farming definition essay

The Development of Agriculture

The development of agricultural about 12,000 years ago changed the way humans lived. They switched from nomadic hunter-gatherer lifestyles to permanent settlements and farming.

Social Studies, World History

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The Farming Revolution Taking root around 12,000 years ago, agriculture triggered such a change in society and the way in which people lived that its development has been dubbed the “ Neolithic Revolution.” Traditional hunter-gatherer lifestyles, followed by humans since their evolution, were swept aside in favor of permanent settlements and a reliable food supply. Out of agriculture, cities and civilizations grew, and because crops and animals could now be farmed to meet demand, the global population rocketed—from some five million people 10,000 years ago, to eight billion today.

There was no single factor, or combination of factors, that led people to take up farming in different parts of the world. In the Near East , for example, it’s thought that climatic changes at the end of the last ice age brought seasonal conditions that favored annual plants like wild cereals . Elsewhere, such as in East Asia, increased pressure on natural food resources may have forced people to find homegrown solutions. But whatever the reasons for its independent origins, farming sowed the seeds for the modern age.

Plant Domestication

The wild progenitors of crops including wheat ( Triticum aestivum ), barley ( Hordeum vulgare ), and peas ( Lathyrus oleraceus ) are traced to the Near East region. Cereals were grown in Syria as long as 9,000 years ago, while figs ( Ficus carica ) were cultivated even earlier; prehistoric seedless fruits discovered in the Jordan Valley suggest fig trees were being planted some 11,300 years ago. Though the transition from wild harvesting was gradual, the switch from a nomadic to a settled way of life is marked by the appearance of early Neolithic villages with homes equipped with grinding stones for processing grain.

The origins of rice and millet farming date to the same Neolithic period in China. The world’s oldest known rice paddy fields, discovered in eastern China in 2007, reveal evidence of ancient cultivation techniques such as flood and fire control.

In Mexico, squash cultivation began around 10,000 years ago, but corn ( maize ) had to wait for natural genetic mutations to be selected for in its wild ancestor, teosinte. While maize -like plants derived from teosinte appear to have been cultivated at least 9,000 years ago, the first directly dated corn cob dates only to around 5,500 years ago.

Corn later reached North America, where cultivated sunflowers ( Helianthus annuus ) also started to bloom some 5,000 years ago. This is also when potato ( Solanum tuberosum ) growing in the Andes region of South America began.

Farmed Animals

Cattle ( Bos taurus ), goats ( Capra hircus ), sheep ( Ovis aries ), and pigs ( Sus domesticus ) all have their origins as farmed animals in the so-called Fertile Crescent , a region covering eastern Turkey, Iraq, and southwestern Iran. This region kick-started the Neolithic Revolution. Dates for the domestication of these animals range from between 13,000 to 10,000 years ago.

Genetic studies show that goats and other livestock accompanied the westward spread of agriculture into Europe, helping to revolutionize Stone Age society. While the extent to which farmers themselves migrated west remains a subject of debate, the dramatic impact of dairy farming on Europeans is clearly stamped in their DNA. Prior to the arrival of domestic cattle in Europe, prehistoric populations weren’t able to stomach raw cow milk. But at some point during the spread of farming into southeastern Europe, a mutation occurred for lactose tolerance that increased in frequency through natural selection thanks to the nourishing benefits of milk. Judging from the prevalence of the milk-drinking gene in Europeans today—as high as 90 percent in populations of northern countries such as Sweden—the vast majority are descended from cow herders.

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Essay on agriculture (for students) | world | economic geography.

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Here is a compilation of essays on ‘Agriculture’ for Class 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12. Find paragraphs, long and short essays on ‘Agriculture’ especially written for school and college students.

Essay on Agriculture

Essay Contents:

• Essay on Agriculture Changes in Different Countries

Essay # 1. Introduction to Agriculture:

The word “Agriculture” has no rigid definition. It has been explained by many people very comprehensively. Agriculture has been defined as the science and art of cultivating the soil, and this definition emphasizes the primary nature of plant production in agriculture.

Moreover, it is so frequent that the same person performs both the primary functions of growing plants and the secondary one of feeding the plants to livestock that these two industries are grouped together as agriculture. Therefore, it may be said that agriculture includes not only the production of crops by the cultivation of the soil, but also the rearing of livestock.

Thus, milk, meat and wool are as much agricultural products as are wheat, rice and cotton. In the words of George O’Brien, therefore, the word agriculture includes, “every industry which aims at producing vegetables or animals by the cultivation of the soil.”

So, agriculture is the business of raising products from the land. The products raised may either be plants and their products or animals and their products. The former are the direct products while the latter are the indirect products of the land. Agricultural products are complex and diverse, in nature, and as such, agriculture may be regarded as complex industry.

Modern agriculture is such broader in scope than merely the art and science of cultivating the land. It is the whole business of supplying food and fiber for a growing population at home and abroad. Again in agriculture we include all forms of soil production, from forestry to glass-house culture, from fishery to artificial insemination, and from breeding to horticulture.

Essay # 2. Origin of Agriculture:

Agriculture is the most fundamental form of hu­man activity and includes not only the cultivation of crops but also the domestication of animals. Agri­cultural land is thus the most basic of the world’s vast and varied resources, and from it the human masses are fed, clothed and sheltered. It is still not known when agriculture actually originated.

Primi­tive men must have begun as food gatherers, eating whatever fruits, leaves and roots they could obtain. Nature must have been bountiful in those days when human numbers were so small and wild plants grew everywhere. As time passed and human numbers grew, fishing and hunting became increasingly im­portant in supplementing what was lacking in the field, and an endless search for food ensued.

It was soon realized that some form of food pro­duction was necessary if men were to live long and secure. Animals were tamed, first to provide meat, milk and skin; later for use as draught animals. Seeds were sown in ploughed fields, carefully tended and harvested when the time came.

Men were then able to live in settled communities. Because they were no longer continually moving they had time to develop the various arts, crafts and skills that formed the basis of modern industries and also evolved religious and political ideas. Without a settled agriculture, a meas­urable degree of civilization is not possible.

Naturally, as civilization became more and more advanced, the demands upon the productivity of the environment became more exacting. In an ever-expanding com­munity, ways and means had to be found to increase the agricultural productivity of the land. Canals were dug to bring in more water; better seeds and improved methods of tillage helped to increase the annual harvests.

With the spread of agriculture as a global activity, tremendous progress was made in every as­pect of crop production. The use of steam, oil, gas or hydro-electric power allowed farms to be mechanized, which not only raised productivity per hectare, but also brought rapid expansion in the total land-area farmed, especially in the New World.

Mechanization created large crop surpluses so that international trade in agricultural crops became possible. Many indus­trial nations today grow very little food and yet they are able to support large populations with the help of food imports.

Essay # 3. Definition of Agriculture:

Thus, milk, meat and wool are as much agricultural products as are wheat, rice and cotton. In the words of George O’Brien, therefore, the word agriculture includes “every industry which aims at producing vegetables or animals by the cultivation of the soil.”

Modern agriculture is such broader in scope than merely the art and science of cultivating the land. It is the whole business of supplying food and fibre for a growing population at home and abroad.

Again in agriculture we include all forms of soil production, from forestry to glass-house culture, from fishery to artificial insemination, and from breeding to horticulture.

Essay # 4 . Features of Agriculture:

The following are the features of agriculture:

i. Land use Pattern:

Out of 328 million hectares total land, at least 45 per cent area is devoted to agriculture. At present 180 million hectares of land is under multiple cropping.

ii. Relative Importance of Different Crops:

Nearly 72.3 per cent agricultural land is de­voted for food-grain production and remaining 17.7 per cent land is used for the production of other crops. Considering the total volume of production and area under cultivation, rice se­cures the prime position.

More than 20 per cent land may be classified as rice land. In order of importance wheat is close behind rice, taking more than 10 per cent of the cultivable land. Cash crops like cotton, sugar cane and jute are the other dominant agriculture products.

iii. Average Size of Land Holdings:

All over India tiny and uneconomic land holdings are characteristic feature. Compared to other developed and developing countries, Indian land units are one of the smallest. The major reason, India is one of the most densely populated regions on earth. Besides this high density of population, high degree of dependence on agri­culture also forced the people to acquire land holdings whatever size it might be.

According to Hindu Law, after the death of a land-owner his property is equally subdivided among his successors. In this way the average size of land holdings decreases. The average size of agri­cultural land units in USA is over 148 acres, in Denmark it is 42 acres, in England it is more than 18 acres while in India it is only 5.7 acres. There is a lot of disparity visible between the different size of existing land holdings. Even less than 1 acre land is not uncommon.

iv. Pattern of Land Ownership:

The most peculiar characteristic feature of Indian farm­ing is the concentration of a large amount of land ownership to a handful of people. Only 11 per cent cultivators occupy 62 per cent of the arable land. On the other hand, at least 21 per cent of farmers still remain landless or merely marginal farmers. This mal-distribution of land among the cultivators result in stress and strain in the socio-economic life of India.

v. Fragmentation and Isolation of Land Holdings:

This is another main characteristic feature of Indian agriculture. In the early colonial period, average size of land holding was 9 to 12 acres or even more. But repeated division of land after the death of owner resulted further fragmentation of land and land holdings become tiny. Some of the holdings are so small, that these are uneconomic for further cultivation.

vi. Land Tenure System:

The Indian land tenure system was formulated during the Brit­ish period. The Permanent Settlement system, promulgated by Lord Cornwallis in 1993, assured the land ownership permanently to a handful of people. This semi-feudal system in the agrarian sector created a large number of absentee landlords. Due to imposition of this system, ownership of the cultivable land became highly concentrated to a handful of people.

In this system farmers, those who are engaged in production, were not interested to develop the quality of the land. Another characteristic feature developed in this system was the feeling of insecurity among the cultivators.

vii. Subsistence Level of Production and Heavy Dependence on Agriculture:

Agriculture is still one of the low-earning occupations. Most of the crops produced are directly consumed by the farmer himself. Nearly 45% of the products are consumed by cultivators themselves. At least 16% is given to government as revenue.

7% is to be kept as seed and only 32% may be regarded as marketable surplus. Due to low surplus, cultivators are unable to get liquid money. Due to lack of liquid money, he cannot invest more on the field. As the investment is low, it is very difficult for farmers to achieve a surplus production. Here lies the vicious circle of pov­erty as promulgated by Prof. Narks.

viii. Disguised Unemployment:

The number of agricultural labour in India is the highest in the world. On an average, 25% of the people may be classified as marginal farmers and agricultural labourers. This large number of people do not possess any land of their own. They sustain their livelihood as daily wage earner. The major part of the year they remain jobless, particularly in the lean season.

These labours are seasonal and do not have any commitment on the production. Even, as suggested by some noted economists, the contribution of these workers in the production is very low. They are known as disguised unemployed.

These dis­guised unemployed workers constitute the bulk of the labour force. As they do not contribute anything in the production, they are in reality unemployed, but as they get wage, capital outflow occurs from agriculture.

ix. Low Investment:

Low investment in Indian agriculture is another major characteris­tic feature. Low investment leads to low production and low income to the farmer. That is again the reason of low investment. This vicious circle creates a fundamental problem in In­dian agro-economics. Low inflow of capital in the agricultural sector is primarily responsible for the primitive character of our agrarian system.

x. Low Production:

Despite all efforts in recent years, average agricultural production in India per acre is still one of the lowest in the world. Compared to developed countries production per acre in India is one-fourth of USA and Canada. Production in China is even twice that of India.

xi. Organizational Deficiency:

Most of the agro-farms are governed by either individu­als or families. Most of these families belong to low income groups. So they are not able to provide sufficient capital, different inputs of agriculture, managerial ability and proper mar­keting facilities in the cultivation.

Essay # 5 . Importance of Agriculture in India:

i. Agriculture’s Share in National Income:

Agriculture and allied occupations still contribute about 34% of the national income of India. It is true that with an acceleration of the secondary and the tertiary sectors the share of agriculture has been declining.

Such decline in the percentage share of the income from agriculture indicates the degree of economic development of the country. For instance, today the share of agriculture in the national income is 13% in Australia, 7% in Canada, 5% in the U.S.A. and only 4% in the U.K.

ii. Agriculture as a Source of Livelihood:

According to Census of Population 1971, 7 out of every 10 persons in India still depend on agriculture their main source of livelihood. This proportion of 66% has remained on constant ever since 1901 and is likely to remain so for at least a few more decades.

This fact also reacts the importance of agriculture. In the developed countries, the position is just the reverse. The percentage of population dependent on agriculture is only 25% in France, 20% in New Zealand, 15% in Canada and West Germany and a little over in the U.S.A.

iii. Agriculture and Pattern of Employment:

It is often suggested that the importance of a sector can be judged from the percentage of working population (and not the total population) engaged in that sector. 66% of the working people are engaged in agriculture.

This indicates the fact that employment opportunities are greater in agriculture than in other sectors of the economy. It is of course, due to the fact that the other sectors have not yet developed. In many of the advanced countries where other sectors have developed rapidly, the percentage of employment in agriculture is negligible.

iv. Importance of Agriculture for Industrial Development:

Unless agriculture is well-developed, industries may not develop rapidly. This is because agriculture provides a number of raw materials to industries. In India, most of our leading industries depend on agriculture for their raw materials. For instance, industries like cotton textiles, jute, sugar and vanaspati depend on agriculture for their raw materials.

The plantation industries like tea, coffee, rubber etc. also depend directly on agriculture. There are a number of other industries whose dependence on agriculture is indirect. These are hand/pounding and husking of rice, crushing of oil, weaving of handloom and khadi cloth, etc.

Many others, like paper, leather and tanning, matches, chemicals, etc., depend on allied activities of agriculture like forestry, animal husbandry, factories etc. It is, of course, true that a number of modern industries like iron and steel, machine tools, engineering, aircraft etc., do not depend on agricultural for their raw materials. But these industries supply important agricultural inputs like fertiliser, farm machinery and equipment. Thus both agriculture and industry are inter-dependent.

v. Agriculture and the Foreign Trade of India:

Indian agriculture has been a net earner of valuable foreign exchange for the country. At present, about 50% of our exports are of agricultural commodities. This share goes upto 70% if we add to it the exports of manufactured goods like cotton and jute textiles which have substantial agricultural content.

Further our exports trade in agricultural commodities is well diversified over a number of countries. Whereas agricultural exports earn about 70% of foreign exchange this sector spends only about 20% of it so that it makes a net contribution of about 50% to the earrings of foreign exchange. This indeed hints at the fact that the requirement of imports for faster industrialization of the country has contributed to largely by the agricultural sector.

vi. Agriculture and the Tertiary Sector:

Tertiary sector consists of trade, transport service, etc. Agriculture contributes substantially to all these sectors. In respect of our internal trade, agriculture contributes considerably because most of the internal trade is in agricultural commodities.

Agriculture is also the main support for our transport system. Agricultural also helps manufacturing industries because when the incomes are high, their purchasing power is also high and a part of this is diverted to the purchase of manufactured goods.

vii. Agriculture and State Revenues:

Agriculture also brings about an increase in the Government’s revenues—both directly as well as indirectly.

viii. Food for Men and Fooder for Livestock:

Agriculture provides the food for her millions people and livestock. The two outstanding features of agricultural production in India are the wide variety of crops and the preponderance of food over non-food crops in as much as about 80% of the area under cultivation is devoted to cereals, pulses and small millets.

ix. Agricultural Development Essential for Economic Development:

The significance of agriculture in our country arises also from the fact that the development of agriculture is an essential condition for the development of the national economy. Nurkse argues that the surplus population in agriculture should be removed and used in the newly started industries.

Essay # 6. Factors Influencing Agriculture:

The distribution of crops and farm activities is every­where influenced by environmental controls. In some environments, farming is favoured by climate, soil or relief, so that very little effort is needed to raise crops. In others, farmers are at the mercy of nature; and great skill is required to modify the environment to obtain even the barest subsistence.

The following are some of the major geographical factors that in­fluence farmers and their work:

i. Climate:

Climatic factors exert the greatest control over the world distribution of agricultural types. It is essentially a question of climate when grapes are not grown in the tropics and date palms flourish only in the deserts. Despite all the advances made in science, Man can do little to control climate.

He cannot prevent the Siberian rivers from freezing in winter, nor is he able to lower the high tempera­ture of the Sahara. He can at best adapt himself to the climatic environment or moderate the climatic extremes by using greenhouses, central heating or irrigation.

The various climatic elements that affect agriculture are as follows:

(a) Temperature:

The degree of warmth, the dura­tion, and the intensity of sunshine, all affect crop maturity to a certain extent. For example in Britain, wheat and forage crops do better in the south where conditions are warmer; while oats and turnips can be grown in the cooler climate of the north.

Many garden crops and fruits are not able to withstand extreme diurnal temperature variations. Night frosts may damage the tender leaves of plants and protective measures must often be taken, such as burning oil lamps to raise the temperature, or ‘smudging’, i.e. creating smoke that prevents rapid ground cooling. Very low temperatures in the Arctic regions preclude any form of crop cultivation.

Sunshine not only accelerates ripening of crops but also improves the quality of the final products. In temperate farming, the length of the growing season is often an important consideration. For example, wheat requires a 90-day frost-free growing period and summer temperatures around 16°C (60°F); cotton needs summer temperatures of over 21°C (70°F) and 200 days without frost.

(b) Moisture:

Moisture, either from the atmos­phere or from the ground, is absolutely essential in plant growth. It is not only the amount of moisture that counts, but also such vital considerations as the distribution pattern during the year, the rate of evaporation and the conditions of relative humidity at the periods of sowing, growing and harvesting.

An annual precipitation (including both rain and snow) of 1 016 mm (40 inches) may be ideal for most temperate crops, but it is inadequate for agricul­ture in the tropics, where the rate of evaporation is very great. In many tropical countries there are distinct wet and dry periods following one another in a regular pattern. Crops are sown and grow through the rainy period, to be harvested in the almost per­fectly rainless conditions of the dry season.

This is the typical rhythm of rice cultivation in the Orient and of cotton farming in East Africa. In the Medi­terranean shorelands, which experience winter rain and summer drought, plant growth is almost restrict­ed to autumn and spring when both the temperature and the moisture conditions are favourable.

The long summer drought, with its low humidity conditions and excessive evaporation, poses a real threat to many plants. Cereals often require irrigation; but citrus fruits, vines and olives which have either a thick skin as protection against evaporation or long tap roots to reach moisture, are well-suited to the Mediterranean environment.

Some plants are harmed by strong winds which may accelerate evaporation or physic­ally damage the plant. For example, in West Africa or eastern Brazil, high winds may blow off fruits like cocoa pods that hang precariously on the trunks and branches of the trees. Cocoa cultivation is there­fore least suited to regions where violent winds like typhoons and hurricanes occur.

On the other hand, sea breezes and light winds are often advantageous to certain plants like coconuts and coffee. Where winds are known to attain destructive proportions, e.g. the typhoons of northern Luzon, Philippines, low-growing plants such as padi or tobacco have a better chance of survival than tall tree crops as they offer less resist­ance to the wind and are able to sway with the storm rather than snapping off.

ii. Topography:

A comparison of Fig. 3.3 with a world map of relief features will reveal that the most intensively cultivated parts of the earth are the lowlands. The levelness of the ground eases cultiva­tion and the use of machinery.

Consequently, such areas have the greatest concentrations of population. All over Monsoon Asia wet padi is grown in flooded lowland fields, coastal plains and alluvial river basins. The hills are terraced to create artificial flooded low­land conditions for wet padi cultivation.

In the New World, the rolling grasslands of the Pampas and the Prairies have been improved, by such measures as re- grassing, for large-scale livestock farming, mixed farming or extensive mechanized wheat cultivation. Some other crops like cocoa and rubber are limited to tropical lowlands. Latex yield from rubber trees decreases appreciably at altitudes above 760 metres (2,500 ft).

Not all crops prefer lowland regions, however. Crops like coffee and tea grow best on hill slopes and at altitudes up to 1 525 metres (5,000 ft) or more, as in Assam, Sri Lanka, Colombia and the Bra­zilian Plateau, where the slopes are well-drained and there is little possibility of water remaining stagnant for long to rot the roots of the shrubs.

The wetter condi­tions and higher temperatures of the lowlands do not suit these crops. With the rapid growth of human num­bers, there is an increasing need to utilize the uplands, especially in crowded Monsoon Asia. In some areas the virgin soils of the newly-cleared upland forests have proved to be some of the most productive lands in the world but steep slopes are very prone to soil erosion.

Agriculturalists are devising new strains of crops that can survive at higher altitudes and in colder cli­mates but efforts to overcome topographical restric­tions have so far affected only small areas. The moun­tainous regions, therefore, remain sparsely settled or virtually unpopulated.

Thus physical, as well as cli­matic controls over agriculture are profound and Man can do little to alter them, except in such directions as land reclamation from swamps, marshes or shallow seas. The annual increases in the world’s food produc­tion come mainly from greater intensification of farming on existing agricultural land, e.g. by use of multiple-cropping, use of higher yielding seeds and use of fertilizers, which all improve yields per hectare.

Extension of farmlands is possible only in areas where potential croplands have not yet been fully utilized.

The soil, which is composed of a variety of minerals and organic substances, forms the physical support of plants and is fundamental to any form of agriculture. As soils are so varied in their physical and chemical composition, being so closely related to their climatic and vegetational environment, their suitabi­lity for the cultivation of different kinds of crops varies tremendously.

The soil requirements for cereals, beverages, root crops and garden crops differ so much that unless the farmer has a sound knowledge of soil properties, he is not likely to gain the most from his land.

iv. Biotic Factors:

Crop cultivation may be hampered by weeds, parasitic plants, diseases, insect- pests and animals. They either compete with the sown crop for plant nutrients or destroy the crop be­fore it can be harvested. Many weeds render tilling and thinning operations more difficult, and pests such as the boll-weevil in the Cotton Belt, U.S.A. or fungus diseases like the Coffee Blight of Sri Lanka, may com­pletely exclude cultivation of certain crops in an area.

Despite all the climatic and geographical advantages that a farmer may enjoy, his efforts can be useless in the face of diseases or insect infestations.

v. Social Factors:

Social factors affect farming in a number of ways. In the first place the type of farming practised, be it shifting cultivation, subsistence farming, extensive cereal cultivation or mixed farming affects the type of crops which can be produced and the yields which can be obtained.

Intensive wheat farming in Europe, for instance, gives far greater yields than extensive wheat farming in the North American Prairies. The type of farming which is practised de­pends on the culture of the farmers concerned and to some extent on the physical and topographical charac­teristics of the area in which they live.

Social factors can also affect the type of crops that are grown. In West Africa for instance, where much farm work is done by the women, the amount of land cleared and the type of crops grown are dependent on how much work the women of a family can put in. Similarly some crops such as yams are planted by the men, while others such as vegetables are planted by the women. Tribal differences also lead to agricultural differences.

Nomadic herders such as the Fulani in West Africa or the Masai in East Africa despise settled agriculture and do not often practise it. Certain crops are traditionally grown by certain peoples so that there is a major division in Ivory Coast, for example, between peoples to the west who depend on rice as a staple food and people to the east who traditionally depend on yams.

Another way in which social factors can affect agri­culture is in the ownership and inheritance of land. In many areas, e.g. in parts of Europe and in much of Asia the land of a father is divided between his child­ren. This leads to the breaking up of already small farms into smaller and smaller units which are often uneconomic to farm.

It is difficult to introduce the use of modern tractors or harvesters in areas where the fields are too small for them to operate econom­ically. Elsewhere public or co-operative ownership of land may affect the type of crops grown or the agri­cultural methods employed.

Finally social and religious influences have pro­found effects on animal rearing. The belief that pigs are unclean, held by Muslims, Jews and Hindus, limits the rearing of pigs in many parts of Asia and Africa. Similarly the Hindu veneration of cattle, or the prestige conferred by a large herd of cattle in many parts of Africa, limits the full exploitation of the animals for meat.

vi. Economic Factors:

Besides the factors out­lined above, the farmer has constantly to take into consideration many economic factors, which may be unstable or entirely beyond his control. A peasant in Monsoon Asia practising subsistence farming where everything grown is consumed within the farm or the village boundaries may not be so seriously affected in the case of a trade recession as the wheat specialist in the Canadian Prairies whose crops are all intended for cash sales, including exports to overseas markets.

However, the peasant’s income is so meagre that in hard times he has very little to fall back on. Natural hazards such as floods, droughts or diseases that ruin his harvests pose an even greater threat to him than market fluctuations.

Three kinds of economic con­trols are, however, operative in all farming practices throughout the world, except in state-owned farms where there is no individual ownership and economic problems have to be dealt with by government agen­cies.

Essay # 7. Location of Agricultural Activities:

The distribution of different crops or livestock farming activities within a country is strongly influ­enced by physical factors of terrain, soil and climate. But economic factors are also very important, partic­ularly transport costs to markets. Crops which are ex­pensive to produce because they need skilled cultiva­tion, much costly equipment (such as milking ma­chines), or labour intensive picking, packing or pro­cessing for market are only profitable if transport costs can be kept low.

Therefore they must be grown near city markets. Crops which require less intensive farm­ing can stand higher costs in marketing, while crops or livestock produced on an extensive basis at low cost can stand higher transport costs and be grown at greater distance from markets.

This is the basis of the theory of J. H. von Thunen (1783—1850) who lived in northern Germany and published his ideas in 1826. Given the ideal condi­tions of a single market and uniform land qualities he maintained that land use would react to the economic forces of production and transport costs and would be located in a series of concentric rings around the urban market.

Von Thunen’s theory has been criticized on many counts. There is rarely an area where condi­tions are uniform and the pattern is therefore affected by physical differences; whatever the economic forces it is useless to try and grow crops in unsuitable soil or climatic conditions, though in some cases the eco­nomic forces may be such that it is profitable to modify natural conditions by the use of glass-houses, irriga­tion or other techniques which increase production costs.

Even where zones are fairly regular they may be interrupted by an area of high fertility where par­ticular crops are favoured or low fertility where noth­ing can be grown. Moreover a single market rarely exists and the land use zones around one city or town are always modified by impinging zones around other towns.

Finally farmers may not be equally well- informed about farming techniques or marketing con­ditions and this may lead to some farmers growing crops inappropriate to the zone in which they live. Some of these factors modifying the ideal von Thunen rings are illustrated in Fig. 3.2.

Von Thunen propounded his theory more than 150 years ago and since then the relative cost of trans­port has diminished, except perhaps in developing countries where there are few lines of transport. La­bour and production costs have risen by comparison and the actual cost of land has also increased.

In areas close to the city there is more competition from hous­ing and industrial uses and this pushes up the price of land. Thus only very valuable crops can be grown. The effect of these changes has not invalidated the theory, however, but has led to a change in the types of land use found close to towns.

For instance the second land use ring in von Thunen’s original model was one of forestry. This was because wood was the major fuel and building material at the time and in very great demand. It was heavy and bulky to trans­port however and was best produced fairly close to its markets.

Nowadays a typical pattern of land use rings is for market gardening producing perishable and bulky goods, especially fruit, flowers and vegetables to be closest to the city, followed by dairying which has high production costs and bulky, perishable prod­ucts.

Then comes mixed or arable farming and lastly livestock farming. Transport of animal products is fairly expensive, requiring refrigerated trucks and so on but the price of meat is high so it can stand higher transport costs.

In Peninsular Malaysia it is possible to discern a similar pattern although the crops are entirely differ­ent. Market gardening is found nearest to the towns and supplies the markets, while cash crops such as rub­ber or oil palm are grown further from the cities and towns but must have access to lines of transport so that the products, e.g. rubber sheets, can be easily transported to the towns where they are traded and processed ready for export.

Finally beyond the cash crop regions where hilly or mountainous terrain, lack of communications and distance from urban centres all combine to reduce agricultural potential the land is forested. Where the forests are relatively more accessible timber is extracted, but there is a core of ‘virgin forest’. Despite this seeming agreement with the von Thunen model, there are several ex­ceptions.

Rice is grown in distinctive regions, most of which are in fact in densely peopled regions, around Alor Star, around Kota Bharu and around Malacca, but the main reason for its location in these regions is the need for a particular set of physical conditions where fields can be flooded.

Some crops have very specific locations, e.g. pineapples in Johore where the correct peaty type of soils are found, and some market gardening takes place at a distance from the main cities in the Cameron Highlands. Here con­ditions allow the production of some temperate fruits and vegetables which command a high price and can therefore stand the high transport costs to the cities.

Essay # 8. Forms of Agriculture:

I. Simple Subsistence Farming:

This form of agriculture is widely practised by many tribes of the tropics, especially in Africa, in tropical South and Central America, and in South-East Asia. It is better known as shifting cultivation. Farming is on a self- sufficient basis and farmers grow food only for them­selves and their families. Very little ever leaves the farm and every farmer produces practically the same range of crops as his neighbour.

Some small surpluses may be either exchanged by barter (i.e. payment in kind not cash) or sold for cash. The resultant economy is thus static with little chance for improvement, but there is a high degree of rural independence because farmers are not tied to landlords or to trading centres.

Shifting cultivation is practised in the tropics by many different peoples and thus has many different names, e.g. milpa in Central America and parts of Africa, conuco in Venezuela, roca in Brazil, masole in Zaire, ladang in Malaysia, humah in Indonesia, caingin in the Philippines, taungya in Burma, tamrai in Thailand, bewar or poda in India and chena in Sri Lanka.

II . Intensive Subsistence Agriculture:

This form of agriculture is best developed in and prac­tically confined to the monsoon lands of Asia. It is found in China, Japan, Korea, India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, the greater part of continental South-East Asia and parts of insular South-East Asia (Java, Luzon, Visayan Islands, coastal Sumatra and Malaysia). Farm­ing in both the wet lowlands and the terraced uplands has to be very intensive to support a dense population.

Population densities in some agricultural areas in Asia are higher than those of industrial areas in the West. Many of the regions of intensive subsistence farming have a highly developed form of society and govern­ment and some such as China and India have a contin­uous history of civilization going back more than 4,000 years. The fast-growing population, almost un­checked for centuries, necessitates an ever greater in­tensity in the tillage of the lands.

A small plot of land has to support 5 or 10 times the number of people that a similar plot on an extensive corn farm in the U.S.A. could feed. The distinctive characteristics of this type of agriculture have led some geographers to call it oriental agriculture. Basically, there are two types of intensive subsistence agriculture: that domi­nated by wet padi and that dominated by other crops such as sorghum, soya beans, sugar-cane, maize, kao­liang, tubers and vegetables.

Intensive subsistence agriculture dominated by other food crops:

Due to differences in relief, climate, soil and other geographical factors, it is not practicable to grow padi in many parts of Monsoon Asia. Though methods are equally intensive and farming is on a sub­sistence basis, a very wide range of other crops is raised. In most parts of North China, Manchuria, North Korea, northern Japan and Punjab wheat, soya beans, barley or kaoliang (a type of millet) are extensively grown as major food crops.

In the Indian Deccan and parts of the Indus Basin sorghum or millet is the dom­inant crop due to the scarcity of rain and the poorer soils. In many parts of continental South-East Asia such as the Dry Zone of Burma, the Korat Plateau of Thailand and the interior regions of Indo-China, the annual precipitation is too low for wet padi cultivation, and the substitute crops are millet, maize and ground­nuts together with cotton, sugar-cane and oil-seeds.

Generally farming in these areas has very similar fea­tures to those of wet padi cultivation, including an in­tensive use of land, much manual labour, little use of farm machinery or modern implements and the use of a variety of manures and fertilizers.

Irrigation is often employed to make good the lack of moisture, though this has not yet been fully developed in many areas. With the intervention of the European colonists in India, Indonesia, the Philippines and Malaysia inten­sive subsistence farming has given way to more profit­able, large-scale cash crop cultivation on plantations.

III . Plantation Agriculture:

The specialized commercial cultivation of cash crops on estates or plantations is a very distinctive type of tropical agri­culture and is found in many parts of Asia, Africa and tropical and sub-tropical America.

Its initiation by the Europeans during the colonial period has made possible the manufacture of a wide range of modern materials. Some of the main plantation crops are rub­ber, oil palm, cotton and copra, beverages like coffee, tea and cocoa, fruits like pineapples and bananas, as well as sugar-cane, hemp and jute.

IV . Extensive, Mechanized Grain Cultiva­tion:

This is a recent development in the continen­tal lands of the mid-latitudes, which were once roamed by nomadic herdsmen. The continental position, well away from maritime influence, and the low precipita­tion (between 305 and 660 mm/12 and 26 inches) make crop cultivation a calculated risk.

It was the in­vention of farm machinery which enabled farmers to cultivate grain on a large scale, and there is a marked specialization in wheat monoculture in many areas. Communication with the outside world is mainly by railways and the bulk of the grain harvest is exported.

This is, in fact, a type of plantation agriculture in temperate latitudes. This form of large-scale grain cul­tivation is best developed in the Eurasian Steppes in regions of chernozem soil; the Canadian and American Prairies; the Pampas of Argentina, the Veld of South Africa, the Australian Downs, and the Canterbury Plain of New Zealand.

V . Nomadic Herding:

This is an extensive form of animal grazing on natural pasturage, involving con­stant or seasonal migration of the nomads and their flocks. Nomadic herding is confined to rather sparsely populated parts of the world where the natural vege­tation is mainly grass and where the rather low rain­fall has a markedly seasonal distribution so that vegeta­tion thrives at certain times of the year, necessitating seasonal movements in search of pasture. The move­ments of nomads are not random but are geared to traditional routes which take them from one area of pasture to another according to the season.

Nomadic herding has been practised since the ear­liest times and may have occupied about one-tenth of the earth’s land surface until the early twentieth cen­tury. However, the constant spread of sedentary cul­tivators into formerly marginal areas, often due to improved farming techniques or the development of irrigation, and the change to a settled form of animal ranching in most parts of the world, have combined to reduce drastically the importance of nomadic herd­ing. It is a declining type of agriculture and continues to become less and less important.

Nomadic herding is practised in many parts of Africa, especially by the Fulani of the West African savannas, by many different peoples, including the Masai, in East Africa and the Nuba in Ethiopia and Sudan, and by the Bantu and Hottentots of southern Africa in Botswana, Mozambique and South Africa.

The Bedouin of Saudi Arabia and the Tuareg of the Sahara also practise nomadic herding in the desert and semi-desert areas of North Africa and South-West Asia, but changes in the economy of most Middle East­ern countries due to the exploitation of oil resources, and the difficulties posed to nomads by the multi­plicity of political boundaries in the region, are reduc­ing the importance of this mode of livelihood.

Some herdsmen in parts of Turkey, Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan still have a nomadic way of life. The whole of Central Asia from the Caspian Sea to Mongolia and northern China was also traditionally an area of no­madic herding and many sub-arctic areas in Siberia and northern Europe were also dominated by this form of livestock farming, but this pattern is rapidly changing.

Nomadism is virtually non-existent in the Soviet Union today and Mongolia and China are both taking measures to settle the Mongol herdsmen or re­duce their movements to very short distances. Groups in Central Asia such as the Kirghiz, Kazaks and Kalmuks have been brought into the state farming system and the pastures are divided into immense state cereal farms or ranches.

In the tundra lands of Siberia, Yak­uts, Samoyeds and Koriaks have also been settled on the state farms. In Scandinavia, the Lapps are tending to settle down and fewer of them nowadays have a truly nomadic way of life. Nomadic herding was never important in the Americas where bison were never domesticated.

VI . Livestock Ranching:

In the extensive tem­perate grasslands, once roamed by nomadic herdsmen or by hunters, are found permanent ranches where large numbers of cattle, sheep, goats, and horses are kept. In Siberia reindeer are also kept on ranches in the sub-Arctic lands.

VII . Mediterranean Agriculture:

Within the Mediterranean climatic region, where there is win­ter rain and summer drought, a distinctive type of agriculture has evolved. This type of farming is also found in irrigated semi-desert and desert areas in similar latitudes. Farming is intensive, highly specialized and rather varied in the kinds of crops raised. Subsistence agriculture occurs side by side with commercial farm­ing.

Many crops such as wheat, barley and vegetables, are raised for domestic consumption, while others like citrus fruits, olives, and grapes are mainly for export. The Mediterranean lands are, in fact, the ‘orchard lands of the world’, and the heart of the world’s wine industry.

The Mediterranean climate and landscape is very varied in different localities and this affects the emphasis on certain crops. Land use is dependent on such factors as the total annual amount of precipita­tion, the length of the summer drought, the availability of melting snow and mountain streams for irrigation and power supply, local soil conditions, the ability of the farmer to finance capital equipment and price fluctuations in local and world markets.

VIII . Mixed Farming:

This is one of the most im­portant forms of agriculture found in the highly de­veloped parts of the world: north-western Europe, eastern North America, parts of the U.S.S.R., and the temperate latitudes of parts of the southern continents. Farming is very intensive and sometimes highly spe­cialized. Some farms may be devoted entirely to arable farming or entirely to livestock, but traditionally farmers practise a truly mixed economy raising ani­mals and growing crops on the same farm.

Mixed farming is still the major agricultural type. The pro­portion of crops and animals at any time is dependent on many inter-related factors such as the locality of the farm, soil fertility, the animal-carrying capacity of the land, the market demand, the prevailing price of crops and animal products, as well as farm traditions and government policies.

Within the mixed farming belt of the temperate regions, a number of well-developed agricultural sub­types may be distinguished. Each is differentiated from the others by the emphasis placed on the kind of crops or animals raised, the extent of commercial­ization, the intensiveness of the farming method and the degree of specialization.

Essay # 9 . Agriculture Changes in Different Countries:

General farming types can be described but in any country a continuous process of change, sometimes rapid, sometimes very gradual, is taking place. By studying some examples, the problems facing farmers and also the government agencies responsible for farm­ing policy become clearer.

In Kenya before Independence, the over­whelming problem was of a division between the white settlers who produced cash crops on large estates and local farmers who produced subsistence crops on small farms. The first change, which took place in the 1950s, was to introduce cash crops to the African farmers and to reduce the reliance on food crops.

Coffee, tea and pyrethrum (used in making insecticides), sisal, pineapples, sugar-cane, cotton and tobacco, were in­troduced and the people adopted the new crops with such eagerness that there was overproduction of coffee and pyrethrum by 1968.

The change to the growing of cash crops has been accompanied by the introduc­tion of mixed farming, use of new hybrid seeds with higher yields and the use of chemical fertilizers essen­tial for the best use of such new varieties.

The second change occurred in the former White Highlands after Independence when white farmers left the country or sold their farms to African or Ken­yan Asian farmers. Some of the former extensive farms were taken over as large going concerns and have continued to operate in this way, either under private ownership or under cooperative control.

Others, es­pecially where the land was of high quality and capa­ble of supporting more intensive use was divided into smallholdings which were settled by African farmers.

Kenya is fortunate that its farmers are enterprising and have been able to adapt rapidly to the efficient production of a wide range of cash crops. But it has many agricultural problems still. About 80 per cent of the population of the country, some 11 million people, is dependent on agriculture. The 1.5 million smallholders in the country have on average, six de­pendents and three-quarters of them have less than 2.6 hectares (6 ½ acres) of land.

Under these circum­stances there is clearly a demand for more land, from existing farmers as well as from the many rural people without any land of their own. Farmers’ income is very much lower than that of urban Kenyans but cannot be easily increased. Moreover there is a shortage of land of high enough quality to support subsistence or cash crop farming.

Most of the land not yet fully developed is only suitable for extensive grazing and where farmers have settled and cultivated it there have been problems of soil erosion. On the other hand the ranching of livestock has not developed as rapidly or as successfully as has crop production.

This is partly due to the traditional attitudes of the Masai herders who gain prestige from the numbers of their cattle rather than from their quality and who are reluctant to slaughter their animals, or to improve their stock and moreover, degrade the land by keep­ing too many beasts.

Secondly, incentives for beef production have not been as strong, in terms of guaranteed prices, as for cereals and dairy products. Financial rewards can be adjusted to encourage various branches of agriculture but this will not over­come the land hunger of rural Kenyans who attach great importance to owning their own land. Increasing land ownership may lead to disastrous results if too much marginal land is overused.

Japanese agriculture has changed very rapid­ly, mainly in the period since the Second World War. Before the war it was essentially an oriental farming region with heavy dependence on rice and subsidiary silk production. Much of the population was engaged in farming and yields per hectare were fairly low.

As industry expanded, however, farming also changed, becoming far more efficient and far less labour-inten­sive. Only 11 per cent of the population is now engaged in agriculture and it plays only a small role in the national economy even though production is much higher and more varied.

Rice production was only 7 million tonnes in 1910, around 9 million tonnes in the inter-war period, but rose to 14 million tonnes by 1966-68. Hectareage in­creased only slightly and higher production came mainly from higher yields.

These were made possible, mainly from 1955 onwards, by land improvement and consolidation into larger fields, by the breeding of hardy and high yielding varieties, the adoption of early transplanting from nursery beds, use of fertilizers and extensive use of pesticides.

At the same time the amount of labour involved in rice production fell rapidly. Powered cultivation became common between 1965 and 1970 and rice-planting machines, combines and threshing machines were widely used after 1970. Tractors, combines and rice storage facilities have been introduced through cooperatives and are now very common. After 1967 rice was overproduced and a control policy to limit production came into force in 1971.

Horticulture has expanded rapidly and many spe­cialized forms have developed, especially since 1955 when the chemical industry provided plastic sheeting as a cheap alternative to glass. Market gardening zones around large cities were the first to develop but these are now being overtaken by city growth.

Inter-war development of transport favoured truck farming in specialized areas, e.g. strawberries at the foot of Kuno- San (Japan is the world’s second largest producer of strawberries) or cabbages and similar vegetables in greenhouses in highland regions in Nagano, Gumma and Iwate prefectures. The total area under glass and vinyl-sheeted houses is more than 20 000 hectares (49,380 acres).

Livestock numbers in Japan have increased enor­mously, particularly poultry, pigs and dairy cattle. In the past Buddhist principles limited meat consump­tion and low standards of living reduced the use of dairy products. Animals are now generally kept in stalls owing to the lack of grazing land, and milk yields are among the highest in the world (5 903 kg/13,000 lb of milk per cow per year in 1977).

As farming has been made more efficient and less labour-intensive a major feature of Japanese farming has been the change to part-time farming. Workers earn their main livelihood in factories and work only a few hours a week on their farms. Jobs that require a greater labour input are contracted out.

One group of five farmers, for example, works 53 hectares (131 acres) of padi land and a further 11 hectares (27 acres) of non-irrigated land on its own farms; in addition the group ploughs 125 hectares (309 acres) of padi, sprays 38 hectares (94 acres) and harvests 58 hectares (143 acres) on contract to other farmers.

Despite Japan’s great efficiency its small area of farming land, limited by mountains and increasingly by urban sprawl, can never hope to supply all Japan’s food requirements. Farmers therefore concentrate on the traditional staple—rice and on fruit, vegetables and milk which would be the most costly to import.

Wheat, soya beans and other crops are grown but the bulk of Japanese requirements for these as foodstuffs or fodder crops, as well as industrial raw materials like cotton and wool, has to be imported.

U.S.A. American agriculture is probably the most ef­ficient in the world in terms of its reliance on high technology equipment and low labour inputs. Produc­tion has improved so much that about one-third of all farmland in the U.S.A. is producing crops for export. Much of the credit for this lies, however, in the vast size of the available high-quality land and not in in­creasing yields per hectare as is the case in many smaller countries, e.g. Japan.

In order to maintain high production figures, and therefore profits, American farmers have to be very adaptable and ready to try every new development in crop varieties, fertilizers, pesticides, farming equip­ment and harvesting devices, and prices for farm machinery are very high indeed.

Only guaranteed prices and the hope of higher profits allow the farmers to take the calculated risk of investing in new techno­logy. Farmers must work on credit to a great extent because if they do not risk their capital in this way they cannot keep pace with their neighbours and soon find themselves unable to compete and have to sell their farms.

The number of farmers has dwindled rapidly—between 1940 and 1960 at a rate of about one million per year-and the decline in agricultural population continues. Only 4 per cent of the American population now depends on agriculture.

At the same time farm sizes have increased, from 87 hectares (214 acres) on average in 1950 to 162 hectares (400 acres) in 1978 and this is a continuing trend. Larger farm sizes, of course, give added impetus to mechanization and offer great economies of scale.

The use of machinery for so many farm operations, even the picking and sorting of fruit such as tomatoes and grapes or vegetables like lettuce which bruise very easily, has led to a sharp decline in the labour force and has made redundant large numbers of Mexican Americans who traditionally worked as fruit and vege­table pickers, just as machines forced negro labourers off the cotton fields in the 1930s and 1940s.

Farmers today employ a few, highly skilled workers, who can operate their huge tractors or electronic fruit pickers, and there may in future be a shortage of skilled men to do these jobs.

Not only are the farmlands empty of people but also of animals. Most animals are kept under cover. Chickens are almost exclusively, and pigs increa­singly, factory farmed, while cattle are fattened in feedlots rather than ranging across the fields for fodder.

This allows farmers to grow more arable crops which are mostly destined for animal feeding, either for local or overseas markets. Oil seeds, including soya beans, sunflower and peanuts, and grains, such as sorghum, are increasingly grown, as well as the tra­ditional crops of corn, wheat, cotton and tobacco.

Given the prosperity and success of American farm­ing there seem to be few problems. But in fact the large surpluses make the American farmers as depend­ent on exports as farmers in developing countries growing tropical crops. The export market fluctuates widely, since the importing countries naturally try to produce as much as they can themselves and only im­port what they cannot produce.

American grain and feedstuff markets depend therefore on annual varia­tions in climatic conditions and changing demand overseas over which they have no control. The chief importing countries are Japan, Netherlands, West Germany, Canada and the U.S.S.R. Government po­licies must therefore keep overproduction within bounds but, at the same time, because of their guaranteed price agreements with the farmers, the government agricultural agencies, and ultimately the taxpayers are liable to great expenditure when crops fail, as was the case in 1980 when widespread droughts in the U.S.A. allowed grasshoppers to multiply and eat their way through the grain fields.

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Essay on Agriculture for Students and Children

500+ words essay on agriculture.

Agriculture is one of the major sectors of the Indian economy. It is present in the country for thousands of years. Over the years it has developed and the use of new technologies and equipment replaced almost all the traditional methods of farming. Besides, in India, there are still some small farmers that use the old traditional methods of agriculture because they lack the resources to use modern methods. Furthermore, this is the only sector that contributed to the growth of not only itself but also of the other sector of the country.

Growth and Development of the Agriculture Sector

India largely depends on the agriculture sector. Besides, agriculture is not just a mean of livelihood but a way of living life in India. Moreover, the government is continuously making efforts to develop this sector as the whole nation depends on it for food.

For thousands of years, we are practicing agriculture but still, it remained underdeveloped for a long time. Moreover, after independence, we use to import food grains from other countries to fulfill our demand. But, after the green revolution, we become self-sufficient and started exporting our surplus to other countries.

Besides, these earlier we use to depend completely on monsoon for the cultivation of food grains but now we have constructed dams, canals, tube-wells, and pump-sets. Also, we now have a better variety of fertilizers, pesticides, and seeds, which help us to grow more food in comparison to what we produce during old times.

With the advancement of technology, advanced equipment, better irrigation facility and the specialized knowledge of agriculture started improving.

Furthermore, our agriculture sector has grown stronger than many countries and we are the largest exporter of many food grains.

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Significance of Agriculture

It is not wrong to say that the food we eat is the gift of agriculture activities and Indian farmers who work their sweat to provide us this food.

In addition, the agricultural sector is one of the major contributors to Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and national income of the country.

Also, it requires a large labor force and employees around 80% of the total employed people. The agriculture sector not only employees directly but also indirectly.

Moreover, agriculture forms around 70% of our total exports. The main export items are tea, cotton, textiles, tobacco, sugar, jute products, spices, rice, and many other items.

Negative Impacts of Agriculture

Although agriculture is very beneficial for the economy and the people there are some negative impacts too. These impacts are harmful to both environments as the people involved in this sector.

Deforestation is the first negative impact of agriculture as many forests have been cut downed to turn them into agricultural land. Also, the use of river water for irrigation causes many small rivers and ponds to dry off which disturb the natural habitat.

Moreover, most of the chemical fertilizers and pesticides contaminate the land as well as water bodies nearby. Ultimately it leads to topsoil depletion and contamination of groundwater.

In conclusion, Agriculture has given so much to society. But it has its own pros and cons that we can’t overlook. Furthermore, the government is doing his every bit to help in the growth and development of agriculture; still, it needs to do something for the negative impacts of agriculture. To save the environment and the people involved in it.

FAQs about Essay on Agriculture

Q.1 Name the four types of agriculture? A.1 The four types of agriculture are nomadic herding, shifting cultivation, commercial plantation, and intensive subsistence farming.

Q.2 What are the components of the agriculture revolution? A.2 The agriculture revolution has five components namely, machinery, land under cultivation, fertilizers, and pesticides, irrigation, and high-yielding variety of seeds.

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Essays on Agriculture

The importance of writing an essay on agriculture cannot be overstated. Agriculture is the backbone of our society, providing us with the food and resources we need to survive. By writing an essay on agriculture, you can help raise awareness about the importance of sustainable farming practices, the impact of climate change on food production, and the need for technological advancements in the agricultural industry.

When writing an essay on agriculture, it's important to first do thorough research on the topic. This may involve reading academic journals, interviewing experts in the field, and gathering data on current agricultural practices and trends. This research will provide you with the necessary information to make strong arguments and support your claims.

Additionally, it's important to consider the audience for your essay. Are you writing for a general audience or for a specific group of people, such as policymakers or farmers? Tailoring your writing to your audience will help ensure that your essay is relevant and impactful.

Another important tip for writing an essay on agriculture is to use clear and concise language. Avoid jargon and technical terms that may be difficult for the average reader to understand. Instead, focus on communicating your ideas in a straightforward manner that is accessible to a wide range of readers.

Finally, don't forget to include evidence to support your arguments. This may include statistics, case studies, and expert opinions. Providing evidence will help strengthen your essay and make it more persuasive.

The Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture Climate change is one of the biggest challenges facing agriculture today. Write an essay exploring the various ways in which climate change is affecting agriculture, including changes in temperature and precipitation patterns, increased frequency of extreme weather events, and the spread of pests and diseases. Discuss potential strategies for adapting to and mitigating the effects of climate change on agriculture.

The Role of Technology in Modern Agriculture Advances in technology have revolutionized the way we produce food. In this essay, discuss the impact of technology on agriculture, including the use of precision farming techniques, drones and other aerial technologies, and the development of genetically modified organisms. Explore the potential benefits and drawbacks of these technological advancements on the agricultural industry.

Sustainable Agriculture Practices Sustainability is a growing concern in agriculture, as farmers and policymakers seek to minimize the environmental impact of food production. Write an essay discussing sustainable agriculture practices, such as organic farming, crop rotation, and integrated pest management. Explore the potential benefits of these practices for both the environment and the long-term viability of the agricultural industry.

The Importance of Soil Health in Agriculture Healthy soil is essential for productive and sustainable agriculture. In this essay, explore the role of soil health in agriculture, including the importance of soil conservation, the impact of soil degradation on crop yields, and the potential benefits of regenerative agriculture practices. Discuss potential strategies for improving and maintaining soil health on farms.

The Future of Agriculture: Urban Farming and Vertical Agriculture As the global population continues to grow, the demand for food is increasing, leading to new innovations in agricultural practices. Write an essay discussing the potential of urban farming and vertical agriculture to address food security and sustainability challenges. Explore the benefits and drawbacks of these alternative farming methods and their potential impact on the agricultural industry.

The Economics of Agriculture: Farm Subsidies and Trade Policies The agricultural industry is heavily influenced by government policies and international trade agreements. In this essay, explore the economic factors that shape agriculture, including the role of farm subsidies, tariffs, and trade barriers. Discuss the potential impact of these policies on farmers, consumers, and the global food supply.

The Ethical Considerations of Animal Agriculture The treatment of animals in the agricultural industry is a topic of growing concern. Write an essay exploring the ethical considerations of animal agriculture, including the use of factory farming practices, the treatment of livestock, and the impact of animal agriculture on the environment and public health. Discuss potential strategies for promoting ethical and sustainable practices in animal agriculture.

The Impact of Biotechnology on Agriculture Biotechnology has the potential to revolutionize the agricultural industry, from the development of genetically modified crops to the use of biotechnology in food processing and preservation. In this essay, explore the potential benefits and drawbacks of biotechnology in agriculture, including its impact on food security, environmental sustainability, and public health.

The Role of Women in Agriculture Women play a crucial role in agriculture, from farm labor and management to entrepreneurship and leadership. Write an essay discussing the contributions of women to the agricultural industry, including the challenges and opportunities they face. Explore potential strategies for promoting gender equality and empowering women in agriculture.

The Future of Agriculture: Sustainable Food Systems As the world grapples with the challenges of climate change, food security, and environmental degradation, there is growing interest in developing sustainable food systems. In this essay, discuss the potential of sustainable food systems to address these challenges, including the role of regenerative agriculture, local food movements, and alternative food distribution models. Explore the potential benefits of sustainable food systems for both the environment and human health.

In , agriculture is a complex and multifaceted industry that intersects with numerous social, economic, and environmental issues. These essay topics provide a starting point for exploring the many dimensions of agriculture, from the impact of climate change and technological advancements to the ethical considerations of food production and the potential of sustainable food systems. By delving into these topics, students and researchers can gain a deeper understanding of the challenges and opportunities facing the agricultural industry and contribute to the development of innovative solutions for a more sustainable and equitable food system.

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Essay on Agriculture

Students are often asked to write an essay on Agriculture in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Agriculture

Introduction to agriculture.

Agriculture is the practice of growing crops and rearing animals for food, fiber, medicinal plants, and other products used to sustain life. It’s an essential part of human civilization.

Importance of Agriculture

Agriculture is critical as it provides most of the world’s food. It also contributes to the economy of many countries. Without agriculture, we wouldn’t have enough food to feed everyone.

Types of Agriculture

There are various types of agriculture including organic farming, industrial agriculture, and subsistence farming. Each one has its own methods and purposes.

Challenges in Agriculture

Agriculture faces several challenges like climate change, pests, and diseases. These issues need to be addressed to ensure food security for everyone.

250 Words Essay on Agriculture

Introduction.

Agriculture, the backbone of many economies, is an industry that harnesses the Earth’s resources to produce food, fiber, medicinal plants, and other materials vital for human life. It is a field that has evolved over millennia, from primitive manual farming to today’s technologically advanced agribusiness.

Historical Perspective

Agriculture originated around 10,000 BCE when humans transitioned from nomadic hunter-gatherers to settled farmers. This Neolithic Revolution saw the domestication of plants and animals, laying the foundations of modern agriculture.

Modern Agriculture

Today’s agriculture is characterized by high-yield strategies, mechanization, and genetic modification. Mechanization has increased efficiency, while genetic modification aims to improve crop resilience and nutritional value. However, these advancements also raise ethical and environmental concerns, necessitating sustainable practices.

Sustainable Agriculture

Sustainable agriculture strives for environmental health, economic profitability, and social equity. It incorporates techniques like crop rotation, permaculture, and organic farming to maintain soil health, reduce chemical use, and promote biodiversity.

Future of Agriculture

The future of agriculture lies in precision farming, vertical farming, and climate-smart practices. Precision farming uses technology like GPS and remote sensing to optimize inputs and improve yields. Vertical farming, a form of urban agriculture, aims to maximize production in limited spaces.

500 Words Essay on Agriculture

Agriculture, as one of the oldest human activities, has undergone significant transformations over the centuries. From primitive subsistence farming, agriculture has evolved into a complex industry, harnessing the latest technologies to increase productivity and sustainability. This essay will explore the role, significance, and challenges of modern agriculture.

Role and Significance of Agriculture

Agriculture’s primary role is to provide food and raw materials to meet human needs. It is the backbone of economic systems, contributing significantly to the GDP of many countries, especially those in the developing world. Agriculture also plays a critical role in maintaining ecological balance and preserving biodiversity.

Modern Agricultural Practices

Despite these advancements, agriculture faces significant challenges. Climate change poses a profound threat to farming, with changing weather patterns and increased frequency of extreme weather events disrupting agricultural cycles. Water scarcity, soil degradation, and loss of biodiversity also present pressing issues.

Technological advancements also hold promise for the future of agriculture. Innovations like vertical farming, hydroponics, and aquaponics could redefine agricultural practices, making them more efficient and less resource-intensive.

In conclusion, agriculture is a vital human activity with deep economic, social, and ecological implications. Its evolution, shaped by technological advancements and changing environmental conditions, reflects our ability to adapt and innovate. The challenges it faces necessitate a shift towards more sustainable practices, underlining the need for continuous research and innovation in this field. The future of agriculture will be defined by our ability to balance productivity with sustainability, ensuring food security while preserving the health of our planet.

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Photo: Organic doesn't just mean food. If you care about pollution from food crops, logically you should also care about pollution from things like growing cotton. Organic cotton helps to safeguard human workers as well as the natural environment.

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Photo: Organic standards: Organic food generally carries precise information about how it was certified and by whom. This is an example of the Italian Controllo Biologico organic certification label.

Photo: A very delicious, organic savoy cabbage grown by Guy Watson's Riverford Organic cooperative in Devon, England. Tastes wonderful.... but is it any better for you than a conventional cabbage?

Photo: Although organic farmers use machines like everyone else, they do tend to think twice about the impacts of mechanization—particularly the oil that tractors use and the damage that heavy agricultural machines can do to the all-important soil structure.

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Chart: Organic food is now a $62 billion a year business in the United States alone. Drawn by explainthatstuff.com using data from the Organic Trade Association , May 2021.

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• Environmentalism (introduction)
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Other websites

• Pesticides : Definitive information about environmental impacts from the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).

Useful organizations and groups

• Organic Farmers and Growers
• Organic Trade Association
• Pesticide Action Network (PAN)-UK
• Soil Association
• Organic Food, Farming and Culture by Janet Chrzan and Jacqueline Ricotta (eds). Bloomsbury, 2019.
• The Organic Food Handbook by Ken Roseboro. ReadHowYouWant.com, 2009.
• The Organic Food Shopper's Guide by Jeff Cox. John Wiley and Sons, 2008.
• Organic Gardening for the 21st Century by John Fedor and Bob Sherman. Frances Lincoln, 2001.

Food production

• The Ecological Hoofprint: The Global Burden of Industrial Livestock by Tony Weis. Earthscan, 2013.
• Rebels for the Soil: The Rise of the Global Organic Food and Farming Movement by Matthew Reed. Earthscan, 2010.
• The Global Food Economy: The Battle for the Future of Farming by Tony Weis. Zed Books, 2007.
• Food Wars: The Global Battle for Mouths, Minds and Markets by Tim Lang and Michael Heasman. Earthscan, 2004.

Reports and statistics

• [PDF] The pesticides in our food : A briefing from Friends of the Earth UK from Autumn 2004. [Archived via the Wayback Machine.]
• World organic food statistics : from the Organic Trade Association.

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Sustainable Agriculture

History and Key Concepts

Sustainable Agriculture and the Management of Natural Resources

Sustainable agriculture and society, acknowledgements.

Feenstra, G., Ingels, C., Campbell, D. What is Sustainable Agriculture? University of California Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education Program. http://asi.ucdavis.edu/sarep/about/def

References and Recommended Reading

Altieri, M. A. Agroecology: The Science of Sustainable Agriculture. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1995.

Gliessman, S. R. Agroecology: Ecological Processes in Sustainable Agriculture. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2000.

Hinrichs, C. C. & Lyson, T. A. Remaking the North American Food System: Strategies for Sustainability. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 2008.

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Sustainable Agriculture Research & Education Program

• What is Sustainable Agriculture?

The goal of sustainable agriculture is to meet society’s food and textile needs in the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Practitioners of sustainable agriculture seek to integrate three main objectives into their work: a healthy environment, economic profitability, and social and economic equity. Every person involved in the food system—growers, food processors, distributors, retailers, consumers, and waste managers—can play a role in ensuring a sustainable agricultural system.

There are many practices commonly used by people working in sustainable agriculture and sustainable food systems. Growers may use methods to promote  soil health , minimize  water use , and lower  pollution levels  on the farm. Consumers and retailers concerned with sustainability can look for “ values-based ” foods that are grown using methods promoting  farmworker wellbeing , that are  environmentally friendly , or that strengthen the local economy. And researchers in sustainable agriculture often cross disciplinary lines with their work: combining biology, economics, engineering, chemistry, community development, and many others. However, sustainable agriculture is more than a collection of practices. It is also process of negotiation: a push and pull between the sometimes competing interests of an individual farmer or of people in a community as they work to solve complex problems about how we grow our food and fiber.

Topics in sustainable agriculture

• Addressing Food Insecurity
• Agritourism
• Agroforestry
• Conservation Tillage
• Controlled Environment Agriculture (CEA)
• Cooperatives
• Cover Crops
• Dairy Waste Management
• Direct Marketing
• Energy Efficiency & Conservation
• Food and Agricultural Employment
• Food Labeling/Certifications
• Food Waste Management
• Genetically Modified Crops
• Global Sustainable Sourcing of Commodities
• Institutional Sustainable Food Procurement
• Biologically Integrated Farming Systems
• Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
• Nutrition & Food Systems Education
• Organic Farming
• Precision Agriculture (SSM)
• Soil Nutrient Management
• Postharvest Management Practices
• Technological Innovation in Agriculture
• Urban Agriculture
• Value-Based Supply Chains
• Water Use Efficiency
• Water Quality Management
• Zero-Emissions Freight Transport

Directory of UC Programs in Sustainable Agriculture

This directory is a catalog of UC's programmatic activities in sustainable agriculture and food systems. All programs are sorted by activities and topic areas.

The Philosophy & Practices of Sustainable Agriculture

Agriculture has changed dramatically, especially since the end of World War II. Food and fiber productivity soared due to new technologies, mechanization, increased chemical use, specialization and government policies that favored maximizing production. These changes allowed fewer farmers with reduced labor demands to produce the majority of the food and fiber in the U.S.

Although these changes have had many positive effects and reduced many risks in farming, there have also been significant costs. Prominent among these are topsoil depletion, groundwater contamination, the decline of family farms, continued neglect of the living and working conditions for farm laborers, increasing costs of production, and the disintegration of economic and social conditions in rural communities.

Potential Costs of Modern Agricultural Techniques

A growing movement has emerged during the past two decades to question the role of the agricultural establishment in promoting practices that contribute to these social problems. Today this movement for sustainable agriculture is garnering increasing support and acceptance within mainstream agriculture. Not only does sustainable agriculture address many environmental and social concerns, but it offers innovative and economically viable opportunities for growers, laborers, consumers, policymakers and many others in the entire food system.

This page is an effort to identify the ideas, practices and policies that constitute our concept of sustainable agriculture. We do so for two reasons: 1) to clarify the research agenda and priorities of our program, and 2) to suggest to others practical steps that may be appropriate for them in moving toward sustainable agriculture. Because the concept of sustainable agriculture is still evolving, we intend this page not as a definitive or final statement, but as an invitation to continue the dialogue

Despite the diversity of people and perspectives, the following themes commonly weave through definitions of sustainable agriculture:

Sustainability rests on the principle that we must meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Therefore,  stewardship of both natural and human resources  is of prime importance.  Stewardship of human resources  includes consideration of social responsibilities such as working and living conditions of laborers, the needs of rural communities, and consumer health and safety both in the present and the future.  Stewardship of land and natural resources  involves maintaining or enhancing this vital resource base for the long term.

A  systems perspective  is essential to understanding sustainability. The system is envisioned in its broadest sense, from the individual farm, to the local ecosystem,  and  to communities affected by this farming system both locally and globally. An emphasis on the system allows a larger and more thorough view of the consequences of farming practices on both human communities and the environment. A systems approach gives us the tools to explore the interconnections between farming and other aspects of our environment.

Everyone plays a role in creating a sustainable food system.

Making the transition to sustainable agriculture is a process.   For farmers, the transition to sustainable agriculture normally requires  a series of small ,  realistic   steps . Family economics and personal goals influence how fast or how far participants can go in the transition. It is important to realize that each small decision can make a difference and contribute to advancing the entire system further on the "sustainable agriculture continuum." The key to moving forward is the will to take the next step. Finally, it is important to point out that   reaching toward the goal of sustainable agriculture is the responsibility of all participants in the system ,  including farmers, laborers, policymakers, researchers, retailers, and consumers. Each group has its own part to play, its own unique contribution to make to strengthen the sustainable agriculture community. The remainder of this page considers specific strategies for realizing these broad themes or goals. The strategies are grouped according to three separate though related areas of concern:  Farming and Natural Resources ,  Plant and Animal Production Practices , and the  Economic, Social and Political Context . They represent a range of potential ideas for individuals committed to interpreting the vision of sustainable agriculture within their own circumstances.

• Farming and Natural Resources

When the production of food and fiber degrades the natural resource base, the ability of future generations to produce and flourish decreases. The decline of ancient civilizations in Mesopotamia, the Mediterranean region, Pre-Columbian southwest U.S. and Central America is believed to have been strongly influenced by natural resource degradation from non-sustainable farming and forestry practices. 

Water is the principal resource that has helped agriculture and society to prosper, and it has been a major limiting factor when mismanaged.

Water supply and use.  In California, an extensive  water storage and transfer system  has been established which has allowed crop production to expand to very arid regions. In drought years, limited surface water supplies have prompted overdraft of groundwater and consequent intrusion of salt water, or permanent collapse of aquifers. Periodic droughts, some lasting up to 50 years, have occurred in California.

Several steps should be taken to develop drought-resistant farming systems even in "normal" years, including both policy and management actions:

1) improving  water conservation  and storage measures,

2) providing incentives for selection of drought-tolerant crop species,

3) using  reduced-volume irrigation  systems,

4) managing crops to reduce water loss, or

5) not planting at all.

Water quality.  The most important issues related to water quality involve salinization and contamination of ground and surface waters by pesticides, nitrates and selenium. Salinity has become a problem wherever water of even relatively low salt content is used on shallow soils in arid regions and/or where the water table is near the root zone of crops. Tile drainage can remove the water and salts, but the disposal of the salts and other contaminants may negatively affect the environment depending upon where they are deposited. Temporary solutions include the use of salt-tolerant crops, low-volume irrigation, and various management techniques to minimize the effects of salts on crops. In the long-term, some farmland may need to be removed from production or converted to other uses. Other uses include conversion of row crop land to production of drought-tolerant forages, the restoration of wildlife habitat or the use of agroforestry to minimize the impacts of salinity and high water tables. Pesticide and nitrate contamination of water can be reduced using many of the practices discussed later in the  Plant Production Practices  and  Animal Production Practices  sections.

Wildlife . Another way in which agriculture affects water resources is through the destruction of riparian habitats within watersheds. The conversion of wild habitat to agricultural land reduces fish and wildlife through erosion and sedimentation, the effects of pesticides, removal of riparian plants, and the diversion of water. The plant diversity in and around both riparian and agricultural areas should be maintained in order to support a diversity of wildlife. This diversity will enhance natural ecosystems and could aid in agricultural pest management.

Modern agriculture is heavily dependent on non-renewable energy sources, especially petroleum. The continued use of these energy sources cannot be sustained indefinitely, yet to abruptly abandon our reliance on them would be economically catastrophic. However, a sudden cutoff in energy supply would be equally disruptive. In sustainable agricultural systems, there is reduced reliance on non-renewable energy sources and a substitution of renewable sources or labor to the extent that is economically feasible.

Many agricultural activities affect air quality. These include smoke from agricultural burning; dust from tillage, traffic and harvest; pesticide drift from spraying; and nitrous oxide emissions from the use of nitrogen fertilizer. Options to improve air quality include:

      - incorporating crop residue into the soil       - using appropriate levels of tillage       - and planting wind breaks, cover crops or strips of native perennial grasses to reduce dust.

Soil erosion continues to be a serious threat to our continued ability to produce adequate food. Numerous practices have been developed to keep soil in place, which include:

      - reducing or eliminating tillage       - managing irrigation to reduce runoff       - and keeping the soil covered with plants or mulch. 

Enhancement of soil quality is discussed in the next section.

• Plant Production Practices

Sustainable production practices involve a variety of approaches. Specific strategies must take into account topography, soil characteristics, climate, pests, local availability of inputs and the individual grower's goals.  Despite the site-specific and individual nature of sustainable agriculture, several general principles can be applied to help growers select appropriate management practices:

      - Selection of species and varieties that are well suited to the site and to conditions on the farm;       - Diversification of crops (including livestock) and cultural practices to enhance the biological and economic stability of the farm;       - Management of the soil to enhance and protect soil quality;       - Efficient and humane use of inputs; and       - Consideration of farmers' goals and lifestyle choices.

Selection of site, species and variety

Preventive strategies, adopted early, can reduce inputs and help establish a sustainable production system. When possible, pest-resistant crops should be selected which are tolerant of existing soil or site conditions. When site selection is an option, factors such as soil type and depth, previous crop history, and location (e.g. climate, topography) should be taken into account before planting.

Diversified farms are usually more economically and ecologically resilient.  While monoculture farming has advantages in terms of efficiency and ease of management, the loss of the crop in any one year could put a farm out of business and/or seriously disrupt the stability of a community dependent on that crop. By growing a variety of crops, farmers spread economic risk and are less susceptible to the radical price fluctuations associated with changes in supply and demand.

Properly managed, diversity can also buffer a farm in a biological sense. For example, in annual cropping systems,  crop rotation can be used to suppress weeds, pathogens and insect pests. Also, cover crops can have stabilizing effects on the agroecosystem by holding soil and nutrients in place, conserving soil moisture with mowed or standing dead mulches, and by increasing the water infiltration rate and soil water holding capacity.  Cover crops  in orchards and vineyards can buffer the system against pest infestations by increasing beneficial arthropod populations and can therefore reduce the need for chemical inputs. Using a variety of cover crops is also important in order to protect against the failure of a particular species to grow and to attract and sustain a wide range of beneficial arthropods.

Optimum diversity may be obtained by integrating both crops and livestock in the same farming operation. This was the common practice for centuries until the mid-1900s when technology, government policy and economics compelled farms to become more specialized. Mixed crop and livestock operations have several advantages. First, growing row crops only on more level land and pasture or forages on steeper slopes will reduce soil erosion. Second, pasture and forage crops in rotation enhance soil quality and reduce erosion; livestock manure, in turn, contributes to soil fertility. Third, livestock can buffer the negative impacts of low rainfall periods by consuming crop residue that in "plant only" systems would have been considered crop failures. Finally, feeding and marketing are flexible in animal production systems. This can help cushion farmers against trade and price fluctuations and, in conjunction with cropping operations, make more efficient use of farm labor.

Soil management

A common philosophy among sustainable agriculture practitioners is that a "healthy" soil is a key component of sustainability; that is, a healthy soil will produce healthy crop plants that have optimum vigor and are less susceptible to pests. While many crops have key pests that attack even the healthiest of plants, proper soil, water and nutrient management can help prevent some pest problems brought on by crop stress or nutrient imbalance. Furthermore, crop management systems that impair soil quality often result in greater inputs of water, nutrients, pesticides, and/or energy for tillage to maintain yields.

In sustainable systems, the soil is viewed as a fragile and living medium that must be protected and nurtured to ensure its long-term productivity and stability.   Methods to protect and enhance the productivity of the soil include:

      - using cover crops, compost and/or manures       - reducing tillage       - avoiding traffic on wet soils       - maintaining soil cover with plants and/or mulches

Conditions in most California soils (warm, irrigated, and tilled) do not favor the buildup of organic matter. Regular additions of organic matter or the use of cover crops can increase soil aggregate stability, soil tilth, and diversity of soil microbial life.

Efficient use of inputs

Many inputs and practices used by conventional farmers are also used in sustainable agriculture. Sustainable farmers, however, maximize reliance on natural, renewable, and on-farm inputs.  Equally important are the environmental, social, and economic impacts of a particular strategy. Converting to sustainable practices does not mean simple input substitution. Frequently, it substitutes enhanced management and scientific knowledge for conventional inputs, especially chemical inputs that harm the environment on farms and in rural communities. The goal is to develop efficient, biological systems which do not need high levels of material inputs.

Growers frequently ask if synthetic chemicals are appropriate in a sustainable farming system. Sustainable approaches are those that are the least toxic and least energy intensive, and yet maintain productivity and profitability. Preventive strategies and other alternatives should be employed before using chemical inputs from any source. However, there may be situations where the use of synthetic chemicals would be more "sustainable" than a strictly non-chemical approach or an approach using toxic "organic" chemicals. For example, one grape grower switched from tillage to a few applications of a broad spectrum contact herbicide in the vine row. This approach may use less energy and may compact the soil less than numerous passes with a cultivator or mower.

Consideration of farmer goals and lifestyle choices

Management decisions should reflect not only environmental and broad social considerations, but also individual goals and lifestyle choices. For example, adoption of some technologies or practices that promise profitability may also require such intensive management that one's lifestyle actually deteriorates. Management decisions that promote sustainability, nourish the environment, the community and the individual.

• Animal Production Practices

In the early part of this century, most farms integrated both crop and livestock operations. Indeed, the two were highly complementary both biologically and economically. The current picture has changed quite drastically since then. Crop and animal producers now are still dependent on one another to some degree, but the integration now most commonly takes place at a higher level-- between  farmers, through intermediaries, rather than  within  the farm itself. This is the result of a trend toward separation and specialization of crop and animal production systems. Despite this trend, there are still many farmers, particularly in the Midwest and Northeastern U.S. that integrate crop and animal systems--either on dairy farms, or with range cattle, sheep or hog operations.

Even with the growing specialization of livestock and crop producers, many of the principles outlined in the crop production section apply to both groups. The actual management practices will, of course, be quite different. Some of the specific points that livestock producers need to address are listed below.

Management Planning

Including livestock in the farming system increases the complexity of biological and economic relationships. The mobility of the stock, daily feeding, health concerns, breeding operations, seasonal feed and forage sources, and complex marketing are sources of this complexity. Therefore, a successful ranch plan should include enterprise calendars of operations, stock flows, forage flows, labor needs, herd production records and land use plans to give the manager control and a means of monitoring progress toward goals.

Animal Selection

The animal enterprise must be appropriate for the farm or ranch resources. Farm capabilities and constraints such as feed and forage sources, landscape, climate and skill of the manager must be considered in selecting which animals to produce. For example, ruminant animals can be raised on a variety of feed sources including range and pasture, cultivated forage, cover crops, shrubs, weeds, and crop residues. There is a wide range of breeds available in each of the major ruminant species, i.e., cattle, sheep and goats. Hardier breeds that, in general, have lower growth and milk production potential, are better adapted to less favorable environments with sparse or highly seasonal forage growth.

Animal nutrition

Feed costs are the largest single variable cost in any livestock operation. While most of the feed may come from other enterprises on the ranch, some purchased feed is usually imported from off the farm. Feed costs can be kept to a minimum by monitoring animal condition and performance and understanding seasonal variations in feed and forage quality on the farm. Determining the optimal use of farm-generated by-products is an important challenge of diversified farming.

Reproduction

Use of quality germplasm to improve herd performance is another key to sustainability. In combination with good genetic stock, adapting the reproduction season to fit the climate and sources of feed and forage reduce health problems and feed costs.

Herd Health

Animal health greatly influences reproductive success and weight gains, two key aspects of successful livestock production. Unhealthy stock waste feed and require additional labor. A herd health program is critical to sustainable livestock production.

Grazing Management

Most adverse environmental impacts associated with grazing can be prevented or mitigated with proper grazing management. First, the number of stock per unit area (stocking rate) must be correct for the landscape and the forage sources. There will need to be compromises between the convenience of tilling large, unfenced fields and the fencing needs of livestock operations. Use of modern, temporary fencing may provide one practical solution to this dilemma. Second, the long term carrying capacity and the stocking rate must take into account short and long-term droughts. Especially in Mediterranean climates such as in California, properly managed grazing significantly reduces fire hazards by reducing fuel build-up in grasslands and brushlands. Finally, the manager must achieve sufficient control to reduce overuse in some areas while other areas go unused. Prolonged concentration of stock that results in permanent loss of vegetative cover on uplands or in riparian zones should be avoided. However, small scale loss of vegetative cover around water or feed troughs may be tolerated if surrounding vegetative cover is adequate.

Confined Livestock Production

Animal health and waste management are key issues in confined livestock operations. The moral and ethical debate taking place today regarding animal welfare is particularly intense for confined livestock production systems. The issues raised in this debate need to be addressed.

Confinement livestock production is increasingly a source of surface and ground water pollutants, particularly where there are large numbers of animals per unit area. Expensive waste management facilities are now a necessary cost of confined production systems. Waste is a problem of almost all operations and must be managed with respect to both the environment and the quality of life in nearby communities. Livestock production systems that disperse stock in pastures so the wastes are not concentrated and do not overwhelm natural nutrient cycling processes have become a subject of renewed interest.

• The Economic, Social & Political Context

In addition to strategies for preserving natural resources and changing production practices, sustainable agriculture requires a commitment to changing public policies, economic institutions, and social values.  Strategies for change must take into account the complex, reciprocal and ever-changing relationship between agricultural production and the broader society.

The "food system" extends far beyond the farm and involves the interaction of individuals and institutions with contrasting and often competing goals including farmers, researchers, input suppliers, farmworkers, unions, farm advisors, processors, retailers, consumers, and policymakers. Relationships among these actors shift over time as new technologies spawn economic, social and political changes.

A wide diversity of strategies and approaches are necessary to create a more sustainable food system. These will range from specific and concentrated efforts to alter specific policies or practices, to the longer-term tasks of reforming key institutions, rethinking economic priorities, and challenging widely-held social values. Areas of concern where change is most needed include the following:

Food and agricultural policy

Existing federal, state and local government policies often impede the goals of sustainable agriculture. New policies are needed to simultaneously promote environmental health, economic profitability, and social and economic equity. For example, commodity and price support programs could be restructured to allow farmers to realize the full benefits of the productivity gains made possible through alternative practices. Tax and credit policies could be modified to encourage a diverse and decentralized system of family farms rather than corporate concentration and absentee ownership. Government and land grant university research policies could be modified to emphasize the development of sustainable alternatives. Marketing orders and cosmetic standards could be amended to encourage reduced pesticide use. Coalitions must be created to address these policy concerns at the local, regional, and national level.

Conversion of agricultural land to urban uses is a particular concern in California, as rapid growth and escalating land values threaten farming on prime soils. Existing farmland conversion patterns often discourage farmers from adopting sustainable practices and a long-term perspective on the value of land. At the same time, the close proximity of newly developed residential areas to farms is increasing the public demand for environmentally safe farming practices. Comprehensive new policies to protect prime soils and regulate development are needed, particularly in California's Central Valley. By helping farmers to adopt practices that reduce chemical use and conserve scarce resources, sustainable agriculture research and education can play a key role in building public support for agricultural land preservation. Educating land use planners and decision-makers about sustainable agriculture is an important priority.

In California, the conditions of agricultural labor are generally far below accepted social standards and legal protections in other forms of employment. Policies and programs are needed to address this problem, working toward socially just and safe employment that provides adequate wages, working conditions, health benefits, and chances for economic stability. The needs of migrant labor for year-around employment and adequate housing are a particularly crucial problem needing immediate attention. To be more sustainable over the long-term, labor must be acknowledged and supported by government policies, recognized as important constituents of land grant universities, and carefully considered when assessing the impacts of new technologies and practices.

Rural Community Development

Rural communities in California are currently characterized by economic and environmental deterioration. Many are among the poorest locations in the nation. The reasons for the decline are complex, but changes in farm structure have played a significant role. Sustainable agriculture presents an opportunity to rethink the importance of family farms and rural communities. Economic development policies are needed that encourage more diversified agricultural production on family farms as a foundation for healthy economies in rural communities. In combination with other strategies, sustainable agriculture practices and policies can help foster community institutions that meet employment, educational, health, cultural and spiritual needs.

Consumers and the Food System

Consumers can play a critical role in creating a sustainable food system. Through their purchases, they send strong messages to producers, retailers and others in the system about what they think is important.  Food cost and nutritional quality have always influenced consumer choices. The challenge now is to find strategies that broaden consumer perspectives, so that environmental quality, resource use, and social equity issues are also considered in shopping decisions. At the same time, new policies and institutions must be created to enable producers using sustainable practices to market their goods to a wider public. Coalitions organized around improving the food system are one specific method of creating a dialogue among consumers, retailers, producers and others. These coalitions or other public forums can be important vehicles for clarifying issues, suggesting new policies, increasing mutual trust, and encouraging a long-term view of food production, distribution and consumption.  

Contributors : Written by  Gail Feenstra , Writer; Chuck Ingels, Perennial Cropping Systems Analyst; and David Campbell, Economic and Public Policy Analyst with contributions from David Chaney, Melvin R. George, Eric Bradford, the staff and advisory committees of the UC Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education Program.

How to cite this page UC Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education Program. 2021. "What is Sustainable Agriculture?" UC Agriculture and Natural Resources. <https://sarep.ucdavis.edu/sustainable-ag>

This page was last updated August 3, 2021.

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5 (page 86) p. 86 Modern and traditional farming

• Published: April 2016
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There is a frequent identification of farming with tradition, even if what is seen as traditional might change over time. Farming is seen as a way of life, in which doing right by the land, producing healthy crops and livestock, employing local people, and having a thriving farm to hand on to the next generation are more important than expansion, profit maximization, and integration with the food chain. In contrast to big, modern, mechanized, globalized agribusinesses, it is sustainable, produces wildlife habitats and beautiful landscapes, and cares about animal welfare. How accurate is this view? ‘Modern and traditional farming’ considers the issues of sustainability, animal welfare, and wildlife and landscape.

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Agriculture and Food

Agriculture can help reduce poverty, raise incomes and improve food security for 80% of the world's poor, who live in rural areas and work mainly in farming. The World Bank Group is a leading financier of agriculture.

Healthy, sustainable and inclusive food systems are critical to achieve the world’s development goals. Agricultural development is one of the most powerful tools to end extreme poverty, boost shared prosperity, and feed a projected  10 billion people by 2050 . Growth in the agriculture sector is  two to four times more effective  in raising incomes among the poorest compared to other sectors.

Agriculture is also crucial to economic growth: accounting for 4% of global gross domestic product (GDP) and in some least developing countries,  it can account for more than 25% of GDP .

But agriculture-driven growth, poverty reduction, and food security are at risk: Multiple shocks – from COVID-19 related disruptions to extreme weather, pests, and conflicts – are impacting food systems. The goal of ending global hunger by 2030 is currently off track. Conflicts, climate change, and high food prices are driving food and nutrition insecurity, pushing millions into extreme poverty, and reversing hard-won development gains. Around a quarter of a billion people now face acute food insecurity .

The growing impact of climate change could further cut crop yields, especially in the world’s most food-insecure regions. At the same time, our food systems are responsible for about 30% of greenhouse gas emissions.

Current food systems also threaten the health of people and the planet and generate unsustainable levels of pollution and waste. One third of food produced globally is either lost or wasted. Addressing food loss and waste is critical to improving food and nutrition security, as well as helping to meet climate goals and reduce stress on the environment.

Risks associated with poor diets are also the leading cause of death worldwide. Millions of people are either not eating enough or eating the wrong types of food, resulting in a  double burden of malnutrition  that can lead to illnesses and health crises. Food insecurity can worsen diet quality and increase the risk of various forms of malnutrition, potentially leading to undernutrition as well as people being overweight and obese. An estimated 3 billion people in the world cannot afford a healthy diet.

Last Updated: Mar 15, 2024

The World Bank Group provides knowledge, advice, and financial resources in low- and middle-income countries to transform food systems to reduce poverty and achieve green, resilient, and inclusive development.

Our work in food and agriculture focuses on: 

• Food and nutrition security , where we work with efforts to share information, and to rapidly provide resources where they are needed, while helping countries design the long-term reforms needed to build resilient food and nutrition systems.
• Climate-smart agriculture by working with client governments to provide solutions that address global climate priorities, while recognizing national contexts and development objectives.
• Data-driven digital agriculture by expand the frontier of financing and expertise for digital agriculture.
• Mobilizing capital for development in agriculture & food . We identify and leverage growth areas for productive investments, focusing on innovation and impact. And we design projects to ensure that financing boosts sustainable productivity gains, reaches smallholders and SMEs, and creates jobs to end poverty and hunger.
• Public policy and expenditure by working with governments to facilitate the adoption of more sustainable approaches, technologies, and practices, alongside policies that promote public and private sector investment.
• Sustainable and healthy diets to ensure that food can support a healthy population.

In fiscal year 2024, the World Bank committed US$3 billion in new financing in 2024 – with over 41% of all commitments for Sub-Saharan Africa.

Increasingly, the Bank supports country efforts to transform their food systems by taking a holistic look at public policies and spending for agriculture and food. A Multi-Donor Trust Fund,  Food Systems 2030 , provides a platform for change in this area.

Last Updated: Aug 20, 2024

In Angola, a project  co-financed by the World Bank and the French Agency for Development, contributed to the government economic diversification agenda by supporting the transition from subsistence to a more market-oriented, competitive agriculture sector. The project is helping producers or small and medium enterprises prepare and finance agriculture investments. As of December 2023, 268 projects have been approved, equivalent to about $37 million in agriculture investment. The project funded the first partial credit guarantees scheme ever dedicated to the agriculture sector in Angola – an innovation for the country’s agribusiness sector – mobilizing so far $4.1 million in private bank financing. 

In  Argentina , the Bank supported 14,630 families who benefited from better socioeconomic inclusion. Under the project, 2,409 families accessed water for human and animal consumption, also irrigation; 7,499 rural families improved their productive capacity; and over 900 families accessed infrastructure, equipment and training that improved their marketing. Based on the model of productive alliances, 2,801 families from different regions became beneficiaries by linking their production with the markets. Among the funded activities, the production of honey, orchards, forage, livestock, nuts, spices, yerba mate and tea, among others, stand out.

In Benin, between 2011-2021, the Agricultural Productivity and Diversification Project facilitated the adoption of productivity-enhancing technologies for 327,503 crop producers, leading to 135,549 hectares of land cultivated with improved technologies. The project interventions resulted in increased yields from 0.45 ton to 0.81 ton for cashew; from 1.2 tons to 2.97 tons for maize, from 4 tons to 6.2 tons for rice, and from 50 tons to 70 tons for pineapple. The project led to significant increases of milled rice and fish output. Combined with support for crop production and processing, support to exports has led to increases in the export of cashew and pineapple.

For the past 18 years, Bolivia has been developing a strategy to improve agricultural production and marketing through the productive alliances model. This model links small rural producers with markets, and facilitates their participation in value chains, and access to technical assistance and technology for better market access. Currently, over 2,600 productive alliances have been implemented, benefiting 107,308 producer families. In 2023, the third phase of productive alliances model was launched, expecting to have a significant impact on nearly 130, 000 rural producer’s communities, with a focus on food security, adoption of innovative practices for resilient agriculture and the increased participation of women producers.

A Bank-supported project implemented in partnership with the Government of Rio Grande do Norte, one of Brazil's poorest and most violent states, has aimed to improve agricultural productivity, the quality of and access to health, public security, education and public sector management across the state. The project has implemented 131 subprojects in family farming, renovated 274km of roads, renovated and strengthened the safety of an important dam, and built 22 modern, multi-service Citizen Centers.

In Bhutan,  a project  is supporting the government's efforts to reduce rural poverty and malnutrition through climate-smart agriculture. Irrigation technology and greenhouses introduced through the project have helped farmers to increase their access to local and export markets. More than 6,500 people have increased the quality and quantity of produce like rice, maize, potato, vegetables, quinoa, citrus, apples, and potatoes, as well as high-value spices such as cardamom and ginger. 

In Burkina Faso, the Bank supported the Burkina Faso Livestock Sector Development Project which ran from 2017 to 2022. By project completion, beneficiaries among selected value chains increased their yield by 8.4%. Yield increase for cattle, sheep, and egg production reached 6.76%, 11.93%, and 6.50%, respectively. Sales increased by 45% exceeding the target of a 30% increase. The volume of loans granted by partner financial institutions reached $5.02 million, exceeding the original target of $4.38 million. The project reached a total of 329,000 beneficiaries, out of which 138,314 were women and 112,573 were youth.

In the Central African Republic, through the Emergency Food Security Response project, 330,000 smallholder farmers received seeds, farming tools, and training in agricultural and post-harvest techniques. The project helped farmers boost their crop production and become more resilient to climate and conflict risks. Local food production increased by 250%, from 28,000 tons in September 2022 to 73,000 tons in June 2023. Moreover, 21,006 agricultural households received training on post-harvest loss management and provided equipment, such as mobile storage units, to enhance packaging of agricultural products, leading to higher selling prices.

In  Colombia, since 2010, the adoption of environmentally friendly silvopastoral production systems  (SPS) for over 4,100 cattle ranches has converted 100,522 hectares of degraded pastures into more productive landscapes and captured 1,565,026 tons of CO2 equivalent. In addition, almost 40,000 hectares of pastureland were transformed to SPS and 4,640 hectares into intensive Silvopastoral Production Systems (iSPS). Moreover, 4,100 direct farmers beneficiaries, of which 17% were women, were trained in SPS and iSPS, and over 21,000 farmers, technicians and producers were also trained, visited demonstration farms, and participated in workshops and events and technology brigades. A network of 116 plant nurseries were also established, which produced around 3.1 million fodder trees that were delivered to beneficiary farmers. 

In Cote d’Ivoire, between 2013 and 2017, the Agriculture Sector Project  boosted the productivity of 200,000 farmers and rehabilitated 6,500 kilometers of rural roads allowing farmers to better transport their products  and reduce post-harvest losses. To aid the cashew industry, the Bank also supported a research program that helped disseminate 209 genotypes of high-performing trees and establish 18 nurseries. The Bank-financed project also helped leverage $27.5 million in private investment to boost productivity on at least 26,500 hectares.

In Ethiopia, since 2015 a project has helped 2.5 million smallholder farmers increase agricultural productivity and commercialization by establishing market linkages, increasing access to agricultural public services, building smallholder farmer capacity in efficient water and crop management to implement climate change mitigation and adaptation, and improving diet diversification. The project has also been promoting the use of nutrition sensitive agriculture and gender and climate-smart agriculture including dietary diversity through nutrient-dense crops, livestock products, post-harvest processing/handling and social behavioral change communication, along with food safety and child and maternal health. The project has supported farmers increase yield in crops and livestock by 19% and 52% respectively and their revenue by 96.2%. To date the project has also provided 58,823 hectares of land with irrigation and water related services, and over 1.6 million farmers have adopted improved agriculture technologies promoted by the project. Nearly one million jobs for rural people, including for women and youth in fragile and conflict affected areas have been created as a result of the project interventions.

In Grenada , the World Bank supported local farmers and fisherfolk, along with aggregators and agro-processors to enhance their access to markets and sales from 2017 to 2023 through the OECS Regional Agriculture Competitiveness Project. The project provided vouchers to 206 farmers and fisherfolk and offered co-financing opportunities for 10 agro-processors, leading to significant improvements in their production facilities and market access. Additionally, 260 employees and 53 extension workers received training, improving their skills in agricultural production and market reach. Through the project, 150 producers adopted various climate-smart technologies, such as solar panels and rainwater harvesting systems, underscoring the project's dedication to sustainability and efficiency.

In Guinea, from 2018 to 2023, through the  Guinea Integrated Agricultural Development Project , local farmers increased agriculture's productivity, and sustainability. To help local communities, the project disseminated high-yielding seeds, improve irrigation, and trained women and youth to access funds to create jobs. The project also promoted the use of climate-smart, gender-sensitive digital technologies with local producers. The project has reached 149,000 farmers (of whom 38% are women and 30% are youth). The project’s results include a 30% increase in yield of rice and maize; a 42% increase in commodity sales; a 47,470-hectare area covered by improved technologies; over 97,000 users of improved technologies, and more than 2,000 jobs created for women and youth.

In Haiti , a World Bank project strengthened the institutional capacity of Haiti’s Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development by accessing technologies to increase not only agricultural productivity and production but also improved livelihoods and resilience. The project developed irrigation and drainage on 2,244 hectares; established 115 farmer field schools, and trained facilitators in agricultural extension techniques. A total of 78,242 small producers increased their market access, half of whom were women; more than 3,368 private and public sector staff (including staff from the Ministry of Agriculture, municipal staff, among others) and 600 farmers were trained on surveillance and vaccination, the use of fruit fly traps, mealybugs control, and protection of animals against rabies and anthrax and more than 3.6 million animals were vaccinated.

In Honduras, since 2010 , 12,878 small farmers, of which 27% are women, have used productive alliances to improve productivity and access to markets, which has leveraged $33.5 million in finance from commercial banks and microfinance institutions. Under the project, gross sales of producer organizations rose by 25.3%. Also, support to Honduras’ Dry Corridor Alliance, has helped 12,202 households implement food security and agricultural business plans, and improved agricultural yields, nutrition, and food diversity of project beneficiaries.

In India, the  Assam Agribusiness and Rural Transformation Project  supported over 400,000 farm families and 1,270 businesses and over 100 of industry associations and producer organizations in improving their productivity and incomes and helping develop new marketing channels since 2017.

In  Kenya, since 2016,   1.5 million farmers , where over 60% are women, have increased their productivity , climate resilience and access to markets. The digital registry (including geo tagging) of these 1.5 million farmers enables them to access agro-weather and market advisories. In addition, the Bank is facilitating partnerships between the government and 26 ag-tech support agencies which enables almost 500,000 farmers to access a range of services (inputs, financial services and markets) by leveraging digital technologies.  

In Kosovo , the Bank provided 775 grants to farmers and 103 grants to agri-processors to increase production capacities and enhance market competitiveness in the livestock and horticulture sector. This was done through upgrading facilities, adopting new technologies, and introducing food safety and environmental standards. Further, support was provided for the rehabilitation of irrigation schemes covering an area of 7,750 hectares which had an impact on the production, yield, quality, and variety of products cultivated in the area.

In the Kyrgyz Republic, the Additional Financing to the Integrated Dairy Productivity Improvement Project is improving productivity through better technologies and breeds of dairy animals rather than increasing their numbers. The project provides training, artificial insemination services, and monitoring milk yields per cow and the quality of milk to processing companies. To date, 10,000 small farmers including 5,000 women farmers, have received training to enhance productivity and climate-smart agriculture. Over 13,000 cows received artificial insemination for breed improvement with positive pregnancy rate of 67.3% which is above the global average. With improved breeds of dairy animals, the market value of the crossbred calves is higher than local calves and the average milk yield per cow has increased by nearly 15%. The project has also established a digital tool to monitor milk quality which is being used by eight dairy processing companies. The project established 30 milk collection points through famers’ Jamaats that are equipped with refrigerated tanks and advanced testing equipment, strategically located to ensure consistent milk quality and timely delivery, especially during hot summers.

In Madagascar, since 2016 , the Bank has boosted the productivity of over 130,000 farmers. Sixty-thousand hectares of irrigated rice fields have been rehabilitated. The Bank also supported the cocoa sector through research, the development of certified seeds, and promotion of improved production and processing techniques. This allowed 4,000 cocoa producers to increase their incomes and increase production and export volumes by 50%. The Bank also financed the country’s largest land rights registration, facilitating the delivery of over 200,000 land certificates to farmers. 

In Mauritania, between 2016 and 2021, the intervention of the Sahel regional support project offered agricultural assets and services to more than 400,000 farmers/pastoralists, where nearly 30% are women. More than 1.9 million hectares of land under sustainable management practices, in addition to the construction of 133 vaccination parks and the realization of 118 water points (wells and boreholes) as well as other infrastructure of valorization and trade of animals were provided to agro-pastoralist communities. Additionally, from April 2023- June 2028, the Bank offered to support the  Agriculture Development and Innovation Support Project (PADISAM)  to improve land resources management and foster inclusive and sustainable commercial agriculture in selected areas of Mauritania. It is anticipated that by the end of the project, there will be 72,000 direct beneficiaries and about 5,000 Ha of land under sustainable landscape management practices.

Following Russia’s invasion of Ukraine and the resulting spikes in wheat prices in 2022, the World Bank provided emergency support to several countries in the Middle East and North Africa to mitigate the negative socio-economic consequences on the poor and vulnerable. These emergency projects secured access to affordable bread for over 89 million people across the region. In Lebanon, a project ($150 million) has been financing wheat imports that supports universal access to affordable Arabic bread for over a year to 5.36 million people living in Lebanon, of which 1 million are Syrian, Palestinian, and other refugees. In Egypt, a project helped procure around 1.15 million metric tons of wheat – equivalent to at least a 2-month supply to cover the needs of 72 million vulnerable people. A project in In Tunisia procured 160,099 metric tons of soft wheat, equivalent to seven weeks of bread supply for a population of 12 million.

In Moldova, since 2012 , the Bank has helped more than 7,500 farmers gain access to local and regional high-value markets for fresh fruit and vegetables and boosted land productivity through the promotion of sustainable land management practices on 120,000 hectares of farmland.

In  Montenegro , the bank, through the Second Institutional Development and Agriculture Strengthening (MIDAS2), helped the government launch the very first Instrument for Pre-accession Assistance for Agriculture and Rural Development (IPARD)-like agro-environmental measure in a manner compliant with EU requirements, increasing the amount of meadows and pasture lands recorded in the Land Parcel Identification System (LPIS) from 13,600 hectares (ha) to 92,000 ha. The Bank has also supported almost 4,000 farmers working on orchards, vineyards, livestock and aromatic plants, 224 agro-processors, and 59 farmers working on processing on-farm complying with the European Union requirements for food safety and 278 agricultural households adopting agro-environmental measures, improving their competitiveness and sustainability.

In Morocco , the Strengthening Agri-food Value Chains Program for Results has financed the construction of the first modern regional wholesale market in Rabat, which will improve the distribution of agricultural products throughout the region, benefiting more than 4.6 million inhabitants. The program also financed the establishment of the male sterile Ceratite production center, which will enable citrus producers in the Souss-Massa and Berkane regions, which represent 52% of national citrus production and generate about 6 million working days per year, to protect their production from damage caused by the Mediterranean fruit fly. The program also enabled more than 1,000 agri-food SMEs to obtain sanitary approval after upgrading, leading to an increase in employment by almost 61%. The program co-financed more than 70 units of packaging, cold storage and processing, which leveraged about US$86 million as private investment and led to an overall increase in production value of around 34%.

In Niger , through  the Climate Smart Agriculture Support Project , the World Bank supported over 370,000 farmers, where 145,000 of whom are women. The farmers benefited from the project’s investments in small and large-scale irrigation, improved climate-smart agriculture, and sustainable land management practices. Over 154,000 hectares of land were developed with sustainable land management practices, and 4,400 hectares of cropland were brought under irrigation. In collaboration with the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics and FAO, the project promoted good agriculture practices through farmer led e-extension services and technical assistance. The project investments led to significant increases in agriculture productivity: yields of cowpea, millet, and sorghum increased by 169, 164, and 142 percent, respectively. The project also strengthened the national climate information system by building the capacity of the National Meteorology Department (the project installed 30 meteorological stations and 600 rain gauges). Through its support to the Sahel Regional Center for Hydro and Agrometeorology, the project strengthened the early warning systems of national institutes such as National Meteorology and the National Hydrology Directorate.

In Nigeria,  APPEALS Project   was designed to enhance agricultural productivity of small and medium scale farmers and improve value addition along priority value chains. Since 2017, the project has demonstrated 204 improved technologies to 93,000 farmers. Food crop production has surged, with 304,516 metric tons produced, representing 3.1% of the national output. Furthermore, the project has reached 61,171 farmers with processing assets to improve the quality of their produce. The project also trained 10,346 women and youth, including persons with disability, providing them with business, technical and life skills training, support to business planning and facilitation of business name registration, start-up grant to establish a commercially viable business, and mentorship to provide the beneficiaries with continued support from established agribusiness entrepreneurs. The project linked farmers to market through the facilitation of commercial partnerships resulting in a total of 327 business alliances with 147 off-takers already buying farmers’ produce across the 11 value chains, with a transaction worth of US$ 59.7 million. Similarly, the project has linked 200 agribusiness clusters to infrastructures which includes 55km rural farm access road, 75 aggregation and cottage processing centers, 102 solar-powered water intervention and energy supplies.

In Paraguay, since 2008, 20,863 farmers  increased their agricultural income by at least 30% and 18,951 adopted improved agricultural practices, boosting the productivity of their land.

In the  Philippines, since 2015 , the Bank helped raise rural incomes, enhance farm and fishery productivity, improve market access and mainstream institutional and operational reforms, as well as science-based planning for agricultural commodities in 81 provinces. The project has benefitted a total of 323,501 people–46% of them women–with farm roads, irrigation, and agricultural enterprise projects, boosting incomes by up to 36%. 

In  Rwanda, since  2010, the Bank helped support over 410,000 farmers – half are women – in improving their agricultural production by developing over 7,400 hectares for marshland irrigation, providing hillside irrigation on over 2,500 hectares, and several hundreds of farmers benefitted matching grants to support their investments in Farmer-Led Irrigation Development (FLID) technologies on over 1,200 hectares of their land. Interventions also included improving soil conservation and erosion on more than 39,000 hectares of hillside. Maize, rice, beans, and potato yields have all more than doubled and around 2.5 tons of vegetables are exported to Europe and the Middle-East every week from intervention areas, or locally, where more horticulture produce is sold to premium markets including 5-star hotels or the national airline, RwandAir. Less than two years after  one of the Bank supported projects  introduced greenhouse farming in its intervention areas to minimize the impacts of unfavorable weather conditions and better manage crop pests and diseases, by 2023, the demand for these technologies has seen a rapid increase in these areas and 132 units have been acquired and installed through the matching grants program under the project. Evidence shows relatively high revenues for farmers investing in greenhouse technology, with revenues increasing up to 15 times for vegetable growers.

Since 2019, the ongoing Serbia Competitive Agriculture Project has been supporting the government economic diversification and competitiveness agenda for small and medium scale farmers and their participation in a more market-oriented agriculture sector. The productive alliance model supported by the project has contributed to the improvement of the agri-food market linkages of 823 farmers, of which 330 are women farmers. Through the project, 4,356 farmers have received technical assistance to prepare their business ideas and plans (1,307 are women), while 1,319 business plans have received support in various forms, such as matching grants, technical assistance, and business development support. The farmers have signed their loans with commercial banks to invest in farm innovations, including equipment, on-farm irrigation, digital agriculture, climate-smart agriculture technologies. By providing co-financing with EUR 24.17 million in matching grants, the project-supported business plans have leveraged an additional EUR 24.17 million in private capital so far, including commercial loans to farmers at market interest rate from 11 local banks, and cash contributions from the beneficiary farmers. Amongst them, 1,117 beneficiary farmers are first-time users of credit.

In  Tajikistan , the Bank supported the establishment of 545 farmer groups in horticulture value chains, specifically apricot, apple, pear, lemon, cucumber, and tomato, and dairy value chain benefiting a total of 13,516 farmers out of which 48% were women. The Bank also supported the establishment of 342 productive partnerships benefitting 4,340 smallholder farmers. A total of 21,882 beneficiaries achieved an increase in commercial activity. The project supported training for 13, 516 farmers, on value chain development.

In  Tunisia, the Bank helped 113 remote rural villages improve  land management practices on 37,000 hectares of land to increase productivity and improve 930 kilometers of rural roads serving some 160 villages. 

In  Uruguay, since 2014, climate-smart agriculture techniques  have been adopted on 2.7 million hectares and adopted by 5,541 farmers, providing for a carbon sequestration potential of up to 9 million tons of CO2 annually.

In Uganda, since 2015 , the  Agriculture Cluster Development Project’s e-voucher scheme has leveraged over $12 million of farmer investments enabling over 450,000 farm households access and use improved agro-inputs resulting in higher farm yields. Provision of matching grants has enhanced storage capacity by 55,000MT, acquiring value addition equipment and machinery thereby facilitating Producer Organizations to add value and undertake collective marketing. Additional infrastructure support addressing road chokes has also led to improved market access.

The Bank has also made investments into strengthening regulatory and administrative functions of the Ministry of Agriculture through the development of IT Platforms and tools facilitating timely planning and decision making.

In the Uganda Multi-Sectoral Food and Nutrition Security Project, the Bank has supported enhanced knowledge on nutrition resulting in improved household nutrition and incomes for 1.55 million direct project beneficiaries.

In Uzbekistan, the Horticulture Development Project has helped create, 34,520 jobs, including 13,124 for women; increase beneficiary productivity by 24% and profitability by 124%, including through entry into new export markets. The  Livestock Sector Development Project  supported a sub-loans benefitting 560 large scale commercial livestock farmers, and a total of 135 value chain development projects benefiting 1,456 smallholder farmers (Dekhans). As a result, the share of improved and high yielding livestock breeds increased by 98.7%; increasing milk and meat productivity by 33% and 38% respectively. The Ferghana Valley Rural Enterprise Project has supported the establishment and operation of nine business incubation hubs in Andijan, Namangan, and Ferghana regions, to support local entrepreneurs in business plan preparation, and facilitated access to finance, technology infusion, also organized training among 5,000 project initiators in 36 districts of Ferghana Valley. The project, under its credit line activities, financed a total of 501 investment sub-projects with $119.6 million of the project fund, of which 77.8% were for small business entrepreneurs This created substantial number of new jobs, and increased the incomes of rural enterprises,

In Vietnam, since 2010, the Bank has promoted sustainable livelihoods by helping develop 9,000 “common interest groups” comprising over 15,500 households and partnering them with agricultural enterprises. The Bank also helped  over 20,000 farmers  improve their livestock production and benefited an additional 130,000 people through capacity building in food safety. 

Under the  West African Agricultural Productivity Program , the Bank supported a research and development effort that promoted technology generation, dissemination, and support to local farming systems in 13  ECOWAS  countries. The project reached over 2.7 million beneficiaries, 41% of whom were women. It also generated 112 technologies that reached over 1,850,000 hectares.

The Yemen Food Security Response and Resilience Project has directly benefited over 1 million beneficiaries to date. The project is focusing on resilience building amidst protracted crisis – including conflict, insecurity, and climate-related shocks. The project has created around 20,000 short-term jobs and benefited over 50,000 smallholder farm households through various agricultural infrastructure improvements. The project invested in the vaccination of 11 million small ruminants and treated a similar number for parasites. In addition to building resilience, as a short-term response, the project supported 20,000 vulnerable households with kitchen gardens and livestock kits, business development training and start-up grants to vulnerable women. Furthermore, the project facilitated a supplemental feeding program for over 740,000 most vulnerable beneficiaries.

Last Updated: Apr 09, 2024

The World Bank works with a range of partners to achieve ambitious development goals: transforming food systems, boosting food security and empowering smallholder farmers, to realize zero hunger and poverty by 2030. 

The World Bank Group is a joint convener, with the G7 Presidency, of the Global Alliance for Food Security (GAFS) . A key outcome of the Global Alliance is the  Global Food and Nutrition Security Dashboard , a key tool to fast-track a rapid response to the unfolding global food security crisis, designed to consolidate and present up-to-date data on food crisis severity, track global food security financing, and make available global and country-level research and analysis to improve coordination of the policy and financial response to the crisis.

The Bank hosts a  Multi-Donor Trust Fund,  Food Systems 2030 , that helps countries build better food systems, fostering healthy people, a healthy planet and healthy economies. The Trust Fund aims to deliver improved livelihoods and affordable, and nutritious diets for all, and progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals of zero poverty and hunger by 2030 and the climate goals of the Paris Agreement. Food Systems 2030 provides advice and analytical products to underpin policy options, funds to pilot innovative approaches, and information to build support for change in different country contexts. It engages with the private sector by supporting the design, piloting and de-risking of innovative public-private partnerships that advance development and climate goals.   

The  Global Agriculture and Food Security Program , a multilateral financing platform, is dedicated to improving food and nutrition security worldwide. Launched by the  G20 in the wake of the global response to the 2007–08 food price crisis, GAFSP works to build sustainable and resilient agriculture and food systems in the world’s poorest and most vulnerable countries. Since its inception in 2010, the Program has mobilized more than US$2 billion in donor funds to reach more than 16.6 million people. GAFSP provides financial and technical resources – investment grants, technical assistance, concessional finance, and advisory services – to demand-driven projects along the food chain to accelerate the transformation of food systems at scale.

The World Bank leads the  Food Systems, Land use and Restoration Global Platform (FOLUR) , financed by the Global Environment Facility, in partnership with UNDP, the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the Global Landscapes Forum and the Food and Land-use Coalition. FOLUR is a $345 million, seven-year program that aims to improve the health and sustainability of landscapes that produce the world’s food. FOLUR targets sustainable production landscapes in 27 country projects for eight major commodities (livestock, cocoa, coffee, maize, palm oil, rice, soy, and wheat).

The World Bank chairs the System Council of  CGIAR , a global partnership that advances cutting-edge science to reduce rural poverty, increase food security, improve human health and nutrition, and ensure sustainable management of natural resources.

For more information, contact Clare Murphy-McGreevey on [email protected].

Last Updated: Sep 19, 2023

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• Essay On Agriculture

Essay on Agriculture

500+ words essay on agriculture.

In India, agriculture is considered a primary livelihood for most of the population, which can never be underestimated. Agriculture has existed for thousands of years in our country and has developed with new technologies and equipment that have replaced traditional farming methods. In India, few farmers still use the traditional farming method because they lack the resources to use modern techniques. Agriculture is the only sector that contributes to itself and other country sectors. India is the second-largest wheat, rice, cotton, fruit, vegetables, and tea producer. It is also a global powerhouse of agricultural production. It is the world’s largest producer of spices, milk, wheat, rice and cotton.

Role of Agricultural in Economic Development

The population of India largely depends on agriculture, and it is not only just a means of livelihood but a way of living. The Government of India is continuously developing the agricultural sector by framing new laws, implementing modern technology, etc. In India, the entire nation depends on agriculture for food. In earlier times, agriculture was mainly dependent on the monsoon, but dams, canals, pump sets, and tube wells are now being constructed.

Agriculture plays a crucial role in the economic development of India as 3/4th of the population is based on agriculture. It is one of the largest sources of livelihood for the country. The country was dependent on agriculture for a thousand years.

The agricultural sector also benefits the industries in getting their raw materials, which clearly states that a large part of the economy will freeze without a flourishing agriculture sector. It leads to the expansion of the industrial sector. Indian agriculture provides employment opportunities to most people, and 70% of the population, especially in rural areas, earn their livelihood from cultivation.

In India, agriculture plays an imperative role in enhancing foreign exchange. To other nations, India exports commodities such as coffee, spices, tea, vegetables, tobacco, etc. Agriculture contributes to Indian exports. With the invention of organic farming, exports have also increased in the last few decades.

Agriculture is the Indian economy’s most important sector, and India’s farm sector is the largest industry. With constant changes and developments happening and introduced policies, it will only go upwards. It will always remain a significant factor in the nation’s economic growth.

An essay on Agriculture is crucial that can be asked during the exam. Students can also access CBSE Essays from our BYJU’S website.

Frequently Asked Questions on Agriculture Essay

Where was agriculture originally developed.

Agriculture was developed in modern-day Iraq, Jordan, Palestine, Israel, parts of Turkey and Iran which was also known as the Fertile Crescent.

What are the main types of agriculture?

The four main types of agricultural activities include livestock production, crop production, agricultural economics and agricultural engineering.

What are agricultural methods which are famous in India?

The majority of Indian farmers practice subsistence farming which involves the cultivation of crops on small pieces of land.

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• Agriculture

Introduction to Agriculture

Agriculture is the practice of cultivating plants and livestock in order to provide facilities the human beings. In the rise of the sedentary human lifestyle agriculture was the key development. The cultivation of plant and food grains began years ago in order to provide food to the city population. Agriculture is the main need for the people to live in the society. Agriculture is the main source of livelihood, it provides a source for the people to earn. Most of the population in the rural areas is dependent on agriculture as their main source of income.

Agriculture contributes significantly to a country’s GDP that is the Gross Domestic Production of a country. By the passing of time, there are a number of revolutions that take place in order to improve agriculture throughout the world or a country. If we talk about agriculture, India has witnessed a number of revolutions, that is, the green revolution, yellow revolution, blue revolution, agriculture. Agriculture affects the biodiversity of a country depending upon agricultural activities.

The major agricultural products can be widely grouped into categories of food grains, fibers and raw materials.

Foodgrains included the grains or cereals that have been used for eating. Fiber crops are completely Commercial, they can not be eaten and are completely grown for making money. Raw materials are that category of crops that are completely grown for use as raw materials in industries in order to prepare other items. 

This article provided to help you to learn the topic of agriculture about the history of farming, Commercial farming, primitive farming, its characteristics, types of Commercial Farming, intensive subsidence character, and so on. This will help you to get a clear view of agriculture. Let's have a look at it.

History of Agriculture  

The development of agriculture enables human civilization to grow rapidly. This agriculture that was started by hunting and gathering has now reached the stage of cultivation and industrial form of agriculture also.

The earliest food crop grown was rice which was followed by Moong, soya, azuki beans, etc. Sheep were domesticated in Mesopotamia first, cattle were domesticated in the areas of modern turkey, pig production emerged in Europe, East Asia, and South Asia. There are many hypotheses that are explained by the scholars for agriculture.

Irrigations, crop cultivation, and fertilizers were the advanced form of agriculture that was developed in the 17th century. Modern agriculture has raised or encountered issues such as water pollution, biofeedback, genetically modified organisms, farm subsidies leading to alternative approaches such as that of organic movements.

In the rise of sedentary human civilization agriculture is the key development. Farming of domestic species provided food surpluses that prompted people to live in cities. The history began some thousands of years ago. Pigs, sheep, and cattle were domesticated over 10000 years ago. Plants were cultivated independently in 11 regions of the world. Industrial agriculture based on a large scale in the 20th century came and dominated agriculture output. An estimated number of around 2 billion people still depend on subsistence agriculture.

The major agricultural products are broadly grouped into foods, fibres, fuels, and raw materials. Over one-third of the world’s workers are employed in agriculture and after that to the service sector.

Commercial Farming

Commercial farming is when farmers grow crops or rear animals for economic activity. Commercial farming needs to be practised on a large scale with more efficiency. The goal of the farmer is to earn profits from farming, hence the production and area of production need to be on a larger scale. This practice is also known as agribusiness and is intensively taken up and practised. It has also opened its doors for a lucrative business venture.

Due to the large production in commercial farming and despite its major benefits, it is a bit worrisome as it includes lots of fertilisers, pesticides, weed killers, and other sorts of chemicals.

Crops in this type of agriculture are completely grown in order to provide the farmers with the benefit of money. These crops are not for you to consume but only for the sale.

Here are Some of the Characteristics of Commercial Agriculture:

Large scale production

It is capital intensive

It uses high yielding varieties

It is produced mainly for sale purpose

Heavy machinery and human labour is used

Traditionally practised all year round.

Types of Commercial Farming include the Following:

Dairy farming

Grain farming

Plantation farming

Livestock ranching

Mixed crop and livestock farming

Fruit farming

Primitive Farming

Primitive farming or also known as simple subsistence farming (farming for the farm-family only) is the oldest form of agriculture and is still prevalent in some areas of the world. Primitive farming enabled people to take a step further on the economic ladder by learning the art of domesticating plants. In this type of farming, farmers grow crops for themselves and their families. The growing of crops is only limited. 

Its Characteristics Include the Following:

Sites of farming are selected by experienced elders.

Hill slopes are preferred because of proper drainage

Forests are cleared by fire, as ashes add to the fertility of the soil

This is also called slash and burn agriculture.

The cultivated patches are usually very small

Primitive tools are used in cultivation such as stick and hoe

Intensive Subsistence Agriculture

Intensive subsistence agriculture term is used to describe the type of agriculture which is characterised by high output per unit of land and low output per worker.

Although its nature has changed and is no longer subsistence. These are more sophisticated than primitive agriculture and are also known as monsoon type of agriculture

Very smallholdings

Farming is very intensive

It requires much hand labour

It uses animal and plant manures

The dominance of padi and other food crops

Following are the Types of Subsistence Farming:

Shifting Cultivation: In this method, farmers clear the cultivated land and burn it afterwards. The ashes produced thereafter increase soil fertility. This method is known by different names in different regions. It is further practiced in South America and Southeast Asia. This method is not fit as by exhausting the quality of the soil of one place and then moving to another place for doing the same is not a solution.

Nomadic Herding: It involves herders and farmers traveling from place to place with their group of animals. The herders also provide wool, meat, hide, and dairy products from the livestock. This type of farming is very common in places like Rajasthan, Jammu, and Kashmir. Animals herd here are sheep, goats, camel, and yak

It is quite the opposite of primitive farming. Farmers practice this on wider areas of land, they use modern machinery and add chemical fertilizers for the betterment of crop production.

Whereas in primitive agriculture, all the age-old agricultural practices are done by using the age-old method by which agriculture was done in the past. In the primitive type of agriculture also there is a waste of energy and sources up to some extent without getting a good quality of the crops we were looking for.

FAQs on Agriculture

1. What is Primitive Subsistence Farming Class 10?

This farming is practised on small patches of land with primitive tools. Most often family or community labour is used in this type of farming. It mainly depends on the monsoon and the natural fertility of the soil. Crops are further grown as per climatic and environmental conditions. 

This is further called slash and burn agriculture. The ash obtained is useful for crops as it yields better crops. After repetitions of crops grown, the patch extensively used is left shallow and in turn, a new patch is searched for farming. The patch earlier left fallow and unused again replenishes its fertility by the time new crops are grown in the new patch.

2. What is Commercial Grain Farming Practised in India?

It is a major type of agricultural practice in the area of low rainfall and low density of population where extensive farming is practised. Commercial grain farming is in response to farm mechanization. Crops are yielded according to climatic conditions like floods and drought. Monoculture of wheat is the general practice here. 

Its characteristic includes the following:

Specialization in a single crop

Farms are very large

Highly mechanized

Lack of irrigation

Dependant on Climatic hazards

Depending on market fluctuations

Farm ownership

Low yield per acre

High yield per man

3. What is Commercial Farming?

Commercial farming is a type of farming where the agricultural crop is grown for sale in exchange for some profit. Its example includes tobacco. India is the second-largest producer of tobacco. It is grown largely in semi-arid and rain-fed areas. 

Commercial farming crops are intended for large-scale distribution to wholesalers or retail outlets. Some of the common examples of commercial farming crops include wheat, maize, tea, coffee, sugarcane, cashews, rubber, banana, cotton. These are harvested and sold into world markets. Commercial agriculture also includes livestock production and livestock grazing. Some of the advantages of commercial farming are listed below:

Encourages improvement in local infrastructure

It promotes job creation

Enables lowering of prices of the product

It has provision for raw materials for agribusiness manufacturing companies.

It enables increased productivity and also enhances food security.

4. What does agriculture stand for?

Agriculture describes the practice of growing crops or domesticating animals. The Latin word from which agriculture is divided is agri that means field plus cultural, which means cultivation. Cultivating a piece of land or growing food plants on it on a large basis is what agriculture means. Agriculture is the main reason for livelihood in most parts of the world. In India, nearly 60 percent of the people earn their livelihood through agricultural practices. You can refer to agriculture as the science of raising plants and animals for food, clothing, or other useful products. This is basically the practice of cultivating land and raising livestock in order to meet the need of the people living.

5. What are the three main types of agriculture?

The three main types of agriculture or farming include subsistence farming, Plantation farming, and Shifting agriculture. Subsistence Farming is one that is practiced in most parts of the country to raise plants and livestock. In this method, farmers cultivate on the small piece of scattered land with the help of draught animals. Plantation agriculture was introduced by Britishers in India in the 19th century. In this a piece of land is used completely for growing one type of cash crop, that is a crop that is meant purely for sale. I  Shifting agriculture practiced in forest regions, a particular piece of land is used for cultivation and once its nutrients get exhausted they move to another place for cultivating the crops that are for agriculture.

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• Introduction

Beef cattle breeds

• Beef cattle feed
• Beef cattle management
• Diseases of beef and dairy cattle
• Breeding and growth
• Production systems
• Basic dietary requirements
• Special dietary requirements
• Disease prevention
• Common diseases
• Donkeys and mules

livestock farming

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• Univ ersity of Minnesota Extension - Livestock farm management
• National Geographic - Science - The Future of Livestock Farming
• Frontiers - Frontiers in Animal Science - Exploring the Potential of Precision Livestock Farming Technologies to Help Address Farm Animal Welfare
• Academia - Livestock Production
• The National Academies Press - Animal Feeding Operations
• Table Of Contents

livestock farming , raising of animals for use or for pleasure. In this article, the discussion of livestock includes both beef and dairy cattle , pigs , sheep , goats , horses , mules , asses, buffalo, and camels ; the raising of birds commercially for meat or eggs (i.e., chickens, turkeys, ducks, geese, guinea fowl , and squabs) is treated separately. For further information on dairy cattle breeds , feeding and management, see dairying . For a discussion of the food value and processing of meat products, see the article meat processing . For a further discussion of breeds of horses, see the article horse: Breeds of horses .

An efficient and prosperous animal agriculture historically has been the mark of a strong, well-developed nation. Such an agriculture permits a nation to store large quantities of grains and other foodstuffs in concentrated form to be utilized to raise animals for human consumption during such emergencies as war or natural calamity . Furthermore, meat has long been known for its high nutritive value, producing stronger, healthier people.

Ruminant (cud-chewing) animals such as cattle, sheep, and goats convert large quantities of pasture forage , harvested roughage, or by-product feeds, as well as nonprotein nitrogen such as urea, into meat, milk , and wool. Ruminants are therefore extremely important; more than 60 percent of the world’s farmland is in meadows and pasture. Poultry also convert feed efficiently into protein; chickens, especially, are unexcelled in meat and egg production. Milk is one of the most complete and oldest known animal foods. Cows were milked as early as 9000 bce . Hippocrates, the Greek physician, recommended milk as a medicine in the 5th century bce . Sanskrit writings from ancient India refer to milk as one of the most essential human foods.

The British Isles led the world in the development of the principal beef breeds ; Herefords, Angus, beef Shorthorns, and Galloways all originated in either England or Scotland . Other breeds of greatest prominence today originated in India (Brahman), France (Charolais; Limousin; Normandy), Switzerland (Simmental), and Africa (Africander). The Hereford breed, considered to be the first to be developed in England, probably descended from white-faced, red-bodied cattle of Holland crossed with the smaller black Celtics that were native to England and especially to Herefordshire. By the middle of the 18th century the slow process of selective breeding that resulted in the smooth, meaty, and prolific Herefords had begun. The United States statesman Henry Clay of Kentucky imported the first purebred Herefords to America in 1817.

The Hereford, which became the most popular beef breed of the United States, is distinguished by its white face, white flanks and underline, white stockings and tail, and white crest on the neck. Its body colour ranges from cherry to mahogany red. It is of medium size, with present-day breeders making successful efforts to increase both its rate of weight gain and mature size, in keeping with the demand for cheaper, leaner beef.

The Polled Hereford is a separate breed of cattle originating from hornless mutations in 1901. It has the same general characteristics as the horned Hereford and has gained substantial favour because of its hornlessness and often faster rate of weight gain.

The Aberdeen Angus breed originated in Scotland from naturally hornless aboriginal cattle native to the counties of Aberdeen and Angus. Solid black, occasionally with a spot of white underneath the rear flanks, the breed is noted for its smoothness, freedom from waste, and high quality of meat.

Although the native home of the Galloway breed is the ancient region of Galloway in southwestern Scotland, it probably had a common origin with the Angus. The Galloway is distinguished by its coat of curly black hair. Though the breed has never attained the prominence of other beef breeds, it has been used extensively in producing blue-gray crossbred cattle, obtained by breeding white Shorthorn bulls to Galloway cows.

The beef, or Scotch, Shorthorn breed developed from early cattle of England and northern Europe, selected for heavy milk production and generally known as Durham cattle. These were later selected for the compact, beefy type by the Scottish breeders. Emphasis on leaner, highquality carcasses in the second half of the 20th century has diminished the popularity of this breed. The Polled Shorthorn originated in 1888 from purebred, hornless mutations of the Shorthorn breed. The milking, or dual-purpose, Shorthorn , representing another segment of the parent Shorthorn breed, also was developed in England to produce an excellent flow of milk as well as an acceptable carcass, therefore resembling the original English type of Shorthorn. Shorthorns range in colour from red through roan, to white- or red-and-white-spotted.

The Brahman breed originated in India, where 30 or more separate varieties exist. Preference is given to the Guzerat, Nellore, Gir, and Krishna Valley strains, which are characterized by a pronounced hump over the shoulders and neck; excessive skin on the dewlap and underline; large, droopy ears; and horns that tend to curve upward and rearward. Their colour ranges from near white through brown and brownish red to near black. Their popularity in other areas such as South America and Europe, into which they have been imported, is attributable mainly to their heat tolerance, drought resistance, and resistance to fever ticks and other insects. The Santa Gertrudis was developed by the King Ranch of Texas by crossing Brahman and Shorthorn cattle to obtain large, hearty, tick-resistant, red cattle that have proved to be popular not only in Texas but in many regions along the semitropical Gulf Coast . Until the tick was eradicated in the southern and southwestern United States, Brahman crosses were raised almost exclusively there.

Several lesser breeds have been developed from crosses of the Brahman on other beef breeds such as: the Charbray ( Charolais ), Braford (Hereford), Brangus (Angus), Brahorn (Shorthorn), and Beefmaster (Brahman-Shorthorn-Hereford).

The Charolais breed, which originated in the Charolais region of France, has become quite popular in the United States for crossing on the British breeds for production of market cattle. The superior size, rate of gain, and heavy muscling of the pure French Charolais and the hybrid vigour accruing from the crossing of nonrelated breeds promise an increased popularity of this breed. Many American Charolais, however, carry significant amounts of Brahman blood, with a corresponding reduction in size, rate of gain, and muscling. Important in France, the Charolais is the foremost meat-cattle breed in Europe.

The Limousin breed, which originated in west central France, is second in importance to the Charolais as a European meat breed. Limousin cattle, often longer, finer boned, and slightly smaller than the Charolais, are also heavily muscled and relatively free from excessive deposits of fat.

The most prevalent breed of France, the Normandy , is smaller than the Charolais or Limousin and has been developed as a dual-purpose breed useful for both milk and meat production. A fourth important breed is the Maine–Anjou, which is the largest of the French breeds.

The Simmental accounts for nearly half of the cattle of Switzerland, Austria, and the western areas of Germany. Smaller than the Charolais and Limousin, the Simmental was developed for milk, meat, and draft . It is yellowish brown or red with characteristic white markings.