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In-depth Interviews: Definition and how to conduct them

Online surveys, user review sites and focus groups can be great methods for collecting data. However, another method of gathering data that is sometimes overlooked are the in-depth interviews.

All of these methods can be used in your comprehensive customer experience management strategy, but in-depth interviews can help you collect data that can offer rich insights into your target audience’s experience and preferences from a broad sample.

In this article you will discover the main characteristics of in-depth interviews as a great tool for your qualitative research and gather better insights from your objects of study.

LEARN ABOUT: Behavioral Research

What are in-depth interviews?

In-depth interviews are a qualitative data collection method that allows for the collection of a large amount of information about the behavior, attitude and perception of the interviewees.

LEARN ABOUT: Best Data Collection Tools

During in-depth interviews, researchers and participants have the freedom to explore additional points and change the direction of the process when necessary. It is an independent research method that can adopt multiple strategies according to the needs of the research.

Characteristics of in-depth interviews

There are many types of interviews , each with its particularities, in this case the most important characteristics of in-depth interviews are:

• Flexible structure: Although it is not very structured, it covers a few topics based on a guide, which allows the interviewer to cover areas appropriate for the interviewee.
• Interactive: The interviewer processes the material that is produced during the interview. During the interaction the interviewer poses initial questions in a positive manner, so that the respondent is encouraged to answer. The complete process is very human, and so less mundane and dull.
• Deep: Many probing techniques are used in in-depth interviews, so that results are understood through exploration and explanation. The interviewer asks follow-up questions to gain a deeper perspective and understand the participant’s viewpoint.
• Generative: Often interacting with your target audience creates new knowledge. For instance, if you are talking to your customers, you learn more about the purchase behavior. Researchers and participants present ideas for a specific topic and solutions to the problems posed.

To learn more about the characteristics of in-depth interviews, check out our blog on interview questions .

Importance of conducting in-depth interviews

As an in-depth interview is a one-on-one conversation, you get enough opportunities to get to the root causes of likes/dislikes, perceptions, or beliefs. 

Generally, questions are open-ended questions and can be customized as per the particular situation. You can use single ease questions . A single-ease question is a straightforward query that elicits a concise and uncomplicated response. The interviewer gets an opportunity to develop a rapport with the participant, thereby making them feel comfortable. Thus, they can bring out honest feedback and also note their expressions and body language. Such cues can amount to rich qualitative data.

LEARN ABOUT: Selection Bias

With surveys, there are chances that the respondents may select answers in a rush, but in case of in-depth interviews it’s hardly the worry of researchers. 

Conversations can prove to be an excellent method to collect data. In fact, people might be reluctant to answer questions in written format, but given the nature of an interview, participants might agree giving information verbally. You can also discuss with the interviewees if they want to keep their identity confidential.

In-depth interviews are aimed at uncovering the issues in order to obtain detailed results. This method allows you to gain insight into the experiences, feelings and perspectives of the interviewees.

When conducting the initial stage of a large research project, in-depth interviews prove to be useful to narrow down and focus on important research details.

When you want to have the context of a problem, in-depth interviews allow you to evaluate different solutions to manage the research process while assisting in in-depth data analysis .

LEARN ABOUT: Research Process Steps

Steps to conduct in-depth interviews

• Obtain the necessary information about the respondents and the context in which they operate.
• Make a script or a list of topics you want to cover. This will make it easy to add secondary questions.
• Schedule an interview at a time and date of the respondent’s choice.
• Ask questions confidently and let the interviewees feel comfortable, so that they too are confident and can answer difficult questions with ease.
• Set a maximum duration such that it doesn’t feel exhaustive.
• Observe and make notes on the interviewee’s body expressions and gestures.
• It is important to maintain ethics throughout the process.
• Transcribe the recordings and verify them with the interviewee.

Advantages of in-depth interviews

The benefits of conducting an in-depth interview include the following:

• They allow the researcher and participants to have a comfortable relationship to generate more in-depth responses regarding sensitive topics.
• Researchers can ask follow-up questions , obtain additional information, and return to key questions to gain a better understanding of the participants’ attitudes.
• The sampling is more accurate than other data collection methods .
• Researchers can monitor changes in tone and word choice of participants to gain a better understanding of opinions.
• Fewer participants are needed to obtain useful information. 
• In-depth interviews can be very beneficial when a detailed report on a person’s opinion and behavior is needed. In addition, it explores new ideas and contexts that give the researcher a complete picture of the phenomena that occurred.

Disadvantages 

The disadvantages of in-depth interviews are:

• They are time-consuming, as they must be transcribed, organized, analyzed in detail.
• If the interviewer is inexperienced, it affects the complete process.
• It is a costly research method compared to other methods.
• Participants must be chosen carefully to avoid bias, otherwise it can lengthen the process.
• Generally, participants decide to collaborate only when they receive an incentive in return.

LEARN ABOUT: Self-Selection Bias

What is the purpose of in-depth interviews?

The main purpose of in-depth interviews is to understand the consumer behavior and make well-informed decisions. Organizations can formulate their marketing strategies based on the information received from the respondents. They can also gain insights into the probable demand and know consumer pulse.

In the case of B2B businesses, researchers can understand the demand in more detail and can ask questions targeted for the experts. Interviews offer a chance to understand the customer’s thought process and design products that have higher chances of being accepted in the market.

LEARN ABOUT: 12 Best Tools for Researchers

Final words

An in-depth interview should follow all the steps of the process to collect meaningful data. Hope this blog helps you decide whether you should conduct a detailed interview with your target audience, keeping in mind the pros and cons of it.

If you want to get started with conducting research online, we suggest using an online survey software that offers features like designing a questionnaire , customized look and feel, distributing to your contacts and data analytics. Create an account with QuestionPro Surveys and explore the tool. If you need any help with research or data collection, feel free to connect with us.

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Chapter 11. Interviewing

Introduction.

Interviewing people is at the heart of qualitative research. It is not merely a way to collect data but an intrinsically rewarding activity—an interaction between two people that holds the potential for greater understanding and interpersonal development. Unlike many of our daily interactions with others that are fairly shallow and mundane, sitting down with a person for an hour or two and really listening to what they have to say is a profound and deep enterprise, one that can provide not only “data” for you, the interviewer, but also self-understanding and a feeling of being heard for the interviewee. I always approach interviewing with a deep appreciation for the opportunity it gives me to understand how other people experience the world. That said, there is not one kind of interview but many, and some of these are shallower than others. This chapter will provide you with an overview of interview techniques but with a special focus on the in-depth semistructured interview guide approach, which is the approach most widely used in social science research.

An interview can be variously defined as “a conversation with a purpose” ( Lune and Berg 2018 ) and an attempt to understand the world from the point of view of the person being interviewed: “to unfold the meaning of peoples’ experiences, to uncover their lived world prior to scientific explanations” ( Kvale 2007 ). It is a form of active listening in which the interviewer steers the conversation to subjects and topics of interest to their research but also manages to leave enough space for those interviewed to say surprising things. Achieving that balance is a tricky thing, which is why most practitioners believe interviewing is both an art and a science. In my experience as a teacher, there are some students who are “natural” interviewers (often they are introverts), but anyone can learn to conduct interviews, and everyone, even those of us who have been doing this for years, can improve their interviewing skills. This might be a good time to highlight the fact that the interview is a product between interviewer and interviewee and that this product is only as good as the rapport established between the two participants. Active listening is the key to establishing this necessary rapport.

Patton ( 2002 ) makes the argument that we use interviews because there are certain things that are not observable. In particular, “we cannot observe feelings, thoughts, and intentions. We cannot observe behaviors that took place at some previous point in time. We cannot observe situations that preclude the presence of an observer. We cannot observe how people have organized the world and the meanings they attach to what goes on in the world. We have to ask people questions about those things” ( 341 ).

Types of Interviews

There are several distinct types of interviews. Imagine a continuum (figure 11.1). On one side are unstructured conversations—the kind you have with your friends. No one is in control of those conversations, and what you talk about is often random—whatever pops into your head. There is no secret, underlying purpose to your talking—if anything, the purpose is to talk to and engage with each other, and the words you use and the things you talk about are a little beside the point. An unstructured interview is a little like this informal conversation, except that one of the parties to the conversation (you, the researcher) does have an underlying purpose, and that is to understand the other person. You are not friends speaking for no purpose, but it might feel just as unstructured to the “interviewee” in this scenario. That is one side of the continuum. On the other side are fully structured and standardized survey-type questions asked face-to-face. Here it is very clear who is asking the questions and who is answering them. This doesn’t feel like a conversation at all! A lot of people new to interviewing have this ( erroneously !) in mind when they think about interviews as data collection. Somewhere in the middle of these two extreme cases is the “ semistructured” interview , in which the researcher uses an “interview guide” to gently move the conversation to certain topics and issues. This is the primary form of interviewing for qualitative social scientists and will be what I refer to as interviewing for the rest of this chapter, unless otherwise specified.

Informal (unstructured conversations). This is the most “open-ended” approach to interviewing. It is particularly useful in conjunction with observational methods (see chapters 13 and 14). There are no predetermined questions. Each interview will be different. Imagine you are researching the Oregon Country Fair, an annual event in Veneta, Oregon, that includes live music, artisan craft booths, face painting, and a lot of people walking through forest paths. It’s unlikely that you will be able to get a person to sit down with you and talk intensely about a set of questions for an hour and a half. But you might be able to sidle up to several people and engage with them about their experiences at the fair. You might have a general interest in what attracts people to these events, so you could start a conversation by asking strangers why they are here or why they come back every year. That’s it. Then you have a conversation that may lead you anywhere. Maybe one person tells a long story about how their parents brought them here when they were a kid. A second person talks about how this is better than Burning Man. A third person shares their favorite traveling band. And yet another enthuses about the public library in the woods. During your conversations, you also talk about a lot of other things—the weather, the utilikilts for sale, the fact that a favorite food booth has disappeared. It’s all good. You may not be able to record these conversations. Instead, you might jot down notes on the spot and then, when you have the time, write down as much as you can remember about the conversations in long fieldnotes. Later, you will have to sit down with these fieldnotes and try to make sense of all the information (see chapters 18 and 19).

Interview guide ( semistructured interview ). This is the primary type employed by social science qualitative researchers. The researcher creates an “interview guide” in advance, which she uses in every interview. In theory, every person interviewed is asked the same questions. In practice, every person interviewed is asked mostly the same topics but not always the same questions, as the whole point of a “guide” is that it guides the direction of the conversation but does not command it. The guide is typically between five and ten questions or question areas, sometimes with suggested follow-ups or prompts . For example, one question might be “What was it like growing up in Eastern Oregon?” with prompts such as “Did you live in a rural area? What kind of high school did you attend?” to help the conversation develop. These interviews generally take place in a quiet place (not a busy walkway during a festival) and are recorded. The recordings are transcribed, and those transcriptions then become the “data” that is analyzed (see chapters 18 and 19). The conventional length of one of these types of interviews is between one hour and two hours, optimally ninety minutes. Less than one hour doesn’t allow for much development of questions and thoughts, and two hours (or more) is a lot of time to ask someone to sit still and answer questions. If you have a lot of ground to cover, and the person is willing, I highly recommend two separate interview sessions, with the second session being slightly shorter than the first (e.g., ninety minutes the first day, sixty minutes the second). There are lots of good reasons for this, but the most compelling one is that this allows you to listen to the first day’s recording and catch anything interesting you might have missed in the moment and so develop follow-up questions that can probe further. This also allows the person being interviewed to have some time to think about the issues raised in the interview and go a little deeper with their answers.

Standardized questionnaire with open responses ( structured interview ). This is the type of interview a lot of people have in mind when they hear “interview”: a researcher comes to your door with a clipboard and proceeds to ask you a series of questions. These questions are all the same whoever answers the door; they are “standardized.” Both the wording and the exact order are important, as people’s responses may vary depending on how and when a question is asked. These are qualitative only in that the questions allow for “open-ended responses”: people can say whatever they want rather than select from a predetermined menu of responses. For example, a survey I collaborated on included this open-ended response question: “How does class affect one’s career success in sociology?” Some of the answers were simply one word long (e.g., “debt”), and others were long statements with stories and personal anecdotes. It is possible to be surprised by the responses. Although it’s a stretch to call this kind of questioning a conversation, it does allow the person answering the question some degree of freedom in how they answer.

Survey questionnaire with closed responses (not an interview!). Standardized survey questions with specific answer options (e.g., closed responses) are not really interviews at all, and they do not generate qualitative data. For example, if we included five options for the question “How does class affect one’s career success in sociology?”—(1) debt, (2) social networks, (3) alienation, (4) family doesn’t understand, (5) type of grad program—we leave no room for surprises at all. Instead, we would most likely look at patterns around these responses, thinking quantitatively rather than qualitatively (e.g., using regression analysis techniques, we might find that working-class sociologists were twice as likely to bring up alienation). It can sometimes be confusing for new students because the very same survey can include both closed-ended and open-ended questions. The key is to think about how these will be analyzed and to what level surprises are possible. If your plan is to turn all responses into a number and make predictions about correlations and relationships, you are no longer conducting qualitative research. This is true even if you are conducting this survey face-to-face with a real live human. Closed-response questions are not conversations of any kind, purposeful or not.

In summary, the semistructured interview guide approach is the predominant form of interviewing for social science qualitative researchers because it allows a high degree of freedom of responses from those interviewed (thus allowing for novel discoveries) while still maintaining some connection to a research question area or topic of interest. The rest of the chapter assumes the employment of this form.

Creating an Interview Guide

Your interview guide is the instrument used to bridge your research question(s) and what the people you are interviewing want to tell you. Unlike a standardized questionnaire, the questions actually asked do not need to be exactly what you have written down in your guide. The guide is meant to create space for those you are interviewing to talk about the phenomenon of interest, but sometimes you are not even sure what that phenomenon is until you start asking questions. A priority in creating an interview guide is to ensure it offers space. One of the worst mistakes is to create questions that are so specific that the person answering them will not stray. Relatedly, questions that sound “academic” will shut down a lot of respondents. A good interview guide invites respondents to talk about what is important to them, not feel like they are performing or being evaluated by you.

Good interview questions should not sound like your “research question” at all. For example, let’s say your research question is “How do patriarchal assumptions influence men’s understanding of climate change and responses to climate change?” It would be worse than unhelpful to ask a respondent, “How do your assumptions about the role of men affect your understanding of climate change?” You need to unpack this into manageable nuggets that pull your respondent into the area of interest without leading him anywhere. You could start by asking him what he thinks about climate change in general. Or, even better, whether he has any concerns about heatwaves or increased tornadoes or polar icecaps melting. Once he starts talking about that, you can ask follow-up questions that bring in issues around gendered roles, perhaps asking if he is married (to a woman) and whether his wife shares his thoughts and, if not, how they negotiate that difference. The fact is, you won’t really know the right questions to ask until he starts talking.

There are several distinct types of questions that can be used in your interview guide, either as main questions or as follow-up probes. If you remember that the point is to leave space for the respondent, you will craft a much more effective interview guide! You will also want to think about the place of time in both the questions themselves (past, present, future orientations) and the sequencing of the questions.

Researcher Note

Suggestion : As you read the next three sections (types of questions, temporality, question sequence), have in mind a particular research question, and try to draft questions and sequence them in a way that opens space for a discussion that helps you answer your research question.

Type of Questions

Experience and behavior questions ask about what a respondent does regularly (their behavior) or has done (their experience). These are relatively easy questions for people to answer because they appear more “factual” and less subjective. This makes them good opening questions. For the study on climate change above, you might ask, “Have you ever experienced an unusual weather event? What happened?” Or “You said you work outside? What is a typical summer workday like for you? How do you protect yourself from the heat?”

Opinion and values questions , in contrast, ask questions that get inside the minds of those you are interviewing. “Do you think climate change is real? Who or what is responsible for it?” are two such questions. Note that you don’t have to literally ask, “What is your opinion of X?” but you can find a way to ask the specific question relevant to the conversation you are having. These questions are a bit trickier to ask because the answers you get may depend in part on how your respondent perceives you and whether they want to please you or not. We’ve talked a fair amount about being reflective. Here is another place where this comes into play. You need to be aware of the effect your presence might have on the answers you are receiving and adjust accordingly. If you are a woman who is perceived as liberal asking a man who identifies as conservative about climate change, there is a lot of subtext that can be going on in the interview. There is no one right way to resolve this, but you must at least be aware of it.

Feeling questions are questions that ask respondents to draw on their emotional responses. It’s pretty common for academic researchers to forget that we have bodies and emotions, but people’s understandings of the world often operate at this affective level, sometimes unconsciously or barely consciously. It is a good idea to include questions that leave space for respondents to remember, imagine, or relive emotional responses to particular phenomena. “What was it like when you heard your cousin’s house burned down in that wildfire?” doesn’t explicitly use any emotion words, but it allows your respondent to remember what was probably a pretty emotional day. And if they respond emotionally neutral, that is pretty interesting data too. Note that asking someone “How do you feel about X” is not always going to evoke an emotional response, as they might simply turn around and respond with “I think that…” It is better to craft a question that actually pushes the respondent into the affective category. This might be a specific follow-up to an experience and behavior question —for example, “You just told me about your daily routine during the summer heat. Do you worry it is going to get worse?” or “Have you ever been afraid it will be too hot to get your work accomplished?”

Knowledge questions ask respondents what they actually know about something factual. We have to be careful when we ask these types of questions so that respondents do not feel like we are evaluating them (which would shut them down), but, for example, it is helpful to know when you are having a conversation about climate change that your respondent does in fact know that unusual weather events have increased and that these have been attributed to climate change! Asking these questions can set the stage for deeper questions and can ensure that the conversation makes the same kind of sense to both participants. For example, a conversation about political polarization can be put back on track once you realize that the respondent doesn’t really have a clear understanding that there are two parties in the US. Instead of asking a series of questions about Republicans and Democrats, you might shift your questions to talk more generally about political disagreements (e.g., “people against abortion”). And sometimes what you do want to know is the level of knowledge about a particular program or event (e.g., “Are you aware you can discharge your student loans through the Public Service Loan Forgiveness program?”).

Sensory questions call on all senses of the respondent to capture deeper responses. These are particularly helpful in sparking memory. “Think back to your childhood in Eastern Oregon. Describe the smells, the sounds…” Or you could use these questions to help a person access the full experience of a setting they customarily inhabit: “When you walk through the doors to your office building, what do you see? Hear? Smell?” As with feeling questions , these questions often supplement experience and behavior questions . They are another way of allowing your respondent to report fully and deeply rather than remain on the surface.

Creative questions employ illustrative examples, suggested scenarios, or simulations to get respondents to think more deeply about an issue, topic, or experience. There are many options here. In The Trouble with Passion , Erin Cech ( 2021 ) provides a scenario in which “Joe” is trying to decide whether to stay at his decent but boring computer job or follow his passion by opening a restaurant. She asks respondents, “What should Joe do?” Their answers illuminate the attraction of “passion” in job selection. In my own work, I have used a news story about an upwardly mobile young man who no longer has time to see his mother and sisters to probe respondents’ feelings about the costs of social mobility. Jessi Streib and Betsy Leondar-Wright have used single-page cartoon “scenes” to elicit evaluations of potential racial discrimination, sexual harassment, and classism. Barbara Sutton ( 2010 ) has employed lists of words (“strong,” “mother,” “victim”) on notecards she fans out and asks her female respondents to select and discuss.

Background/Demographic Questions

You most definitely will want to know more about the person you are interviewing in terms of conventional demographic information, such as age, race, gender identity, occupation, and educational attainment. These are not questions that normally open up inquiry. [1] For this reason, my practice has been to include a separate “demographic questionnaire” sheet that I ask each respondent to fill out at the conclusion of the interview. Only include those aspects that are relevant to your study. For example, if you are not exploring religion or religious affiliation, do not include questions about a person’s religion on the demographic sheet. See the example provided at the end of this chapter.

Temporality

Any type of question can have a past, present, or future orientation. For example, if you are asking a behavior question about workplace routine, you might ask the respondent to talk about past work, present work, and ideal (future) work. Similarly, if you want to understand how people cope with natural disasters, you might ask your respondent how they felt then during the wildfire and now in retrospect and whether and to what extent they have concerns for future wildfire disasters. It’s a relatively simple suggestion—don’t forget to ask about past, present, and future—but it can have a big impact on the quality of the responses you receive.

Question Sequence

Having a list of good questions or good question areas is not enough to make a good interview guide. You will want to pay attention to the order in which you ask your questions. Even though any one respondent can derail this order (perhaps by jumping to answer a question you haven’t yet asked), a good advance plan is always helpful. When thinking about sequence, remember that your goal is to get your respondent to open up to you and to say things that might surprise you. To establish rapport, it is best to start with nonthreatening questions. Asking about the present is often the safest place to begin, followed by the past (they have to know you a little bit to get there), and lastly, the future (talking about hopes and fears requires the most rapport). To allow for surprises, it is best to move from very general questions to more particular questions only later in the interview. This ensures that respondents have the freedom to bring up the topics that are relevant to them rather than feel like they are constrained to answer you narrowly. For example, refrain from asking about particular emotions until these have come up previously—don’t lead with them. Often, your more particular questions will emerge only during the course of the interview, tailored to what is emerging in conversation.

Once you have a set of questions, read through them aloud and imagine you are being asked the same questions. Does the set of questions have a natural flow? Would you be willing to answer the very first question to a total stranger? Does your sequence establish facts and experiences before moving on to opinions and values? Did you include prefatory statements, where necessary; transitions; and other announcements? These can be as simple as “Hey, we talked a lot about your experiences as a barista while in college.… Now I am turning to something completely different: how you managed friendships in college.” That is an abrupt transition, but it has been softened by your acknowledgment of that.

Probes and Flexibility

Once you have the interview guide, you will also want to leave room for probes and follow-up questions. As in the sample probe included here, you can write out the obvious probes and follow-up questions in advance. You might not need them, as your respondent might anticipate them and include full responses to the original question. Or you might need to tailor them to how your respondent answered the question. Some common probes and follow-up questions include asking for more details (When did that happen? Who else was there?), asking for elaboration (Could you say more about that?), asking for clarification (Does that mean what I think it means or something else? I understand what you mean, but someone else reading the transcript might not), and asking for contrast or comparison (How did this experience compare with last year’s event?). “Probing is a skill that comes from knowing what to look for in the interview, listening carefully to what is being said and what is not said, and being sensitive to the feedback needs of the person being interviewed” ( Patton 2002:374 ). It takes work! And energy. I and many other interviewers I know report feeling emotionally and even physically drained after conducting an interview. You are tasked with active listening and rearranging your interview guide as needed on the fly. If you only ask the questions written down in your interview guide with no deviations, you are doing it wrong. [2]

The Final Question

Every interview guide should include a very open-ended final question that allows for the respondent to say whatever it is they have been dying to tell you but you’ve forgotten to ask. About half the time they are tired too and will tell you they have nothing else to say. But incredibly, some of the most honest and complete responses take place here, at the end of a long interview. You have to realize that the person being interviewed is often discovering things about themselves as they talk to you and that this process of discovery can lead to new insights for them. Making space at the end is therefore crucial. Be sure you convey that you actually do want them to tell you more, that the offer of “anything else?” is not read as an empty convention where the polite response is no. Here is where you can pull from that active listening and tailor the final question to the particular person. For example, “I’ve asked you a lot of questions about what it was like to live through that wildfire. I’m wondering if there is anything I’ve forgotten to ask, especially because I haven’t had that experience myself” is a much more inviting final question than “Great. Anything you want to add?” It’s also helpful to convey to the person that you have the time to listen to their full answer, even if the allotted time is at the end. After all, there are no more questions to ask, so the respondent knows exactly how much time is left. Do them the courtesy of listening to them!

Conducting the Interview

Once you have your interview guide, you are on your way to conducting your first interview. I always practice my interview guide with a friend or family member. I do this even when the questions don’t make perfect sense for them, as it still helps me realize which questions make no sense, are poorly worded (too academic), or don’t follow sequentially. I also practice the routine I will use for interviewing, which goes something like this:

• Introduce myself and reintroduce the study
• Provide consent form and ask them to sign and retain/return copy
• Ask if they have any questions about the study before we begin
• Ask if I can begin recording
• Ask questions (from interview guide)
• Turn off the recording device
• Ask if they are willing to fill out my demographic questionnaire
• Collect questionnaire and, without looking at the answers, place in same folder as signed consent form
• Thank them and depart

A note on remote interviewing: Interviews have traditionally been conducted face-to-face in a private or quiet public setting. You don’t want a lot of background noise, as this will make transcriptions difficult. During the recent global pandemic, many interviewers, myself included, learned the benefits of interviewing remotely. Although face-to-face is still preferable for many reasons, Zoom interviewing is not a bad alternative, and it does allow more interviews across great distances. Zoom also includes automatic transcription, which significantly cuts down on the time it normally takes to convert our conversations into “data” to be analyzed. These automatic transcriptions are not perfect, however, and you will still need to listen to the recording and clarify and clean up the transcription. Nor do automatic transcriptions include notations of body language or change of tone, which you may want to include. When interviewing remotely, you will want to collect the consent form before you meet: ask them to read, sign, and return it as an email attachment. I think it is better to ask for the demographic questionnaire after the interview, but because some respondents may never return it then, it is probably best to ask for this at the same time as the consent form, in advance of the interview.

What should you bring to the interview? I would recommend bringing two copies of the consent form (one for you and one for the respondent), a demographic questionnaire, a manila folder in which to place the signed consent form and filled-out demographic questionnaire, a printed copy of your interview guide (I print with three-inch right margins so I can jot down notes on the page next to relevant questions), a pen, a recording device, and water.

After the interview, you will want to secure the signed consent form in a locked filing cabinet (if in print) or a password-protected folder on your computer. Using Excel or a similar program that allows tables/spreadsheets, create an identifying number for your interview that links to the consent form without using the name of your respondent. For example, let’s say that I conduct interviews with US politicians, and the first person I meet with is George W. Bush. I will assign the transcription the number “INT#001” and add it to the signed consent form. [3] The signed consent form goes into a locked filing cabinet, and I never use the name “George W. Bush” again. I take the information from the demographic sheet, open my Excel spreadsheet, and add the relevant information in separate columns for the row INT#001: White, male, Republican. When I interview Bill Clinton as my second interview, I include a second row: INT#002: White, male, Democrat. And so on. The only link to the actual name of the respondent and this information is the fact that the consent form (unavailable to anyone but me) has stamped on it the interview number.

Many students get very nervous before their first interview. Actually, many of us are always nervous before the interview! But do not worry—this is normal, and it does pass. Chances are, you will be pleasantly surprised at how comfortable it begins to feel. These “purposeful conversations” are often a delight for both participants. This is not to say that sometimes things go wrong. I often have my students practice several “bad scenarios” (e.g., a respondent that you cannot get to open up; a respondent who is too talkative and dominates the conversation, steering it away from the topics you are interested in; emotions that completely take over; or shocking disclosures you are ill-prepared to handle), but most of the time, things go quite well. Be prepared for the unexpected, but know that the reason interviews are so popular as a technique of data collection is that they are usually richly rewarding for both participants.

One thing that I stress to my methods students and remind myself about is that interviews are still conversations between people. If there’s something you might feel uncomfortable asking someone about in a “normal” conversation, you will likely also feel a bit of discomfort asking it in an interview. Maybe more importantly, your respondent may feel uncomfortable. Social research—especially about inequality—can be uncomfortable. And it’s easy to slip into an abstract, intellectualized, or removed perspective as an interviewer. This is one reason trying out interview questions is important. Another is that sometimes the question sounds good in your head but doesn’t work as well out loud in practice. I learned this the hard way when a respondent asked me how I would answer the question I had just posed, and I realized that not only did I not really know how I would answer it, but I also wasn’t quite as sure I knew what I was asking as I had thought.

—Elizabeth M. Lee, Associate Professor of Sociology at Saint Joseph’s University, author of Class and Campus Life , and co-author of Geographies of Campus Inequality

How Many Interviews?

Your research design has included a targeted number of interviews and a recruitment plan (see chapter 5). Follow your plan, but remember that “ saturation ” is your goal. You interview as many people as you can until you reach a point at which you are no longer surprised by what they tell you. This means not that no one after your first twenty interviews will have surprising, interesting stories to tell you but rather that the picture you are forming about the phenomenon of interest to you from a research perspective has come into focus, and none of the interviews are substantially refocusing that picture. That is when you should stop collecting interviews. Note that to know when you have reached this, you will need to read your transcripts as you go. More about this in chapters 18 and 19.

Your Final Product: The Ideal Interview Transcript

A good interview transcript will demonstrate a subtly controlled conversation by the skillful interviewer. In general, you want to see replies that are about one paragraph long, not short sentences and not running on for several pages. Although it is sometimes necessary to follow respondents down tangents, it is also often necessary to pull them back to the questions that form the basis of your research study. This is not really a free conversation, although it may feel like that to the person you are interviewing.

Final Tips from an Interview Master

Annette Lareau is arguably one of the masters of the trade. In Listening to People , she provides several guidelines for good interviews and then offers a detailed example of an interview gone wrong and how it could be addressed (please see the “Further Readings” at the end of this chapter). Here is an abbreviated version of her set of guidelines: (1) interview respondents who are experts on the subjects of most interest to you (as a corollary, don’t ask people about things they don’t know); (2) listen carefully and talk as little as possible; (3) keep in mind what you want to know and why you want to know it; (4) be a proactive interviewer (subtly guide the conversation); (5) assure respondents that there aren’t any right or wrong answers; (6) use the respondent’s own words to probe further (this both allows you to accurately identify what you heard and pushes the respondent to explain further); (7) reuse effective probes (don’t reinvent the wheel as you go—if repeating the words back works, do it again and again); (8) focus on learning the subjective meanings that events or experiences have for a respondent; (9) don’t be afraid to ask a question that draws on your own knowledge (unlike trial lawyers who are trained never to ask a question for which they don’t already know the answer, sometimes it’s worth it to ask risky questions based on your hypotheses or just plain hunches); (10) keep thinking while you are listening (so difficult…and important); (11) return to a theme raised by a respondent if you want further information; (12) be mindful of power inequalities (and never ever coerce a respondent to continue the interview if they want out); (13) take control with overly talkative respondents; (14) expect overly succinct responses, and develop strategies for probing further; (15) balance digging deep and moving on; (16) develop a plan to deflect questions (e.g., let them know you are happy to answer any questions at the end of the interview, but you don’t want to take time away from them now); and at the end, (17) check to see whether you have asked all your questions. You don’t always have to ask everyone the same set of questions, but if there is a big area you have forgotten to cover, now is the time to recover ( Lareau 2021:93–103 ).

Sample: Demographic Questionnaire

ASA Taskforce on First-Generation and Working-Class Persons in Sociology – Class Effects on Career Success

Supplementary Demographic Questionnaire

Thank you for your participation in this interview project. We would like to collect a few pieces of key demographic information from you to supplement our analyses. Your answers to these questions will be kept confidential and stored by ID number. All of your responses here are entirely voluntary!

What best captures your race/ethnicity? (please check any/all that apply)

• White (Non Hispanic/Latina/o/x)
• Black or African American
• Hispanic, Latino/a/x of Spanish
• Asian or Asian American
• American Indian or Alaska Native
• Middle Eastern or North African
• Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander
• Other : (Please write in: ________________)

What is your current position?

• Grad Student
• Full Professor

Please check any and all of the following that apply to you:

• I identify as a working-class academic
• I was the first in my family to graduate from college
• I grew up poor

What best reflects your gender?

• Transgender female/Transgender woman
• Transgender male/Transgender man
• Gender queer/ Gender nonconforming

Anything else you would like us to know about you?

Example: Interview Guide

In this example, follow-up prompts are italicized.  Note the sequence of questions.  That second question often elicits an entire life history , answering several later questions in advance.

Introduction Script/Question

Thank you for participating in our survey of ASA members who identify as first-generation or working-class.  As you may have heard, ASA has sponsored a taskforce on first-generation and working-class persons in sociology and we are interested in hearing from those who so identify.  Your participation in this interview will help advance our knowledge in this area.

• The first thing we would like to as you is why you have volunteered to be part of this study? What does it mean to you be first-gen or working class?  Why were you willing to be interviewed?
• How did you decide to become a sociologist?
• Can you tell me a little bit about where you grew up? ( prompts: what did your parent(s) do for a living?  What kind of high school did you attend?)
• Has this identity been salient to your experience? (how? How much?)
• How welcoming was your grad program? Your first academic employer?
• Why did you decide to pursue sociology at the graduate level?
• Did you experience culture shock in college? In graduate school?
• Has your FGWC status shaped how you’ve thought about where you went to school? debt? etc?
• Were you mentored? How did this work (not work)?  How might it?
• What did you consider when deciding where to go to grad school? Where to apply for your first position?
• What, to you, is a mark of career success? Have you achieved that success?  What has helped or hindered your pursuit of success?
• Do you think sociology, as a field, cares about prestige?
• Let’s talk a little bit about intersectionality. How does being first-gen/working class work alongside other identities that are important to you?
• What do your friends and family think about your career? Have you had any difficulty relating to family members or past friends since becoming highly educated?
• Do you have any debt from college/grad school? Are you concerned about this?  Could you explain more about how you paid for college/grad school?  (here, include assistance from family, fellowships, scholarships, etc.)
• (You’ve mentioned issues or obstacles you had because of your background.) What could have helped?  Or, who or what did? Can you think of fortuitous moments in your career?
• Do you have any regrets about the path you took?
• Is there anything else you would like to add? Anything that the Taskforce should take note of, that we did not ask you about here?

Further Readings

Britten, Nicky. 1995. “Qualitative Interviews in Medical Research.” BMJ: British Medical Journal 31(6999):251–253. A good basic overview of interviewing particularly useful for students of public health and medical research generally.

Corbin, Juliet, and Janice M. Morse. 2003. “The Unstructured Interactive Interview: Issues of Reciprocity and Risks When Dealing with Sensitive Topics.” Qualitative Inquiry 9(3):335–354. Weighs the potential benefits and harms of conducting interviews on topics that may cause emotional distress. Argues that the researcher’s skills and code of ethics should ensure that the interviewing process provides more of a benefit to both participant and researcher than a harm to the former.

Gerson, Kathleen, and Sarah Damaske. 2020. The Science and Art of Interviewing . New York: Oxford University Press. A useful guidebook/textbook for both undergraduates and graduate students, written by sociologists.

Kvale, Steiner. 2007. Doing Interviews . London: SAGE. An easy-to-follow guide to conducting and analyzing interviews by psychologists.

Lamont, Michèle, and Ann Swidler. 2014. “Methodological Pluralism and the Possibilities and Limits of Interviewing.” Qualitative Sociology 37(2):153–171. Written as a response to various debates surrounding the relative value of interview-based studies and ethnographic studies defending the particular strengths of interviewing. This is a must-read article for anyone seriously engaging in qualitative research!

Pugh, Allison J. 2013. “What Good Are Interviews for Thinking about Culture? Demystifying Interpretive Analysis.” American Journal of Cultural Sociology 1(1):42–68. Another defense of interviewing written against those who champion ethnographic methods as superior, particularly in the area of studying culture. A classic.

Rapley, Timothy John. 2001. “The ‘Artfulness’ of Open-Ended Interviewing: Some considerations in analyzing interviews.” Qualitative Research 1(3):303–323. Argues for the importance of “local context” of data production (the relationship built between interviewer and interviewee, for example) in properly analyzing interview data.

Weiss, Robert S. 1995. Learning from Strangers: The Art and Method of Qualitative Interview Studies . New York: Simon and Schuster. A classic and well-regarded textbook on interviewing. Because Weiss has extensive experience conducting surveys, he contrasts the qualitative interview with the survey questionnaire well; particularly useful for those trained in the latter.

• I say “normally” because how people understand their various identities can itself be an expansive topic of inquiry. Here, I am merely talking about collecting otherwise unexamined demographic data, similar to how we ask people to check boxes on surveys. ↵
• Again, this applies to “semistructured in-depth interviewing.” When conducting standardized questionnaires, you will want to ask each question exactly as written, without deviations! ↵
• I always include “INT” in the number because I sometimes have other kinds of data with their own numbering: FG#001 would mean the first focus group, for example. I also always include three-digit spaces, as this allows for up to 999 interviews (or, more realistically, allows for me to interview up to one hundred persons without having to reset my numbering system). ↵

A method of data collection in which the researcher asks the participant questions; the answers to these questions are often recorded and transcribed verbatim. There are many different kinds of interviews - see also semistructured interview , structured interview , and unstructured interview .

A document listing key questions and question areas for use during an interview.  It is used most often for semi-structured interviews.  A good interview guide may have no more than ten primary questions for two hours of interviewing, but these ten questions will be supplemented by probes and relevant follow-ups throughout the interview.  Most IRBs require the inclusion of the interview guide in applications for review.  See also interview and  semi-structured interview .

A data-collection method that relies on casual, conversational, and informal interviewing.  Despite its apparent conversational nature, the researcher usually has a set of particular questions or question areas in mind but allows the interview to unfold spontaneously.  This is a common data-collection technique among ethnographers.  Compare to the semi-structured or in-depth interview .

A form of interview that follows a standard guide of questions asked, although the order of the questions may change to match the particular needs of each individual interview subject, and probing “follow-up” questions are often added during the course of the interview.  The semi-structured interview is the primary form of interviewing used by qualitative researchers in the social sciences.  It is sometimes referred to as an “in-depth” interview.  See also interview and  interview guide .

The cluster of data-collection tools and techniques that involve observing interactions between people, the behaviors, and practices of individuals (sometimes in contrast to what they say about how they act and behave), and cultures in context.  Observational methods are the key tools employed by ethnographers and Grounded Theory .

Follow-up questions used in a semi-structured interview  to elicit further elaboration.  Suggested prompts can be included in the interview guide  to be used/deployed depending on how the initial question was answered or if the topic of the prompt does not emerge spontaneously.

A form of interview that follows a strict set of questions, asked in a particular order, for all interview subjects.  The questions are also the kind that elicits short answers, and the data is more “informative” than probing.  This is often used in mixed-methods studies, accompanying a survey instrument.  Because there is no room for nuance or the exploration of meaning in structured interviews, qualitative researchers tend to employ semi-structured interviews instead.  See also interview.

The point at which you can conclude data collection because every person you are interviewing, the interaction you are observing, or content you are analyzing merely confirms what you have already noted.  Achieving saturation is often used as the justification for the final sample size.

An interview variant in which a person’s life story is elicited in a narrative form.  Turning points and key themes are established by the researcher and used as data points for further analysis.

Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods Copyright © 2023 by Allison Hurst is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

A comprehensive guide to in-depth interviews (IDIs)

UserTesting

You might have user data. But do you fully understand the why behind the data? Do you know who they are as people? If the answer is no, you're not alone.

A 2019 study found that more than half of researchers would like to use more in-person interviews as a UX research method . The good news? Most people are actually willing to give you their undivided attention to actively improve your app, site, or service user experience. As a UX researcher, you’re sitting on a potential goldmine of information and insights from your customer base. 

To pull that insightful data from participants, you’ll need to conduct in-depth interviews (IDIs) . These interviews require more planning and resources than other data collection methods. You’re also asking for more of your user’s time. 

For those reasons, it's essential to ensure you go into the process with a clear idea of what data you hope to get out of one. 

What is an in-depth interview? 

An in-depth interview is a qualitative research technique that involves conducting multiple individual interviews. They involve one-on-one engagement with participants, usually taking place face-to-face, either remotely or in-person. 

Unlike other research methods, in-depth interviews have a more flexible structure than moderated usability studies .

IDIs are used to get a more detailed and well-rounded perspective of users’ opinions, experiences, and feelings about a product's UX. 

Instead of more general qualitative or quantitative questionnaires that are sent out to a larger group of customers, IDI questions can be tailored to the interviewee and their individual usage. 

In these more intensive interviews, organizations usually ask a smaller number of customers to take part. This means that responses to different ideas, features, services, or future plans are more deeply investigated. 

You could consider using in-depth interviews for the following reasons: 

• To get feedback on a new product or service your business has launched 
• As a way of understanding the needs and expectations of your customers during persona gathering sessions
• For coming up with new ideas on how customers would make improvements to an existing product or service 
• Following a usability study to better understand how users intend to use your platform
• To get insight into how a customer thinks about design elements on certain pages

As you can see, they’re most effective when used in combination with other research methods like online surveys and usability testing .

Why are in-depth interviews important? 

There’s a large gap between the consumer's experience of brands and the marketer's confidence in their own branding. While most marketers are confident they can meet their target market's level of expectation, just under half of consumers say brands fail to meet their expectations.

Most users will switch to a competitor if they have just one bad experience with a brand they typically like.

What does this mean? To put it simply: creating a positive user experience is key for encouraging people to interact with your app, service, or site. 

In-depth interviews are one way of bridging this gap between consumer experience and business confidence. You can get insight into a users’ thoughts and feelings—and use that qualitative data to improve design, product launches, and key messaging.

What are the benefits of performing in-depth interviews? 

IDIs should show you how users feel about specific elements of your UX. They can also help you gain confidence in making future decisions. 

Here are a few of the top benefits of using IDIs in your UX process. 

Smaller sample size

Given the higher quality relevant insights, researchers require fewer participants to take part in in-depth interviews. 

Lower drop-off rates mean that interviewers can conduct fewer IDIs and still collect rich data. For instance, online questionnaires have a higher drop-off rate, so they require a larger sampling. But with IDIs, you can get a lot of data from each individual participant. 

Get honest feedback

One-on-one in-depth interviews are free from possible peer-pressure dynamics or distractions that are sometimes present in larger focus groups . By taking an hour to chat with a participant directly, the two-way conversation leaves zero space for other users’ influence.

Some people may also feel more comfortable providing honest feedback in conversation instead of through a written questionnaire. 

Gain a deeper understanding of user behavior

Face-to-face in-depth interviews, whether remote or in-person, allow researchers to interpret body language . Interviewers can also analyze changes in tone of voice and word choice. 

These nuances help interviewers build a complete picture of user behavior that isn’t possible through other online or offline feedback channels. 

Build a stronger understanding of user expectations and motivations 

It’s easier to ask follow-up questions, request more detailed information, and explore particular topics in more depth with an IDI. They’re suited to asking open-ended questions that encourage longer and more detailed responses from the participant. 

As a researcher, you should take advantage of having participants’ undivided attention. Take the time to explore their opinions more deeply, beyond the surface level, for the most useful qualitative data .

What are the challenges? 

IDIs can give you valuable insight into users’ expectations and actual uses of your site. But, there are some challenges.

They’re time-consuming

Every interview you conduct will need to be transcribed, analyzed, organized, and properly stored. Multiple team members may need to be involved in the process.

While often more informative, IDIs require more time and preparation than other research methods—including simple written surveys.

Interviewers or moderators require thorough training and briefing 

You need skilled interviewers to ask the right research questions and properly engage with participants to obtain valuable insights. 

Successful IDIs depend on an interviewer's ability to ask thoughtful questions at the right time. They need to give the participants space to think and talk—while making them feel comfortable enough to do so. It takes training for an interviewer to hone in on this skill set.

Participants require careful vetting 

To gather valuable and balanced insights, it’s essential to use random sampling to gather a group of participants that accurately represent your organization’s user base. Once you have a random set of participants, you should check that they represent your user base’s different groups. 

Depending on the size of your customer base, it likely won’t be possible to interview all your customers. That being said, it's important to interview a variety of different users. 

For instance, you may want to interview a group of users who are unfamiliar with your site design, those who have been using your site for six months, and another group who left for a competitor. 

The best way to do this would be to  segment your customer base , then randomly generate a sample of participants to invite to an IDI.

How do you structure IDIs? 

When it comes to how structured your IDIs are, you have several options: 

• Structured interviews  are fixed in their methodology. The interviewer would only ask predetermined questions and target specific experiences. A structured approach limits the scope for exploring discussed topics in more depth. 
• Unstructured interviews  aren’t defined and don’t include pre-planned questions. It’s more like a conversation between the researcher and the respondent.
• Semi-structured interviews  follow some protocols to guide the process. While it’s a conversation between two individuals, and the interviewer can ask for more details, most of the questions are scripted. Interviewers will plan some initial questions and themes to cover, but allow the respondents’ answers to guide the interview direction. 

Generally, the most valuable in-depth interviews are semi-structured. 

These IDIs have a loose structure, but remain adaptable to the participant’s issues and ideas. This flexibility enables interviewers to explore each response fully and better engage with the user. 

When to use unstructured interviews: "If you’re at the beginning of a design phase, just trying to path-find for innovation, or trying to really dig into another layer of how your users use your product, that's when you're going to want to be more unstructured. When you've already got the product or the prototype, and you're wanting to validate, and you want to make sure that you're designing it the right way." - Julie Strubel, UserZoom Senior UX Researcher

How do you conduct a good in-depth interview?

Some preparation is key for conducting an insightful in-depth interview. Planning topics and conversation starters in advance will help you use your participants’ time more wisely. If your customers feel that their time was wasted or the IDI was simply too long, they may be reluctant to participate in future drives for customer insights. 

Keeping your IDIs brief and well-structured will also help your participants maintain focus until the end. Longer interviews with less clear objectives run the risk of tiring customers out and reducing the quality of their answers.

In addition to the tips we just mentioned, we've pulled together 9 best practices to keep in mind when you're running IDIs:

• Know your aims
• Define your scope
• Set a time limit
• Ask the right questions
• Remove bias
• Make questions actionable
• Test your questions
• Create an IDI guide
• Put your insights into action

1. Know your aims

Before you plan on conducting any in-depth interviews, it’s important to know what you’re aiming to get out of the process. This helps guide your questions—and ultimately, the conversation.  

Perhaps you’re looking to understand how customers feel about your site’s new design. In that case, you need to ask open-ended questions like, “What do you think of our new site design when compared to our previous version?”

If you want to find out if participants find your checkout page to be intuitive, ask questions like, “How did you feel about the navigation experience of our checkout page?”

When you identify your goals , it’ll be easier to plan questions to help build your understanding of what your end-user is looking to achieve. 

For this reason, Hector Harris-Burton of Imaginaire recommends having some structure.

“Have a loose structure so that you can cover topics that you'd like to hear about. While an IDI is supposed to be a freeform conversation, one of the best ways to get the most information out of the interviewee is to ensure that you have talking points and some kind of structure.  By having a structure, not only are you able to cover the topics you need, but you can also aid the conversation. No matter who you talk to, there is always the potential for the conversation to run dry. But with a structure and talking points, you're able to lead the conversation and move forward, rather than struggling.”

2. Define your scope 

Always clarify the extent of your research before you begin interviewing people. 

Decide how much time you have to spend on conducting IDIs, and the minimum number of respondents you need to consider any themes as standard. That should define the number of users you need to interview.

There’s no magic number when it comes to determining the size of your sample . Always prioritize quality over quantity, and check that you can spend a reasonable amount of time in each interview. 

For instance, there’s not much point in interviewing 120 people for five minutes each. It would be better to spend the same amount of time interviewing 20 people for 30 minutes each. That way, you’d have time to explore topics more deeply with each participant instead of rushing through a list of questions. 

3. Set a time limit

When conducting an IDI, make sure you’re mindful of your participants’ time. Remember: their answer quality may drop off towards the end of the conversation if you’ve been talking for hours. 

Let participants know how much time each interview will take and stick to it. 

Keeping each interview to a maximum of one hour will allow you to ask participants plenty of questions without going off-topic. It’s also short enough for them to commit to the interview. 

4. Ask the right questions 

Asking the right questions will encourage respondents to share their honest points of view. 

In your in-depth interviews, add in a mix of question types, such as:

• General ice-breaking questions.  Ease people into the discussion by asking light-hearted questions first. For example, “Tell me about your biggest challenges right now.”
• More specific detail-oriented questions.  Start to explore subjects that are more closely linked to your research goals. For instance, “What are you hoping to achieve by using our app?”
• Insight-based questions.  Ask more specific questions about existing or new features. Use your last questions to find out how users feel about your future plans. For example, “How useful would this new calendar function be for you?” 

Using the right questions will help you better listen to users and then effectively implement their feedback. You’ll also gather qualitative data that helps you make smarter UX decisions. 

5. Remove bias 

It’s easy to accidentally influence customers’ answers without intending to. Take care with how you phrase each of your questions to make sure you’re not accidentally influencing their responses. 

Consider the following question:  “What do you like about this new service?”  

The phrasing of the question restricts users to only talking about what they like about the service as opposed to providing a more balanced answer. 

To make the question more neutral and bias-free , ask something along the lines of:  “What do you think about our new service?” 

This simple change of phrasing leaves the customer free to provide an honest perspective (as opposed to just listing what they like about the service).

The key is to collect valuable, actionable feedback that isn’t shaped by your organization’s expectations or agenda. So, always ask users open-ended questions and avoid leading questions that influence participants’ answers. 

Read up on other examples of leading questions so you know what to avoid.

Don't ask them leading questions designed to elicit a certain response. You want them to answer truthfully, so it's best to ask questions straight up and don't suggest an answer. For example, avoid questions like “What do you think is helpful in the new package we offered? The new payment methods?” Ask open-ended questions that will lead to expansive responses. Remember, you want to find out what they are trying to do and what their problems are. - Lauri Kinkar, Messente CEO

6. Make questions actionable 

When conducting IDIs, only ask users questions that are actionable. That way, you’ll be able to directly use their answers to improve user experience. 

Here’s an example of an actionable question: “Is there anything you would change about our checkout page?” Any answers you receive to this question will improve your current page based on users’ current sentiment around it. 

If you’re in doubt about asking a particular question, think about whether you could use the answer to improve your UX. If you can’t find a way of using the response to improve your user experience, it’s best to ask another question. 

7. Test your interview questions

Test your questions on teammates and ask for feedback on whether your questions are straightforward. 

Do they give the answers you were expecting? Or bounce the questions back to you, asking what you meant?

Your users’ responses should give you a clear idea of what needs to be changed or improved moving forwards. 

8. Create an IDI guide

IDI guides are an informative document that outlines the interview process from start to finish.

 It should act as a to-do list that you refer to throughout the interview process, as UX Specialist Andreas Johansson explains:

"As part of the user research plan, I also create an interview guide. This is basically a rough structure for me to refer to when I do the interviews. I tend to do semi-structured interviews. That means that I refer to the interview guide if I get stuck, but I don't tend to be too rigid about it. Sometimes it's good if the discussions go off on a tangent, for instance."

First, state your objectives and then outline the general flow of the interview. Include all the topics you want to talk about and in what order—remembering  why  you’re asking them in the first place. 

This interview guide will stop you from getting side-tracked during the conversation, helping you create the best possible experience for your participants. 

Consider giving your colleagues a copy of the IDI guide, too. They can provide you with feedback on what you’re planning to ask. Knowing what insights you’re planning to pull will also help them anticipate the data they’ll later analyze and store.

9. Put your insights into action

It’s all well and good to have a jam-packed day of IDIs. Once you’ve collected that data, though, you need to turn it into actionable insights.

Olga Kimalana, Senior Conversion Strategist at Scandiweb, explains:

“There’s no point in conducting user interviews if you don’t act upon the insights you gathered, so make sure to present your insights and plans of action to stakeholders to kick off the improvements.”

The simplest way to do this is to listen back through each interview. Create a transcription of the conversion, and flag different parts of the conversation that are interesting. This can include snippets you want to re-listen or pay closer attention to.

We recommend using a professional UX platform (instead of Zoom or Google Meet) for this reason. UserTesting, for example, has a note-taking feature. You can annotate transcripts, and add hashtags to certain topics, to spot themes across several IDIs.

Five in-depth interview best practices 

Following a few best practices will ensure you make the most of each interview and collect data for improving your UX. Here are five to start with. 

1. Ensure participants feel comfortable 

In-depth interviews are voluntary, so it’s important to make customers feel comfortable enough to share their honest opinions. 

As an interviewer, you should approach each interview with an approachable, friendly, and open-minded attitude. Avoid making the interview feel too formal–you don’t want users to feel under pressure or stressed. 

"You're setting the stage, you want people to feel relaxed. Even if they're just going through and doing a talk-out-loud for a usability session, you want to put them at ease, and that's not just about reading the script. It's about making that human connection in the first three minutes." - Julie Strubel, UserZoom Senior UX Researcher

If customers have a positive experience during your interview, they’ll be more likely to readily offer feedback if you request it again in the future. You’ll also get better data from respondents who were genuinely interested in the conversation. 

2. Properly engage with your interviewees

Effectively engaging with interviewees is sometimes easier said than done—especially when you have a busy day full of in-depth interviews. 

Taking detailed notes may distract you from what your customer is saying or take you out of the moment, so you may want to use an audio or video recording device instead. That way, you can give your interviewee 100% of your attention and remain responsive to their answers.

Making recordings of each interview will enable you to fully engage with participants without worrying about forgetting critical data or insights later on. Simply refer to your recordings afterward and collect all of the relevant insights. 

3. Follow-up on user responses

It’s vital to understand what your customers mean by their responses and what’s behind their opinion of your app, site, or service. Try clarifying their responses by summarizing their thoughts. If you’re not sure, always ask for clarification. 

Whenever users share an opinion, follow-up on their response by asking why they feel the way they do.

For instance, if a participant says they don’t find your checkout page intuitive, you should follow-up by asking them what it is that they don’t find user-friendly. Is it the layout? Are the payment instructions unclear? Do they have to click on too many buttons?

Avoid putting words into participants’ mouths, but make sure to find out what it is precisely about the page they find unintuitive. 

Alternatively, if a user says they prefer your old site design, make sure to pinpoint why. Was there a specific menu flow they found easy to use? Was the search capability stronger? 

Asking why will help you go beyond surface-level responses and genuinely engage with your customer base. 

4. Provide consent forms

You should always provide your participants with consent forms that outline the purpose of the interview. 

To legally use the participants’ responses and details, you need to make sure that everyone signs an agreement as to how the information gathered from the interview will be used. 

Consent always needs to be:

• Based on clearly explained information.  Participants need to know what exactly is being researched. Provide a detailed information sheet for them to read before signing.  
• Given freely.  Consent can’t be dependent on receiving a benefit. If you plan on offering incentives, make sure you do this before asking for consent. 
• Given separately from other information.  Consent forms need to be given separately to an NDA form, for example. 
• Given for a specific purpose . If you plan on using the research in multiple ways, consent needs to be given for all of them.
• Able to be refused and withdrawn.  The interviewee needs to know how they can withdraw consent at any moment during the process. 

5. Say thank you 

Participants are giving up their time to share their opinions and perspectives on your product or service with you. Make it a priority to thank your customers for their time, so they feel appreciated. 

You could also provide incentives as a way of saying thank you to participants. For example, you could automatically enter participants into an Amazon gift card giveaway. 

Michael Margolis, a UX research partner at Google Ventures, offers different incentives depending on the customer type:

“I typically offer a $100 gift card for customer interviews. [...] Some people may be enticed by a larger “honorarium” or charitable donation made in their names. But experts often respond more to professional incentives, such as sharing a version of the research results, previewing a new or advanced technology, or giving them credit in a public way.”

Conduct more insightful IDIs today

In-depth interviews are a great source of original user insights as part of a broader UX research process. 

When planned and conducted correctly, IDIs make it easier to understand your users’ expectations and pain points. Unlike other qualitative data collection methods, you’ll be able to interact with users directly and dig deeper into how they feel about your UX.

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The qualitative research interview

Affiliation.

• 1 Department of Family Medicine, University of Medicine and Dentistry at Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Somerset, New Jersey 08873, USA. [email protected]
• PMID: 16573666
• DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2929.2006.02418.x

Background: Interviews are among the most familiar strategies for collecting qualitative data. The different qualitative interviewing strategies in common use emerged from diverse disciplinary perspectives resulting in a wide variation among interviewing approaches. Unlike the highly structured survey interviews and questionnaires used in epidemiology and most health services research, we examine less structured interview strategies in which the person interviewed is more a participant in meaning making than a conduit from which information is retrieved.

Purpose: In this article we briefly review the more common qualitative interview methods and then focus on the widely used individual face-to-face in-depth interview, which seeks to foster learning about individual experiences and perspectives on a given set of issues. We discuss methods for conducting in-depth interviews and consider relevant ethical issues with particular regard to the rights and protection of the participants.

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In-depth interviews in qualitative research: Not 'just a chat'

In-depth interview, that's just a chat', you might say. Well, no, it's not, and here's why, and when to use it.

Cathy Gibbons

What is an in-depth interview.

In-depth interviews are described by Fontana and Frey (2000) as a kind of interview that uses anything from structured questions to 'negotiated text', but they also describe it as open-ended and ethnographic. More helpfully, they say it is used as an attempt “to understand the complex behaviour of members of society without imposing any a-priori categorization that may limit the field of inquiry”. They also consider the establishment of a ‘human-to-human connection’, as fundamental to in-depth interviews.

Well, you might say, that’s still just chat, but a really long one, isn’t it? Well no.

According to Kvale and Brinkmann (2009), in-depth interviews are considered to be research conversations. As a genre of conversation, an in-depth interview has its own conventions and rules, distinct from a chat with a friend, a legal interrogation, a therapeutic session, or professional discussion. What makes them distinct is the purpose of the conversation. In qualitative research the purpose is to 'produce' knowledge, “is an interview where knowledge is constructed in the inter-action between the interviewer and the interviewee”. However there is much overlap and no hard and fast distinction between different forms of conversation.

So, ‘chatting’ around inconsequential topics (the state of traffic, whether you prefer tea or coffee) might genuinely be part of the forming and maintenance of rapport. However trust and genuine interview dialogue will be developed through human skills and behaviours that demonstrate that you are trustworthy, respectful of the knowledge and person(s) you are working with, genuinely want to hear what they have to say, see what they have to show you, and will be careful in your representation. These are skills that we all have at some level, but with practice can be honed to the point where you know when to ask a sensitive question, probe more deeply or return at a later point; can detect that there is more to be heard or you can move on; can select from a variety of questioning techniques; have sharp observation skills, and fundamentally, know how to actively listen.

It is probably apparent by now that in-depth interviews are time consuming and take some skill. However, as Guest, Namey & Mitchell say, “there is good reason for the pervasiveness of this method: it is versatile across a range of study topics, adaptable to challenging field conditions, and excellent for not just providing information but for generating understanding as well.” ( 2013 )

When do you use an in-depth interview?

Fontana and Frey (2020) call in-depth interviews ethnographic and open-ended. So in-depth interviews are suitable for the kind of topics where the researcher needs to be in the ‘field’ under examination and/or close to people the people who inhabit that field. Subjects that could require that kind of closeness include:

· socially sensitive topics, (such as bereavement, abuse of any kind, financial issues)

· marginalised and closed groups

· life-course or bibliographic accounts

· examining professional practice in detail

You may also choose to do in-depth interviews when access to field is limited, where there are elements of danger, such as gangs, criminal processes, dangerous or controlled workplaces with restricted access (diving, oil-rigs, operating theatres).

You might also choose to combine in-depth interviews with more traditional ethnographic techniques, such as observation, or with more creative and arts-based methods, where the co-construction of knowledge can be physically made manifest in ways beyond an academic report.

What’s the role of the researcher in an in-depth interview?

Acknowledging that subjective experience is valuable and that the researcher needs to be aware of their own subjectivities are givens in any qualitative research. The literature describes the involvement of the interviewer in research conversations in many ways, from ‘listen, don’t talk, (which might sit well with a more therapeutic approach), all the way to sharing personal opinions, likes/dislikes, which contribute to the co-construction of knowledge. Kvale and Brinkmann (2009) even discuss more challenging styles, where the interviewer freely expresses disagreement with interviewees. There is an element of personality and competence involved in this choice, but your particular research question should guide you across the spectrum of roles, from quiet researcher, to knowledgeable peer, or activist with a purpose of social change.

However there are four areas of consensus in researcher approach:

· Listen more than you talk

· Take time to develop genuine rapport

· Understand your purpose

· Don’t give advice

This is all probably good guidance for any kind of interview, but fail in the first of these two and you cannot claim to be using in-depth interviews in any methodological sense. As for not giving advice, you would need to have a good ethical and methodological rationale for why you might be asked for advice, and how you would handle that appropriately.

Do you need an interview guide for an in-depth interview?

Usually: as the Wallace foundation workbook suggests, you will need a guide with some sense of the questions you could ask, and the areas that you wish to cover (as well as a sampling strategy and thoughts on how you will make sense of your findings). However, that doesn’t mean you have to clutch it in your hand and read from it through-out your interviews.

Our blog on semi-structured interview guides recommends that you learn all of the questions in your topic guide/interview guide, and keep the guide near to hand. Certainly being able to glide seamlessly from question to question, topic to topic really helps keep interviews on track, when each participant may only cover different parts of the topic. However, it is knowing the purpose of your guide that is important, not the order of the questions or verbatim regurgitation of the questions. If you find forming questions difficult, why not have some generalised starters on your guide, along with purpose, and go from there? Our blog Talking naturally in qualitative research interviews has a whole section on questions to help you keep going with your in-depth interview.

What's the difference between in-depth, unstructured and structured interviews?

There are so many ways to describe interviews that it can appear a bit random, with authors like Flick (2015) , using labels that refer not just to the structure of the interview (e.g. semi-structured), but also to the people to be interviewed, their status relative to the context under discussion (e.g. expert, adult or child service user), and the linguistic form of the interview (e.g. narrative, and episodic). Then to add to the confusion, we throw in another term like ‘in-depth’.

In general, research interviews can be divided in to three kinds of structure:

· Structured

· Semi-structured

· Unstructured

In-depth interviews generally overlap the area between Unstructured and Semi-structured interviews. In Figure 1, the In-depth interviews circle barely skims the Structured interview circle. It is possible to use a structured interview instrument that is extremely detailed, wide-ranging and long. However, these are rare, as gathering such data is often better served by a questionnaire, and they are not in-depth in a qualitative methodological sense. When you find yourself choosing in-depth interviews, you are looking to generate a rich dialogue between you and your interviewee that will allow both of you to expore a topic in a free-flowing and informative way.

Whatever type of interviews you end up using for your qualitative research, Quirkos is a great way to transcribe them, with our automated transcription service , and analyse them with our simple qualitative coding and analysis tool . You can try both free of charge for 14 days, so register for a free trial and see if Quirkos can help you after your interviews!

References and Resources

Fontana, Andrea. and Frey, James H.  (2000) The interview; from structured questions to negotiated text. In Handbook of Qualitative Research , Eds. Norman K. Denzin , Yvonna S. Lincoln . Sage.

Flick, Uwe. (2015) Introducing Research Methodology: A Beginner's Guide to Doing a Research Project 2nd Ed. Sage.

Guest, G., Namey, E., & Mitchell, M. (2013). in-depth interviews. (Vols. 1-0). SAGE Publications, Ltd, https://doi.org/10.4135/9781506374680 [Accessed online 03 July 2023]

Kvale, Steinar (1996) InterViews: An introduction to research interviewing . Sage. Thousand Oaks. London.

Kvale, Steinar and Brinkmann, Svend (2009) ( 2014 ) InterViews: Learning the Craft of Qualitative Research Interviewing. Sage. Thousand Oaks. London.

Morris, A. (2015). A practical introduction to in-depth interviewing. SAGE Publications Ltd, https://doi.org/10.4135/9781473921344

The Wallace Foundation’s Knowledge Center, has useful material about many issues, including the arts, learning enrichment and school leadership. https://www.wallacefoundation.org/knowledge-center/pages/kc-results.aspx

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Qualitative research method-interviewing and observation

Shazia jamshed.

Department of Pharmacy Practice, Kulliyyah of Pharmacy, International Islamic University Malaysia, Kuantan Campus, Pahang, Malaysia

Buckley and Chiang define research methodology as “a strategy or architectural design by which the researcher maps out an approach to problem-finding or problem-solving.”[ 1 ] According to Crotty, research methodology is a comprehensive strategy ‘that silhouettes our choice and use of specific methods relating them to the anticipated outcomes,[ 2 ] but the choice of research methodology is based upon the type and features of the research problem.[ 3 ] According to Johnson et al . mixed method research is “a class of research where the researcher mixes or combines quantitative and qualitative research techniques, methods, approaches, theories and or language into a single study.[ 4 ] In order to have diverse opinions and views, qualitative findings need to be supplemented with quantitative results.[ 5 ] Therefore, these research methodologies are considered to be complementary to each other rather than incompatible to each other.[ 6 ]

Qualitative research methodology is considered to be suitable when the researcher or the investigator either investigates new field of study or intends to ascertain and theorize prominent issues.[ 6 , 7 ] There are many qualitative methods which are developed to have an in depth and extensive understanding of the issues by means of their textual interpretation and the most common types are interviewing and observation.[ 7 ]

Interviewing

This is the most common format of data collection in qualitative research. According to Oakley, qualitative interview is a type of framework in which the practices and standards be not only recorded, but also achieved, challenged and as well as reinforced.[ 8 ] As no research interview lacks structure[ 9 ] most of the qualitative research interviews are either semi-structured, lightly structured or in-depth.[ 9 ] Unstructured interviews are generally suggested in conducting long-term field work and allow respondents to let them express in their own ways and pace, with minimal hold on respondents’ responses.[ 10 ]

Pioneers of ethnography developed the use of unstructured interviews with local key informants that is., by collecting the data through observation and record field notes as well as to involve themselves with study participants. To be precise, unstructured interview resembles a conversation more than an interview and is always thought to be a “controlled conversation,” which is skewed towards the interests of the interviewer.[ 11 ] Non-directive interviews, form of unstructured interviews are aimed to gather in-depth information and usually do not have pre-planned set of questions.[ 11 ] Another type of the unstructured interview is the focused interview in which the interviewer is well aware of the respondent and in times of deviating away from the main issue the interviewer generally refocuses the respondent towards key subject.[ 11 ] Another type of the unstructured interview is an informal, conversational interview, based on unplanned set of questions that are generated instantaneously during the interview.[ 11 ]

In contrast, semi-structured interviews are those in-depth interviews where the respondents have to answer preset open-ended questions and thus are widely employed by different healthcare professionals in their research. Semi-structured, in-depth interviews are utilized extensively as interviewing format possibly with an individual or sometimes even with a group.[ 6 ] These types of interviews are conducted once only, with an individual or with a group and generally cover the duration of 30 min to more than an hour.[ 12 ] Semi-structured interviews are based on semi-structured interview guide, which is a schematic presentation of questions or topics and need to be explored by the interviewer.[ 12 ] To achieve optimum use of interview time, interview guides serve the useful purpose of exploring many respondents more systematically and comprehensively as well as to keep the interview focused on the desired line of action.[ 12 ] The questions in the interview guide comprise of the core question and many associated questions related to the central question, which in turn, improve further through pilot testing of the interview guide.[ 7 ] In order to have the interview data captured more effectively, recording of the interviews is considered an appropriate choice but sometimes a matter of controversy among the researcher and the respondent. Hand written notes during the interview are relatively unreliable, and the researcher might miss some key points. The recording of the interview makes it easier for the researcher to focus on the interview content and the verbal prompts and thus enables the transcriptionist to generate “verbatim transcript” of the interview.

Similarly, in focus groups, invited groups of people are interviewed in a discussion setting in the presence of the session moderator and generally these discussions last for 90 min.[ 7 ] Like every research technique having its own merits and demerits, group discussions have some intrinsic worth of expressing the opinions openly by the participants. On the contrary in these types of discussion settings, limited issues can be focused, and this may lead to the generation of fewer initiatives and suggestions about research topic.

Observation

Observation is a type of qualitative research method which not only included participant's observation, but also covered ethnography and research work in the field. In the observational research design, multiple study sites are involved. Observational data can be integrated as auxiliary or confirmatory research.[ 11 ]

Research can be visualized and perceived as painstaking methodical efforts to examine, investigate as well as restructure the realities, theories and applications. Research methods reflect the approach to tackling the research problem. Depending upon the need, research method could be either an amalgam of both qualitative and quantitative or qualitative or quantitative independently. By adopting qualitative methodology, a prospective researcher is going to fine-tune the pre-conceived notions as well as extrapolate the thought process, analyzing and estimating the issues from an in-depth perspective. This could be carried out by one-to-one interviews or as issue-directed discussions. Observational methods are, sometimes, supplemental means for corroborating research findings.

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• Types of Interviews in Research | Guide & Examples

Types of Interviews in Research | Guide & Examples

Published on March 10, 2022 by Tegan George . Revised on June 22, 2023.

An interview is a qualitative research method that relies on asking questions in order to collect data . Interviews involve two or more people, one of whom is the interviewer asking the questions.

There are several types of interviews, often differentiated by their level of structure.

• Structured interviews have predetermined questions asked in a predetermined order.
• Unstructured interviews are more free-flowing.
• Semi-structured interviews fall in between.

Interviews are commonly used in market research, social science, and ethnographic research .

Table of contents

What is a structured interview, what is a semi-structured interview, what is an unstructured interview, what is a focus group, examples of interview questions, advantages and disadvantages of interviews, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about types of interviews.

Structured interviews have predetermined questions in a set order. They are often closed-ended, featuring dichotomous (yes/no) or multiple-choice questions. While open-ended structured interviews exist, they are much less common. The types of questions asked make structured interviews a predominantly quantitative tool.

Asking set questions in a set order can help you see patterns among responses, and it allows you to easily compare responses between participants while keeping other factors constant. This can mitigate   research biases and lead to higher reliability and validity. However, structured interviews can be overly formal, as well as limited in scope and flexibility.

• You feel very comfortable with your topic. This will help you formulate your questions most effectively.
• You have limited time or resources. Structured interviews are a bit more straightforward to analyze because of their closed-ended nature, and can be a doable undertaking for an individual.
• Your research question depends on holding environmental conditions between participants constant.

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Semi-structured interviews are a blend of structured and unstructured interviews. While the interviewer has a general plan for what they want to ask, the questions do not have to follow a particular phrasing or order.

Semi-structured interviews are often open-ended, allowing for flexibility, but follow a predetermined thematic framework, giving a sense of order. For this reason, they are often considered “the best of both worlds.”

However, if the questions differ substantially between participants, it can be challenging to look for patterns, lessening the generalizability and validity of your results.

• You have prior interview experience. It’s easier than you think to accidentally ask a leading question when coming up with questions on the fly. Overall, spontaneous questions are much more difficult than they may seem.
• Your research question is exploratory in nature. The answers you receive can help guide your future research.

An unstructured interview is the most flexible type of interview. The questions and the order in which they are asked are not set. Instead, the interview can proceed more spontaneously, based on the participant’s previous answers.

Unstructured interviews are by definition open-ended. This flexibility can help you gather detailed information on your topic, while still allowing you to observe patterns between participants.

However, so much flexibility means that they can be very challenging to conduct properly. You must be very careful not to ask leading questions, as biased responses can lead to lower reliability or even invalidate your research.

• You have a solid background in your research topic and have conducted interviews before.
• Your research question is exploratory in nature, and you are seeking descriptive data that will deepen and contextualize your initial hypotheses.
• Your research necessitates forming a deeper connection with your participants, encouraging them to feel comfortable revealing their true opinions and emotions.

A focus group brings together a group of participants to answer questions on a topic of interest in a moderated setting. Focus groups are qualitative in nature and often study the group’s dynamic and body language in addition to their answers. Responses can guide future research on consumer products and services, human behavior, or controversial topics.

Focus groups can provide more nuanced and unfiltered feedback than individual interviews and are easier to organize than experiments or large surveys . However, their small size leads to low external validity and the temptation as a researcher to “cherry-pick” responses that fit your hypotheses.

• Your research focuses on the dynamics of group discussion or real-time responses to your topic.
• Your questions are complex and rooted in feelings, opinions, and perceptions that cannot be answered with a “yes” or “no.”
• Your topic is exploratory in nature, and you are seeking information that will help you uncover new questions or future research ideas.

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Depending on the type of interview you are conducting, your questions will differ in style, phrasing, and intention. Structured interview questions are set and precise, while the other types of interviews allow for more open-endedness and flexibility.

Here are some examples.

• Semi-structured
• Unstructured
• Focus group
• Do you like dogs? Yes/No
• Do you associate dogs with feeling: happy; somewhat happy; neutral; somewhat unhappy; unhappy
• If yes, name one attribute of dogs that you like.
• If no, name one attribute of dogs that you don’t like.
• What feelings do dogs bring out in you?
• When you think more deeply about this, what experiences would you say your feelings are rooted in?

Interviews are a great research tool. They allow you to gather rich information and draw more detailed conclusions than other research methods, taking into consideration nonverbal cues, off-the-cuff reactions, and emotional responses.

However, they can also be time-consuming and deceptively challenging to conduct properly. Smaller sample sizes can cause their validity and reliability to suffer, and there is an inherent risk of interviewer effect arising from accidentally leading questions.

Here are some advantages and disadvantages of each type of interview that can help you decide if you’d like to utilize this research method.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Student’s  t -distribution
• Normal distribution
• Null and Alternative Hypotheses
• Chi square tests
• Confidence interval
• Quartiles & Quantiles
• Cluster sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Data cleansing
• Reproducibility vs Replicability
• Peer review
• Prospective cohort study

Research bias

• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Placebo effect
• Hawthorne effect
• Hindsight bias
• Affect heuristic
• Social desirability bias

The four most common types of interviews are:

• Structured interviews : The questions are predetermined in both topic and order. 
• Semi-structured interviews : A few questions are predetermined, but other questions aren’t planned.
• Unstructured interviews : None of the questions are predetermined.
• Focus group interviews : The questions are presented to a group instead of one individual.

The interviewer effect is a type of bias that emerges when a characteristic of an interviewer (race, age, gender identity, etc.) influences the responses given by the interviewee.

There is a risk of an interviewer effect in all types of interviews , but it can be mitigated by writing really high-quality interview questions.

Social desirability bias is the tendency for interview participants to give responses that will be viewed favorably by the interviewer or other participants. It occurs in all types of interviews and surveys , but is most common in semi-structured interviews , unstructured interviews , and focus groups .

Social desirability bias can be mitigated by ensuring participants feel at ease and comfortable sharing their views. Make sure to pay attention to your own body language and any physical or verbal cues, such as nodding or widening your eyes.

This type of bias can also occur in observations if the participants know they’re being observed. They might alter their behavior accordingly.

A focus group is a research method that brings together a small group of people to answer questions in a moderated setting. The group is chosen due to predefined demographic traits, and the questions are designed to shed light on a topic of interest. It is one of 4 types of interviews .

Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.

Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.

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When to Use the 4 Qualitative Data Collection Methods

Qualitative data collection methods are the different ways to gather descriptive, non-numerical data for your research. 

Popular examples of qualitative data collection methods include surveys, observations, interviews, and focus groups. 

But it’s not enough to know what these methods are. Even more important is knowing when to use them. 

In an article published in Neurological Research and Practice titled, “How to use and assess qualitative research methods,” authors Busetto, Wick, and Gambinger assert that qualitative research is all about “flexibility, openness and responsivity to context . ” 

Because of this, “the steps of data collection and analysis are not as separate and consecutive as they tend to be in quantitative research,” according to the authors. 

This makes sense to me, too. And it means you have to use intuition and a pinch of guidance to know when—and how often—to use a specific qualitative data collection method. 

In this post, you’ll learn when to use the most common methods: interviews, focus groups, observations, and open-ended surveys.

#1. Interviews

An interview is a qualitative data collection method where a researcher has a one-on-one conversation with a participant. 

The goal of an interview is to explore how the participant feels about a specific topic. You’re mining for their unique experiences, perceptions, and thoughts.

There’s usually an element of structure here, with the researcher asking specific questions. But there’s room for organic discussion, too. The interviewer might take notes or record the session—or both—to capture the qualitative data collected.  

Interviews are slower, in some ways, than other qualitative data collection methods. Since you can only talk to one person at a time, you might not get as much data as you would from a survey sent out to 100 people at once. 

But interviews are a great way to go deep into a subject and collect details you wouldn’t get from a static survey response. 

Interviews are ideal to use when: 

• You need to know the “why”: A one-on-one conversation can help participants open up about the reasons they feel the way they do about a certain topic.
• You’re dealing with a sensitive topic: With an interview, you can create a safe space for a person to share their feelings without fear of judgment from other people.
• You want to know someone’s personal, lived experience: In a group setting, no one likes the person who takes over and tells their life story rather than participate in a larger conversation. But if you want that life story—if it’s relevant to your research—an interview is ideal.

There are times when interviews aren’t such a great choice, though. 

Choose another qualitative data collection method when:  

• You need information from lots of people, and quickly. Interviews are slow. If you need less depth and more breadth, go with a survey or questionnaire. 
• You don’t have a lot of resources to spare. It takes a significant amount of time and money to plan and carry out interviews. Most of the time, people don’t jump at the opportunity to participate in your research unless there’s an incentive—usually cash or a gift card. It ends up adding up to quite a bit.

#2. Focus Groups

A focus group is a qualitative data collection method where a small group of people discuss a topic together. A moderator is there to help guide the conversation. The goal here is to get everyone talking about their unique perspectives—and their shared experiences on a topic.

There’s one giant difference between focus groups and interviews, according to the authors of a 2018 article, “The use of focus groups discussion methodology: Insights from two decades of application in conservation,” published in the journal Methods in Ecology and Evolution . The article argues that in a one-on-one interview, the interviewer takes on the role of “investigator” and plays a central role in how the dynamics of the discussion play out. 

But in a focus group, the researcher “takes a peripheral, rather than a centre-stage role in a focus group discussion.”

AKA, researchers don’t have as much control over focus groups as they do interviews. 

And that can be a good thing. 

Focus groups are ideal to use when:  

• You’re in the early stages of research. If you haven’t been able to articulate the deeper questions you want to explore about a topic, a focus group can help you identify compelling areas to dig into. 
• You want to study a wide range of perspectives. A focus group can bring together a very diverse group of people if you want it to—and the conversation that results from this gathering of viewpoints can be incredibly insightful. 

So when should you steer clear of focus groups? 

Another research method might be better if: 

• You need raw, real honesty—from as many people as possible. Some participants might share valuable, sensitive information (like their honest opinions!) in a focus group. But many won’t feel comfortable doing so. The social dynamics in a group of people can greatly influence who shares what. If you want to build rapport with people and create a trusting environment, an interview might be a better choice. 

#3. Observation

Do you remember those strange, slightly special-feeling days in school when a random person, maybe the principal, would sit in on your class? Watching everyone, but especially your teacher? Jotting down mysterious notes from time to time? 

If you were anything like me, you behaved extra-good for a few minutes…and then promptly forgot about the person’s presence as you went about your normal school day.

That’s observation in a nutshell, and it’s a useful way to gather objective qualitative data. You don’t interfere or intrude when you’re observing. 

You just watch. 

Observation is a useful tool when: 

• You need to study natural behavior. Observation is ideal when you want to understand how people behave in a natural (aka non-conference-room) environment without interference. It allows you to see genuine interactions, routines, and practices as they happen. Think of observing kids on a playground or shoppers in a grocery store. 
• Participants may not be likely to accurately self-report behaviors. Sometimes participants might not be fully aware of their behaviors, or they might alter their responses to seem more “normal” or desirable to others. Observation allows you to capture what people do, rather than what they say they do. 

But observation isn’t always the best choice. 

Consider using another qualitative research method when: 

• The topic and/or behaviors studied are private or sensitive. Publicly observable behavior is one thing. Stuff that happens behind closed doors is another. If your research topic requires more of the latter and less of the former, go with interviews or surveys instead.
• You need to know the reasons behind specific behaviors. Observation gets you the what , but not the why . For detailed, in-depth insights, run an interview or open-ended survey.

#4. Open-Ended Surveys/Questionnaires

A survey is a series of questions sent out to a group of people in your target audience. 

In a qualitative survey, the questions are open-ended. This is different from quantitative questions, which are closed, yes-or-no queries. 

There’s a lot more room for spontaneity, opinion, and subjectivity with an open-ended survey question, which is why it’s considered a pillar of qualitative data collection. 

Of course, you can send out a survey that asks closed and open-ended questions. But our focus here is on the value of open-ended surveys.

Consider using an open-ended survey when:  

• You need detailed information from a diverse audience. The beauty of an open-ended questionnaire is you can send it to a lot of people. If you’re lucky, you’ll get plenty of details from each respondent. Not as much detail as you would in an interview, but still a super valuable amount.
• You’re just exploring a topic. If you’re in the early stages of research, an open-ended survey can help you discover angles you hadn’t considered before. You can move from a survey to a different data collection method, like interviews, to follow the threads you find intriguing.
• You want to give respondents anonymity. Surveys can easily be made anonymous in a way other methods, like focus groups, simply can’t. (And you can still collect important quantitative data from anonymous surveys, too, like age range, income level, and years of education completed.)

Useful though they are, open-ended surveys aren’t foolproof. 

Choose another method when:  

• You want to ask more than a few questions about a topic. It takes time and energy to compose an answer to an open-ended question. If you include more than three or four questions, you can expect the answers to get skimpier with each one. Or even completely absent by Question #4. 
• You want consistently high-quality answers. Researchers at Pew Research Center know a thing or two about surveys. According to authors Amina Dunn and Vianney Gómez in a piece for Decoded , Pew Research Center’s behind-the-scenes blog about research methods, “open-ended survey questions can be prone to high rates of nonresponse and wide variation in the quality of responses that are given.” If you need consistent, high-quality answers, consider hosting interviews instead. 

How to Decide Which Qualitative Data Collection Method to Use

Choosing the right qualitative data collection method can feel overwhelming. That’s why I’m breaking it down into a logical, step-by-step guide to help you choose the best method for your needs.

(Psst: you’ll probably end up using more than one of these methods throughout your qualitative research journey. That’s totally normal.)

Okay. Here goes. 

1. Start with your research goal

• If your goal is to understand deep, personal experiences or the reasons behind specific behaviors, then interviews are probably your best choice. There’s just no substitute for the data you’ll get during a one-on-one conversation with a research participant. And then another, and another. 
• If you’re not sure what your research goals are, begin by sending out a survey with general, open-ended questions asking for your respondents’ opinions about a topic. You can dig deeper from there.

2. Consider how sensitive your topic is

• If you’re dealing with a sensitive or private topic, where participants might not feel comfortable sharing in a group setting, interviews are ideal. They create a safe, confidential environment for open discussion between you and the respondent.
• If the topic is less sensitive and you want to see how social dynamics influence opinions, consider using focus groups instead.

3. Evaluate whether you need broad vs. deep data

• If you need broad data from a large number of people quickly, go with open-ended surveys or questionnaires . You don’t have to ask your respondents to write you an essay for each question. A few insightful lines will do just fine.
• If you need deep data, run interviews or focus groups. These allow for more in-depth responses and discussions you won’t get with a survey or observation.

4. Think about the context of your research

• If you want to study behavior in a natural setting without interference, observation is the way to go. More than any other, this method helps you capture genuine behaviors as they happen in real life. 
• But if you need to understand the reasons behind those behaviors, remember that observation only provides the what, not the why. In these cases, follow up with interviews or open-ended surveys for deeper insights.

5. Assess your resources If time and budget are limited, consider how many resources each qualitative data collection method will require. Open-ended surveys are less expensive—and faster to send out and analyze —than interviews or focus groups. The latter options require more time and effort from participants—and probably incentives, too.

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Last Updated on June 5, 2024

• Open access
• Published: 03 September 2024

Understanding medical students’ transition to and development in clerkship education: a qualitative study using grounded theory

• Hyo Jeong Lee   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8764-6610 1 ,
• Do-Hwan Kim   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4137-7130 1 &
• Ye Ji Kang   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1711-2394 2  

BMC Medical Education volume  24 , Article number:  910 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

Medical students perceive the transition to clerkship education as stressful and challenging and view themselves as novices during their rotation in clerkship education. The developmental perspective is thus important because the transition to clerkship supports rather than hinders growth. Accordingly, this study examines medical students’ transition to clerkship and their developmental features.

In-depth interviews were conducted with 18 medical students or graduates who had completed clerkships as medical students. Based on Straussian grounded theory, the collected data were analyzed in terms of the differences between pre- and post-clerkship education.

Our data analysis revealed five stages of the transition process: “anticipation and anxiety,” “reality check,” “seeking solutions,” “practical application,” and “transition and stability.” The core category, that is, “growing up from being students to being student doctors,” was driven by patients who perceived the participants as student doctors. Meanwhile, the participants recognized that having a solution that is agreed upon by colleagues was more important than knowing the correct answer. The participants undergoing the transition to clerkship showed developmental features divided into three categories: personal, social, and professional. Specifically, they attempted to balance clerkship and life through personal development, learned to navigate around the hospital and reduced tension through social development, and developed clinical competencies focused on efficiency through professional development.

Conclusions

This study explores the process of students’ transition to clerkship education and the developmental features that emerge during this period. The students were motivated by patients who perceived them as student doctors. Through the transition, they maintained a work-life balance and adapted to hospitals but developed an overly doctor-centered attitude by cultivating clinical competencies with a focus on efficiency. To develop them into medical professionals, it is essential to assist their transition and cultivate a patient-centered attitude.

Peer Review reports

The transition to clerkship education marks the first time that medical students will experience the role of being doctors and is an important stage for them to grow into doctors who think and act according to the values of their profession in clinical settings [ 1 , 2 ]. Students who have entered clerkship education move away from the systematic and structured medical school environment to a hospital setting where apprenticeship and experiential learning methods are common and students face a variety of tasks that are markedly different from those in the pre-clinical education period, including communication with patients and their families, cooperation with medical staff, and self-management [ 3 , 4 ]. In other words, the transition to clinical practice education involves understanding the context of the new environment, socializing to meet societal standards, and exerting considerable effort toward adapting to the complex environment [ 5 , 6 ].

The transition to clerkship is known to be a difficult period for medical students as they face stressful and challenging tasks as part of the undergraduate medical curricula [ 7 ]. Many students express concerns that their lack of clinical knowledge and skills could potentially harm patients [ 7 ]. In addition, the increased workload causes physical and mental fatigue, and students experience difficulties in self-management and time management [ 8 ]. Accordingly, universities offer a transition course to help students in their transition from pre-clinical to clinical education. Nevertheless, students struggle to adapt to the culture of medical teams, including interacting with supervisors, professors, residents, and interns; and learning how to work effectively [ 3 , 9 ]. Furthermore, students still perceive the transition as “disruptive” [ 10 ] and a “big leap” that needs to be overcome [ 9 ].

Examining the developmental perspective of the transition to clerkship education is crucial in medical education. The purpose of clerkship education is to provide students with hands-on clinical experience and to facilitate their development into proficient medical professionals. Despite its importance, current research primarily focuses on bridging the gap between pre-clerkship and clerkship education by enhancing students’ preparation while paying little attention to their developmental experiences during this transition [ 11 ]. Consequently, each new rotation often leaves students feeling like novices, impeding their progress and weakening their sense of direction [ 12 ]. This recurring sense of starting over can slow the transition process, potentially hindering overall growth [ 13 ].

Socialization during clerkship plays a crucial role in the formation of professional identities, which has a direct impact on care quality and patient outcomes. Students who develop a strong professional identity are more likely to be confident, communicate well, and understand their roles and responsibilities, which are essential to high-quality patient care [ 14 ]. However, recent studies have focused on students’ experiences in a single specialty without considering the temporal aspect, which limits the generalizability of the findings to students in other specialties [ 9 , 10 ]. Therefore, it is necessary to comprehensively understand the developmental processes across various specialties during the transition to clerkship. This understanding not only enhances the current state of clerkship education but also informs the development of targeted improvement strategies through an evaluation of educational outcomes and achievements.

In summary, the developmental perspective of the transition to clerkship education is vital. By emphasizing the growth experiences of students, we can optimize medical education to foster continuous development and the formation of professional identities during the transition phase, which in turn leads to improved patient care and academic success. Accordingly, our study aims to explore the transition process by evaluating not only medical students’ experience in their transition to clerkship education but also the developmental features they gain through the transition. Our research questions are as follows: First, how do medical students transition into clerkship education? Second, what developmental features do medical students cultivate as they transition to clerkship education?

Study design

This study utilized the Straussian Grounded Theory (Straussian GT) to deeply understand the process of transition to clerkship education for Korean medical students and to consider their development through this process. Straussian GT, developed by Strauss and Corbin, offers structured instructions for coding and analysis that include a literature review, allowing for a comprehensive examination of intricate social phenomena from multiple perspectives [ 15 ]. Unlike the classical GT by Glaser, which emphasizes emergent theory without pre-existing frameworks, the Straussian GT permits a more structured approach and integrates existing theoretical concepts into the analysis [ 16 ]. This methodology is particularly suitable for our study as it facilitates the exploration of the complex clerkship education environment, where students, supervisors, patients, and guardians coexist and interact. To capture the students’ vivid experiences of this education, we conducted semi-structured interviews. The entirety of this study followed COREQ (Consolidated Criteria for Reporting Qualitative Research) guidelines [ 17 ].

Study context

We conducted this study in the context of Korean medical schools. Traditionally, clerkship education in Korea is block clerkship, which lasts two years and begins in the fifth year of medical school. During that time, students work full time in hospitals and participate in clinical practice, notably rotating across specialties such as internal medicine, surgery, pediatrics, and psychiatry, for 2 to 12 weeks. Decisions regarding the order of rotation through various specialties and the grouping with peers are mainly made administratively, giving students minimal control over these decisions.

Data collection and participants

We recruited 18 participants who had at least 3 months of clerkship education as student doctors from two separate universities. We used purposeful sampling to select two knowledgeable and experienced individuals from the early research participants who could provide in-depth answers to the research problems. The initial plan was primarily to target third-year medical students who had recently entered clerkship education to ensure the vividness of their data. However, two pilot interviews revealed that, on average, the transition to clerkship education takes 3 to 6 months. Hence, we shifted to the selection of participants who had received clerkship education in at least two specialties, students in their final year of medical school, and graduates within a year of graduation. Given that numerous environmental influences could impair recall, we chose this one-year time limit to attract graduates with recent experience.

Data collection involved conducting semi-structured interviews to explore the experiences related to the transition to a clerkship in depth. The participants were asked about “expectations and concerns about clerkship education before it begins,” “overall encounters in the early stages of clerkship education,” and “features perceived to contribute to the successful transition to clerkship education.” The grounds for these factors are provided accordingly. The interviews were conducted over a span of two months, specifically between March and April 2023, with each interview lasting 50–90 min. Afterwards, we repeated the selection and recruitment of the next data collection targets using theoretical sampling, based on the theoretical concepts that emerged from the collected data [ 15 ]. We repeatedly performed sampling and analysis until we reached theoretical saturation, indicating the accumulation of appropriate data and the unnecessary need for additional data collection [ 18 ].

Data analysis and trustworthiness

The collected data were analyzed in terms of the transition process and the differences that emerged between pre- and post- clerkship education. The recorded interview file and the researcher’s notes were transcribed using Naver Clova Note. The data were then analyzed by grounded theory using the qualitative research software MAXQDA20 (VERBI GmbH, Berlin, Germany, 2019). All collected data were categorized into concepts that could represent ideas and phenomena through line-by-line analysis. Constant comparative methods were used as the data were collected and analyzed. These methods involve a continuous comparison of the phenomena, concepts, and categories being studied. They also help form theories by elaborating abstract categories through the clarification of similarities and differences and understanding of their relationships. After all the data were collected, each set was synthesized and analyzed within the entire framework.

The following strategies were used to ensure the validity and reliability of the data analysis [ 18 ]. First, while coding, we tried to systematically compare phenomena by comparing them with existing theories and literature. Using this technique, we attempted to grasp the attributes and dimensions that might have been missed in the data analysis process [ 15 ]. Second, expert reviews were conducted. In this study, one researcher with qualitative research experience and another who was familiar with the research subject and had expertise in related fields were asked to review the validity of the data and results. Third, we conducted a member check to enhance the trustworthiness of the study. We provided a summary of the preliminary findings to the participants, asking them to review and provide feedback on the accuracy of their views and experiences. This process ensured that the data analysis accurately reflected the participants’ perspectives, thereby strengthening the credibility and dependability of the results.

Ethics statement

This study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of Hanyang University (HYUIRB-202304-008-1). Before the interview, the participants were presented with a thorough explanation of the research purpose and interview content. They were then requested to sign a “Research Participation Consent Form,” and the interviews proceeded only after obtaining their consent.

We interviewed nine third-year medical students, seven fourth-year medical students, and two interns who were less than a year after graduation. They received clerkship training at two different universities. Table  1 provides their detailed demographic characteristics. According to the statements of the study participants, they went through five steps to become student doctors. Comparing themselves to their earlier selves, they observed significant changes and growth, ultimately reaching a transition where they could assume the role of student doctors. This data analysis divided the study’s results into two distinct parts: (1) the process of transitioning to clerkship education, and (2) the students’ developmental features through the transition.

Part 1. process of transition to clerkship education

The data analysis revealed the core category as “growing up from being students to being student doctors.” It also identified the five stages of the transition to clerkship education: “anticipation and anxiety,” “reality check,” “seeking solutions,” “practical application,” and “transition and stability.”

The first stage was “anticipation and anxiety.” The participants felt both excited and anxious before their clerkship education started. They looked forward to having more leisure time than they did during the pre-clinical period, but they were also nervous about getting to know new people. In particular, they were worried that they might unintentionally harm a patient because of their lack of expertise. Nevertheless, in the field, they expected vivid and rich learning.

The participants then entered the “reality check” stage as their clerkship education began. At this stage, the participants reported perplexing experiences that differed from their expectations. In an unfamiliar medical setting, the participants observed that even the professors could not focus and were puzzled about their position. Furthermore, they regarded themselves as “non-medical personnel” who were comparable to patients. However, actual patients did recognize them as medical staff, and this perception developed the participants’ sense of obligation but became a burden as well. Consequently, the participants understood that they needed qualifications beyond their student status to perform the role of doctors. To achieve these qualifications, they exerted effort to identify the competencies that they lacked.

The participants who identified their competencies entered the “seeking solutions” stage to explore the ways to improve them. The search for improvement measures was divided into the individual and group levels. First, at the individual level, the participants attempted to address a problem by going to the library to look for textbooks or by utilizing a database to find the original text. In addition, they used image training to alleviate their fear when confronted with an operating room or a patient and to raise the degree of preparation for responding flexibly to any situation. The participants progressively recovered their diminished confidence as a result of this approach. Meanwhile, they addressed problems that could not be solved by data search by closely observing the interaction between supervisors and members of the medical team. Furthermore, they attempted to observe and use their colleagues’ performance abilities.

The group level entails looking for someone who can solve a problem when a solution cannot be reached through individual effort. In this case, the participants frequently worked with their colleagues to address problems and would ask interns or residents. In some cases, they would ask for help from their supervisors, but such an approach is extremely rare. Therefore, the accuracy of a solution sought could not be verified easily. Nevertheless, the participants appreciated coming up with a solution that was agreed upon by their colleagues.

After completing the search for improvements, the research participants entered the fourth stage, “practical application,” and applied and practiced the measures sought in the previous phase in actual scenarios. At this stage, the participants reported striving to avoid stuttering when interacting with patients or using a forceful tone to give the impression of being a student doctor with expertise rather than an inexperienced student.

In the final stage, “transition and stability,” the participants repeated the process of identifying and executing improvements as well as developing their identities as student doctors. At this stage, the participants would have successfully transitioned to clerkship education and entered the stable phase.

The speed of the transition to clerkship education differed depending on the participants’ prior clerkship experience and the characteristics of the patients they met. Participants with more opportunities for clerkship and positive patient experiences (i.e., patients being receptive to student involvement) tended to transition more quickly. Conversely, participants with fewer engagement opportunities or negative patient experiences (i.e., patients were reluctant towards student involvement) took longer to transition. One participant described his experience as follows: “The patient I met when I started my internal medicine clerkship must have been upset. When I first spoke to him , I sensed it. I conducted the consultation as instructed by the professor , but the patient rejected me. After that , I was reluctant to conduct consultations. A few weeks later , during the hematologic oncology rotation , the professor’s educational goal was for us to conduct daily patient consultations and provide care like a doctor. I only went once , but this time , the patient was kind and cooperative instead of being difficult. Then I thought , “It’s okay; it’s worth trying.” After that , I consulted with patients more often until they were discharged. (Participant N)” The longer it took to reach the transition, the more they reverted to the second step, “reality check,” in a continuous process of seeking and applying solutions. Through this repetitive process, participants gradually moved beyond the student and established their identity as “student doctors,” a preliminary stage of medical practice.

In summary, the participants reported that their desire to manage the increasing responsibilities and burdens of clinical practice motivated their transition to clerkship education. They repeatedly identified problems and formulated and implemented improvement measures. As a result, they not only transitioned to clerkship education and acclimated to the educational environment, but also grew into student doctors. Figure  1 ; Table  2 present the specific contents and quotes for each step.

The process of transitioning to clerkship education

Part 2. students’ developmental features through transition

The second result pertained to the developmental features of students who have entered the transition and stability stages. These developmental features were divided into three categories: “personal,” “social,” and “professional.” Personal development involved balancing clerkship and life; “social development” included changes in relationships among members and adaptability to the medical environment; and “professional development” featured content on growing up as a student doctor and how to perform the role. They identified themselves in a way that matched their first appearance after being transferred to clerkship. The developmental features of the students who have entered the stable phase through the transition are discussed in the next section. Table  3 summarizes the contents and quotes.

Personal development

Securing personal time.

Securing personal time means that as the participants became accustomed to clerkship education, the time to prepare for clerkship became shorter, and the individual time increased in proportion. Specifically, they reported changes such as shortened time to read the handover or solve tasks such as case reports from 3 days to 3 h. This shortened time generated personal time, which was used for self-development or to completely rest or recharge by meeting friends.

Building resilience

Building resilience means being able to quickly forget the feelings they experienced while participating in clerkships. It was identified as one of the major features that contributed to the participants’ improved quality of life. One participant stated that when she was scolded by a professor, she was depressed all day, even after going home, but she was eventually able to overcome it quickly (Participant A). In a repeated clerkship environment, the participants were able to quickly overcome the distress caused by their mistakes and did not hold on to the negative emotions or shock that arose from situation.

Social development

Bridging the psychological gap with professors.

The participants who recognized that they had reached the transition mentioned that unlike before, the psychological gap between them and their professors had narrowed through clerkship education. To date, pre-clerkship lessons have been conducted in classrooms with more than 100 students. Hence, for the participants, their professors were like “lecturers,” and conversing with them and asking them questions were difficult. However, they acknowledged that the intimate engagement with professors softened their view of the latter. In particular, they began to view their professors not as authoritative and hierarchical creatures or as senior doctors with more knowledge but as humans who had emotions like them.

Adjusting to hospital life

The participants felt accustomed to hospital life as dressing and using hospital facilities became natural for them. They noted that wearing practical clothes such as gowns before their transition felt like borrowing someone else’s clothes, but at their current state, it was no longer awkward. Furthermore, they used to hesitate to go to the ward for water or to use the employees’ restaurant, but at this point, they could use these facilities naturally. One participant stated that he felt completely familiar with the hospital after seeing himself clearly providing directions to patients. Some participants said that hospital life was still awkward but that if it went as described above, they would feel totally adapted to and transition to clerkship education.

• Professional development

Developing a student doctor identity

The participants shifted from being “the same non-medical personnel” to forming relationships with patients as “student doctors” through the transition to clerkship education. Initially, the participants were anxious and hesitant when consulting and examining patients, but over time, they were able to play a role in understanding their patients’ status as student doctors.

Enhancing patient communication skills

One of the features of the transition was enhancing participants’ patient communication skills. Previously, most participants not only wrote and memorized patient consultation scripts but also rushed to ask questions about memorized topics rather than listening to them while interacting with patients. However, with enhanced communication skills, they no longer wrote scripts and were able to make eye contact with patients, talk with them, and freely think of follow-up questions based on patients’ responses. In fact, some participants said that they were indeed fearful during their first time, but through constant practice, their communication with patients became more enjoyable (Participant E).

Improving clinical efficiency

The participants gained clinical reasoning skills, particularly efficiency-oriented clinical abilities related to clinical consultations, as they transitioned to clerkship education. They became acquainted with the reasoning process of listening to symptoms and inferring diseases instead of thinking about likely symptoms based on the disease. They initially acted and responded attentively during physical examinations or consultations, taking into account their patients’ pain or condition. Over time, they learned to focus on conducting consultations swiftly and accurately rather than examining their patients’ emotions.

From a developmental point of view, this study explored how students form their professional identity as student doctors and what developmental characteristics they show through the transition to clerkship education. Based on the results, the transition process and the features that developed can be discussed in two ways.

Process of transition to clerkship

The participants’ transition process revealed significant growth into “student doctors.” This process involved five stages: anticipation and anxiety, reality check, seeking solutions, practical application, and transition and stability. This finding is significant in that it reveals the process by which students establish their professional identity. Previous studies have elucidated the process of adapting to an organization as a newcomer [ 19 ] and have also investigated factors or perceptions that influence this transition process, such as inadequate preparation [ 10 ]. Our research, however, uncovers the detailed stages through which students develop into student doctors via self-discovery and problem-solving.

Central to the transition process was the interaction with patients. The students were motivated by the patient, who recognized himself as a student doctor and attempted to establish an identity as one. For example, one participant reported feeling a great sense of responsibility when he saw the patient struggling emotionally during the initial practice and taking his role seriously. This is an experience-oriented curriculum in which clerkship education takes place through dynamic interactions between members within a systematic structure [ 20 ], and in particular, interactions with patients prove that students are important not only to acquire knowledge, skills, and attitudes based on learning experiences for individual patients in real situations but also to form their identity as doctors [ 21 ].

However, not all patient experiences lead to positive outcomes. Participants who interacted with patients willing to contribute to student education during clerkships were able to transition more quickly due to favorable responses and positive communication. Conversely, participants faced challenges in effectively communicating with patients who were unwilling to participate in student education, resulting in repeated attempts to identify and implement improvement measures that delayed the transition to clerkship education. Moreover, students often experience anxiety in clinical settings, such as patient consultations, due to a lack of clear understanding and readiness for their roles [ 22 ], and this insecurity is further exacerbated by inadequate supervision [ 23 ]. In the current medical environment, where expectations for quality medical services are growing, student participation is likely to face skepticism [ 24 , 25 ]. To prevent students from experiencing severe negative experiences in clerkship, professors should intervene appropriately to ensure patients accommodate students and help form a constructive learning community [ 26 , 27 , 28 ].

Another noteworthy observation is the students’ tendency to solve problems through discussions with colleagues rather than seeking help from professors. They valued having a common, agreed-upon solution as much as knowing the correct answer, and they perceived asking supervisors for help as something to avoid. We can discuss this behavior from a cultural perspective.

In Asian cultures, relationships play a significant role in influencing behavior [ 29 ]. Combined with the hierarchical and closed nature of medical groups, students may fear that making an unfavorable impression on a professor could adversely affect their future [ 30 ]. This hierarchical relationship extends beyond the university into their professional careers, emphasizing the importance of reputation management as perceived through the professor’s eyes [ 31 , 32 ]. As a result, students often felt burdened to maintain a professional appearance and were highly conscious of their evaluator-evaluatee relationship with their professors. Their perception of asking questions as annoying likely stemmed from this hesitation [ 3 , 8 , 33 ]. Consequently, this structure may deter students from interacting directly with professors, leading them to rely more on peer support.

While peer interactions can strengthen their relationships, there is a risk of students acquiring inaccurate information due to their lack of expertise and difficulty in discerning the validity and usefulness of medical evidence [ 34 ]. This can hinder the development of expertise and skills, ultimately impacting their professional identity as physicians [ 19 , 28 ]. Therefore, fostering an environment where students can actively communicate and challenge rigid cultural norms is crucial for effective medical education [ 10 , 35 ].

Students’ developmental features through transition

Students grew up balancing clerkship and life, adapting to the hospital environment, and developing efficient and professional clinical competencies during the transition to clerkship education. These developments improve students’ adaptability, which is an important factor in their effective performance as future healthcare professionals [ 1 , 4 , 11 ]. To date, research has focused on increasing readiness by exploring gaps in pre- and post-clinical practice training [ 10 , 11 ]. However, our work focuses on examining students’ features during the transition to clerkship education and discussing the implications.

First, personal development demonstrates how students constantly strive to balance practice and life during clinical practice. With the recent emphasis on the concept of work-life balance [ 36 ], students recognize clerkship as a kind of work and seek to flexibly cope with stress and improve their quality of life [ 37 ]. They use their leisure time and reduced time spent preparing for clerkship to recharge or meet friends, and they develop resilience to maintain psychological stability. This is crucial because healthcare settings frequently expose not only students but also medical staff to the risk of physical and mental fatigue and burnout [ 7 , 8 , 24 ]. Therefore, practicing self-management, such as time management and flexible coping with stress during the clerkship education, can also greatly benefit professional socialization [ 10 ].

Second, with regard to social development, the participants recognized adaptation to the hospital environment as a crucial factor for the transition to clerkship education. The participants gained confidence as members of the hospital by becoming acquainted with facilities and locations of the hospital. This result differs from those of previous studies that reported the lack of clinical knowledge and skills as the cause of difficult conversion [ 38 , 39 , 40 ]. Until now, the preparatory curriculum for the transition primarily focused on basic clinical skills, communication, physical examination, and other topics related to the national examination, resulting in relatively limited awareness and information about the hospital’s work environment [ 41 ]. It could have made the students feel that clinical practice education was a difficult process [ 9 , 10 ]. However, it is necessary to review the content composition of the transition course, as students require useful and practical tips for clinical practice training, such as detailed job descriptions, in addition to clinical knowledge [ 13 ].

Furthermore, the participants felt the professors were more humane and accessible, although they were still difficult, which reduced the psychological distance between them. This contributed to creating an environment where students can reduce tension in the hospital and move around without being overly conscious of their surroundings. For example, there were many students who were nervous to be polite when meeting professors, but the tension decreased as the psychological distance decreased. This allowed students to move confidently within the hospital, get the necessary information more easily, and adapt faster to the hospital’s facilities and environment.

Finally, students achieved professional development through the cultivation of clinical competencies with a focus on efficiency. Specifically, their professional development mainly consisted of clinical competencies that could be objectively identified. Some participants mentioned that they were able to reflect on the characteristics of a good doctor as perceived by patients, but many others mentioned the reduction in patient consultation time as a key factor in a successful transition. Participants, who initially focused on patients’ emotions such as pain, gradually came to understand symptoms through concise questions. They developed an attitude that was unaffected by patients’ emotions and experienced a sense of bonding with doctors as a result of these changes. The overly skill-centered clerkship education may have led the participants to adopt a doctor-centered attitude instead of a patient-centered one [ 42 , 43 ]. However, patient-centered healthcare is important because it not only contributes to improving patients’ health outcomes, increasing patient satisfaction, and strengthening the trust relationship between patients and their healthcare providers, but also enhances doctor’s the job satisfaction [ 44 ]. Therefore, clerkship education should be improved to cultivate doctors who can not only develop the capacity to objectively identify diseases but also empathize with patients and have a subjective perspective on diseases [ 5 ].

Implications for medical education

Based on the results of this study, we derive several practical implications for improving clerkship education.

Firstly, we suggest implementing a faculty development program that offers guidance on conducting clerkship education. Guiding students through the transition process and sharing their difficulties will help professors reflect on how to manage a clerkship and adopt a learner-centered perspective. These efforts will provide opportunities for students to experience clinical practice in a constructive environment with appropriate supervision.

Second, we propose changing the content of the transition course before students enter clerkship education. Providing practical information about the clerkship, including the hospital’s structure and system, as well as lectures related to medical knowledge or skills, will be helpful for a successful transition [ 9 , 10 ]. Additionally, similar to the faculty development program, including information on what students will experience after entering clerkship education will help reduce their initial confusion and increase their adaptability.

Finally, we suggest creating a clerkship environment that fosters patient-centered attitudes. To achieve this, involving patients as active partners or mentors can be considered. Patients’ active participation in education can enhance students’ understanding of diseases and patient experiences, as well as provide insights into the professional values expected by society from doctors [ 45 , 46 ]. Furthermore, it can be a useful strategy, as involving patients who explicitly agreed to participate in student education can reduce the student’s feelings of rejection and increase the patient’s satisfaction with their treatment [ 26 ].

Limitation and avenues for future research

The limitations of this study and suggestions for future studies are as follows: First, we observed that the participants reached the transition to clerkship education at varying speeds, but we did not analyze the specific causes and types in detail. Therefore, to further understand the factors affecting the transition and the steps involved, we propose a follow-up study to verify the causes and types by conducting additional interviews. Second, this study limited its scope to experiences in block-type clinical practice and did not investigate students’ experiences in longitudinal integrated clerkship or mixed clerkship education. Longitudinal integrated clerkship provides a unique learning environment in which students develop clinical competencies by establishing a longitudinal relationship with patients; therefore, block-type clinical practice and conversion experiences may differ [ 47 ]. Accordingly, examining students’ conversion experiences in various clinical practice education models can contribute significantly to improving the overall clerkship education. Nevertheless, this study is significant because it presents the process of students’ transition to clerkship education as well as the meaning of the features that develop through this transition.

This study explores the process of students’ transition to clerkship education and the developmental features that emerge during this period. The students, motivated by patients who perceive them as student doctors, navigate through this transition by repeatedly identifying their problems and implementing improvement plans. Throughout this process, they balance their personal lives with clinical work, adapt to the hospital environment, and develop efficient and professional clinical competencies. These developments improve their adaptability and readiness for future healthcare roles.

Data availability

The datasets of this article are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Conceptualization: Lee HJ. Data curation: Lee HJ. Formal analysis: Lee HJ, Kang YJ, and Kim DH. Investigation: Lee HJ, Kang YJ, and Kim DH. Methodology: Lee HJ, Kang YJ, Kim DH. Software: Lee HJ. Validation: Lee HJ, Kang YJ, and Kim DH. Writing - original draft: Lee HJ. Writing - review & editing: Lee HJ, Kang YJ, and Kim DH.

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Lee, H.J., Kim, DH. & Kang, Y.J. Understanding medical students’ transition to and development in clerkship education: a qualitative study using grounded theory. BMC Med Educ 24 , 910 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-024-05778-4

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Qualitative Interviewing

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Qualitative interviewing is a foundational method in qualitative research and is widely used in health research and the social sciences. Both qualitative semi-structured and in-depth unstructured interviews use verbal communication, mostly in face-to-face interactions, to collect data about the attitudes, beliefs, and experiences of participants. Interviews are an accessible, often affordable, and effective method to understand the socially situated world of research participants. The approach is typically informed by an interpretive framework where the data collected is not viewed as evidence of the truth or reality of a situation or experience but rather a context-bound subjective insight from the participants. The researcher needs to be open to new insights and to privilege the participant’s experience in data collection. The data from qualitative interviews is not generalizable, but its exploratory nature permits the collection of rich data which can answer questions about which little is already known. This chapter introduces the reader to qualitative interviewing, the range of traditions within which interviewing is utilized as a method, and highlights the advantages and some of the challenges and misconceptions in its application. The chapter also provides practical guidance on planning and conducting interview studies. Three case examples are presented to highlight the benefits and risks in the use of interviewing with different participants, providing situated insights as well as advice about how to go about learning to interview if you are a novice.

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• Published: 04 September 2024

Research on the application of AHP-FAST-FBS in the design of home entrance disinfection devices in the post-pandemic era

• Yanxiao Zhao 1 ,
• Tao Wang 1 , 2 ,
• Chi Zhang 2 ,
• Basyarah Hamat 1 &
• Leah Ling Li Pang 1  

Scientific Reports volume  14 , Article number:  20550 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

• Engineering
• Health care
• Mathematics and computing

With the outbreak and continued spread of the COVID-19 pandemic, people's demand for daily disinfection products has increased rapidly, and its innovative design has received widespread attention. In this context, this study aims to propose a design methodology for home entrance disinfection devices based on AHP-FAST-FBS. Firstly, the design requirements of the home entrance disinfection device were collected and analyzed through in-depth interviews and the KJ method, and a hierarchical model of design demand indicators was constructed. Secondly, the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) was employed to quantify these design demand indicators, and core design demands for home entrance disinfection devices were identified by weight calculations. On this basis, the Functional Analysis System Technique (FAST) method was combined to rationally transform the design demands into product functional indicators, constructing a functional system model for the home entrance disinfection device through systematic decomposition and categorization. Lastly, based on the Function-Behavior-Structure (FBS) theoretical model, the mapping of each function of the product to its structure was realized, the product structure modules were determined, and the comprehensive design and output of the innovative design scheme for the home entrance disinfection device were completed. The results of this study indicate that the design methodology combining AHP-FAST-FBS can effectively improve the scientific rigor and effectiveness of the home entrance disinfection device design, thereby generating an ideal product design scheme. This study provides systematic theoretical guidance and practical reference for designers of subsequent related disinfection products and also offers a new path for improving social health and safety.

Introduction

The post-pandemic era refers to the period after the novel coronavirus pandemic has passed 1 . However, this does not imply the complete disappearance of coronavirus disease (COVID-19), it signifies a time when the pandemic fluctuates, with the potential for sporadic outbreaks and spread, profoundly impacting the production and livelihoods of people worldwide. The global pandemic of the novel coronavirus and its fluctuations affect people's normal lives, prompting a heightened awareness of health among the population, with an increasing emphasis on the health and hygiene of the home environment. The National Health Commission of China has pointed out that contact with virus-contaminated objects may also lead to virus infection. Consequently, there is a higher demand among the public for household disinfection products, with the expectation that innovative disinfection products will create a healthy and safe home environment. The innovative design of daily disinfection products has received widespread attention. In recent years, scholars have explored the innovative design of disinfection products for public places, such as automatic escalator disinfection products 2 , subway intelligent disinfection robots 3 , and UVC disinfection robots 4 . However, there is still a gap in research on home entrance disinfection products tailored to user needs. Additionally, designers lack systematic theoretical guidance when designing disinfection products. Therefore, exploring systematic design methods to enhance the scientific rigor and effectiveness of disinfection product design and to develop home entrance disinfection products that meet user needs is among the urgent issues to be addressed.

Design requirement analysis and decision-making is one of the important contents of product design research, among which the AHP is a common and effective multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) method 5 . The AHP method has the advantages of simplicity, strong operability, practicality, and systematicness 6 , 7 . This method can convert qualitative decision factors into quantitative weights through pairwise comparison 8 , and reduce decision errors by testing the consistency of decision evaluation 9 , making the decision-making process more precise, scientific, and intuitive, thus easier for non-professionals to understand, grasp, and apply 10 . Due to the aforementioned advantages, the AHP method has been widely adopted in the evaluation of design indicators and design decision-making. In recent years, scholars have explored the application of AHP in the design of various products, such as the novel reconfigurable wheelchairs 11 , reusable takeaway containers 12 , intelligent wearable masks 13 , railway station information counters 14 , and breastfeeding chairs for maternity rooms 15 . These studies have repeatedly validated the applicability and advantages of AHP in the field of product design demand indicator evaluation and decision-making. The purpose of this study is to provide an easy-to-understand design method guide for the designers of subsequent home entrance disinfection products, which can be widely applied. Compared with other decision-making methods such as fuzzy AHP, the calculation process of AHP is more intuitive, concise, and transparent 16 , which makes it easier for subsequent designers to understand and apply it to quickly obtain effective design decisions. Therefore, the choice of traditional AHP in this study helps to enhance the ease of use, operability, and practicality of the design guidance methodology while ensuring its scientific rigor and effectiveness. After evaluating and prioritizing product design requirements, how to transform design requirements into product functional requirements and realize these functions through appropriate structural design is also crucial in product concept design. In product conceptual design, the use of the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) to quantify decision problems can to some extent avoid the subjectivity and arbitrariness of decision results, systematically improving the rationality and reliability of product conceptual design decisions 17 . AHP can quantify user requirements and clarify the importance ranking of requirements to provide guidance for design objectives, but it cannot specify the specific method for transforming user requirements into product functions. The Function Analysis System Technique (FAST), as a powerful theory for functional innovation design, can provide multi-level and multi-objective analysis methods for complex design processes. It transforms requirements into descriptions of product functions with the aim of meeting user expectations, effectively compensating for the deficiency of AHP in converting user demands into functional indicators 18 . However, the FAST analysis method cannot analyze and quantify the importance of requirements. On the other hand, AHP can accurately analyze and evaluate user requirements, identify key issues that innovative designs need to address, and thus effectively avoid the interference of the ambiguity and uncertainty of user requirements on product function design 19 . Although the FAST method can transform user requirements into product functions and conduct systematic functional analysis, it cannot provide further guidance on the design implementation of product functions. The Function-Behavior-Structure (FBS) model, through a hierarchical mapping of "function-behavior-structure," can specify the specific methods for realizing product functions, establish a mapping mechanism between product functions and product structure modules, and output product design schemes 20 . Based on the above, it can be concluded that AHP provides a rational evaluation and prioritization of design requirements. FAST decomposes complex design requirements into specific functional modules, helping to clarify the relationships and hierarchy among various functions and ensuring that each function is effectively considered. Following up with FBS allows these functions to be transformed into behaviors and structures in a rigorous logical order. The entire process, from requirements evaluation to functional analysis and then to structural design, progresses step by step using the AHP-FAST-FBS methodology, ensuring that each stage of the scheme design is based on a clear logical foundation, thereby enhancing the feasibility of the generated design solution. The combined application of AHP, FAST, and FBS can provide concrete and practical design guidance and methodological support for the entire product concept design process, improving the systematicness and scientific rigor of the design process and leading to product innovation design schemes that better meet user needs.

In existing research, scholars have studied the combined or individual application of AHP, FAST, and FBS theoretical methods in the field of product design. For example, Chen et al. 21 analyzed the functional indicators of waste treatment machines using the FAST method to form new conceptual design schemes, validating the theoretical applicability of the FAST method in new product development designs. Liu et al. 22 utilized the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) to analyze and rank the demands of various stages of firefighting tasks and combined it with the FAST method to construct a functional tree for fire trucks, guiding the design of an urban fire truck. Li et al. 23 decomposed the user functional demands for glass curtain wall cleaning machines using the FAST method and applied the FBS theory to achieve the mapping from product function to product structure, thereby obtaining an innovative design scheme for glass curtain wall cleaning machines. Zhou et al. 24 investigated how to use AHP and FAST methods to assist in the design of bathroom devices for individuals with single-arm disabilities, addressing the complexity of the needs of disabled individuals and the design elements of bathroom products. Li et al. 25 studied the design process of children's toys using the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) and the FBS model. Li et al. conducted design practices using multi-sensory educational toys as a case study and measured customer satisfaction to validate the effectiveness of the design process. From the above literature review, it can be concluded that AHP, FAST, and FBS theories have many applications in the field of product design. However, the AHP-FAST-FBS approach has not yet been applied in the design of home entrance disinfection devices.

Therefore, this study aims to investigate how to systematically design home entrance disinfection devices using AHP, FAST, and FBS methodologies in the post-pandemic era. It seeks to assist designers in better understanding and fulfilling the diverse needs of users for home entrance disinfection devices, enhancing the quality and feasibility of design solutions. Additionally, this research provides theoretical and practical references for subsequent designers, thereby advancing the further development of the field of disinfection device design.

Theoretical overview

Analytic hierarchy process (ahp).

The Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) is a decision-making method proposed by Professor Saaty from the United States 26 . AHP can provide a scientific, flexible, and systematic approach to evaluating complex problems through qualitative analysis and quantitative calculations 27 , 28 . The core content of AHP is to systematically analyze multi-criteria decision problems, assess and quantify the importance of these criteria, and determine key decision-making indicators through weight calculation and prioritization 29 , 30 . Due to its theoretical completeness, rigorous structure, and simplicity in problem-solving, the Analytic Hierarchy Process has been widely applied in various fields 31 , 32 .

Function analysis system technique (FAST)

The Function Analysis System Technique (FAST) is an analytical method used to define and dissect product functional systems by determining logical relationships between functions 33 , 34 . FAST follows a top-down systematic analysis sequence, decomposing overall product functional requirements into multiple sub-functions, and then seeking the optimal means to achieve objectives 35 . In FAST, the critical path of product function analysis is determined by the logical sequence of "how to do it—why," identifying the relationships between various product functions. Applying this method in product design can assist in creating product function tree models, aiding in the identification of unnecessary, redundant, or missing functions 36 . FAST effectively avoids disorderliness in the conceptual design process by simplifying and decomposing complex problems through logical analysis, clarifying the primary and secondary relationships between functions, and thereby strengthening functional innovation to enhance product value 37 .

Function-behavior-structure (FBS)

The Function-Behavior-Structure (FBS) model is a product innovation design methodology first proposed by Gero in 38 . The FBS model is a design expression model based on the mapping of function, behavior, and structure, which strengthens the connection between functions, behaviors, and structures 39 . In the FBS model, function is the fundamental intention of product design, aimed at fulfilling user needs; behavior describes how the artificial artifact's structure achieves its function and the interaction between users and the product; structure serves as the carrier for behavior occurrence, constituting the product and linking various functional modules 40 , 41 . Through the mapping process of FBS, the hierarchical expansion of product functions can be achieved, and the behavioral factors for function implementation can be inferred, By utilizing behavioral inference, the conceptual structures of the product can be obtained 42 , 43 . The FBS method enables the modular and hierarchical analysis of complex systems, breaking them down into interrelated and functionally independent modules to obtain the desired solution 44 . The FBS model helps optimize the structural combinations for product function implementation, thereby enhancing the overall performance and utility of the product 45 .

Product design process framework based on AHP-FAST-FBS

This study focuses on product design methodologies and does not involve any clinical, animal, human tissue, or biological sample-related experimental research. In this study, human participation was limited to interview surveys, and all participants were voluntary adults. Human participants were recruited for interviews based on the principle of voluntary participation in this study. Prior to the commencement of the study, researchers informed all participants about the purpose of the research, the interview process, the use of interview data, and the rights of participants and obtained their written consent. All participants agreed to participate by signing an informed consent form (as shown in the "Informed Consent Form" in the attached "Other" document). This study does not involve discussions related to racial identities, personal religious beliefs, political views, financial information, sexual orientations, or any other personal privacy topics. All data and information were collected and recorded anonymously, without any actions that would infringe upon the privacy, dignity, health, or human rights of human participants. We confirm that all methods and procedures in this article were performed in accordance with the relevant guidelines and regulations, which comply with ethical regulatory requirements. Thus, this research has been approved by the Anyang Institute of Technology's (AYIT) ethical review.

The overall process of applying the AHP-FAST-FBS methodology to product concept design can be divided into four main steps, as outlined below:

1. Acquisition and organization of consumer needs.

Consumer requirements for the product are obtained through in-depth interviews. Subsequently, the KJ method is employed to analyze and organize the interview data, categorize design demand indicators, and construct a hierarchical model.

2. Quantification and prioritization of requirement indicators.

Utilizing the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), judgment matrices are constructed, and consistency tests are performed. Subsequently, using SPSS for data analysis, the weights of each hierarchical indicator are determined along with their priority ranking.

(1). Judgment matrix construction. Relevant experts were invited to use the "nine-point scale method" to compare and score the indicators in the hierarchical model pairwise, thus constructing judgment matrix A.

In the formula: \(i,j=\text{1,2},3,...,n\) ; \(n\) represents the order of the matrix; \(a_{ij}\) represents the element of the ith row and jth column of the matrix; \(a_{ij} = {1 \mathord{\left/ {\vphantom {1 {a_{ji} }}} \right. \kern-0pt} {a_{ji} }}\) .

(2). The weights of each element in the judgment matrix are calculated using the column vector average method to compute matrix \({W}_{i}\) :

(3). Consistency test.

Calculate the maximum eigenvalue of the judgment matrix.

In the formula, n is the number of orders of the judgment matrix; \({\left(\text{AW}\right)}_{\text{i}}\) represents the i-th element of vector \(\text{AW}\) .

Calculate the consistency index:

Calculate the consistency ratio:

In the formula, RI is the random consistency index, and the RI values of different order matrices are shown in Table 1 .

When CR < 0.1, the judgment matrix consistency tests pass. Otherwise, the judgment matrices need to be readjusted, and the consistency tests need to be performed again until the test result qualifies 46 .

(4). Determine the comprehensive weights and priority ranking of the demand indicators. Multiply the weights of the criteria-layer indicators under the overall objective by their corresponding weights of the sub-criteria-layer indicators to calculate the comprehensive weights of each demand indicator. Based on the comprehensive weights of each indicator, prioritize the importance of demand indicators, identifying core and secondary demands to guide subsequent analysis.

3. Product functionality derivation and function model construction.

The core and secondary demands of consumers are respectively imported into the black box model for function derivation, obtaining the primary and secondary functions of the product. Then, all the functions obtained from the black box model are entered into the FAST model for decomposition and classification of functions. The overall functionality of the product is decomposed into multiple levels of sub-functions, and the relationships between various levels of functions are interconnected to obtain a systematic and comprehensive FAST functional system model.

4. Mapping to derive product functional structures.

The functional elements from the FAST functional system model are input into the FBS model to execute the mapping process layer by layer, resulting in the behavioral factors of product function realization and the conceptual structure of the product. Finally, the comprehensive design and output of the innovative solution are completed.

The combined successive application of AHP, FAST, and FBS facilitates a step-by-step progression through the entire process of product conceptual design: from analyzing design demands to decomposing product functions, mapping and transforming them into product structures, and outputting conceptual solutions. This constructs a complete process of product concept design method, as shown in Fig.  1 . This process comprehensively considers the connections and collaborations between different stages in the conceptual design process, and it can provide designers with a systematic method for analyzing and solving design problems, enabling them to accurately grasp design goals and design home entrance disinfection device products that better meet consumer demands.

The overall process of the integrated AHP-FAST-FBS innovative design method.

Results—design example of home entrance disinfection device

Design demands acquisition and analysis, selection of the respondent sample.

To ensure that the research can collect comprehensive, in-depth, and scientifically valid professional knowledge and viewpoints, this study selected multiple groups related to the design of home entrance disinfection products to conduct in-depth interviews. The participant sample of this study includes 3 designers with over 10 years of product design experience, 2 professors in the field of industrial design, and 5 consumers of disinfection products. Product designers possess professional design knowledge and experience, enabling them to provide professional opinions and suggestions on the technical feasibility, human–machine interaction, and practicality of product design schemes. Additionally, experienced designers have a deep understanding of the industry and unique insights into consumer needs and preferences. They can help the study better understand the requirements of consumers for home entrance disinfection products from a unique professional perspective. Professors have rich teaching and research experience in the field of industrial design, with a deep understanding of innovation and trends in the design industry. They can provide professional insights from the latest trends, innovative design concepts, industrial design theories, and practices, offering comprehensive support and guidance for this study. The selected consumers come from different genders, age groups, and educational backgrounds (composition of consumer participants: different genders: 2 male, 3 female; different age groups: 1 person aged 18–30, 2 persons aged 30–45, 1 person aged 45–60, 1 person aged 60 and above; different education qualifications: 1 person with high school education or below, 2 people with undergraduate degrees, 1 person with a postgraduate degree, 1 person with a doctoral degree). These consumers can provide diverse perspectives on real needs, expectations, and preferences for products. In-depth interviews with the aforementioned professionals can help the study gain multidimensional insights into the design demands of home entrance disinfection products, ensuring the effectiveness of the research results.

Construction of a hierarchical model for design indicators of home entrance disinfection device

Using the pre-prepared interview guidelines (see Tables 2 , 3 ), conduct interviews with the respondents. During the interviews, encourage but do not lead the answers. Each interview lasted approximately 25–30 min per interviewee. With the consent of the respondents, the interviews are recorded. To reduce the influence of personal subjective factors on the research results and ensure the objectivity and reliability of the content analysis and summarization, this study invited three product designers and two professors in the field of industrial design to form an expert group together. The KJ method was used to systematically organize and analyze the interview content. Team members used Nvivo 12 software to code the interview content and recorded the coded content on sticky notes. Then, based on the relevance of each indicator, the content was grouped and classified, similar requirements were deleted or merged, and content with affinity connections was grouped into one group. After multiple rounds of screening, decomposition, and merging, this study ultimately determined the design demand indicators for four criterion layers and fifteen sub-criterion layers of home disinfection products and constructed a hierarchical structure model, as shown in Fig.  2 .

The hierarchical model of design demand indicators for home entrance disinfection devices.

Constructing a judgment matrix

To effectively assess the importance and priority of the indicators in the hierarchical model 47 , five experts were invited to participate in the quantification and scoring of the indicators. The expert group comprised three designers with more than 10 years of product design experience and two professors in the field of industrial design. Using the 1–9 proportional scale method (as shown in Table 4 ), the expert group conducted pairwise comparisons of the indicators within the same layer and constructed a matrix to assess the relationships of importance among the indicators. Integrate the scoring results of the expert group and calculate the weight values of each indicator using Formula ( 2 ) 48 . The results are shown in Tables 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 and 10 .

Consistency test

To validate that there were no logical errors during the construction of the judgment matrices by the expert group involved in the evaluation, consistency checks were conducted after constructing the judgment matrices 49 . The consistency test results were calculated according to Eqs. ( 3 ) to ( 5 ), as shown in Table 11 . The CR values for each judgment matrix were all less than 0.1, indicating that the consistency tests were passed and the weight calculation results were effective.

Design demands analysis results

Through the analysis and calculation of the various layer design demand indicators of the home entrance disinfection device, the weight values and importance rankings of each indicator were obtained. From the analysis results in Tables 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 and 10 , it can be observed that the evaluation indicators with the highest weight values in the criterion layer are functionality (0.45528), followed by safety (0.28710), human–machine interaction (0.18115), and appearance (0.07647). Regarding the comprehensive weight ranking of the sub-criterion layer indicators, the main demand indicators for the home entrance disinfection device are: Automatically adapt and uniformly spray disinfectant (0.28619) > Contactless operation (0.17804) > Preventing accidental activation for disinfection function (0.10333) > Convenient to operate (0.10265) > Indications in case of malfunction (0.07888). This research result is consistent with the focus of previous studies on disinfection products 50 , 51 , and the development of disinfection products should be centered on their functional implementation while ensuring the safety of product use. Thus, when designing home entrance disinfection products, emphasis should be placed on meeting functional demands, while paying particular attention to adaptive uniform spraying, contactless operation, preventing accidental activation for disinfection, and convenient-to-operate demands.

Determining the functional system of home entrance disinfection device

Demand transformation based on the black box model.

This study sorted all demand indicators through weight calculation and screened out core demands and secondary demands. Then, the core demands are brought into the black box model and transformed into primary functions, and the secondary demands are brought into the black box model and transformed into secondary functions 52 . The interpretation process for primary functions is shown in Fig.  3 . The primary functions derived from the transformation process based on the black box principle include: adaptive humanoid tracking triggers uniform spraying of disinfectant; intelligent sensing operation; preventing accidental triggering of disinfectant spray due to unintentional approach; easy to add disinfectant; fault detection and reminder. These functional requirements should be prioritized in the design process.

Black box model of home entrance disinfection device.

Constructing the FAST functional model of home entrance disinfection device

All the functions derived from the black box transformation are brought into the FAST function tree model for decomposition and classification of functions. The relationships between functions at each level are connected to obtain a comprehensive system of functions. The FAST function model of the home entrance disinfection device is illustrated in Fig.  4 . The primary functions of the home entrance disinfection device include adaptive humanoid tracking spraying, uniform disinfectant spraying, intelligent sensing operation, and preventing accidental triggering of disinfectant spray due to unintentional approach. Intelligent sensing operation allows users to disinfect without contact, thereby avoiding the cross-contamination of bacteria or viruses among family members. Adaptive humanoid tracking spraying meets the disinfection needs of family members of different heights. Uniform spraying enhances the disinfection effect. Prevention of accidental spraying when approaching can prevent automatic spraying of disinfectant when someone unintentionally approaches the disinfection device. Multiple sub-functions related to safety and comfort are considered as secondary functions. In summary, the design of home entrance disinfection devices should focus on the integration of various functions. The core is to achieve the integration of functions such as intelligent sensing operation, adaptive humanoid tracking spraying, uniform spraying, and prevention of inadvertent spraying when approaching, and then add multiple secondary sub-functions related to safety and comfortability on this basis 53 .

The FAST function model of the home entrance disinfection device.

Determining the functional structure of home entrance disinfection device

The demands related to simple and aesthetically pleasing styling, elegant and clean color matching, materials with comfortable texture, and other aspects belong to the field of exterior design, which do not meet the requirements of participating in the function-behavior-structure mapping 54 . Therefore, these demand indicators are screened out to guide the subsequent exterior design of the product. The functions of the product are realized through behavior, while the structure is the means to achieve behavior. The product's sub-functions obtained from the FAST model are inputted into the FBS model, and the FBS design model of the home entrance disinfection product is constructed through methods such as function expansion, function decomposition, and function integration, as shown in Fig.  5 .

The FBS mapping relationship model of home entrance disinfection device.

1. Function-Behavior Mapping

Adaptive humanoid tracking spraying can be decomposed and mapped into implementing humanoid tracking and adaptively adjusting the spraying angle. Uniform spraying can be achieved by atomizing the disinfectant to achieve uniform distribution. Intelligent sensing operation can be achieved by detecting sensory information and providing feedback based on the detected information. Preventing accidental triggering of disinfectant spray due to unintentional approach can be achieved by adjusting the position of the sensing device. Easy to add disinfectant requires the disinfectant storage area in the product to have an easy-to-open/close lid. Fault detection and fault reminder are respectively mapped to the detection procedure and the fault warning signal. Easy to install and disassemble should make the installation and disassembly process time-saving and labor-saving for users. Disinfectant sprayed out can be adjusted is mapped to spray volume gears for easy adjustment. Synchronously measuring body temperature can be decomposed and mapped into body temperature detection and reminder. Easy to inspect and maintain requires the equipment to be convenient for maintenance and the replaceable fragile parts.

2. Behavior-Structure Mapping

Implementing humanoid tracking can be mapped to a camera, and adaptive adjustment of disinfectant spraying angle can be mapped to a spherical rotatable nozzle structure. Atomizing the disinfectant can be achieved through an atomization device. Detecting sensory information, providing feedback, and adjusting the position of the sensing device can be integrated and mapped into an infrared sensing and conduction device with a reasonable position. The convenient opening and closing of the disinfectant storage area lid can be achieved through an elastic rubber cover structure. Fault detection procedures and fault alerts can be mapped to a fault detection system and a fault signal indicator light. Time-saving and labor-saving installation and disassembly can be mapped to appropriate grooves. Spray volume gears for easy adjustment can be mapped to a knob for easy adjustment. Body temperature detection and body temperature reminder can be respectively mapped to an infrared body temperature detection device and a voice reminder system. Convenient maintenance and replaceable fragile parts can be mapped to the maintenance port and detachable fragile parts.

Scheme design of home entrance disinfection device

This study systematically analyzed and identified the key structural modules of the home entrance disinfection device through the integrated AHP-FAST-FBS method. These modules include the infrared sensing and conduction device, spherical rotatable nozzle, camera, disinfectant atomization device, fault detection system, fault signal indicator light, knob for easy adjustment, rubber lid with elasticity, infrared body temperature detection and voice reminder system, and maintenance port. Integrate the above product structural modules and combine them with the appearance design demands obtained from the previous research, such as elegant and clean color matching, simple and aesthetically pleasing styling, and materials with comfortable texture, to output the design scheme. The design scheme of the home entrance disinfection device is shown in Figs.  6 , 7 and 8 .

Design rendering 1 of the home entrance disinfection device.

Design rendering 2 of the home entrance disinfection device.

Usage scenario of home entrance disinfection device.

The overall design features a simple geometric contour with rounded edges and corners to enhance visual affinity and prevent injury to users from accidental collisions 55 . The product uses a simple and clean white color for a large area and is matched with medical-grade ABS plastic material to enhance the safety and aesthetics of the product. Placing the infrared sensing device at the lower end of the device effectively prevents accidental spraying of disinfectant when someone approaches unintentionally. The spherical rotatable atomizing nozzle is installed on the front of the product. When the user enters the home and needs to be disinfected, he or she reaches under the device and the infrared sensing device senses and provides feedback. The spherical rotatable atomizing nozzle is used to disinfect the user's whole body. The camera is placed on the front of the device. It automatically completes humanoid recognition and tracking through intelligent algorithms, and feeds the information back to the spherical rotatable nozzle before spraying the disinfectant. It adaptively adjusts the angle of disinfectant spraying based on the user's height, ensuring thorough disinfection regardless of varying heights. When the user extends his hand to the infrared sensing area under the device, the infrared body temperature detection will broadcast the user's real-time body temperature through voice. The fault signal indicator light is set above the liquid spray port in front of the equipment for easy observation. It is a green light when the equipment is running normally and a red light warning when there is a fault. The maintenance port is placed on the back of the device. Open the front cover of the device, the lower right part is equipped with a knob that can adjust the volume of a single spray. There is a suitable groove on the back of the product to facilitate stable suspension installation and disassembly. The upper part of the front cover is a transparent space for storing disinfectant. The top of the liquid storage bottle is equipped with an elastic rubber lid, which makes it easy to open and close the cap to add disinfectant. A rectangular hollow is provided in the middle of the front cover of the disinfection device to facilitate observation of the remaining amount of disinfectant during daily use.

Scheme verification

In order to verify the feasibility of the design scheme, the fuzzy comprehensive evaluation method 56 was introduced, and an expert group in the requirements acquisition stage was invited as evaluators to evaluate the design scheme. The specific steps are as follows:

Take the criterion layer indicators in the hierarchical model in Fig.  2 as the evaluation factor set V, V = { \({V}_{A},{V}_{B},{V}_{C},{V}_{D}\) };the sub-criteria layer indicators as the second-level factor set \({a}_{i}\) ={ \({a}_{1},{a}_{2},...,{a}_{n}\) }(i = 1,2,3).

Use the Likert five-point scale as the evaluation grade standard, set the evaluation set \(\text{U}=\{{\text{U}}_{1},{\text{U}}_{2},{\text{U}}_{3},{\text{U}}_{4},{\text{U}}_{5}\}\) = {Excellent, Good, Average, Poor, Very Poor}. Assign different evaluation scores to corresponding evaluation levels, after assigning values, \(\upbeta =\{90, 80, 70, 60, 50\}\) 57 .

Evaluation personnel were invited to assess the performance of each indicator of the design scheme and obtained the fuzzy comprehensive evaluation matrix R for each indicator of the design scheme:

Using the weighted average fuzzy operator, through the synthesis operation of the index weights in Tables 4 , 5 , 6 and 7 and the corresponding evaluation matrix R, the evaluation weight vector P of the criteria layer index of the design scheme is calculated as follows:

Thus, a fuzzy comprehensive evaluation matrix of target layer indicators can be constructed:

Similarly, the comprehensive evaluation vector for the design scheme of this household disinfection device can be calculated:

Finally, the overall evaluation score for the scheme is obtained as N = 83.45.

According to the corresponding relationship between the evaluation levels and evaluation scores, the final score of the design scheme falls between the excellent and good levels, indicating that the design scheme has good feasibility.

Conclusion and discussion

Existing research on disinfection products predominantly focuses on the innovative application of modern technologies in public disinfection products, with few studies addressing the design and systematic methodology for home disinfection devices. This study explores the application of AHP, FAST, and FBS methods in the design of home entrance disinfection devices in the post-pandemic era, providing a systematic and scientific path for innovative design of home entrance disinfection devices. Firstly, through in-depth interviews and the application of the KJ method, this study successfully captured the multifaceted consumer needs and established a hierarchical model of design requirement indicators for home entrance disinfection devices across four aspects: functionality, human–machine interaction, appearance, and safety. This provides a valuable reference for the subsequent design and evaluation of home entrance disinfection devices. Secondly, the effective application of the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) allowed for the precise quantification and prioritization of design requirements for home entrance disinfection devices, ensuring a better grasp of user needs and more accurate product design positioning. The introduction of the FAST function tree model enabled the systematic decomposition and categorization of product functions, allowing for the comprehensive and organized construction of a functional system model for home entrance disinfection devices, providing strong support for the subsequent realization of product functions. Next, the sequential application of the FBS model gradually mapped functional requirements into specific product behavior factors and structural modules, ensuring the functional realization and structural rationality of the design scheme. Finally, the comprehensive evaluation results of the innovative design scheme for the home entrance disinfection device verified the effectiveness of the AHP-FAST-FBS methodology as a guiding framework.

This study successively applies AHP, FAST, and FBS methods to leverage the complementary strengths of these three theoretical approaches, effectively providing clearer and more specific systematic theoretical guidance for the entire conceptual design process of home entrance disinfection devices. This article aids future designers in conducting more scientific and systematic home disinfection device designs, improving the innovation, feasibility, and user satisfaction of design schemes, thereby advancing the field of home entrance disinfection device design and contributing to social health and safety. Moreover, this study not only supplements the theoretical and practical research in the field of home entrance disinfection device design but also offers a reference methodology and approach for the conceptual design of other product types. In summary, this research holds important theoretical and practical application value as well as social significance. However, this study still has certain limitations. First and foremost, the number of expert samples involved in the requirements gathering and evaluation phase was relatively small, and the results obtained may have certain limitations. Future research could further expand the expert sample size to make the results more comprehensive. Secondly, there is a lack of in-depth discussion on the specific technical principles for realizing product functional structures. Thus, future studies could further explore these technical principles in more detail.

Data availability

All relevant data that supports the findings of this study are available within the manuscript.

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Acknowledgements

Thanks to all the researchers who provided advice and support during the writing process of this article. We would like to acknowledge the Innovation and Entrepreneurship Training Project for College Students in Henan Province (202411330031); Henan Provincial Education Science Planning Project (2024YB0265); Henan Provincial Philosophy and Social Science Planning Project (2024BYS00027) for funding this work. We also extend heartfelt thanks to the proof-readers, editors and reviewers who have helped us.

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Conceptualization: Y.Z. and C.Z.; methodology: Y.Z.; software, Y.Z.; validation: Y.Z., T.W., and B.H.; formal analysis: Y.Z.; investigation: Y.Z., and T.W.; resources: Y.Z.; data curation: Y.Z. and C.Z.; Writing—original draft: Y.Z.; Writing—review and editing: Y.Z. and L.L.L.P.; visualization: Y.Z. and C.Z.; supervision: B.H.; project administration: Y.Z. and T.W.; funding acquisition: T.W. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

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Zhao, Y., Wang, T., Zhang, C. et al. Research on the application of AHP-FAST-FBS in the design of home entrance disinfection devices in the post-pandemic era. Sci Rep 14 , 20550 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-71651-5

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Le Bris interview gives in-depth insight into the thinking behind letting Pierre Ekwah leave

Sunderland Head Coach Régis Le Bris has given an interview in France to explain the decision behind allowing Pierre Ekwah to leave and join St. Etienne on loan.

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Pierre Ekwah finalised his loan move to Ligue 1 outfit Saint-Etienne on deadline day, with the move having an option for the French club to buy the 22-year-old at the end of the season for a fee of around €7m.

The popular midfielder hadn’t played much under Regis Le Bris, but the Sunderland Head Coach has given an in-depth interview to Poteaux Carres in which he discusses all aspects of Ekwah’s move to the Green and Whites.

Le Bris explains why the move came about, the player’s motivation for the move and more:

Régis, how do you explain Pierre Ekwah’s loan to ASSE?

Pierre is on loan at Saint-Etienne, and that’s what his story is all about. He says so himself. It’s not that he’s had enough, but he needs something new. Pierre needs to see something a bit different. I didn’t have much time with him because he was injured during part of pre-season. I can’t say that I know this player from every angle. I played him throughout the League Cup match against Preston North End in mid-August but didn’t start him in the first few league games before he left for Saint-Etienne. But I analysed him well last season. I think Pierre is a boy who needs a new challenge. He’s a gifted player with a lot of qualities, but he needs an exciting challenge to motivate him and keep him going. When the collective story doesn’t quite match up with your individual story, you have to make sure that each side keeps moving forward. Here at Sunderland, we have quite a few players available in midfield. In itself, we didn’t have an urgent need to have Pierre with us. He felt he needed a new environment to continue to develop, and so did we. His loan actually makes sense. When the planets are no longer aligned and everyone realises it, there’s no point in lying to ourselves. That doesn’t call into question the quality of the player or the quality of the environment at Sunderland. It’s just the way the story goes.

What are Pierre Ekwah’s main qualities and what is his preferred position?

With the ball, he’s a creative player. He can recover balls. What I find remarkable is his ability to play as a number 6 - he’s a real 6 - and then to direct the game, giving it both pace and a kind of accuracy in his choices. It could be between the lines or at the back of the defence. It can be a reversal or a combination. Pierre knows how to do a lot with both feet. His left foot in particular, but he knows how to use his right. You’ll see for yourself, as soon as he touches the ball, you’ll say to yourself ‘he’s got something’. He exudes a kind of confidence and quality that allows him to create imbalance from the moment he receives the ball and set the tempo of the game. That’s very useful in this position. In terms of positioning, Pierre is good in front of the defence. He can also be a little bit higher up. But he’ll particularly enjoy playing between the defence and the midfield. That’s his preferred position. But he’s also capable of scoring goals from distance. That’s another of his qualities, because not all the players in his position have his ball striking abilities.

After the Greens’ debacle in Brest, Olivier Dall’Oglio highlighted his players’ lack of intensity. Intensity isn’t Pierre’s primary quality, is it?

No, perhaps that’s why he hasn’t completely made the switch. For the moment, Pierre hasn’t found his true consistency. And at the same time, you can feel that it’s there, just around the corner! That’s why the change of environment makes sense. He’s been with us for two and a half years. If he hasn’t made the switch completely, it’s because he’s missing a little something. Sometimes it’s the environment that brings it about. I think Pierre is a player who thrives on challenge. At some point he says to himself: ‘OK, that’s done. It’s ticked, it’s achieved’. He feels that all he has to do is put in a little more effort and he’s got the level. We talked about it quite a lot together because it intrigued me. When I analysed him, I found him very interesting and at the same time I could see that he was always keeping something under his belt. What does that mean? His feedback was like this: he gave himself the impression that he’d already validated this level and that as soon as it’s acquired... It’s not that he’s resting on his laurels, but it’s not exactly exciting any more. And that’s what Pierre is looking for. His personality is built a bit like that.

I presume you have players in midfield who are superior in intensity?

In fact, I didn’t have time to test that point with Pierre. I’d have liked to have played him more to see how he’d measure up against the others, to see if he’d say to himself: ‘Finally, I might still have something to go for at Sunderland’. But Pierre took a blow in a warm-up match we played in Spain a month and a half ago. He landed badly on an opponent, suffered back pains and was out of action for almost a fortnight. During those days, it’s a big period of preparation matches for us. Pierre was out, he came back at the end of the preparatory phase, but in the meantime the team had really taken off. I think that only reinforced for him the idea that the next step wasn’t here. And for us, as the team was doing well, it made sense for Pierre to look for a new project. That’s how it happened, it’s a bit by chance and at the same time a bit of destiny. But coming from the outside, I would have liked to try it out. But I couldn’t do it. I think Pierre has everything it takes to be a top 5 player in the 5 major European championships. Now you have to do it over and over again, and be consistent at the top level. That’s always the challenge with this type of young player. They’re extremely talented. Pierre has a CV, he’s already played for some of the big clubs, and everyone knows he’s got that talent. Now the question is: ‘Do you have the ability to repeat it weekend after weekend and over the course of a match? Because that’s what the competition is waiting for, after all!

Is Ligue 1 a championship that could suit Pierre and help him move up a level?

Yes, I think that would suit him. Now, I’m very curious to see what Pierre will show at Les Verts. As I told him, it’s going to make me want to watch Saint-Etienne matches even more. I’m very curious to see how he’s going to develop, and like you I can’t wait to see his first steps in Ligue 1. Because connections are never easy to make. Even if I was still coaching in Ligue 1 a few months ago, you have to see him in action to know what will and won’t work. Pierre isn’t playing on his own, of course. He’ll have new partners and a game plan that may be different from ours at Sunderland. I know Olivier Dall’Oglio well, we played together at Stade Rennais. I was a young player then and he was one of the leaders of the team. I like Olivier and I’m pleased that he managed to get the Verts back into the top flight. Olivier must like Pierre’s profile, he likes good footballers and good ball handlers. We’ll see how it all comes together.

I suppose ODO asked you about Pierre Ekwah?

You’re guessing wrong (laughs) In fact, it didn’t work out that way. Olivier could have, but it didn’t work out that way. The networks that lead to recruitment are sometimes improbable (laughs). I don’t know what happened behind the scenes. But I wish Pierre all the best at Saint-Etienne. As well as being a good player, he’s a pleasant, uncomplicated person. He has a good culture. For him, the key will be to perform at the highest level. He’ll have a great crowd behind him, and I hope that will galvanise him!

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Indigenous subsistence practices of the sakha horse herders under changing climate in the arctic.

1. Introduction

2. arctic traditional horse herding in the republic of sakha (yakutia), 2.1. the republic of sakha (yakutia), 2.2. origin of the sakha horse breed, 2.3. traditional horse herding practice in the republic of sakha (yakutia).

• Sakha horses are small to medium-sized, have a stocky build, massive head, short neck, strong legs, and calm reaction to external stimuli ( Figure 4 ) [ 50 ];
• A thick, dense coat that helps insulate themselves against the cold [ 51 ];
• Strong hooves that allow them to break through ice and snow to access food [ 50 ];
• They have a lower metabolic rate than outbred horses, which helps conserve energy [ 49 ]. They require less food during this period and can maintain their body condition with minimal forage, resulting in an ability to conserve energy during periods of limited food availability;
• The horses accumulate a layer of subcutaneous fat during the summer and autumn months. This fat layer serves as an additional source of insulation and energy during the winter when forage is scarce. The thickness of the fat layer in adult horses is 8–10 cm on the cervical crest and 4.5 cm on the peritoneum. In foals, these dimensions are 5.5 cm and 1.8 cm, respectively [ 52 ];
• Ability to consume snow for hydration. They can melt snow in their mouths, providing water without lowering their core body temperature [ 50 ];
• Sakha horses remain active throughout the season. During winter, they sleep in a standing posture. They continue to move and graze, although at a slower pace [ 53 ];
• The transition of internal systems to increased energy-saving mode. The breathing rate decreases, and the heartbeat slows down. Simultaneously, the horse is able to cover long distances [ 50 ];
• Purebred Sakha horses are better able to maintain a constant body temperature throughout the year than crossbred animals [ 49 ].

Cultural and Economic Significance

3. materials and methods, 3.1. the study area.

• Arylakh, Churapchinsky uluus;
• Tuora-Kel, Tattinsky uluus;
• Ytyk-Kel, Tattinsky uluus;
• Djekken, Vilyuisky uluus.

3.2. Data Collection

3.3. interviews, 3.4. analysis, 4.1. seasonal shift, 4.2. warming trends, 4.3. extreme weather conditions and their impact on horses, 4.4. water cycle change—dry and wet years, 4.5. permafrost and land degradation, 4.6. wildfires and ban on controlled burn—lack of winter grazing and more parasites, 4.7. changes in wildlife, 5. discussion, 6. adaptation measures.

• Controlled burns. Reinstate controlled burns as previously practiced. In the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), traditional pasture burning was conducted while snow was still present. Controlled burn helps mitigate the risk of larger, more destructive wildfires by reducing the available fuel. It stimulates the regeneration of natural vegetation and prevents scarcity of grazing pastures for horses. Controlled burn ensures the health of pastures, minimizing the spread of parasites and disease, recycling nutrients back to the soil, and supporting the overall well-being of the ecosystem and the animals that depend on it.
• Align the hunting season with new seasonal changes, appearance of new wildlife species, and increased number of predators. The hunting season and restrictions should be adjusted with the changing natural patterns, as well as with the behaviors of predators in view of their increased number and threat not only to domestic animals but also people.
• Community collaboration. Encourage collaboration among herders, authorities, and environmental organizations to collectively address the challenges. Sharing knowledge and resources can lead to more effective solutions.
• Monitoring and adaptation together with horse herders. Implement a monitoring system to track natural changes and adapt herding practices accordingly. Observing nature closely allows for better preparation and mitigates risks associated with sudden environmental shifts.
• Climate resilience planning. Develop strategies for climate resilience in horse herding practices. This includes preparing for extreme weather events such as snowstorms and droughts and finding in advance a supplementary feed source during challenging years. In addition, a close connection between horses and nature should be considered, and a balance should be struck between allowing natural adaptation and providing necessary support to ensure the survival of both the horses and the herders’ way of life.
• Cooperation with herders from other uluuses. Learning from other uluuses (districts) in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia)—for example, with horse herders in northern regions, such as Verkhoyansk and Kolyma, and eastern regions, such as Oymiakon and Viluiy—to share knowledge and best practices.

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Popova, L. Indigenous Subsistence Practices of the Sakha Horse Herders under Changing Climate in the Arctic. Climate 2024 , 12 , 134. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli12090134

Popova L. Indigenous Subsistence Practices of the Sakha Horse Herders under Changing Climate in the Arctic. Climate . 2024; 12(9):134. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli12090134

Popova, Lena. 2024. "Indigenous Subsistence Practices of the Sakha Horse Herders under Changing Climate in the Arctic" Climate 12, no. 9: 134. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli12090134

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