the slogan, “No to Incinerators.” Local environmentalists warn that power generators, traffic jams, lack of industrial waste monitoring, and the mismanagement of all environment-related issues, are all contributing factors to the ever-worsening disaster, which has turned into a public health crisis and especially affects children. While incinerators are safely operated in cities of developed countries, activists are not so sure it would be so in Lebanon. In their statement, they declare that, over the past decades, when tasks were much less complicated, the government was never able to effectively monitor waste management, enforce the implementation of the law, and bring to justice those who break it. “The state has thus repeatedly failed to avoid the current collapse in environment and health standards.”

Lebanon produces 6500 tons of solid waste per day, half of which is organic

  The statement further warns that installing the proposed waste incinerators in the neighborhood of al-Mudawar and al-Quarantina will subject children from all surrounding areas, like Burj-Hamud, Ashrafieh, Sin-el-fil, Hazmiye, Jdeida, to carcinogenic pollutants on a daily basis. These findings are the result of a study conducted by Dr. Issam al-Laqis of the American University of Beirut, which tested a sample of pollutants as they are emitted from a flue, and tracked their transmission through the air across those areas.

Of all the myriad air and water pollutants, the human element remains the most destructive, especially the waste sector, which the ministry of environment, based on data from 2011, concedes is responsible for 11% of the total greenhouse emissions in Lebanon. The sector, including wastewater, is also the largest source of methane gas emissions in the country, accounting for 87.5% of total national emissions. Methane, like carbon dioxide and other gases, is a greenhouse gas. The solid waste management methods are still primitive. According to the ministry, solid waste is responsible for the highest percentage, 94.3%, of waste emissions. Local municipalities produce about 1.56 million tons of solid waste each year.

As for the energy recovery process, it is almost non-existent in Lebanon. According to a 2018 government statement, Lebanon produces 6500 tons of solid waste per day, half of which is organic. 50% of this waste is haphazardly dumped in landfills and 35% is buried in Burj-Hammoud, at the confluence of the rivers Ghadir and Zahleh, and finally, only 15% is recycled. However, the data on the so-called “sanitary burial” cannot be verified, due to the difficulty of sorting the waste before dumping it in the landfill, not to mention that burying itself is not a sanitary solution either. In a country that lacks an ecological strategy that classifies landfills, organic waste is mixed with plastic, batteries and electronics. Toxic material thus leaks and endangers fertilizers, rivers and freshwater sources.

In addition to its household garbage, this tiny country produces 50000 tons of hazardous industrial chemicals each year ranging from electronic waste, expired medicine and other health institutions’ waste, used oils, batteries and tires, persistent organic pollutants, in addition to waste resulting from the olive oil industry, slaughterhouses, and the demolition and construction sites. In the absence of a proper environmental management, these materials are disposed of at random. Add to it all that the huge number of old cars and public transportation vehicles all over the Lebanese roads, which produce a large amount of carbon because they have been overused over many years.

The high pollution levels in Lebanon are man-made, then. Politicians bear the responsibility for the crisis. To understand the picture today, one need only look back at 2015 when Beirut’s streets were filled with rubbish that the government would not pick up for months.

Not that there is any difference between the stench of unpicked street garbage and the smoke emanating from incinerators. It all just stinks.

This article was produced with the support of Rosa Luxembourg Stiftung. 

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Nationwide Assessment of Water Quality in Rivers across Lebanon by Quantifying Fecal Indicators Densities and Profiling Antibiotic Resistance of Escherichia coli

Lea a. dagher.

1 Department of Nutrition and Food Sciences, Faculty of Agricultural and Food Sciences, American University of Beirut (AUB), Beirut 1107 2020, Lebanon; ude.bua.liam@71dal (L.A.D.); bl.ude.bua@751ks (S.K.)

Jouman Hassan

2 Center for Food Safety, Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Georgia, 1109 Experiment Street, Griffin, GA 30223, USA; [email protected]

Samer Kharroubi

Hadi jaafar.

3 Department of Agriculture, Faculty of Agricultural and Food Sciences, American University of Beirut (AUB), Beirut 1107 2020, Lebanon; bl.ude.bua@10jh

Issmat I. Kassem

Associated data.

All the relevant data have been included in this study. We did not generate data that required public.

The use of contaminated water has been associated with severe disease outbreaks. Due to widespread pollution with untreated sewage, concerns have been raised over water quality in Lebanon, a country with well-documented challenges in infrastructure. Here, we evaluated the water quality of major rivers in Lebanon by quantifying the densities of fecal indicator bacteria (fecal coliforms and Escherichia coli ). Additionally, we assessed the dissemination of antibiotic-resistant E. coli in river water. Composite water samples ( n = 132) were collected from fourteen rivers, and 378 E. coli were isolated and analyzed. Fecal coliforms and E. coli were detected in 96.29% and 95.5% of the samples, respectively. Additionally, 73.48–61.3% and 31.81% of the samples exceeded the microbiological acceptability standards for irrigation and the fecal coliform limit for recreational activities, respectively. The E. coli exhibited resistance to ampicillin (40% of isolates), amoxicillin + clavulanic acid (42%), cefepime (4%), cefotaxime (14%), cefalexin (46%), cefixime (17%), doripenem (0.3%), imipenem (0.5%), gentamicin (6%), kanamycin (9%), streptomycin (35%), tetracycline (35%), ciprofloxacin (10%), norfloxacin (7%), trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (32%), and chloramphenicol (13%). Notably, 45.8% of the isolates were classified as multidrug resistant (MDR). Our results highlight the need to urgently address fecal pollution and the dissemination of antibiotic resistance in Lebanese rivers.

1. Introduction

Natural water resources such as rivers are vital assets with a substantial impact on human health, food production, and the economy. The increase in the human population has intensified demand on water resources for both critical needs, such as agriculture and sanitation, and recreation. Furthermore, threats like pollution and climate change have contributed to water scarcity and the deterioration of water quality, increasing further the pressure on vital water resources and their sustainability worldwide [ 1 , 2 , 3 ].

The association of water pollution with adverse impacts on human health and the contamination of food is well documented [ 4 ]. While around 62% of irrigated lands worldwide primarily rely on surface waters [ 5 ], contaminated waters have resulted in outbreaks of disease with considerable incidences of morbidity and mortality, especially in children and other vulnerable populations [ 2 , 6 , 7 , 8 ]. This is not surprising because polluted water is known to harbor a variety of microbial pathogens, including bacteria, viruses and parasites, and chemical contaminants. For example, in the United States of America (US) recently, exposure to contaminated recreational water has resulted in outbreaks caused by Shigella (California), norovirus (Maine), or Shiga toxin–producing Escherichia coli (Minnesota) [ 9 , 10 ]. Furthermore, irrigation water has been potentially linked to the contamination of leafy greens, which was associated with several foodborne disease outbreaks in the US caused by E. coli O157:H7 and E. coli O145 [ 11 ]. Therefore, pollution is a serious unfolding problem that threatens water quality and requires immediate attention.

An emerging and significant risk associated with water pollution is the emergence and/or dissemination of antibiotic-resistant (ABR) bacterial pathogens that can cause life-threatening and difficult-to-treat infections [ 12 , 13 ]. In fact, the World Health Organization (WHO) recognizes antimicrobial resistance as one of the most urgent public health threats that is associated with widespread suffering and economic losses. Similarly, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) has designated antimicrobial resistance as one of the top six emerging environmental issues [ 14 ]. Surface waters are readily contaminated with antibiotics and resistant bacteria from a variety of sources and activities [ 13 , 15 , 16 ] such as the direct disposal of untreated wastewater into water resources, including rivers, or via runoff from agricultural fields amended with manure [ 17 , 18 , 19 ]. Wastewater is considered a reservoir of ABR bacteria and can also contain excreted and/or discarded antibiotics used for medical and/or agricultural purposes [ 20 ]. Notably, 30–90% of some antibiotics can be excreted unmetabolized from humans and animals after consumption [ 21 , 22 ]. These antibiotics will then exert a pressure on bacterial communities driving the selection, evolution, emergence, and/or persistence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, which are then disseminated by water to humans and animals [ 21 , 22 ].

Water pollution and associated problems, including the spread of ABR, are exacerbated in developing countries due to several factors that include debilitated infrastructure, the lack of proper sewage and waste disposal systems, and weak water quality surveillance programs [ 23 ]. Notably, poor water quality and sanitation have been linked to 80% of all diseases, while ~1.8 million people die yearly due to waterborne diseases in developing countries [ 24 ]. The latter has an indelible impact on fragile socioeconomic development, increasing the cycle of poverty and suffering in these countries [ 24 , 25 ]. The World Bank estimates that water pollution can claim approximately a third of economic growth in some countries [ 26 ]. Consequently, there is a paramount need to monitor water quality and devise interventions and recommendations to limit the multi-pronged impacts associated with the pollution of water resources, especially in developing countries with substantial deficiencies in resources and infrastructure.

Lebanon is a developing Mediterranean country with numerous challenges that include a weak infrastructure, severe economic crisis, political unrest, and widespread pollution among others. In comparison to other countries in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region, Lebanon is considered to be relatively water rich [ 19 , 27 , 28 ]. However, water in Lebanon have been suffering from chronic mismanagement, partially due to the absence of a national policy for integrated water resources management, which prevents the country from exploiting this valuable resource [ 28 ]. Furthermore, water in Lebanon has been under an increasing pollution threat, mainly due to (1) population growth, including an influx of ~1.5 million refugees (~1 refugee per 4 nationals) since 2011, (2) wastewater and solid waste mismanagement, and (3) absence of monitoring and surveillance programs [ 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 ]. Notably, in 2016, it was reported that only 58.54% of buildings in Lebanon were connected to a sewer network, while the rest (41.46%) use cesspools, septic tanks, or directly dispose untreated sewage into aquatic environments such as rivers and streams. It was also estimated that only 11.65% and 6.87% of the population in the North of Lebanon and Beirut (capital of Lebanon) and Mount Lebanon were connected to serviceable sewage networks, respectively [ 33 , 34 ]. Additionally, sewage water is not properly treated, because there is insufficient number of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in Lebanon, while available WWTPs provide preliminary treatment, operate with limited capacity and budget, or lack a sewage network, rendering the plants largely nonoperational [ 33 , 34 , 35 ]. As a result, 92% of the collected wastewater are disposed of without any prior treatment into aquatic environments [ 33 ]. The aforementioned pollution strongly suggests that surface water might be widely contaminated and constitutes a reservoir that disseminates contaminants such as antibiotic resistant pathogens to other vital resources, including the food chain. Recently, multiple reports have highlighted a rise in antibiotic resistance in Lebanon [ 30 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 ] due to the abuse and misuse of antibiotics in humans and agriculture [ 43 ]. This problem appears to be widespread, with multidrug and extensively drug-resistant bacteria detected in clinical settings [ 43 , 44 , 45 ], farmed animals [ 36 , 38 , 46 , 47 , 48 ], and the environment [ 30 , 37 , 39 , 40 ]. However, studies on the occurrence of ABR in polluted surface waters, especially rivers, are sparse and limited in Lebanon [ 19 , 27 , 49 ].

Lebanon depends on water for agriculture (60% of water withdrawal) and municipal (29%) and industrial use (11%) [ 50 ]. Furthermore, it was estimated that 45% of the irrigated lands in Lebanon rely on surface water as a primary source [ 3 ]. Consequently, water pollution in Lebanon poses a significant risk to public health and the economy. Here, we assessed the water quality and occurrence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in all major rivers ( n = 14) across Lebanon. For this purpose, we quantified indicators of fecal pollution, fecal coliforms, and E. coli [ 51 , 52 , 53 ], from samples collected from upstream, midstream, and downstream of each river. This is important because high densities of fecal indicators have been associated with the occurrence of pathogenic microorganisms such as Salmonella and E. coli O157:H7 that have serious impact on human health [ 51 ]. Furthermore, antibiotic resistance was evaluated using E. coli isolated from the water because this bacterium has also been used as an indicator for monitoring the emergence and proliferation of resistance in bacterial communities [ 54 , 55 , 56 ]. To our knowledge, this is the first nationwide study that assessed water quality and antibiotic resistance across all rivers in Lebanon.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. collection of water samples from rivers across lebanon.

Freshwater samples were collected from 14 major perennial rivers across Lebanon (May–July 2019). Two of these rivers, the Assi and Hasbani, are transboundary. Each river was divided into three sampling sites, upstream (U), midstream (M), and downstream (D), that were ~7–42 km apart depending on the length of the river and accessibility of the location. For the Litani river, which is the longest (>165 km) and largest river in Lebanon, three midstream (M) locations were included in the sampling. Composite samples were aseptically collected in triplicates from each sampling site by submerging a sterile 1 Liter Nalgene ® water bottle, 20–30 cm underwater without disrupting the sediment as recommended by the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) [ 40 , 57 ]. A total of one-hundred and thirty-two ( n = 132) freshwater samples from 44 locations ( Table 1 ) were transported to the laboratory in coolers (2–5 °C) and processed within 12–16 h of collection.

Sampling locations across the major rivers in Lebanon, upstream (U), midstream (M), and downstream (D). Sample identifiers (ID) are included for each sampling location. For example, Wak, Hed, and Ari represent Wadi Khaled, Hekr el Dahri, and Arida, which are upstream, midstream, and downstream of the Kabir river, respectively. Major rivers are listed in order from the North to the South of Lebanon. * Inaccessible: the location was across the Lebanese borders and could not be sampled.

2.2. Quantification of Fecal Coliforms and E. coli Densities

To determine the number of colony forming units (CFU) of fecal coliforms and E. coli , the water samples were filtered (100 mL and 500 mL) through a 0.22-µm Millipore ® membranes (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA). The membranes were transferred onto RAPID’ E. coli 2 agar plates (BioRad, Hercules, CA, USA) that were incubated at 44 °C for 18–24 h under aerobic conditions [ 37 , 58 ]. Typical CFUs of fecal coliforms (blue) and E. coli (violet to pink) colonies were counted and reported as CFU/100 mL water. The microbiological quality of the samples was determined by comparing the fecal indicator loads to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US-EPA) standards for recreational water (permissible limit of fecal coliforms; 800 CFU/100 mL) [ 51 ] and the SEQ-EAU-2003 standard for irrigation (permissible limit of thermo-tolerant coliforms; 100 CFU/100 mL) [ 59 ].

To facilitate comparison between fecal coliforms and E. coli counts, bacterial densities were averaged from the triplicates of each sampling location, and the data were reported as average counts (CFU/100 mL) with standard error. The student t-test was then used to compare the average counts of E. coli and fecal coliforms at each location. A p -value < 0.05 was used to identify statistically significant differences.

2.3. Assessment of the Antibiotic Resistance Phenotypes of the E. coli Isolates

Antibiotic resistance profiles of the E. coli isolated from water were determined using the disk diffusion assay [ 60 ]. A total of 378 E. coli isolates (3 colonies per sample) were purified. Random colonies ( n = 60) were selected and their identity further confirmed using species-specific PCR analysis as described elsewhere [ 30 , 37 ]. All the E. coli ( n = 378) were suspended in cation-adjusted Muller–Hinton (MH) broth (Oxiod, Hampshire, UK) and the turbidity was adjusted using a 0.5 McFarland standard and a spectrophotometer (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA) [ 39 , 58 ]. The bacterial suspensions (100 µL) were spread onto MH agar plates (Oxiod, Hampshire, UK) and commercially available antibiotic discs were added to the plates, which were then incubated at 37 °C for 18–24 h. The tested antibiotic discs ( n = 17) belonged to 9 different antibiotics classes, including 1, penicillins: ampicillin (AMP; 10 µg), 2, beta-lactamase inhibitor combinations: amoxicillin + clavulanic acid (AMC; 20 µg/10 µg), 3, cephalosporins: cefixime (CFM; 5 µg), cephalexin (LEX; 30 µg), cefotaxime (CTX; 30 µg), and cefepime (FEP; 30 µg); 4, carbapenems: doripenem (DOR; 10 µg), meropenem (MEM; 10 µg), and imipenem (IPM; 10 µg); 5, aminoglycosides: gentamicin (GEN; 10 µg), kanamycin (KAN; 30 µg), and streptomycin (STR; 10 µg); 6, tetracyclines: tetracycline (TET; 30 µg); 7, quinolones and fluoroquinolones: ciprofloxacin (CIP; 5 µg) and norfloxacin (NOR; 10 µg); 8, sulphonamides: trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (SXT; 25 µg), and 9, phenicols: chloramphenicol (CHL 30 µg). Penicillin (PEN; 6 µg) and erythromycin (ERY; 15 µg) were used as controls, because E. coli is intrinsically resistant to these antibiotics [ 61 ]. Additionally, E. coli DH5α was also included as a control across the experiments. Antibiotic resistance (ABR) was determined by measuring the diameter of the zone of inhibition around each antibiotic disc and comparing it with the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) [ 60 ] and the European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (EUCAST) standards [ 62 ]. Antibiotic resistance profiles were analyzed using hierarchical clustering (HLC). For this purpose, the resistance or susceptibility of each isolate were coded in Excel ® (Microsoft, Redmond, WA, USA) as follows: −1 (resistant), 0 (intermediate), and 1 (susceptible); with the E. coli isolates represented in rows and the antibiotics in columns. Then the data were exported to MeV v4.6.2 software ( http://www.tm4.org/ , accessed on 10 June 2021) to perform HLC analysis using the Pearson correlation as a distance metric and the complete linkage method [ 58 , 63 ]. A graphical presentation (heat map) was generated with the upper limit (1; sensitive), midpoint (0; intermediate), and lowest limit (−1, resistant) colored green, black, and red, respectively [ 63 ].

3.1. Densities of Fecal Coliforms and E. coli in River Water Samples

Fecal coliforms were detected in 127 (96.2%) of 132 water samples and 43 (98%) of 44 locations (only in one location, Fnaidek, all 3 samples did not yield fecal coliforms CFUs) ( Figure 1 ). The average number of fecal coliforms in positive locations ranged from 1 × 10 0 CFU/100 mL to 3.66 × 10 4 CFU/100 mL. E. coli was detected in 126 samples (95.5%) and in 42 (95.5%) of 44 locations ( Figure 1 ). The average number of E. coli in positive locations ranged from 2.6 × 10 0 CFU/100 mL to 2.61 × 10 4 CFU/100 mL ( Figure 1 ). Average numbers of fecal coliforms were higher than E. coli in all positive locations; however, statistically higher average numbers of fecal coliforms ( p < 0.05) were noted for 27 locations ( Figure 1 ). The highest average counts were recorded in samples retrieved from the midstream of Beirut river (3.66 × 10 4 CFU/100 mL fecal coliforms and 2.61 × 10 4 CFU/100 mL E. coli ) followed by midstream and downstream of the Abou Ali river [Zgharta (2.16 × 10 4 CFU/100 mL, 1.1 × 10 4 CFU/100 mL) and Abou Ali (9.97 × 10 3 CFU/100 mL, 5.43 × 10 3 CFU/100 mL)] ( Figure 1 ). With the exception of Abou Ali, Awali, and Hasbani rivers, the fecal coliforms and E. coli counts were generally lower upstream in comparison with those from midstream and downstream locations in the majority of the rivers ( Figure 1 ).

The average loads of fecal coliforms and E. coli counts (CFU/100 mL) in Lebanese river water. The asterisk (*) represents a statistically significant difference between fecal coliforms and E. coli counts ( p < 0.05). The letters next to the sampling sites represents the location where the sample was collected, U = upstream, M = midstream, and D = downstream. Standard error bars are included with the averages.

3.2. Comparison of Fecal Coliforms and E. coli Counts to Irrigation and Recreation Standards

Fecal coliforms and E. coli counts were compared with the SEQ-EAU standard (100 CFU/100 mL) for irrigation water quality. Based on fecal coliforms counts, 97 (73.48%) of the 132 water samples and 33 (75%) of the 44 locations exceeded the SEQ-EAU-2003 standard ( Figure 2 and Figure 3 ), indicating that the water was unacceptable for irrigation. Similarly, when evaluating E. coli counts, it was found that 81 (61.3%) of the 132 samples and 27 (61.3%) of the 44 sampling locations exceeded the SEQ-EAU standard ( Figure 2 and Figure 3 ). In general, most of the samples that exceeded the permissible limit for irrigation (using fecal coliforms and/or E. coli counts) were collected from midstream and downstream locations across the major rivers. The fecal coliform counts in upstream samples from Litani and Hasbani (2 of 3 samples/location) rivers exceeded the standard for irrigation ( Figure 2 ). However, when considering E. coli counts, only upstream samples from Abou Ali and Awali rivers were found to be unacceptable ( Figure 2 ).

Distribution of counts of fecal coliforms ( A ) and E. coli ( B ) in samples collected from each location across the rivers: Upstream (blue circle), Midstream (orange), and Downstream (grey). The dotted black line indicates acceptable limit of thermo-tolerant coliforms based on the SEQ-EAUX-2003 standard for irrigation water (100 CFU/100 mL). The black line indicates the permissible limit of fecal coliforms for safe recreational water (800 CFU/100 mL) as per the EPA standards. Samples that did not yield fecal coliforms or E. coli are not represented in the figures.

Map showing the distribution of the water samples that exceeded the acceptable limits for irrigation and recreational use. ( A ) Assessment of the acceptability of water for irrigation and recreation using fecal coliforms numbers. Red circle: all samples exceeded acceptability limits for irrigation (unacceptable); green circle: all samples were below the acceptability limit for irrigation (acceptable); orange circles: 2 samples of 3 exceeded limits for irrigation (mixed). Red triangle: all samples exceeded limits for recreation; green triangle: all samples were below the acceptability limit for recreation. ( B ) Assessment of acceptability of water for irrigation using E. coli numbers. Red square: all samples exceeded limits for irrigation (unacceptable); green square: all samples were below the acceptability limit for irrigation (acceptable).

The acceptability of river water for recreation was evaluated using the US-EPA standard (800 fecal coliforms CFU/100 mL). Subsequently, 42 (31.8%) of the 132 samples and 14 (31.8%) of the 44 locations exceeded the recommended standard for safe recreational use. Again, samples that exceeded the standard were collected from midstream and downstream locations; with the Abou Ali river being an exception, where all samples and locations exceeded the standard. Notably, the majority of unacceptable water samples were collected from rivers in the North (30 of 42; 71.4%) in comparison with 18% of the samples collected in the South (6 of 33) and 9% in Mount Lebanon (3 of 33) ( Figure 2 and Figure 3 ).

3.3. The Antibiotic Resistance Profiles of E. coli Isolated from Water

Antibiotic resistance profiles of 378 E. coli (3 colonies per sample) were determined. The isolates exhibited resistance to ampicillin (40%), amoxicillin + clavulanic acid (42%), cefepime (4%), cefotaxime (14%), cephalexin (46%), cefixime (17%), doripenem (0.3%), imipenem (0.5%), gentamicin (6%), kanamycin (9%), streptomycin (35%), tetracycline (35%), ciprofloxacin (10%), norfloxacin (7%), trimethoprim + sulfamethoxazole (32%) and chloramphenicol (13%) ( Figure 4 ). All isolates were sensitive to meropenem. Furthermore, intermediate resistance was observed against several antibiotics, including streptomycin (38.26%), kanamycin (26.9%), ampicillin (8.44%), cefepime (8.1%), ciprofloxacin (4.75%), norfloxacin (3.4%), tetracycline (1.85%), cefotaxime (1.85%), cefixime (1.85%), imipenem (1.3%), doripenem (1%), meropenem (0.26%), gentamicin (0.26%), and chloramphenicol (0.26%) ( Figure 4 ). Notably, some E. coli ( n = 3) isolated from Oyoun el Samak (midstream of Bared river) and Zgharta (midstream of Abou Ali river) in the North were resistant to carbapenems (doripenem and/or imipenem) ( Figure 5 ). Furthermore, 45.8% ( n = 173) of the isolates were classified as multidrug resistant (MDR; resistance to at least three classes of antibiotics). Further analysis showed that 77%, 72%, 62%, 55.5%, and 47% of the E. coli from Beirut, Bared, Awali, Abou Ali, and Litani rivers were MDR, respectively ( Figure 5 ). Additionally, 8.7% (33 isolates), 7.1% (27), 6.8% (26), and 0.52% (2) of the isolates were resistant to 5, 6, 7, and 8 antibiotic classes, respectively. HLC analysis of the ABR profiles of isolates from each river showed widespread resistance to AMP, AMC, LEX, CFM, STR, TET, and SXT in most of the rivers ( Figure 5 ). Furthermore, resistance to CIP was notable in isolates from Bared, Abou Ali, and El Jawz rivers ( Figure 5 ).

Antibiotic resistance of E. coli (percentage) isolated from the rivers in Lebanon. Ampicillin (AMP), amoxicillin + clavulanic acid (AMC), cefepime (FEP), cefotaxime (CTX), cephalexin (LEX), cefixime (CFM), doripenem (DOR), meropenem (MEM), imipenem (IPM), gentamicin (GEN), kanamycin (KAN), streptomycin (STR), tetracycline (TET), ciprofloxacin (CIP), norfloxacin (NOR), trimethoprim + sulfamethoxazole (SXT), and chloramphenicol (CHL). The antibiotics are arranged according to the order of antibiotics/classes listed in the CLSI guidelines.

Hierarchical clustering of the antibiotic resistance (ABR) profiles of E. coli ( n = 378) isolated from rivers in Lebanon. The strains were analyzed per river; n indicates the number of isolates per river. The isolates are listed on the bottom of each dendrogram. Ampicillin (AMP), amoxicillin + clavulanic acid (AMC), cefepime (FEP), cefotaxime (CTX), cephalexin (LEX), cefixime (CFM), doripenem (DOR), meropenem (MEM), imipenem (IPM), gentamicin (GEN), kanamycin (KAN), streptomycin (STR), tetracycline (TET), ciprofloxacin (CIP), norfloxacin (NOR), trimethoprim + sulfamethoxazole (SXT), and chloramphenicol (CHL). The red color in the heat map represents resistance, while black and green indicate intermediate resistance and susceptibility, respectively.

4. Discussion

Clean water is an integral component in the production of safe food and in maintaining human health. The use of contaminated water results in a variety of waterborne diseases and aggravates infectious diseases and the burden of foodborne illnesses, especially in vulnerable and disenfranchised populations [ 64 , 65 ]. Therefore, it is paramount to monitor the quality of water in order to devise mechanisms and policies that prevent the contamination of vital water resources such as rivers. Despite the critical role of rivers in sustainable agriculture and socioeconomic growth in Lebanon [ 5 , 19 , 27 ], river water quality has been confronted with a plethora of challenges, including severe deficiencies in infrastructure, wastewater management, and antimicrobial stewardship. Although it is widely known that aquatic environments are severely affected by untreated sewage and other agricultural and industrial contaminants [ 66 , 67 ], studies on fecal pollution and microbial safety of surface water in Lebanon are scant. For this purpose, we conducted this study to evaluate water quality by assessing indicators of fecal pollution (fecal coliforms and E. coli ) [ 51 ] and antibiotic resistance ( E. coli ) [ 55 , 56 ] across all major rivers in Lebanon.

Our data showed that 96.2%, and 95.5% of the river water samples in Lebanon harbored fecal coliforms and E. coli , respectively ( Figure 1 and Figure 2 ). The widespread detection of the fecal indicators was not surprising, given that a previous report indicated that 92% of the collected wastewater in Lebanon were discarded, without any treatment, into aquatic environments, while a considerable number of buildings lacked connection to a sewer network [ 33 , 34 , 68 ]. The high bacterial loads reported in some locations such as midstream of Beirut (Beirut) and Oustwein (Khuraybat el Jundi) rivers, downstream of Bared (Bared) and Kabir (Arida) rivers, and across Abou Ali river were expected because these rivers are heavily impacted by human sewage and other urban contaminants. A report in 2016 indicated that WWTPs were either absent or operated at limited capacity to treat wastewater in the North and in Beirut, which resulted in the release of untreated wastewater to aquatic environments [ 33 , 34 ]. Additionally, these rivers are located in areas with high population densities, including crowded refugee camps that lack infrastructure [ 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 39 ]. Therefore, these rivers are affected by urban activities, highlighting the negative impact of crowding and the debilitated infrastructure on water quality. Although the fecal indicators were widely detected in river water samples, it was noted that samples collected from upstream harbored relatively lower numbers of fecal coliforms and E. coli as compared with midstream and downstream samples in 11 of the 14 rivers; Abou Ali, Awali, and Hasbani rivers were the exception ( Figure 1 ). This result suggested that the river sources were likely less affected by pollution, potentially due to limited urbanization in those locations. Therefore, as expected, the pollution (densities of fecal indicators) appears to increase as the rivers cross locations with more dense populations and increasing agricultural and industrial activities.

For assessing water quality in Lebanon, previous studies relied on international standards of fecal indicators in irrigation and recreational water. Specifically, the French SEQ-EAU-2003 [ 59 ] and the US EPA standard [ 51 , 69 ] have been considered for evaluating irrigation and recreational water quality, respectively. According to SEQ-EAU-2003, the acceptable limit of thermo-tolerant fecal coliforms (fecal coliforms or E. coli ) is 100 CFU/100 mL, which is similar to standards set by other countries in the European Union [ 70 ], including Spain (Royal Decree 1620/2007, December 2007) [ 71 , 72 ]. Consequently, we adopted these standards to assess the suitability of river water for irrigation and recreation in Lebanon. When considering both fecal coliforms and E. coli numbers, it was noted that 61.3–73.48% of samples and 61.3–75% of the locations exceeded the limit set by SEQ-EAU-2003 for irrigation water ( Figure 2 and Figure 3 ). Therefore, E. coli densities revealed a lower number of unacceptable irrigation water samples and locations in comparison with fecal coliforms ( Figure 2 and Figure 3 ). However, even when considering the more conservative indicator ( E. coli ), we found that a majority of the unacceptable samples were located in regions where agricultural practices are relatively concentrated, which includes the North of Lebanon (70.4%) and Beqaa (60%). Furthermore, in the South, samples from Jarmaq and Qasmiye rivers, which represent the midstream and downstream of the Litani river, exceeded the SEQ-EAU-2003 standard for irrigation. This can be attributed to the fact that the Litani river flows from the Beqaa Valley and carries sewage from different cities such as Baalbeck, Bar Elias, Zahle, Joub Jannine, and Sifri as well as effluents from informal refugee settlements and many industries (such as food factories and sugar mills), poultry farms, and slaughterhouses located in the Litani basin ( Figure 3 ) [ 73 ]. Notably, the Litani River is the chief source of irrigation for agricultural lands in the Beqaa Valley and the South, and it has been well established that the river is being subjected to different pollutants, including pesticides and human and animal waste [ 73 , 74 ]. For example, ~69 villages and cities release approximately 47 Mm 3 per year of raw sewage into the Litani River [ 75 ]. Taken together, it appears that a high number of water samples from agriculturally important rivers in Lebanon were fecally contaminated and were deemed unacceptable for irrigation. This can be further deduced by comparing the numbers with those from counties with better infrastructure and water management. For example, in Canada, of 501 irrigation water samples analyzed, only 0.8–22% exceeded the Canadian permissible limit for E. coli [ 76 ]. Furthermore, our findings suggest that human activities near the rivers significantly affect the safety of water, because most upstream sites, located in remote and less populated areas, were found to be suitable for irrigation ( Figure 3 ). Regardless, the quality of river water is a serious concern, because fecally-contaminated irrigation water will affect the safety of produce, which will increase the risk of contracting foodborne infections that can cause serious or life-threatening diseases in humans [ 77 , 78 ]. Fecal pathogens like Salmonella spp., E. coli O157:H7, Cryptosporidium , Norovirus, Hepatitis A Virus among others have been associated with the contamination of produce, resulting in considerable outbreaks and/or illnesses [ 79 ]. Indeed, three studies reported that the produce such as spinach, parsley, cabbage and lettuce collected from the Beqaa Valley were contaminated with fecal bacteria [ 27 , 80 , 81 ]. Notably, fresh produce is usually consumed raw, which increases the risk of foodborne diseases. Therefore, it is of paramount importance to monitor the quality of water used for irrigation in order to control the proliferation of disease in Lebanon, which is particularly vulnerable to these infections due to ongoing severe medical and economic crises [ 82 ]. It should be highlighted that our study did not assess other types of contamination like pesticides and other xenobiotics, which perhaps further emphasizes the potential impact and scope of water pollution.

To assess the suitability of water for recreational use, fecal coliforms counts from the water samples were compared with the US EPA standard ( Figure 2 and Figure 3 ). The data showed that 31.8% of the samples were deemed unacceptable for recreational use. Notably, the majority of the samples collected from the North (71.4%) of Lebanon were unacceptable for recreation, which is likely related to the pollution factors that were mentioned earlier. Additionally, the North has arguably more severe poverty and infrastructure challenges in comparison with the rest of the country [ 82 ]. Although 68.2% of the river samples were found to be suitable for recreational use (based on fecal coliforms counts), these results should be interpreted with caution, because (1) we only assessed fecal pollution but not other types of contamination such as chemical contaminants, (2) our sampling was cross-sectional and did not account for temporal variations in the densities of fecal indicators, (3) the sampling was done after a relatively wet season, and (4) some chemical contamination might have affected the densities of the fecal indicators. For example, pollution downstream of Beirut River (Beirut Port) from industrial, animal, and hospital wastes is well established; however, densities of fecal coliforms at this location did not exceed the EPA or SEQ-EAU-2003 standards for recreational use or irrigation. It is possible that the release of toxic chemicals (agrochemicals, detergents, chlorinated compound, etc.) might have altered the numbers of fecal coliforms in these samples [ 83 ].

It is known that even the discharge of treated sewage can release antibiotic-resistant bacteria, transmissible genetic elements that encode resistance, and antibiotics residue into environments [ 84 , 85 ]. Therefore, the emergence and dissemination of ABR has been linked to fecal pollution. Given that untreated sewage and other contaminants are released into Lebanese rivers and that ABR is widespread in other vital matrices in Lebanon [ 30 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 ], it was necessary to address ABR in our samples. The latter was addressed by assessing resistance of river water E. coli , which is normally used as an indicator of ABR [ 86 , 87 ]. Our data showed that 173 (~45.8%) E. coli were multidrug resistant, exhibiting resistance to at least three antibiotic classes ( Figure 5 ). The percentage of multidrug-resistant E. coli in Lebanese rivers is slightly lower than those previously reported for sewage contaminated rivers in Romania (60.34%) [ 88 ] and in Ethiopia (78%) [ 89 ]. However, Lebanon is a much smaller country, both in size (~10,450 Km 2 ) and human population (~6.8 million) and has comparatively limited agricultural and industrial output, which perhaps reveals the severity of ABR prevalence in Lebanese river water. The latter can be further evaluated, when considering countries with better wastewater management systems. For example, MDR E.coli in surface waters in the Netherlands and Poland were detected in 11% [ 90 ] and 19% [ 91 ] of the samples, respectively.

In our study, resistance to cefalexin (46%), ampicillin (40%), amoxicillin + clavulanic acid (42%), streptomycin (34%), and tetracycline (35%), were the highest ( Figure 4 ). These antibiotics are considered clinically and agriculturally important, increasing the risk of complicated infections in swimmers, consumers of produce irrigated with contaminated waters, and livestock that might use these waters [ 85 , 92 ]. Resistance to carbapenems was low and only identified in three isolates from the North, specifically in Zgharta and Oyoun el Samak rivers ( Figure 5 ). However, this should be considered a warning sign, because carbapenems are last-resort antibiotics for treating complicated life-threatening infections in humans [ 93 ]. Recently, multidrug-resistant E. coli that also harbored transmissible resistance to colistin, which is used to treat carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae (CRE) infections, was detected in irrigation water and sewage in the Beqaa region [ 30 , 37 , 39 ]. Taken together, it can be argued that continuous contamination might cause river water to become a reservoir for the evolution, emergence, and dissemination of MDR bacterial pathogens and ABR genetic determinants.

5. Conclusions

To our knowledge, this study is the first nationwide assessment of fecal pollution and the dissemination of antibiotic-resistant E. coli in river water in Lebanon. The data show that most of the rivers in Lebanon are heavily contaminated by fecal indicator bacteria, which jeopardizes harnessing the full potential of these critical resources in irrigation and recreation. This is further confirmed by the detection of E . coli that were resistant to clinically and agriculturally important antibiotics. Although our study was cross-sectional and did not assess other factors like water flow, chemical contamination, and seasonal variation, the results indicate clearly that fecal pollution is severely impacting rivers in Lebanon. This study highlights the urgent need to implement proper wastewater management to preserve the safety and sustainability of river water in Lebanon. Our data also suggest that fecal pollution can be remediated because the majority of upstream locations were found to be less contaminated or acceptable. However, action must be taken immediately to prevent further deterioration of the rivers. Furthermore, there is a need to strengthen antimicrobial stewardship and enhance surveillance programs to study antibiotic resistance in environmental niches in Lebanon, which remains lacking. This issue is very important locally and regionally, because river water can also carry antibiotic-resistant bacteria across borders and into the Mediterranean basin. The assessment of the emergence and dissemination of antibiotic resistance in water and other environments in Lebanon would benefit greatly from future studies on the underlying genetic mechanisms of resistance. Finally, we call for adopting clear and strict guidelines and standards for water safety and to continuously monitor the quality of water in Lebanese rivers, which are essential contributors to public health and economy.

Acknowledgments

We thank the personnel of the Laboratory of Food Microbiology (AUB, NFSC) for their support.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, I.I.K.; methodology, I.I.K. and H.J.; validation, I.I.K.; formal analysis, I.I.K., J.H., S.K., H.J., and L.A.D.; investigation, I.I.K., L.A.D., and J.H.; resources, I.I.K.; data curation, I.I.K., J.H., S.K., and H.J.; writing—original draft preparation, I.I.K., J.H., and L.A.D.; writing—review and editing, I.I.K., J.H., and H.J.; visualization, I.I.K.; supervision, I.I.K.; project administration, I.I.K.; funding acquisition; I.I.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

This work was partially funded by a University Research Board (URB) grant from the American University of Beirut (AUB) and seed funding from the Center for Food Safety, University of Georgia (UGA).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

We declare no conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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Pollution in Lebanon Posing Serious Health Risks, Damaging Tourism

Lebanon stands out for its beautiful nature and the multiplicity of tourist attractions, which include the cedar forests of Bcharee and Tannourine, the Qannoubine Valley, Jeita Grotto, Baalbek Castle, Tyre, Sidon and Jbeil. Small yet diverse, it markets itself as a country where you can ski on snow-capped mountains in the morning and swim in the Mediterranean Sea in the afternoon. The Lebanese Ministry of Tourism seeks to focus on all these distinct features to attract the largest possible number of tourists.

What this focus carefully overlooks is the environmental pollution that is threatening Lebanon’s natural wealth and harming public health. Analysts believe that the main causes of the worsening pollution problem is the failure of the state and concerned authorities over the past years to find drastic solutions.

The garbage crisis – the uncontrolled dumping of trash – which hit local and international headlines in 2015 played a key role in shedding light on the environmental issues that have become a prime concern of Lebanese citizens.

The ‘ You Stink ’ campaign launched in response to the crisis, published on its Facebook page a video clip titled ‘ Last Warning ’. The video, which shows tons of household waste littering roads, river banks and shorelines, highlighted both the extent of the crisis and the government’s failure to resolve it. It is worth mentioning that this particular crisis dates back several years, the result of a lack of clear planning and sound procedures to dispose of waste (both solid and liquid) and garbage .

There are two main ways of disposing of garbage and waste in Lebanon. The first is incineration, which results in the emission of toxic gases such as carbon monoxide, the inhalation of which blocks the transfer of oxygen to the brain and the heart, and in extreme cases can lead to death.

Moreover, dioxin released by combustion can seriously affect the nerves and immune system and may cause a number of cancers, while sulphur dioxide may lead to acute asthma attacks.

The second way is landfills , which are often scattered randomly throughout the country. The most recent garbage crisis resulted from the closure of the al-Na’imah Landfill , the biggest in Lebanon, due to the serious health problems experienced by residents living in towns adjacent to the site.

Landfills can also lead to the emission of toxic gases such as carbon dioxide, reducing oxygen levels in the air, and decomposing waste can enter surface and groundwater sources.

In this context, Lebanon’s National Council for Scientific Research issued a statement declaring that ‘during the sandstorm that hit Lebanon and the region on 7 September 2015, which reached a climax on 9-10 September, a research unit sponsored by the council managed to measure air pollution levels in the city of Beirut compared to previous average rates’.

The statement said that pollution increased exponentially such that it exceeded the average rates by nearly 120-fold in particles the diameters of which were not more than 10 micrometres, whereas air pollution in particles with a diameter of 2.5 micrometres per particle exceeded the average rates by six-fold.

However, it is not possible to define the exact rates of air pollution in the past year or measure the exact amount of toxic gas emissions resulting solely from the accumulation of rubbish and waste, because pollution in Lebanon has many different causes. A major problem is the emission of toxic gases from factory chimneys and power generating plants.

In 2014, Our Lady of Lebanon Hospital in Jounieh, east of Beirut, which is located close to the al-Zawq thermal power plant, recorded 1,300 cases of asthma attacks and 1,280 cases of acute respiratory infections, in addition to 84 cases of lung cancer.

Some sources noted that the carbon dioxide released from the thermal power plants in the industrial area of Shakka in northern Lebanon is one of the main causes of lung cancer. Despite all the promises made to local municipalities and residents, environmental problems caused by chimneys have worsened year after year.

Exhaust emissions exacerbate the problem because Lebanon in general, and Beirut in particular, is home to a high number of vehicles. unofficial figures show that there are about 5 million registered vehicles, both public and private, in an area of 10,452m2, a figure that is considerably higher than it could be if a strong public transportation system were in place.

The pollution of Lebanon’s coastline and water sources as a result of unregulated factory discharge constitutes another major problem. Thousands of industrial waste and pollutants are released into the sea every year, carrying with them large amounts of chemicals that directly harm marine life. Raw or insufficiently treated hospital and household sewage also carries with it organic materials that pollute the sea. Oil leaks from the thermal power plants south of Beirut, the result of the Israeli attacks on Lebanon in 2006 , has worsened the situation.

Rapid population growth , including the arrival of around 1.5 million Syrian refugees , is further depleting resources and stretching Lebanon’s capacities to breaking point.

In 2014, Environment Minister Mohammad al-Mashnuq issued a statement evaluating the impact of the Syrian refugee crisis on the environment based on a study carried out by the Lebanese Ministry of Environment.

Preliminary results indicated that Syrian refugees produce approximately 15 per cent of the solid waste that the Lebanese population used to produce ahead of the refugee crisis. The study also showed that wastewater ratios rose to about 14 per cent and that this increase may lead to the blockage or overflow of the sewage system. As for air pollution, the same study showed an increase in the emission of air pollutants to 20 per cent as a result of significant traffic increases in the cities hosting large numbers of refugees.

Based on the above, experts in actuarial science and the heads of environmental associations believe that finding quick and drastic solutions to Lebanon’s environmental pollution problems are likely to be extremely difficult in light of the country’s worsening security and economic situation. At the same time, these associations propose solutions that may have a positive impact on the Lebanese environment.

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Lebanon Takes a Step in Addressing Water Pollution

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Climate change in Lebanon: a Threat Multiplier

Op-Ed by the UN Resident & Humanitarian Coordinator for Lebanon, Najat Rochdi.

Over the last few years, Lebanon has been through immense challenges that have left no segment of its society unscathed. The country has been challenged by economic crisis, the COVID-19 pandemic, the Port of Beirut explosion, environmental disasters and prolonged political deadlock. These challenges have crippled Lebanon, obstructed its development and decimated its capacity to cope. To top it all off, in climate change Lebanon faces another challenge: a threat multiplier that will intensify current predicaments, and one that requires resolute action by the government and the people, both in the short-term and well into the future.

Economically, Lebanon is reeling from years of financial crises, which have plunged more than half of the population into poverty and many into extreme poverty, caused others to lose their homes and wiped away the savings of many more. The Ministry of Environment estimated that climate change will cause a 14% fall in Lebanon’s GDP by 2040, falling further to 32% by 2080.

In terms of livelihoods, climate change is expected to increase temperatures and make water resources scarcer. This will negatively affect agricultural output and the livelihoods of many communities. Higher temperatures will also result in increased energy demand, putting a strain on businesses and services as they struggle to meet their power needs.

Healthwise, the combination of COVID-19 and the Beirut port explosion in August 2020 starkly exposed the fragility of Lebanon’s health system. Climate change will cause higher rates of infectious disease, rises in illness and deaths due to higher temperatures, increased malnutrition from reduced agricultural output and higher frequency of extreme events. This will result in more annual deaths than today and strain available capacity in urban and regional health facilities.

For Lebanon’s natural resources, climate change is already in plain sight. The wildfires in the country’s North that have burnt large swathes of pine forests have already caused the death of at least one firefighter and forced some to flee their homes in search of shelter. The month of July this year was the hottest ever recorded, and the fires that have also burnt throughout the summer of 2021 in Greece, Italy, the United States and Canada give us a glimpse into the new normal.

Despite these challenges, there is cause for hope. The government of Lebanon has made significant strides in its response to climate change. In 2021, it submitted its revised Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC), a key component of countries’ global commitment under the Paris Agreement. The climate action planned under the NDC up to 2030 can significantly contribute to Lebanon’s sustainable recovery from COVID-19, addressing structural challenges such as energy, waste, and water, as well as create job opportunities and improve socio-economic conditions. Lebanon is also embarking on a National Adaptation Plan, which provides a platform to mainstream climate adaptation across its governance structures and processes, enhancing resilience of Lebanese communities.

In tackling the bundle of crises Lebanon is going through, the government should include and prioritize climate planning and disaster risk management in all reforms moving forward. This would accelerate Lebanon’s path towards sustainable development, and enhance the protection of the economy, livelihoods and ecosystems.

Governments must also work with and empower their citizens to do their part. Options and incentives must exist in order for people to take up new, more sustainable behaviours. For example, minimizing energy consumption with easy, low-cost options such as using energy efficient appliances and shifting daily travel habits by walking, cycling, and carpooling can make a significant contribution to reducing emissions. More importantly, and in light of the current fuel crisis, investing in a safe and reliable public transportation system would be a transformative social and environmental effort.

Increasing resilience and adaptative capacity is crucial. Ensuring agricultural communities are supported with know-how, technology and finance to continue providing sustainable food options is another priority to avoid additional disruptions.

Entrepreneurship, long a mainstay of Lebanese society, can also play an important role through climate-resilient and sustainable technological innovation. The private sector is a critical component in finding solutions in the real world, and climate change is no different. To support entrepreneurs, an ecosystem of opportunities to develop ideas, through incubators and accelerators, sustainability-related business training and mentoring, fiscal and financial incentives, and other forms of support must be provided.

Finally, focus must be placed on awareness raising. Whether it’s through campaigns informing citizens of climate change and its impacts, including relevant courses and research programs in the higher education system, or establishing and enhancing existing early warning systems that alert residents and responders to the threats posed by extreme weather, information and knowledge must be developed and shared with all segments of society.

Climate change will add complexity and uncertainty to the myriad challenges faced by Lebanon. What is certain, however, is the need for action and the full engagement at all levels of the community, today and into the future.

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• DOI: 10.26719/emhj.24.029
• Corpus ID: 268020746

River water pollution in Lebanon: the country's most underestimated public health challenge.

• Carolla El Chamieh , Claudia El Haddad , +6 authors Elie Bou Sanayeh
• Published in Eastern Mediterranean health… 25 February 2024
• Environmental Science
• Eastern Mediterranean health journal = La revue de sante de la Mediterranee orientale = al-Majallah al-sihhiyah li-sharq al-mutawassit

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43 References

Factors influencing development of management strategies for the abou ali river in lebanon i: spatial variation and land use., occurrence, distribution, and ecological risk assessment of emerging and legacy contaminants in the kadicha river in lebanon, water quality assessment of lebanese coastal rivers during dry season and pollution load into the mediterranean sea., characterization of spatial and temporal patterns in surface water quality: a case study of four major lebanese rivers, rivers of lebanon: significant water resources under threats, global water pollution and human health, state of art about water uses and wastewater management in lebanon, nationwide assessment of water quality in rivers across lebanon by quantifying fecal indicators densities and profiling antibiotic resistance of escherichia coli.

• Highly Influential

Assessment of water quality along a recreational section of the Damour River in Lebanon using the water quality index

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Meera Shamma • 03 Jul 2018

Lebanon’s waters: polluted, toxic, and dangerous to swim in.

Summertime in Lebanon usually entails a lot of sunshine and time spent by (and in) the sea. But Lebanese people are starting to take notice of a dangerous toxic blanket that now impedes their usual sea-filled summer habits. The grey, murky, smelly blanket of trash that we’ve witnessed slowly but surely cover the Lebanese coastline over the past few years has finally taken its toll on our once blue sea.

In 2015, a study was conducted by Lebanon’s Center for Marine Science. The report revealed a daunting reality but one that we all knew was coming, that Lebanon’s coastline is highly polluted – specifically near Lebanon’s most major landfills. Since then, the situation has gotten much, much worse.

Articles by Lebanon’s main daily newspapers like The Daily Star and Al Akhbar warn the Lebanese public not to swim in the sea, not just by the country’s landfills, but anywhere off of Lebanon’s coast. The Lebanese Agricultural Research Institute (LARI) released a report in 2017 stating that every single one of Lebanon’s bodies of water – from the sea to lakes, rivers, and streams – are polluted with varying toxicity, but all toxic to some degree.

So toxic, in fact, the increasing bacteria levels in areas of Lebanon’s coast are over 100 times the safe limit and would warrant the closure of public beaches with the same levels of pollution in The States. Michel Afram, head of the Lebanese Agricultural Research Institute even told The National that “the government must declare a state of emergency for water quality in Lebanon.”

LARI’s 2017 report noted that pollution levels in all of Lebanon’s waters were dangerously high, especially in areas near landfills – like Jounieh, Saida, and Ramlet el Baida. But, by nature, if the water is polluted in one area, the current will carry it elsewhere, meaning that virtually no area of Lebanon’s sea is safe to swim in, let alone live by. Tripoli, Tyre, Dbayeh, and Chekka follow up second in terms of water pollution levels, and other areas, like Batroun, Jbeil, Jiyyeh, and Dammour are the ‘least polluted’ on the list, but still highly polluted nonetheless.

Waters are showing positive results for high levels of metals, chemicals and bacteria – mixing together in the Mediterranean to create a hazardous mass of water. All the result of different (avoidable) causes, from untreated human waste being purged into the sea constantly, to agricultural and industrial dumping, to overfilled landfills burdening the coast, to the government’s incredible reluctance to introduce effective means of waste management, to the public’s general disregard towards pollution and the importance of taking care of the environment.

So, what are the implications of taking a dip? Lebanon’s coastal waters have shown alarming levels of metals (like mercury, lead, and copper) among other forms of hazardous bacteria. If ingested, these elements can cause immediate poisoning, and in the long-run can even lead to cancer. There have been numerous cases of people claiming to have swam in the sea recently only to emerge with instant rashes on their bodies as a result. And, although everyone has been warned not to jump in, those with open wounds, cuts, or scratches, are specifically warned not to go anywhere near it.

The worst case scenario is upon us in Lebanon. We have poisoned our own sea to the extent that the sea is now poisoning us. LARI’s 2018 report will be released soon, and we can only predict the horrors that the report will expose. Until then, those who seek to take a summer break and head to the shore are now considered careless rebels rather than summertime revelers – because they’re literally swimming in their own toxic shit.

Main image courtesy of Lebanon Eco Movement

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Emission inventory of key sources of air pollution in Lebanon

• Baayoun, Abdelkader
• Itani, Wael
• El Helou, Jad
• Halabi, Lama
• Medlej, Sajed
• El Malki, Marya
• Moukhadder, Ali
• Aboujaoude, Lea Kai
• Kabakian, Vahakn
• Mounajed, Hala
• Mokalled, Tharwat
• Shihadeh, Alan
• Lakkis, Issam
• Saliba, Najat A.

Exposure to air pollutants has been associated with deleterious health effects that cause premature mortality and a range of morbidities. Air quality in the Mediterranean is of particular interest due to an array of environmental and anthropogenic conditions that make it an air-pollution hotspot. However, the scarcity of data for the region's emission inventories inhibits accurate and holistic assessment. Lebanon, located on the eastern board of the Mediterranean, faces several challenges including an unsustainable transport sector, an unregulated power generation sector, and high urban densities, all of which amplify the air-quality crisis. This paper presents an air pollutant emission inventory for two major emission sources in Lebanon, diesel generators and light duty vehicles (LDVs) of the transport sector, and uncovers trends for over a decade. The exhaust emissions for carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and fine particulate matter for diesel generators and for LDVs were estimated by assimilating different approaches and data sources through the use of survey data and national statistics for a higher tier. Our results uncovered that diesel generators consumed almost 1.6 million tons of fuel and emitted about 2 Gg of fine particulate matter in 2016. LDVs doubled in number over a decade and were responsible for approximately 0.20 Gg of fine particulate matter emissions in 2015. While the market for diesel generators appeared to have saturated, ownership of passenger cars per passengers continued to increase, while vehicle age, conditions, and, thus, emissions continued to augment. The results highlight the need for greater government intervention to meet the national electricity demand and promote public transportation and discourage private transportation, especially for energy-inefficient vehicles.

• East Mediterranean;
• Emission inventory;
• Light duty vehicles;
• Diesel generators

After their first visit to the Development Services Center of Mousaitbeh, the doctor prescribed Zirtek. “Just couple of days after taking the medicine, Lea’s condition improved a lot. She can breathe comfortably now and her cough has really died down,” her mother said.

The Zirtek syrup that relieved little Lea’s symptoms was part of an in-kind medical donation from International Health Partners . Anera distributed thousands of medicines to dispensaries around Lebanon to be available free of charge to underprivileged community members. The medicine was donated in-kind by International Health Partners and the shipment was made possible through contributions from the Zakat Foundation .

“The quality of the air we breathe definitely affects Lea’s case. But we can’t move because our life, work and schooling are all in Beirut.”

The Development Services Center is a social center governed by the Ministry of Social Affairs in Lebanon. It includes a dispensary for health services and psychosocial services . The small center serves more than 900 people each month. Over one-third of the patients are Syrian refugees .

“Many people come to this clinic because they know we have medicines for seasonal conditions, like allergies,” said Iman Sleiman, the director. “These donations are a great support to the dispensary. Over-the-counter drugs like Zirtek are in high demand."

“Seasonal allergies are very common in Lebanon in the autumn and spring. We see many cases like Lea’s,” said Fida Zaiter, pharmacist at the Development Services Center. “Unfortunately we are often out of Zirtek. Then we have to direct patients elsewhere or pay for it from local pharmacies,” she added.

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Worth of aid to serve 2.9 million palestinians, lebanese, syrians and jordanians, more about anera.

Anera addresses the development and relief needs of refugees and vulnerable communities in Palestine, Lebanon and Jordan. 

Anera is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization (tax-ID number 52-0882226). Your gift is secure and tax deductible to the extent allowed by law.

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Water Pollution in Lebanon

Jan 10 2016

Dr Nagi Safa

cancer , health

Lebanon unlike most other Middle Eastern countries is blessed with an abundant supply of annual rainfall. The bad news is that most of Lebanon water sources is polluted and unfit for domestic use. This article will consider the various factors responsible for water pollution in Lebanon.

Untreated Sewage

One of the major contaminants of water sources in Lebanon is untreated sewage . According to a study, 70% of all fresh water sources were exposed to untreated sewage from various homes and business premises. Among this sewage were also industrial effluents. This has led to a significant microbial contamination of the water aside the significant alteration in the color of the water. This development has made most of the fresh water found in Lebanon unfit for domestic use. The northern city of Tripoli is the region with the highest reported cases of fresh water contamination. On the other hand, the Nahr Ibrahim River and Litani River are regarded as the two most polluted rivers in Lebanon. Another sad incidence is the restriction of the use of the Qaraoun Lake for fishing because of an overwhelming presence of heavy metal from industrial effluents. Practically all rivers in Lebanon suffer the consequences of dumped industrial waste.

Industrial effluent into the sea

Another type of water contamination in Lebanon is Industrial effluents into the sea. According to a recent survey, it was discovered that the seawater had a high incidence of chemical contamination. A research discovered that 30% of all fish caught off the coast of Lebanon had plastic in their stomach. This is due to the illegal dumping of plastic wastes into the sea by industries. More so, a recent study concluded that plastic contaminants were encountered under water of the Lebanese shore. In addition, disposed oil from ships and wastes are also part of the causes of water pollution in Lebanon.

Water pollution in Lebanon from agrochemicals

Another source of water pollution in Lebanon is the use of fertilizers and pesticides . Farmers in Lebanon use pesticides and fertilizers without conformity with government regulation. At a point, the government was able to put in place an effective protocol to curb the abuse of fertilizers and pesticides. However, Government efforts to regulate agricultural activities to prevent pollution suffered serious setbacks.

Water pollution from improperly disposed solid waste

Another cause of water pollution in Lebanon is that solid waste are improperly disposed into water sources. This occurrence prompted Lebanon’s Ministry of Environment to issue a waste management directive putting an end to the use of incineration. This is because when solid wastes are incinerated, the particles remaining are carried by flood to contaminate fresh water sources when heavy rain falls. Nevertheless the robust regulation that had been instituted to combat indiscriminate disposal of solid waste was inefficient, and the practice continued. Solid wastes are still being incinerated all over the municipalities, causing water pollution when rainfalls and carrying wastes into rivers lakes and other freshwater sources. At a point, the Government suggested recycling as one of the ways of putting an end to the menace of indiscriminate dumping of solid wastes. However, the recycling initiative of the government backfired, as it became a haven of scavengers who use little children to pick up scrap of metals and plastic.

Landfilling

Landfilling is another cause of water pollution in Lebanon. Lebanon produces over 150 tons of waste daily. One of the usual ways of disposing this waste is by land filling them. The consequence of this is that when rain falls, the liquid part of the waste are carried by flood to cause pollution of fresh water sources.

Historically, the government of Lebanon took several steps and instituted numerous reforms to fight water pollution. Because of the political situation, these reforms were never instituted.

Essay on Pollution for Students and Children

500+ words essay on pollution.

Pollution is a term which even kids are aware of these days. It has become so common that almost everyone acknowledges the fact that pollution is rising continuously. The term ‘pollution’ means the manifestation of any unsolicited foreign substance in something. When we talk about pollution on earth, we refer to the contamination that is happening of the natural resources by various pollutants . All this is mainly caused by human activities which harm the environment in ways more than one. Therefore, an urgent need has arisen to tackle this issue straightaway. That is to say, pollution is damaging our earth severely and we need to realize its effects and prevent this damage. In this essay on pollution, we will see what are the effects of pollution and how to reduce it.

Effects of Pollution

Pollution affects the quality of life more than one can imagine. It works in mysterious ways, sometimes which cannot be seen by the naked eye. However, it is very much present in the environment. For instance, you might not be able to see the natural gases present in the air, but they are still there. Similarly, the pollutants which are messing up the air and increasing the levels of carbon dioxide is very dangerous for humans. Increased level of carbon dioxide will lead to global warming .

Further, the water is polluted in the name of industrial development, religious practices and more will cause a shortage of drinking water. Without water, human life is not possible. Moreover, the way waste is dumped on the land eventually ends up in the soil and turns toxic. If land pollution keeps on happening at this rate, we won’t have fertile soil to grow our crops on. Therefore, serious measures must be taken to reduce pollution to the core.

Get English Important Questions here

Types of Pollution

• Air Pollution
• Water Pollution
• Soil Pollution

How to Reduce Pollution?

After learning the harmful effects of pollution, one must get on the task of preventing or reducing pollution as soon as possible. To reduce air pollution, people should take public transport or carpool to reduce vehicular smoke. While it may be hard, avoiding firecrackers at festivals and celebrations can also cut down on air and noise pollution. Above all, we must adopt the habit of recycling. All the used plastic ends up in the oceans and land, which pollutes them.

So, remember to not dispose of them off after use, rather reuse them as long as you can. We must also encourage everyone to plant more trees which will absorb the harmful gases and make the air cleaner. When talking on a bigger level, the government must limit the usage of fertilizers to maintain the soil’s fertility. In addition, industries must be banned from dumping their waste into oceans and rivers, causing water pollution.

To sum it up, all types of pollution is hazardous and comes with grave consequences. Everyone must take a step towards change ranging from individuals to the industries. As tackling this problem calls for a joint effort, so we must join hands now. Moreover, the innocent lives of animals are being lost because of such human activities. So, all of us must take a stand and become a voice for the unheard in order to make this earth pollution-free.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

FAQs on Pollution

Q.1 What are the effects of pollution?

A.1 Pollution essentially affects the quality of human life. It degrades almost everything from the water we drink to the air we breathe. It damages the natural resources needed for a healthy life.

Q.2 How can one reduce pollution?

A.2 We must take individual steps to reduce pollution. People should decompose their waster mindfully, they should plant more trees. Further, one must always recycle what they can and make the earth greener.

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• Lebanon's Zahle introduces eco-friendly buses to combat pollution

BEIRUT, June 28 (Xinhua) -- Zahle, the largest municipality in eastern Lebanon, introduced four hybrid electric buses to its public transportation system on Friday.

Assaad Zgheib, the mayor of Zahle, said the municipal council opted for these environmentally friendly buses following the detection of high pollution levels in the city.

"This vital project will reduce the pollution level in the city and the burden of land transportation, which has increased in cost by 15-fold in less than two years due to the country's economic crisis," he said.

He further detailed that rides are complimentary for senior citizens, individuals with special needs, and children under ten. Additionally, students receive a 50 percent fare discount.

Jad Khoury, an automotive mechanical engineering specialist, highlighted the environmental benefits of these buses, emphasizing their role in curbing car emissions, reducing air pollution, and conserving energy. Enditem

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