example of case study ap psych

AP Psychology: Exploring Key Case Studies

AP Psychology offers students a fascinating journey into the intricate workings of the human mind and behavior. One valuable aspect of the course involves delving into case studies that exemplify psychological theories, concepts, and phenomena. In this guide, we'll explore key case studies that have left an indelible mark on the field of psychology, providing insights into various psychological perspectives.

 1. Phineas Gage: The Case of Frontal Lobe Damage

- overview:.

  - Phineas Gage was a railroad construction foreman who, in 1848, suffered a traumatic brain injury when a metal rod pierced through his skull, damaging his frontal lobes.

- Significance:

  - Gage's case provided early evidence of the link between brain function and personality. Changes in his behavior, impulsivity, and decision-making highlighted the role of the frontal lobes in personality and executive functions.

- Relevance to AP Psychology:

  - Phineas Gage's case is often cited in the biological psychology unit to illustrate the impact of brain damage on behavior and personality.

 2. Little Albert Experiment: Classical Conditioning

  - Conducted by John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner in 1920, the Little Albert Experiment involved conditioning a young boy, Little Albert, to fear a white rat through classical conditioning.

  - The experiment demonstrated the principles of classical conditioning, showcasing how a neutral stimulus (the rat) could become associated with fear through pairing with an unconditioned stimulus (a loud noise).

  - The Little Albert Experiment is a classic example in the learning unit, illustrating how behaviors can be learned and conditioned through environmental stimuli.

 3. HM (Henry Molaison): Memory and Amnesia

  - Henry Molaison, known as HM, underwent brain surgery in 1953 to treat epilepsy. The surgery removed parts of his temporal lobes, resulting in severe amnesia.

  - HM's case provided crucial insights into the role of the hippocampus in forming new memories. Despite his anterograde amnesia, his procedural memory remained intact.

  - HM's case is foundational in the memory unit, emphasizing the role of specific brain structures in memory formation and the distinction between different types of memory.

 4. Stanford Prison Experiment: Social Psychology

  - Conducted by Philip Zimbardo in 1971, the Stanford Prison Experiment simulated a prison environment with college students playing the roles of guards and prisoners.

  - The experiment demonstrated the power of situational factors in influencing behavior. Participants' behaviors became extreme, leading to the premature termination of the study.

  - The Stanford Prison Experiment is a key case study in the social psychology unit, illustrating the impact of social roles and environments on individual behavior.

 5. Genie: The Feral Child

  - Genie, a girl who experienced extreme isolation and abuse during childhood, was discovered in 1970. She had limited exposure to language and social interaction.

  - Genie's case shed light on the critical period hypothesis for language acquisition and the importance of early socialization for normal development.

  - Genie's case is discussed in the developmental psychology unit, emphasizing the role of early experiences in shaping cognitive and social development.

 6. Kitty Genovese: Bystander Effect

  - In 1964, Kitty Genovese was brutally attacked and murdered outside her apartment. The case gained attention due to the perceived lack of intervention by numerous bystanders.

  - The Kitty Genovese case is often cited as an example of the bystander effect, where individuals are less likely to intervene in an emergency situation when others are present.

  - The case is explored in the social psychology unit, illustrating social influences on helping behavior and the diffusion of responsibility.

 Conclusion: Case Studies as Windows into Psychological Principles

Exploring key case studies in AP Psychology provides students with valuable insights into the complexities of human behavior and mental processes. These cases serve as windows into psychological principles, offering real-world examples that illuminate theoretical concepts. As students delve into the intricacies of Phineas Gage's frontal lobe damage, Little Albert's classical conditioning, HM's memory deficits, the Stanford Prison Experiment, Genie's isolation, and the Kitty Genovese case, they gain a deeper understanding of psychological phenomena that continue to shape the field today. These case studies not only contribute to academic learning but also encourage critical thinking and the application of psychological principles to real-world scenarios.

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Exploring Case Studies in AP Psychology

Curious about the world of AP Psychology and the role case studies play within it? From understanding the purpose and process of conducting case studies to exploring the different types and their benefits and limitations, this article dives deep into the world of case studies in AP Psychology.

Discover how case studies are selected, data is collected and analyzed, and how they can be applied in real-life scenarios. Get ready to uncover the fascinating insights that case studies can offer in the realm of psychology.

• Case studies are a common research method used in AP Psychology to explore psychological phenomena in real-life situations.
• They involve selecting a specific case, collecting and analyzing data, and identifying patterns and themes.
• The benefits of case studies include providing in-depth and detailed information, while limitations include potential bias and difficulty generalizing results.
• 1 What Is AP Psychology?
• 2.1 What Is the Purpose of Case Studies in AP Psychology?
• 3.1 Selecting a Case Study
• 3.2 Collecting Data
• 3.3 Analyzing Data
• 4.1 Clinical Case Studies
• 4.2 Developmental Case Studies
• 4.3 Experimental Case Studies
• 4.4 Comparative Case Studies
• 5 What Are the Benefits of Using Case Studies in AP Psychology?
• 6 What Are the Limitations of Case Studies in AP Psychology?
• 7 How Can Case Studies Be Applied in Real Life?
• 8.1 What are case studies in AP Psychology?
• 8.2 How are case studies used in AP Psychology?
• 8.3 What are the benefits of exploring case studies in AP Psychology?
• 8.4 What are the limitations of case studies in AP Psychology?
• 8.5 What are some famous case studies in AP Psychology?
• 8.6 How can case studies be used to evaluate theories in AP Psychology?

What Is AP Psychology?

AP Psychology is a course that delves into the study of human behavior and mental processes, focusing on various psychological theories and concepts.

It provides students with a comprehensive understanding of how individuals think, feel, and behave in different situations. By exploring topics such as memory, perception, cognition, and personality, AP Psychology equips learners with valuable insights into the complexities of the human mind.

Understanding the intricacies of psychology is crucial in interpreting human behavior and predicting responses to various stimuli. This course not only helps students gain theoretical knowledge but also enhances their critical thinking skills and analytical abilities.

What Are Case Studies in AP Psychology?

Case studies in AP Psychology are detailed investigations of individual subjects or small groups, aiming to analyze specific behaviors or conditions within the context of psychological theories.

These studies provide a deep dive into the intricacies of human behavior, shedding light on the complexities that underlie our actions. By looking into the unique experiences of individuals, researchers can uncover valuable insights that may not be evident in broader research studies. Case studies allow psychologists to examine real-world applications of theoretical concepts, offering a bridge between theory and practice. Their in-depth nature enables a more nuanced understanding of the factors influencing behavior, providing rich data for further analysis and interpretation.

What Is the Purpose of Case Studies in AP Psychology?

The purpose of conducting case studies in AP Psychology is to provide in-depth insights into individual behaviors, psychological conditions, and the application of theoretical frameworks in real-world contexts.

By focusing on specific individuals or groups, case studies allow psychologists to delve deep into the complexities of human behavior and cognition. These studies offer a unique opportunity to uncover the nuances of a particular case, shedding light on the intricacies of a person’s psyche and their responses to various stimuli.

Along with this, case studies serve as a valuable method for psychologists to observe rare or unusual phenomena, providing them with a platform to analyze and interpret these occurrences within a scientific framework.

How Are Case Studies Conducted in AP Psychology?

The process of conducting case studies in AP Psychology involves several key stages, including selecting a case, collecting relevant data, and analyzing the information to draw meaningful conclusions.

When selecting a case for a case study , researchers often look for individuals who exhibit unique characteristics or behaviors that can provide valuable insights.

Once a case is chosen, the next step involves gathering various types of data, such as interviews, observations, and psychological tests, to fully understand the individual’s experiences.

Following data collection, researchers meticulously analyze the gathered information, searching for patterns, themes, and discrepancies that can offer a deeper understanding of the case. This analytical phase is crucial in uncovering underlying factors and exploring potential hypotheses that may contribute to the case under study.

Selecting a Case Study

The initial step in conducting a case study in AP Psychology is selecting a suitable subject or group that exemplifies the behavior or condition of interest, ensuring the relevance and depth of the study.

The Exploring Case Studies in AP Psychology provides valuable resources and projects for further understanding and application of case studies in psychology.

When choosing a case study, one must consider the relevance of the subject to the research question or hypothesis. The case should offer insights that contribute meaningfully to the field of psychology. It is crucial to ensure the representativeness of the selected case, reflecting the broader population or phenomenon being studied.

Ethical considerations play a significant role in case selection. Researchers must prioritize the well-being and privacy of the case study subject, adhering to professional guidelines and obtaining informed consent.

Collecting Data

Data collection in AP Psychology case studies involves gathering information through various methods such as observations, interviews, and existing records to build a comprehensive understanding of the subject’s behavior or condition.

Observations play a crucial role in unraveling subtle nuances of behavior, providing firsthand insights into actions and reactions exhibited by the individual under study.

Interviews, on the other hand, offer a personalized touch, allowing researchers to delve into the mind of the subject, uncovering motivations, thoughts, and emotions.

Utilizing existing records adds a historical dimension, tracing patterns over time and providing context to current behaviors.

Analyzing Data

Analyzing data in AP Psychology case studies involves interpreting collected information, identifying patterns, and applying relevant psychological theories to derive meaningful insights and conclusions.

One crucial aspect of data analysis in AP Psychology case studies is the ability to delve deep into the gathered information to uncover underlying trends and connections. This process requires keen observation skills and a nuanced understanding of human behavior and cognition. By analyzing these patterns, researchers can discern valuable insights that can shed light on the workings of the mind and behavior.

The application of psychological theories plays a vital role in making sense of the data gathered during case studies. These theories provide a framework through which researchers can interpret findings and make informed hypotheses about the psychological processes at play.

What Are the Different Types of Case Studies in AP Psychology?

In AP Psychology, various types of case studies are employed, including clinical, developmental, experimental, and comparative studies, each focusing on distinct aspects of human behavior and psychological phenomena.

Clinical case studies delve into individual patients’ experiences and psychological conditions, providing deep insights into rare or unique cases.

Developmental case studies track changes in behavior and cognitive abilities across the lifespan, offering a longitudinal perspective on mental growth.

Experimental case studies involve controlled interventions to understand cause-and-effect relationships in psychology.

Comparative case studies analyze differences and similarities across different groups, cultures, or contexts, highlighting the impact of environment on behavior.

Clinical Case Studies

Clinical case studies in AP Psychology involve the in-depth analysis of individual patients’ psychological conditions, treatment approaches, and outcomes, providing valuable insights into clinical psychology practices.

These studies offer a window into the complexities of mental health disorders, enabling psychologists to tailor interventions based on a patient’s unique needs and circumstances. Conducting patient assessments helps in understanding the root causes of psychological distress, guiding the selection of appropriate therapeutic interventions such as cognitive-behavioral therapy, pharmacological treatments, or mindfulness practices.

Following the implementation of these interventions, outcome evaluations play a crucial role in assessing the efficacy of the chosen treatment modalities and tracking progress over time. By examining patient responses and improvements, clinicians can refine their approach and optimize the chances of successful outcomes.

Developmental Case Studies

Developmental case studies in AP Psychology focus on the psychological growth and changes experienced by individuals across different life stages, aiming to understand developmental processes and milestones.

These studies delve into the intricate interplay of biological, cognitive, emotional, and social factors that shape an individual’s developmental trajectory .

By examining age-related changes, researchers gain insight into the complexities of cognitive development and how environmental influences can impact one’s psychological well-being.

Understanding these fundamental aspects of human growth is crucial in informing interventions, shaping educational practices, and facilitating healthy lifespan changes throughout one’s life.

Experimental Case Studies

Experimental case studies in AP Psychology involve controlled investigations to test hypotheses, explore cause-and-effect relationships, and validate psychological theories through empirical research methods.

These studies aim to delve deep into specific psychological phenomena by manipulating variables in a controlled setting to observe and measure their effects.

The methodology typically includes random assignment of participants to experimental and control groups to ensure unbiased results, with meticulous data collection and analysis procedures to draw meaningful conclusions.

Hypothesis testing plays a crucial role in experimental case studies, as researchers work to either support or reject their predictions based on the gathered evidence.

Comparative Case Studies

Comparative case studies in AP Psychology involve examining similarities and differences between individuals or groups to identify common patterns, cultural influences, and cross-cultural variations in behavior and psychological processes.

These studies offer valuable insights into how environmental and societal factors impact human behavior, shedding light on how culture shapes our thoughts, emotions, and actions. By analyzing diverse cultural contexts, psychologists can uncover universal principles that apply across different populations and understand the nuances that contribute to behavioral differences.

Cultural psychology plays a crucial role in this comparative analysis, emphasizing the importance of studying behavior within its cultural framework to grasp the full complexity of human experience.

What Are the Benefits of Using Case Studies in AP Psychology?

The utilization of case studies in AP Psychology offers numerous advantages, including providing detailed insights into individual behaviors, facilitating the application of theoretical concepts, and enhancing the understanding of complex psychological phenomena.

Through the in-depth examination of specific cases, students are not only able to grasp the intricacies of human behavior but also see how theoretical frameworks can be applied in real-life scenarios. Case studies serve as practical examples that bridge the gap between theory and practice, allowing learners to analyze and interpret complex psychological phenomena in a meaningful way.

What Are the Limitations of Case Studies in AP Psychology?

Despite their advantages, case studies in AP Psychology have limitations such as limited generalizability, potential bias, and ethical considerations that restrict the scope and applicability of findings beyond individual cases.

One of the primary challenges associated with case studies in AP Psychology is the issue of generalizability. Since case studies focus on a specific individual or group, it can be challenging to apply the findings to a broader population. This lack of generalizability limits the extent to which conclusions drawn from the study can be applied to the larger context.

Bias is another significant concern when conducting case studies. Researchers must be wary of their own biases influencing the interpretation of data or selecting information that aligns with preconceived notions. This can lead to skewed results and affect the validity of the study.

Moreover, ethical constraints play a crucial role in shaping the design and implementation of case studies. Researchers must navigate delicate ethical boundaries, such as ensuring confidentiality, obtaining informed consent, and avoiding harm to participants. Adhering to these ethical guidelines adds complexity and can limit the type of studies that can be conducted within the field of AP Psychology.

How Can Case Studies Be Applied in Real Life?

The application of case studies in real life scenarios allows for the practical implementation of psychological theories, problem-solving strategies, and behavioral interventions to address complex issues and improve individual well-being.

Through the analysis of real-world cases , psychologists can gain valuable insights into how different factors interact and influence an individual’s mental health or behavior. By examining the specific circumstances of each case, professionals can tailor their therapy planning to meet the unique needs of their clients, fostering more effective outcomes. Case studies also play a crucial role in the development of intervention strategies, providing concrete examples of successful approaches that can be applied to similar situations in practice.

Frequently Asked Questions

What are case studies in ap psychology.

Case studies in AP Psychology are in-depth investigations of a particular individual or group, used to understand psychological phenomena and theories. They involve collecting and analyzing data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and psychological tests.

How are case studies used in AP Psychology?

Case studies are used in AP Psychology to illustrate and apply psychological theories and concepts, as well as to provide real-life examples of psychological phenomena. They also allow researchers to explore rare or unique cases that may not be replicated in a laboratory setting.

What are the benefits of exploring case studies in AP Psychology?

Exploring case studies in AP Psychology allows students to see how psychological theories and concepts apply to real-life situations, which can enhance their understanding and critical thinking skills. It also allows them to see how individuals may differ in their experiences and behaviors.

What are the limitations of case studies in AP Psychology?

One limitation of case studies is that they may not be generalizable to the larger population, as they only involve a small sample size. They also rely heavily on the researcher’s interpretation and may be biased. Additionally, ethical concerns may arise when studying sensitive or personal topics.

What are some famous case studies in AP Psychology?

Some famous case studies in AP Psychology include Phineas Gage, who suffered a traumatic brain injury and had personality changes, and Little Albert, who was conditioned to fear a white rat. These case studies have significantly contributed to our understanding of psychological concepts.

How can case studies be used to evaluate theories in AP Psychology?

Case studies can be used to evaluate theories in AP Psychology by providing evidence for or against the theory. They can also help researchers identify new variables or factors to consider and may inspire further research on the topic. However, case studies should not be used as the sole basis for evaluating a theory.

Nicholas Reed is a theoretical psychologist who explores the philosophical underpinnings of psychological theories and practices. His writings examine the assumptions, values, and questions at the heart of psychology, encouraging a deeper understanding of the discipline’s broader implications for knowledge and society. Nicholas’s articles are for those intrigued by the conceptual and existential dimensions of psychology.

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AP® Psychology

Correlational study examples: ap® psychology crash course.

• The Albert Team
• Last Updated On: March 1, 2022

Do you remember what a correlational study is? Knowing the main types of psychology research is a key point for the Advanced Placement (AP) Psychology exam as it makes up for 8-10% of the content in the multiple choice and free response questions. However, understanding the characteristics, advantages and disadvantages of each research method is only half of mastering this subject. The other half is understanding in concrete and practical terms how the research methods have been applied to studies in different fields of psychology. In this AP® Psychology crash course review, we will see three correlational study examples that have contributed to the history of psychology, changing the way we perceive our nature, our personality, and our health.

Review: What is a Correlational Study and why is it Important?

Psychology is a science, and like any other, its knowledge must be scientifically obtained, verified and validated. For this, psychologists conduct three types of research:

• Experimental research – the most empirical type of research, where variables can be manipulated in laboratory conditions and different situations can be studied and compared to establish relations of cause and effect between variables.
• Clinical research – done through case studies under the premise that certain individual characteristics can be generalized to the rest of the population.
• Correlational research – seeks the relationship between two variables. The necessary data is gathered through surveys (questionnaires and interviews), archival research (past studies that present the data) and naturalistic observation (observation of the phenomena as they naturally happen, without intervening). The data is then statistically analyzed to verify the relationship between the variables.

The correlation between the variables is shown through a value that goes from -1.00 to +1.00. This value is called the correlational coefficient . When the correlational coefficient is close to +1.00, there is a positive correlation between the variables. In other words, an increase in X accompanies an increase in Y. When the correlational coefficient is close to -1.00, there is a negative correlation between the variables or an increase in X is followed by a decrease in Y. And when the correlational coefficient is close to 0.00 there is no relationship between the variables. The closer the value is to +1.00 or -1.00, the strongest the relationship is. We will see real examples of this later on this post.

Now, the most important thing to remember about correlational studies is that correlation does not imply causation . For example, let’s say that “marriage” has a negative correlation with “cancer,” meaning that people who are married are less likely to develop cancer throughout their lives than those who remain single. This doesn’t necessarily mean that one causes the other or that marriage directly avoids cancer. Maybe one variable does cause the other, but even if it does, in correlational studies it is not possible to determine the direction of causation or what is causing what. And it could also be that a third unknown variable is what causes the correlation. Keep this in mind as we see the correlational study examples.

You might be wondering: if correlational studies only show this – correlations – why are they important in the first place if you could just conduct an experiment manipulating the relevant variables and getting to more solid conclusions?

Indeed, the disadvantages of correlational studies are that they cannot establish causal relationships nor direction of causal influence, there is no control of the variables, they don’t explain behavior, and they could result in illusory correlations. Illusory correlation is when there is a perceived relationship between variables that does not exist, like “a higher ice cream consumption leads to higher crime rate.”

On the other hand, one of the main advantages of a correlational study is that it is a useful way to describe and analyze data especially in cases where experimental research would lead to ethical issues. Take for instance a research that aims to investigate the relationship between child abuse and coping abilities later in adulthood. You obviously can’t take a random group of healthy children and expose them to abusive or traumatic situations to compare it with a control group. In the earlier stages of psychology, researchers could get away with teaching a phobia to a baby or leading participants to think they had electrocuted someone to death and get away with it in the name of science. Such practices are no longer acceptable, and correlational studies play an important role in developing knowledge in psychology.

Other advantages are that correlational studies are usually less expensive and easier to conduct than experiments and they allow for general predictions. They can also represent the first steps in a new field of research, leading to further studies and advances.

Now that you’ve reviewed the main concepts of correlational studies and why they matter, let’s see three important research examples in different fields of psychology and understand how all of this comes to life!

Study #1: Biological Basis of Behavior – A Debate on Nature Versus Nurture

We can easily think of how our genetics influence physical traits like height, hair and eye color. But have you ever considered that your genetics might also play a big role on psychological traits like personality and interests? In 1990 psychologists Thomas Bouchard, David Lykken, and their associates investigated the influence our genes have in psychological attributes. This was hard research to accept at the time considering that for the past fifty years, psychology was mainly focused on behaviorism and how the environment determines behavior. Bouchard and Lykken’s study brought the debate of nature versus nurture back to the spotlight, determined to clarify the genes’ and the environment’s role in who we are.

For this, Bouchard and Lykken conducted a study with monozygotic twins (identical twins) who had been separated at birth and raised in different environments and compared the results with identical twins who had been raised together. Note that this is a study in which one couldn’t simply replicate the situation in laboratory conditions, so a correlational study was the best way to analyze the data of real individuals in this situation.

Bouchard and Lykken gathered a huge amount of data from each pair of twins. They used a variety of personality trait scales, aptitude and occupational interest inventories, intelligence tests, family environment scales and interviews. At the end of the first part of the research, Bouchard and Lykken had information concerning the twins’ physiological traits, intelligence, personality, psychological interests and social attitudes. Next, Bouchard and Lykken analyzed the correlation between the twins in all these fields.

The results were surprising. If the environment were responsible for individual differences, identical twins reared together should be more similar than identical twins reared apart. However, that was not what the results showed. Both categories of twins had a very similar correlational coefficient that neared +1.00. This means that regardless of having being raised in the same or different environments, each person was very similar to his twin in all traits.

Based on this we can say that genetic factors strongly influence human behavior in a variety of ways, both physiological and psychological. This could be seen as a problematic conclusion since we like to put so much importance on environmental factors like education and parenting as if that alone determined who we grow to be, what interests we develop, what careers we choose and so on. However, it is not the case for giving up on all our efforts in life thinking that eventually the genes will just take over and determine our fate.

Bouchard and Lykken emphasize that although intelligence is mainly determined by genetic factors, it can still be enhanced by experiences. Approximately 70% of intelligence is genetically determined, which means there is still 30% that can be worked on or ignored in the environment, either at home with parents or at school with teachers and mentors.

The same can be applied to the other traits. For example, even if your genes hold a natural strength towards communication skills, none of it will matter if you don’t get an opportunity in your environment to make that skill emerge and develop. Recent research on identical twins shows that the older the twins, the more similar they are. Another way to say this is that the more experiences you have, the more your genes can be expressed.

As human beings, we are determined by a combination of genetic and environmental influences. We are nature and nurture. Genes don’t mean destiny, but that doesn’t mean we can ignore their influences on our physiological and psychological characteristics. Let’s truly understand the components of our behavior and overcome the genes versus environment dichotomy.

Study #2: Personality – Who is in Control of Your Life?

Do you think your actions are what matter the most for the outcome of your life? Or do you think that external forces like fate and luck have a major influence in the paths you take? This kind of personal belief, called  locus of control , is associated with all sorts of behaviors we show in different areas of life. The locus of control and its influence on behavior was first studied by the influential psychologist and behaviorist  Julian Rotter in 1966.

Rotter proposed that the way individuals interpret what happens to them and where they put the responsibility for the events in their lives is an important part of the personality that can be used to predict tendencies in certain behaviors. When a person attributes the consequences of their behavior to factors such as luck, fate, and other greater forces, this person believes in an external locus of control . On the other hand, a person that identifies the consequences of her behavior to her own actions believes in an  internal locus of control .

To measure locus of control, Rotter developed a scale called I-E Scale, where “I” stands for “Internal” and “E” for “External.” The scale contains many pairs of statements, and the participant must choose the one that best fits his beliefs. A few examples of the pair of statements are “Many of the unhappy things in people’s lives are partly due to bad luck” versus “People’s misfortunes result from the mistakes they make,” and “Becoming a success is a matter of hard work; luck has little or nothing to do with it” versus “Getting a good job depends mainly on being in the right place at the right time.”

After measuring the locus of control of a relevant quantity of participants, Rotter analyzed the correlation between internal or external locus of control and behaviors such as gambling, persuasion, smoking and achievement motivation. His findings demonstrated that:

• External individuals are more likely to gamble on risky bets while internal individuals prefer “sure things” and moderate odds on the long run.

• Internal individuals are more efficient on persuading peers to change their attitudes and more resistant to manipulation than external individuals.

• Because an internal locus of control is related to self-control, smokers tend to be significantly more external oriented. Those who successfully quit smoking are more internally oriented.

• Internal individuals are more motivated to achieve success than those who believe their lives are ruled by forces outside of their control. Examples of achievements included plans to attend college and time spent on homework.

So translating into terms of correlational studies, there was, for example, a strong correlation between “internal locus of control” and “achievement motivation,” as the correlation coefficient between these two variables neared +1.00.

Furthermore, Rotter identified three sources for the development of an external or internal locus of control: cultural differences, socioeconomic differences, and parenting style. In conclusion, Rotter proposed that locus of control is an important component of personality that explains the differences in behavior between two people who are faced with the same situation. This belief determines the way we interpret the consequences of our behavior and influences the actions we take in our lives.

Study #3: Motivation and Emotion – The Effects of Stress on Our Health

Nowadays it’s almost common sense that stress has an impact on our health, but this was not always an easily accepted idea. In 1967, Thomas Holmes and Richard Rahe  studied the correlation between stress and illness. This was a psychosomatic  research because it studied the connection between psychological factors and physical problems.

Since it wouldn’t be ethical to put people under stressful situations to study whether or not they developed more health problems than a comfortable control group, this research was made using the correlational method. First, Holmes and Rahe designed a scale to measure stress in a variety of life situations, which included both happy and unhappy events, like Christmas and death of a spouse. This was because, according to Holmes and Rahe, stress happens in any situation where there is a need for psychological readjustment. This scale was called the Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS). After having a huge amount of participants answer the scale, Holmes and Rahe studied the correlations between high levels of stress and illnesses.

As you may have already predicted, a strong positive correlation between stress and illness was found. The participants who had had a low level of stress in the past six months reported an average of 1.4 illnesses for the same period. A medium level of stress had an average of 1.9 illnesses and a high level of stress, 2.1 illnesses.

However, we also know that stress is only one component that influences health, and the connection between stress and illness is way more complex than a correlational study can show. Aware of that, Holmes and Rahe cited other factors that must be taken into consideration to help predict psychosomatic problems. They are:

• Your experience with stressful events

• Your coping skills

• The strength of your immune system

• Your way of dealing with health problems when they occur

Psychologists and doctors now recognize that the vast majority of illnesses are influenced by psychological factors, either at their development or in the way they are treated. This puts an end to Descartes’ classical view of split mind and body. Humans are complex beings, who must be understood and treated in their wholeness for an efficient prevention of illness and promotion of health.

So what do you think of each of these correlational study examples? They are in different areas of psychology (Biological Bases of Behavior, Personality, and Motivation and Emotion), so you can encounter this type of research in many questions of the AP® Psychology exam. How do you understand the influence of genetics on your behavior? Is your locus of control more internal or external? What examples of psychosomatic problems have you seen in your day to day experience? Share in the comments below!

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AP Psychology Unit 1 Notes: Scientific Foundations

February 12, 2024.

Get ready for the AP Psychology exam with our free AP Psychology study notes. We've compiled concise unit summaries and key terms and people to jumpstart your AP test prep. These AP Psychology study notes should be used to supplement what you’re learning in your AP Psych class. More study strategies and expert tips can be found in our latest AP Psychology Test Prep Book .

[ READ NEXT: AP Psychology Unit 2 Notes: Biological Bases of Behavior   ]

AP Psychology: Unit 1 Summary

This first unit focuses on the historical origins of the science of psychology, current psychological perspectives, and the research methods psychologists use to gather data about human thinking and behavior. 

History of Psychology

One way to think about the history of psychology is to organize the various theorists and theories into “waves,” or schools of thought. Each wave is a way of thinking about human thought and behavior that dominated the field for a certain period of time until a new way of looking at psychology started to dominate the field. There are five ways: Introspection, Gestalt Psychology, Psychoanalysis, Behaviorism, and Multiple Perspectives.

Different contemporary psychologists look at human thought and behavior from different perspectives. Contemporary perspectives can be placed into eight broad categories: Humanistic, Psychoanalytic, Biopsychology (or Neuroscience), Evolutionary (or Darwinian), Behavioral, Cognitive, Social-Cultural (or Sociocultural), and Biopsychosocial.

Research and Methodology

Psychology is a science, and it is therefore based on research. Though people are often guided effectively by their common intuition, sometimes it leads us astray. People have the tendency upon hearing about research findings (and many other things) to think that they knew it all along; this tendency is called hindsight bias. After an event occurs, it is relatively easy to explain why it happened. The goal of scientific research, however, is to predict what will happen in advance.

An understanding of research methods is fundamental to psychology. Because of that, you are more likely to see a free-response (or essay) question on this topic than on any other. Sometimes psychologists conduct research in order to solve practical problems. For instance, psychologists might compare two different methods of teaching children to read in order to determine which method is better or they could design and test the efficacy of a program to help people quit smoking. This type of research is known as applied research because it has clear, practical applications. Other psychologists conduct basic research. Basic research explores questions that are of interest to psychologists but are not intended to have immediate, real-world applications. Examples of basic research would include studying how people form their attitudes about others and how people in different cultures define intelligence.

Get ahead of the AP game! Our flexible, expert-led AP Psychology Review Course will help you build up your score by breaking down the exam.

Ap psychology: unit 1 key terms & people.

Below, we describe some of the Unit 1 key terms and people you should review ahead of the AP Psychology exam.

• Introspection: The examination of one’s own mental and emotional processes.
• Structuralism: The idea that the mind operates by combining subjective emotions and objective sensations, a theory developed by Wilhelm Wundt.
• Gestalt Psychology: Gestalt psychology tried to examine a person’s total experience because the way we experience the world is more than just an accumulation of various perceptual experiences. Gestalt theorists demonstrated that the whole experience is often more than just the sum of the parts of the experience.
• Sigmund Freud: Freud revolutionized psychology with his psychoanalytic theory. While treating patients for various psychosomatic complaints, Freud believed he discovered the unconscious mind—a part of our mind over which we do not have conscious control that determines, in part, how we think and behave
• Repression: Freud believed that this hidden part of ourselves builds up over the years through repression – the pushing down into the unconscious events and feelings that cause so much anxiety and tension that our conscious mind cannot deal with them.
• Behaviorism: Behaviorists maintain that psychologists should look at only behavior and causes of behavior – stimuli (environmental events) and responses (physical reactions) – and not concern themselves with describing elements of consciousness.
• B.F. Skinner: Another behaviorist, B. F. Skinner expanded the basic ideas of behaviorism to include the idea of reinforcement – environmental stimuli that either encourage or discourage certain responses.
• Eclectic: Currently, there is no one way of thinking about human thought and behavior that all or even most psychologists share. Many psychologists describe themselves as eclectic – drawing from multiple perspectives.
• Humanist Perspective: Humanists stressed individual choice and free will. They believe that we choose most of our behaviors and these choices are guided by physiological, emotional, or spiritual needs.
• Psychoanalytic Perspective: Psychologists using this perspective believe that the unconscious mind – a part of our mind that we do not have conscious control over or access to – controls much of our thought and action. Psychoanalysts would look for impulses or memories pushed into the unconscious mind through repression. This perspective thinks that to understand human thought and behavior, we must examine our unconscious mind through dream analysis, word association, and other psychoanalytic therapy techniques.
• Biopsychology (or Neuroscience) Perspective: Biopsychologists explain human thought and behavior strictly in terms of biological processes. Human cognition and reactions might be caused by effects of our genes, hormones, and neurotransmitters in the brain or by a combination of all three.
• Evolutionary (or Darwinian) Perspective: Evolutionary psychologists (also sometimes called sociobiologists) examine human thoughts and actions in terms of natural selection. Some psychological traits might be advantageous for survival, and these traits would be passed down from the parents to the next generation.
• Behavioral Perspective: Behaviorists explain human thought and behavior in terms of conditioning. Behaviorists look strictly at observable behaviors and human and animal responses to different kinds of stimuli.
• Cognitive Perspective: Cognitive psychologists examine human thought and behavior in terms of how we interpret, process, and remember environmental events. In this perspective, the rules that we use to view the world are important to understanding why we think and behave the way we do.
• Social-Cultural (or Sociocultural) Perspective: Social-cultural psychologists look at how our thoughts and behaviors vary between cultures. They emphasize the influence culture has on the way we think and act. A social-cultural psychologist might explain a person’s tendency to be extroverted by examining his or her culture’s rules about social interaction.
• Biopsychosocial Perspective: This modern perspective acknowledges that human thinking and behavior results from combinations of biological (“bio”), psychological (“psycho”), and social (“social”) factors. Psychologists who emphasize the biopsychosocial perspective view other perspectives as too focused on specific influences on thinking and behavior (sometimes called “being reductionistic”).
• Hindsight bias: People have the tendency upon hearing about research findings (and many other things) to think that they knew it all along; this tendency is called hindsight bias.
• Hypothesis: A hypothesis expresses a relationship between two variables. Variables, by definition, are things that can vary among the participants in the research.
• Theory: A theory aims to explain some phenomenon and allows researchers to generate testable hypotheses with the hope of collecting data that support the theory.
• Valid: Good research is both valid and reliable. Research is valid when it measures what the researcher set out to measure; it is accurate.
• Reliable: Research is reliable when it can be replicated; it is consistent. If the researcher conducted the same research in the same way, the researcher would get similar results.
• Sampling: The individuals on which the research will be conducted are called participants (or subjects), and the process by which participants are selected is called sampling.
• Experiment: Psychologists’ preferred method of research is the experiment because only through a carefully controlled experiment can one show a causal relationship. An experiment allows the researcher to manipulate the independent variable and control for confounding variables.
• Correlation: A correlation expresses a relationship between two variables without ascribing cause. Correlations can be either positive or negative. A positive correlation between two things means that the presence of one thing predicts the presence of the other. A negative correlation means that the presence of one thing predicts the absence of the other.
• Naturalistic observation: Sometimes researchers opt to observe their participants in their natural habitats without interacting with them at all. Such unobtrusive observation is called naturalistic observation. The goal of naturalistic observation is to get a realistic and rich picture of the participants’ behavior. To that end, control is sacrificed.
• Case study method: The case study method is used to get a full, detailed picture of one participant or a small group of participants. While case studies allow researchers to get the richest possible picture of what they are studying, the focus on a single individual or small group means that the findings cannot be generalized to a larger population.
• Descriptive statistics: Descriptive statistics, as the name suggests, simply describe a set of data. For instance, if you were interested in researching what kinds of pets your schoolmates have, you might summarize that data by creating a frequency distribution that would tell you how many students had dogs, cats, zebras, and so on.
• Correlation: A correlation measures the relationship between two variables. Correlations can be either positive or negative.
• Inferential statistics: Whereas descriptive statistics provide a way to summarize information about the sample studied, the purpose of inferential statistics is to determine whether or not findings can be applied to the larger population from which the sample was selected.

Next, test your AP Psychology Unit 1 knowledge using our free Key Terms Worksheets!

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The Best AP Psychology Study Guide

Advanced Placement (AP)

AP courses cover a lot of complex information, and it's not always easy to find great study materials and strategies. I've written this AP Psychology study guide as a way to make the process of studying for the AP test and other in-class assessments a little less overwhelming. It will help you figure out how to structure your studying, give you strategies to better understand the material, and provide links to notes and practice resources. If you follow the advice in this guide, you'll be on your way to a high AP Psych score!

What's in This AP Psychology Study Guide?

This guide will help you study for the AP Psychology exam and other assessments in your class by providing study strategies and other resources that pertain to the material covered in the course.

In the first section, you'll learn how to create a study plan for the exam that supports your needs as a student . This section applies exclusively to the final AP exam, so it's less relevant if you're just studying for an in-class test.

The next section provides study tips that are specific to AP Psychology and will serve you well as you prepare for both in-class tests and the final exam.

Finally, the last part of this AP Psychology guide is devoted to notes, outlines, videos, and other online resources that will be useful in your studying.

AP Psychology Study Plans: 2 Options for Your Prep

Before you start studying for AP Psych, you should know the difference between where you are in your knowledge of the material and where you want to be.

Find an official practice test , print it out, and take it as though it were the real AP Psych test (70 minutes for the 100 multiple-choice questions and 50 minutes for the two free-response questions). Then, use the following chart to estimate your final AP score based on your raw scores:

To calculate your final score, you must first add up all the multiple-choice questions you answered correctly (each question is worth 1 point). Next, convert the number of points you earned on the free-response questions to a value out of 50. For example, if you got 8 out of 14 points on the two free-response questions (each question is worth 7 points), it would convert to about 29 out of 50.

Lastly, add your multiple-choice score (out of 100) and your free-response score (out of 50) to find your composite raw AP Psychology score (out of 150). Use the chart above to see the estimate for your final AP score on a scale of 1-5 .

Depending on how much you need to improve and the amount of time you have before the exam, you might choose to structure your studying in different ways. I'll go through a 10-hour plan and a 20-hour plan. The shorter plan is for students hoping to improve by just a single AP point or raise their score within the same AP range so that they feel more comfortable during the test. The longer plan is for students hoping to improve by 2 or more points (and can be extended further if necessary).

I know this doesn't seem like much time, but a few hours of focused studying goes a long way for this particular subject. Psychology is one of the shorter AP tests (just two hours in total), so practice testing won't be as long of a process.

Additionally, questions tend to be based on memorization of definitions of terms and some logical reasoning; there aren't as many complex thought processes involved. Overall, AP Psychology is considered one of the easier AP tests . M ost students will probably be able to earn a high score (4 or 5) by studying for 10 hours or less.

Option 1: 10-Hour AP Psychology Study Plan

• Take a diagnostic test (2 hours)
• Score the test and analyze your mistakes (1.5 hours)
• Study content and revise your strategy, keeping in mind your mistakes on the diagnostic test (2 hours)
• Take another practice test (2 hours)
• Final study session to clear up any issues you had on the second test (1 hour)

Option 2: 20-Hour AP Psychology Study Plan

• Study content and revise your strategy, keeping in mind your mistakes on the diagnostic test (3 hours)
• Study content areas for which you're still missing questions, do more practice questions, and continue to revise your strategy (3 hours)
• Take a third practice test (2 hours)
• Final study session to clear up any confusion (1.5 hours)
• Wrap up your studying with a final practice test (2 hours)

Each of these psychology study plans has the same basic components, but the second one allows you to spend more time studying content and has more room for additional practice tests. If you're trying to improve by 2 or more AP points, it's likely that there are some major gaps in your content knowledge that warrant additional studying.

It's extremely important that you document and analyze your mistakes on each AP practice test if you're hoping to make big improvements. Mistakes come in several different forms, and you should be aware of this so that you can make appropriate changes to your test-taking strategy and study plan after each practice test.

If most of your incorrect answers are the results of careless mistakes or poor time management, the solution to your problem isn't necessarily more content review. These types of mistakes respond better to additional practice testing that increases your familiarity with time limits and question formats .

If, on the other hand, you find that all or most of your incorrect answers are due to gaps in content knowledge, you can use this info to focus your studying on the areas that cost you the most points. I suggest categorizing your mistakes so that you know where to direct your studying. In this case, you might not need to make many modifications to your actual test-taking strategy.

Most students will have a mixture of both types of mistakes , but it's still good to be mindful of where your biggest problems lie so that you can tackle them more efficiently.

AP Psychology Exam: 4 Essential Study Tips

Before you start studying content for AP Psychology, I want to give you a few studying and test-taking tips that will help you get the most out of your time. Here are some pointers to keep in mind when preparing for the AP test and any other in-class assessments throughout the year.

Tip 1: Get Familiar With Important Terms

You'll need to have extensive knowledge of the definitions of psychological terms for both the multiple-choice and free-response sections of the test. Some definitions are relatively intuitive, but others are almost impossible to figure out if you haven't studied them directly.

Be meticulous about going over all the terms covered in your class so that you don't second-guess yourself on the test. This is especially important for free-response questions for which you will be asked to describe how terms relate to certain situations. You need to understand them beyond just the ability to pick their correct definitions out of a multiple-choice lineup. Flashcards are a particularly useful study tool for AP Psychology.

Tip 2: Make the Abstract Concrete

With all the confusing terminology involved in this course, it's easy to get mixed up and think that a term means one thing when it really means another. Since psychology deals with how people act and process information on a day-to-day basis, it's a great idea to connect terms to specific scenarios in your life .

For example, you might connect a term such as "reciprocity norm," which says that people tend to treat others the same way they have been treated, to a situation in which a store employee was rude to you. Maybe they received poor treatment from other customers and were reflecting that back onto you (they also could just be a jerk, but it's nice to give people the benefit of the doubt).

When you make this type of connection, the term becomes stickier in your memory because it's tied to the heavy weight of a real-life experience. You can practice applying psychology terms to your everyday life at any time as the concepts are constantly demonstrated all around us.

Tip 3: Think Logically

Remember to listen to your common sense when answering questions on the AP Psych test. In some cases on the exam, you can figure out the answer with nothing but a little bit of logic. It's common for students to forget this and start to worry when they don't know what every part of the question means.

In this case, take a step back and think about which answer makes the most sense based on what you do know. You might be surprised by how many questions you can answer this way!

Here's an example (which I used in my AP Psychology review article as well ) of what I mean:

There are a few complex terms here and the question might seem pretty wordy, but it's actually very basic .

When they were scared, the monkeys preferred the soft cloth mother over the uncomfortable wire mother with food. Logically, we can conclude that the answer is B. Overthinking is the downfall of many high-achieving students, so don't start to doubt yourself just because the answer seems too simple to you!

Tip 4: Write in Complete Sentences, not Complete Essays

Although this isn't really a study tip, I think it's important to know before the exam; it probably also applies to in-class tests.

Psychology is about your grasp of science—not English—so don't bother with introductions, conclusions, or any other fluff in your answers to the free-response questions. All you need to do is give a direct answer in a complete sentence. You'll save time and make it easier for the graders to give you points.

It's smart to get used to doing this on practice free-response questions so that you'll be a pro by exam time.

AP Psychology Content: Notes, Outlines, and Videos

Here are some helpful resources that cover all the content you'll see on the AP Psychology exam. (Note that these are not the same as the new units described in the 2020 Course and Exam Description , though they cover similar topics and ideas.) Depending on your learning style, you might decide to look at notes or follow along with a video in areas for which your understanding is weaker.

You can also use these resources throughout the year to review for in-class assessments. If you had difficulty understanding a concept as it was taught to you in class, for example, you might use the notes and videos in this article to access alternative explanations.

You could also use these AP Psychology notes to supplement your studying if you found that you were consistently coming up with incorrect answers to questions in a certain topic area on quizzes or practice tests.

History and Approaches

Research methods, biological bases of behavior.

• Neural Processing and the Endocrine System
• Genetics, Evolutionary Psychology, and Behavior

Sensation and Perception

States of consciousness.

• Thinking, Problem Solving, Creativity, and Language

Motivation and Emotion

• Emotions, Stress, and Health

Developmental Psychology

Personality, testing and individual differences, abnormal psychology.

• PowerPoint ( Part 1 and Part 2 )

Treatment of Psychological Disorders

Social psychology, overall review.

• List of Terms and People to Remember
• Full Playlist of Crash Course Psychology Videos

Additional Resources to Test Your AP Psychology Knowledge

If you're unsure of where to start with your AP Psych prep or prefer to learn in a more interactive way, here are some additional online resources for reviewing concepts and taking practice tests.

The College Board

It's best to prioritize official resources over unofficial ones , as these will be the most accurate. Here are some great College Board materials you can use in your AP Psychology prep.

• The College Board website : You get access to tons of free-response questions, along with answer guides and sample responses, from 1999 to 2021. You can also get more practice questions through AP Classroom , a new digital tool that your AP teacher can use to assign homework and give out questions to students.
• 2020 AP Psychology Course and Exam Description : This free guide offers 15 multiple-choice questions, two free-response questions, and answer explanations for both (you can see free-response answers in the scoring guidelines ). All information has been updated for the current exam format and content.
• 2014-15 AP Psychology Course Description : This older but still relevant guide contains 25 multiple-choice questions (with answers) and two free-response questions.
• 2012 AP Psychology Exam
• 1999 AP Psychology Exam
• 1994 AP Psychology Exam

This site includes practice questions that cover all the current topics in AP Psychology . It divides them into easy, medium, and hard difficulty levels and records how many questions within each level you've answered correctly. This makes it simple to gauge which areas need the most work. You'll need to create and pay for an account to access most of the questions.

This popular quiz website offers a bunch of flashcards with AP Psych terms to help you practice, including a strong set of flashcards based on the Myers textbook and a set that goes through all the famous psychologists you should know .

Varsity Tutors

Famed test-prep company Varsity Tutors has several multiple-choice diagnostic tests to help you get a feel for how much you already know about AP Psych. It also has a bunch of mini quizzes organized by topic area and labeled based on difficulty level. Flashcards for AP Psychology terms and concepts are included here as well.

High School Test Prep

This site has lots of free practice AP Psych tests organized by topic area . You'll get immediate feedback with detailed answer explanations as you go along.

Conclusion: Using This AP Psychology Study Guide

Following the advice in this study guide is a promising step toward earning a high score on the AP Psychology test and other psychology tests throughout the school year.

AP Psychology is a completely manageable subject if you prepare for the exam responsibly. Memorizing key terms, applying confusing psychology concepts to your everyday life, using common sense to solve practice questions, and staying focused on the free-response section will help you be successful, both in class and on the AP test.

After reading this article, you should have everything you need to be able to answer even the most challenging questions the College Board throws at you on the AP Psych exam !

What's Next?

For more info on how to prepare for the AP Psychology exam, check out my comprehensive review guide .

Are you looking for some review books to supplement your AP studying? Read about the best review books for AP Psychology . You can also try our articles on specific psychology topics, like this one about Stockholm Syndrome .

Still trying to decide how many AP classes you should take in high school? Then you'll definitely want to read this article for some advice !

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Samantha is a blog content writer for PrepScholar. Her goal is to help students adopt a less stressful view of standardized testing and other academic challenges through her articles. Samantha is also passionate about art and graduated with honors from Dartmouth College as a Studio Art major in 2014. In high school, she earned a 2400 on the SAT, 5's on all seven of her AP tests, and was named a National Merit Scholar.

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AP Psychology

Learn all about the course and exam. Already enrolled? Join your class in My AP.

Not a Student?

Go to AP Central for resources for teachers, administrators, and coordinators.

About the Course

Have you ever wondered why you act a certain way around different people? Or how your family and society influence your behaviors? In AP Psychology, you’ll learn the foundational concepts that detail how and why people think and behave the way they do.

AP Psychology Revisions for 2024-25

We revised AP Psychology for the 2024-25 school year.

Skills You'll Learn

Connecting psychological concepts and theories to real-life scenarios

Understanding and interpreting data

Analyzing research studies in psychology

Equivalency and Prerequisites

College course equivalent.

A one-semester, introductory college course in psychology

Recommended Prerequisites

Fri, May 16, 2025

12 PM Local

AP Psychology Exam

This is the regularly scheduled date for the AP Psychology Exam.

About the Units

The course content outlined below is organized into commonly taught units of study that provide one possible sequence for the course. Your teacher may choose to organize the course content differently based on local priorities and preferences.

Course Content

Unit 1: biological bases of behavior .

You’ll study behaviors and mental processes from a biological perspective and explore the effects of the interaction between human biology and our environment. 

Topics may include:  

• The interaction of inherited traits, environment, and evolution in shaping behavior  
• Structures and functions of nervous systems 
• Neural firing and the influence of psychoactive substances  
• The study of the brain, including its structures and functions  
• Sleep 
• Sensation 

On The Exam

15%–25% of exam score

Unit 2: Cognition

You’ll examine the complex nature of how memory, intelligence, and other mental processes impact human behavior. 

• Perception 
• Biases and errors in thinking, creative thinking, and problem-solving strategies  
• The cognitive and physiological processes that make up memory  
• Forgetting and typical memory errors  
• Defining and measuring intelligence and achievement 

Unit 3: Development and Learning

You’ll study how physical and social changes over humans’ lifespans can influence behavior and mental processes from a variety of perspectives and how learning works. 

Topics may include:   

• Research methods used in developmental psychology 
• Physical, cognitive, and social-emotional development across the lifespan  
• Gender and sexual orientation

Unit 4: Social Psychology and Personality

You’ll study how the social experience influences behavior of individuals and groups and how personality is studied and develops. 

• Attribution theory and person perception 
• Attitude formation and change 
• The psychology of social situations 
• Psychodynamic, humanistic, social cognitive, and trait theories of personality 
• Motivation 
• Emotion 

Unit 5: Mental and Physical Health

You’ll learn how psychologists promote mental and physical health and evaluate, study, and treat a range of psychological disorders. 

• An introduction to health and positive psychology 
• Standards for diagnosing and approaches to explaining psychological disorders  
• Neurodevelopmental and schizophrenic spectrum disorders  
• Bipolar, depressive, anxiety, and obsessive-compulsive disorders  
• Dissociative and trauma- and stress-related disorders  
• Eating disorders and personality disorders  
• Historical developments in psychological treatment  
• Modern treatment options and methods 

Credit and Placement

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Course Resources

Ap classroom resources.

Once you join your AP class section online, you’ll be able to access AP Daily videos, any assignments from your teacher, and your assignment results in AP Classroom. Sign in to access them.

• Go to AP Classroom

AP Psychology Course and Exam Description

This is the core document for the course. It clearly lays out the course content and describes the exam and AP Program in general.

See Where AP Can Take You

AP Psychology can lead to a wide range of careers and college majors

Additional Information

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AP Psychology: Research Methods Notes

Key Takeaways: Research Methods

• The study of psychology relies on a diverse array of qualitative and quantitative research methods, including observations, case studies, surveys, and controlled experiments.
• Psychological research is carefully designed so that researchers can be confident about using results to draw conclusions about real-life phenomena. This is done by controlling variables, creating representative samples, controlling for internal and external validity, and operationalizing definitions and measurements.
• Researchers use statistics to analyze and make sense of the data gathered in a research study. This involves the use of descriptive statistics like measures of central tendency and dispersion, as well as inferential statistics for making generalizations based on the data.
• Because psychological study often involves the participation of human subjects, researchers must abide by established ethical principles and practices as well as legal guidelines while conducting research.

Research Methods Key Terms

Types of psychological research.

• Quantitative research: Research that uses operational measurements and statistical techniques to reach conclusions on the basis of numerical data, such as correlational studies and experiments.
• Qualitative research: Research that does not rely on numerical representations of data, such as naturalistic observations, unstructured interviews, and case studies.
• Correlation coefficient: A number (symbolized by r ) between −1 and +1, which represents the strength and direction of the correlation between two variables. The closer the coefficient is to −1 or +1, the stronger the correlation between the variables.
• Positive correlation: An r value above 0, which indicates that two variables have a direct relationship: when one variable increases, the other also increases.
• Negative correlation: An r value below 0, which indicates that two variables have an inverse relationship: when one variable increases, the other decreases.
• Naturalistic observation: A research method, typically qualitative in nature and usually covert and undisclosed, that attempts to document behavior as it spontaneously occurs in a real world setting.
• Structured observation: A type of observational research typically conducted in a laboratory setting, where the researcher can control some aspects of the environment.
• Coding: The classification of behaviors into discrete categories, used especially in structured observations to achieve a level of consistency in recording and describing observations.
• Inter-rater reliability: A statistical measure of the degree of agreement between different codings of the same phenomena.
• Participant observation: A mostly qualitative research method in which the researcher becomes a member of a studied group, either overtly or covertly.
• Hawthorne effect: A phenomenon in which research subjects tend to alter their behavior in response to knowledge of being observed.
• Longitudinal study: A research design that examines how individuals develop by studying the same sample over a long period of time.
• Cross-sectional study: A research design conducted at a single point in time, comparing groups of differing ages to arrive at conclusions about development.
• Case study: A research design involving an in-depth and detailed examination of a single subject, or case, usually an individual or a small group.
• Survey: A mostly quantitative research method involving a list of questions filled out by a group of people to assess attitudes or opinions.
• Nonresponse bias: A distortion of data that can occur in surveys with a low response rate.
• Surveyor bias: A distortion of data that can occur when survey questions are written in a way that prompts respondents to answer a certain way.
• Experiments: Deliberately designed procedures used to test research hypotheses.
• Hypothesis: A proposed, testable explanation for a phenomenon, often constructed in the form of a statement about the relationship between two or more variables.
• Controlled experiment: A research design for testing a causal hypothesis, in which all aspects of the study are deliberately controlled and only independent variables are manipulated to isolate their effects on dependent variables.
• Field experiment: Experiments conducted out in the real world, with fewer controls than would be found in a lab.

Check out our full Research Methods Notes!

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A case study is an in-depth analysis of an individual or group to understand their behavior or circumstances over time.

congrats on reading the definition of Case Study . now let's actually learn it.

Related terms

Longitudinal Study : This type of research involves studying the same variables repeatedly over time.

Qualitative Research : This method involves collecting non-numerical data through methods like interviews, observations, or analysis of text.

Observational Study : A type of study where researchers observe participants without manipulation or control.

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• Ethnic Studies
• Global Studies
• History of Education
• Interest Groups, Social Movements, and Public Policy
• Intro to Sociology
• Introduction to African American Studies
• Introduction to Comparative Politics
• Introduction to Education
• Introduction to Humanities
• Introduction to Political Research
• Introduction to Political Sociology
• Introduction to Public Policy
• Investigative Reporting
• Journalism Research
• Leading Strategy Implementation
• Literacy Instruction
• Market Research: Tools and Techniques for Data Collection and Analysis
• Mathematics Education
• Music Psychology
• Music of the Modern Era
• Nursing Care of the Adult with Acute and Chronic Health Disorders
• Organization Design
• Performance Studies
• Political Economy of International Relations
• Power and Politics in Organizations
• Predictive Analytics in Business
• Professional Presentation
• Professionalism and Research in Nursing
• Social Problems and Public Policy
• Social Stratification
• Social Studies Education
• Sociology of Education
• Sociology of Marriage and the Family
• Sociology of Religion
• Special Education
• The Human Storyteller
• The Modern Period

Practice Questions ( 3 )

• Why might a psychologist choose to use a case study?
• In terms of research methods, what is a case study primarily used for in Psychology?
• What is the primary disadvantage of using a case study in psychological research?

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