end notes in research paper

What Are Endnotes, Why Are They Needed, and How Are They Used?

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An "endnote" is a reference, explanation, or comment placed at the end of an article, research paper, chapter, or book. Like footnotes  (which are used in this article), endnotes serve two main purposes in a research paper: (1) They acknowledge the source of a quotation, paraphrase, or summary; and (2) They provide explanatory comments that would interrupt the flow of the main  text .

Endnotes vs. Footnotes

"Your department may specify whether you should use footnotes or endnotes, especially for a thesis or dissertation.

If not, you should generally choose footnotes, which are easier to read. Endnotes force readers to flip to the back to check every citation. On the other hand, choose endnotes when your footnotes are so long or numerous that they take up too much space on the page, making your report unattractive and difficult to read. Also, endnotes better accommodate tables, quoted poetry, and other matter that requires special typography."

(Turabian, Kate L.  A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations , 7th ed., University of Chicago Press, 2007.)

"Readers of academic and scholarly books usually prefer footnotes to endnotes because the former allows them to skim the notes without losing their place in the text. Popular wisdom, however, says that nonscholarly readers are either reluctant or unwilling to purchase a nonfiction trade book whose feet are hemmed with ribbons of tiny type; thus most trade books place (the shop term is 'bury') the notes containing sources and references at the back of the book ."

(Einsohn, Amy. The Copyeditor's Handbook,  University of California Press, 2006.)

Endnote Conventions

"An author or title mentioned in the text need not be repeated in the footnote  citation , though it is often helpful to do so. In an endnote, however, the author (or at least the author's last name) and title should be repeated, since at least some readers may have forgotten whether the note number was 93 or 94 by the time they find it at the back of a work.

Such frustration can be prevented by the devices illustrated in the examples below."

34. This and the preceding four quotations are all from  Hamlet , act 1, sc. 4. 87. Barbara Wallraff,  Word Court  (New York: Harcourt, 2000), 34. Further citations to this work are given in the text.​

(​ The Chicago Manual of Style,  University of Chicago Press, 2003.)

Endnote Numbering

"Endnotes are numbered consecutively throughout a chapter or article, with each new chapter or section starting over with endnote 1. The notes section at the back is then broken down by chapter or section, with the corresponding endnote numbers listed underneath.

Place endnote numbers within the text in superscript type (small typeset above the line). In the notes section, use the same number to identify the endnote with the number in the text."

(Robbins, Lara M.  Grammar, and Style at Your Fingertips,  Alpha, 2007.)

Sample Endnotes From Pennebaker's 'The Secret Life of Pronouns '

"Chapter 2: Ignoring the Content, Celebrating the Style 19. The drawing is from the Thematic Apperception Test by Henry A. Murray, Card 12F, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press. 20. Throughout this book, I include quotations from people who have been in my studies or classes, from text on the Internet, or even from conversations or e-mails from friends or family members. In all cases, all identifying information has been removed or altered. 22. In this book, the terms style, function , and stealth words are used interchangeably. They have many other names as well —  junk words, particles , and closed-class words . Linguists tend to disagree about the precise definitions of each of these overlapping terms."

(Pennebaker, James W.  The Secret Life of Pronouns: What Our Words Say About Us,  Bloomsbury Press, 2011.)

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Endnote Note citing a particular source or making a brief explanatory comment placed at the end of a research paper and arranged sequentially in relation to where the reference appears in the paper.

Footnote Note citing a particular source or making a brief explanatory comment placed at the bottom of a page corresponding to the item cited in the corresponding text above.

Fiske, Robert Hartwell. To the Point: A Dictionary of Concise Writing . New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 2014.

Structure and Writing Style

Advantages of Using Endnotes

• Endnotes are less distracting to the reader and allows the narrative to flow better.
• Endnotes don't clutter up the page.
• As a separate section of a research paper, endnotes allow the reader to read and contemplate all the notes at once.

Disadvantages of Using Endnotes

• If you want to look at the text of a particular endnote, you have to flip to the end of the research paper to find the information.
• Depending on how they are created [i.e., continuous numbering or numbers that start over for each chapter], you may have to remember the chapter number as well as the endnote number in order to find the correct one.
• Endnotes may carry a negative connotation much like the proverbial "fine print" or hidden disclaimers in advertising. A reader may believe you are trying to hide something by burying it in a hard-to-find endnote.

Advantages of Using Footnotes

• Readers interested in identifying the source or note can quickly glance down the page to find what they are looking for.
• It allows the reader to immediately link the footnote to the subject of the text without having to take the time to find the note at the back of the paper.
• Footnotes are automatically included when printing off specific pages.

Disadvantages of Using Footnotes

• Footnotes can clutter up the page and, thus, negatively impact the overall look of the page.
• If there are multiple columns, charts, or tables below only a small segment of text that includes a footnote, then you must decide where the footnotes should appear.
• If the footnotes are lengthy, there's a risk they could dominate the page, although this issue is considered acceptable in legal scholarship.
• Adding lengthy footnotes after the paper has been completed can alter the page where other sources are located [i.e., a long footnote can push text to the next page].
• It is more difficult learning how to insert footnotes using your word processing program than simply adding endnotes at the end of your paper.

Things to keep in mind when considering using either endnotes or footnotes in your research paper :

1.    Footnotes are numbered consecutively throughout a research paper, except for those notes accompanying special material (e.g., figures, tables, charts, etc.). Numbering of footnotes are "superscript"--Arabic numbers typed slightly above the line of text. Do not include periods, parentheses, or slashes. They can follow all punctuation marks except dashes. In general, to avoid interrupting the continuity of the text, footnote numbers are placed at the end of the sentence, clause, or phrase containing the quoted or paraphrased material. 2.    Depending on the writing style used in your class, endnotes may take the place of a list of resources cited in your paper or they may represent non-bibliographic items, such as comments or observations, followed by a separate list of references to the sources you cited and arranged alphabetically by the author's last name. If you are unsure about how to use endnotes, consult with your professor. 3.    In general, the use of footnotes in most academic writing is now considered a bit outdated and has been replaced by endnotes, which are much easier to place in your paper, even with the advent of word processing programs. However, some disciplines, such as law and history, still predominantly utilize footnotes. Consult with your professor about which form to use and always remember that, whichever style of citation you choose, apply it consistently throughout your paper.

NOTE:   Always think critically about the information you place in a footnote or endnote. Ask yourself, is this supplementary or tangential information that would otherwise disrupt the narrative flow of the text or is this essential information that I should integrate into the main text? If you are not sure, it's better to work it into the text. Too many notes implies a disorganized paper.

Cermak, Bonni and Jennifer Troxell. A Guide to Footnotes and Endnotes for NASA History Authors . NASA History Program. History Division; Hale, Ali. Should You Use Footnotes or Endnotes? DailyWritingTips.com; Tables, Appendices, Footnotes and Endnotes. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Lunsford, Andrea A. and Robert Connors. The St. Martin's Handbook . New York: St. Martin's Press, 1989; Saller, Carol. “Endnotes or Footnotes? Some Considerations.” The Chronicle of Higher Education 58 (January 6, 2012): http://chronicle.com/blogs/linguafranca/2012/01/06/endnotes-or-footnotes-some-considerations/.

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Do not use AI to suggest references to read/cite

Please be aware that ChatGPT and other AI services can produce incorrect, made-up references that cannot be sourced. While some individual parts of an AI-generated reference may be accurate (such as the journal name, article or book title or an author) the whole reference does not usually exist so cannot be found by our library team.

If you have a reference that you cannot find, our team may ask where it came from so that we can ensure it is legitimate before attempting to find it. If you need assistance, please use our 24/7 library chat service. 

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*There is also a free online version of EndNote available. See EndNote Online on this guide for more information.

New to EndNote? We recommend you watch the How to Use EndNote in 7 Minutes video below.

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EndNote is a citation management software program designed to assist with formatting citations, so you can focus on your research. The University of Tennessee maintains a campus-wide annual subscription for EndNote and it is available at no cost to students, staff, and faculty. Below are descriptions of the two types of EndNote software as well as some helpful tools for using EndNote.

EndNote Desktop

The desktop version of EndNote helps you store and organize your research, download new references from library databases, create bibliographies using over 5,000 styles, use your references as you write, share with colleagues, and access and manage your research from anywhere by syncing with your EndNote online account. EndNote may be installed on a maximum of three machines per license.

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While not required in order to use EndNote Desktop, an EndNote Online account offers the important ability to sync your EndNote library to the cloud. By connecting an EndNote Online account to your EndNote Desktop, your library of references is safely backed-up to the cloud and can quickly be accessed from any computer. Note: while EndNote Online can be accessed from anywhere, you are only allowed to install EndNote Desktop on a maximum of three machines.

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What are Endnotes? Most Comprehensive Guide to the Perfectly Referenced Paper

Updated 21 Jun 2024

Adding endnotes is one of the ways to give your readers more insights or citation details about a source not included in the main text. In this article, we have discussed how to use this referencing type in various citation styles ─ keep reading to get to endnotes’ examples. You will also find an answer to what endnotes are and how they differ from footnotes. 

Key things to know about endnotes 

What are endnotes? They are references or annotations at the end of a document, chapter, or section but not at the bottom of each page (like footnotes). 

• They may cover some information you want to include in your text, but it is not quite relatable to the main chapters.
• Endnotes allow you to include citations without interrupting the flow of the text.
• You can use them to credit sources used in the text.
• The text becomes cluttered with too many footnotes. 

The difference between endnotes and footnotes

They are used for the same purpose but differ in placement: while a footnote is placed at the bottom of each page, you should look for an endnote at the end of the document or section. You can also notice the difference in length, as footnotes are usually shorter. 

Use footnotes to:

• Give short explanations or comments closely related to the main text.
• Provide a citation for a source directly quoted or paraphrased in the text.
• Avoid disrupting the text flow by providing a lengthy citation.
• Provide additional information best placed on the same page as the reference.

Use endnotes to:

• Give more extensive commentary or explanation, being distractive as footnotes.
• Provide a citation for a source that is not directly quoted or paraphrased in the text.
• Avoid cluttering the page with too many footnotes.
• Write a book or article that requires a more formal and structured approach.

How to use endnotes? Important steps to follow

Keep in mind that following one of the styles covered below, you must always adjust the formatting to match their requirements. Also, add a heading for the endnotes page. 

Look out for these general formatting rules:

Place and number.

Typically, this referencing type is placed at the end of a document, chapter, or section. Make sure you assign a number corresponding to the text referenced in the note. 

In most formatting styles, use single-spaced with a double space between each note. The first line of each one is usually indented.

Include relevant information.

Depending on the note's purpose, you may need to include the cited source's author, title, publication date, and page number.

Adding endnotes in Word

• Place the cursor in the text when you want to add an endnote.
• Click on the "References" tab and choose “Insert Endnote”.
• Type the text of the endnote. You can add as many of them as you need, and they will be numbered sequentially according to their insertion order.

Endnotes in Chicago style 

Chicago format is a common citation style in the humanities, particularly history, literature, and the arts. It is known for using both endnotes and footnotes. It offers two different citation options: the notes-bibliography system , which uses either endnotes or footnotes (you can choose which to use depending on the purpose), and the author-date system , which uses in-text citations.

• Number endnotes consecutively throughout the document.
• The number for the note is superscripted in the text and appears at the beginning of the corresponding note in the according section.
• Place the number marker at the end of a sentence after the period. Otherwise, you can place them at the end of a statement or phrase within a sentence, but again it comes after punctuation like a comma or semicolon. An exception is a dash.
• The endnotes page is titled with bold and centered "Notes" after the main text and any appendices.
• The Chicago style requires a separate bibliography with full citations for all sources. The title “Bibliography” is preferred, but “Works Cited” or “Literature Cited” is acceptable. Unless you’re writing a short paper and have been told you don’t need to.

Here is a Chicago style endnotes example:

                     1. Jane Doe. "The Great Depression and Its Impact on American Society." Journal of American History 123, no. 4 (2018): 56.

Endnotes in APA style 

You will find a few cases of APA endnotes, as in-text citations and reference lists serve this purpose. Yet, they are used to add additional comments or explanations that are not essential to understanding the main text.

• Such notes are listed at the end of the document after the reference list with the heading “Footnotes” (APA style doesn’t use the “endnotes” term) in bold and centered at the top.
• APA requires double-spaced, indented paragraphs.
• Start each note with its number in superscript, followed by a space.
• Each one is numbered consecutively using Arabic numerals.
• The superscript number appears in the text immediately after the punctuation mark for the sentence or phrase it relates to.
• They should be used sparingly and only for content that cannot be easily integrated into the main text.

Endnotes in MLA style 

Endnotes are typically used when the note's content is too long or detailed to include in the main text or when the information interrupts the main text flow. Nevertheless, MLA in-text citations appear in parentheses, but you can use endnotes to avoid cluttering the text if you need a lot of citations in one place.

• In MLA style, “Notes” or “Endnotes” are listed at the end of the document before the Works Cited list.
• The superscript number for the endnote appears in the text immediately after the punctuation mark for the sentence or phrase that the endnote relates to.
• Indent the first line of each endnote, and start the note with the number in superscript followed by a space.
• Endnotes should be double-spaced.

Now you know what are endnotes used for and how to integrate them into your paper to reach maximum efficiency. To use them correctly in your paper, you must follow guidelines for required formatting that differ in styles, such as Chicago, APA, and MLA. Understanding what endnotes are and how to use them can be time-consuming, so if you need help, you might consider the option to pay someone to do my homework for accurate and properly formatted endnotes.

In which cases is using endnotes appropriate? 

The purpose of endnotes depends on the style you are using. In Chicago, an endnote is used for in-text citations. In APA and MLA, endnotes are used to provide copyright information or to clear up confusing content. Thus, you can use them to add lengthy information to your paper that looks cluttering as a footnote.

What should I add to the endnote?

It should include information that expands upon a point, references or citations to sources used in the document, and acknowledgments or other relevant notes.

Which purpose does an endnote serve? 

Endnotes can serve various purposes: citing sources, adding extra information, directing readers to other areas, etc. Thus, it offers extensive information, comments, or references to sources used in a paper, without interrupting the main text flow. 

Should endnotes be included on every page?

No, footnotes serve this purpose. While endnotes are formatted identically to footnotes, they are presented as a single list at the end of your paper. The definition of endnotes implies they are part of a different section and are not included in the bibliography section, even though they both explain sources used in a document. 

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Turabian Footnote/Endnote Style

Table of Contents: Books E-books Journal Articles (Print) Journal Articles (Online) Magazine Articles (Print) Magazine Articles (Online) Newspaper Articles Review Articles Websites For More Help

The examples in this guide are meant to introduce you to the basics of citing sources using Kate Turabian's A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations (seventh edition) .  Kate Turabian created her first "manual" in 1937 as a means of simplifying for students The Chicago Manual of Style ; the seventh edition of Turabian is based on the 15th edition of the Chicago Manual . For types of resources not covered in this guide (e.g., government documents, manuscript collections, video recordings) and for further detail and examples, please consult the websites listed at the end of this guide, the handbook itself or a reference librarian .

Whenever you refer to or use another's words, facts or ideas in your paper, you are required to cite the source. Traditionally, disciplines in the humanities (art, history, music, religion, theology) require the use of bibliographic footnotes or endnotes in conjunction with a bibliography to cite sources used in research papers and dissertations. For the parenthetical reference (author-date) system (commonly used in the sciences and social sciences), please refer to the separate guide Turabian Parenthetical/Reference List Style . It is best to consult with your professor to determine the preferred citation style.

Indicate notes in the text of your paper by using consecutive superscript numbers (as demonstrated below). The actual note is indented and can occur either as a footnote at the bottom of the page or as an endnote at the end of the paper. To create notes, type the note number followed by a period on the same line as the note itself. This method should always be used for endnotes; it is the preferred method for footnotes. However, superscript numbers are acceptable for footnotes, and many word processing programs can generate footnotes with superscript numbers for you.

When citing books, the following are elements you may need to include in your bibliographic citation for your first footnote or endnote and in your bibliography, in this order:

1. Author or editor; 2. Title; 3. Compiler, translator or editor (if an editor is listed in addition to an author); 4. Edition; 5. Name of series, including volume or number used; 6. Place of publication, publisher and date of publication; 7. Page numbers of citation (for footnote or endnote).

Books with One Author or Corporate Author

Author: Charles Hullmandel experimented with lithographic techniques throughout the early nineteenth century, patenting the "lithotint" process in 1840. 1

Editor: Human beings are the sources of "all international politics"; even though the holders of political power may change, this remains the same. 1

Corporate Author: Children of Central and Eastern Europe have not escaped the nutritional ramifications of iron deficiency, a worldwide problem. 1

First footnote:

1 Michael Twyman, Lithography 1800-1850 (London: Oxford University Press, 1970), 145-146.

1 Valerie M. Hudson, ed., Culture and Foreign Policy (Boulder: L. Rienner Publishers, 1997), 5.

1 UNICEF, Generation in Jeopardy: Children in Central and Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Union , edited by Alexander Zouev (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1999), 44.

Note the different treatment of an editor's name depending on whether the editor takes the place of an author (second example) or is listed in addition to the author (third example). 

Subsequent footnotes:

       Method A: Include the author or editor's last name, the title (or an abbreviated title) and the page number cited.

2 Twyman, Lithography 1800-1850, 50.

2 Hudson, ed., Culture and Foreign Policy, 10.

2 UNICEF, Generation in Jeopardy, 48.

       Method B: Include only the author or editor's last name and the page number, leaving out the title.  

2 Twyman, 50.

2 Hudson, ed., 10.

2 UNICEF, 48.

Use Method A if you need to cite more than one reference by the same author.

1. Michael Twyman, Lithography 1800-1850  (London: Oxford University Press, 1970), 145-146.

Ibid., short for ibidem, means "in the same place."  Use ibid. if you cite the same page of the same work in succession without a different reference intervening.  If you need to cite a different page of the same work, include the page number.  For example:   2 Ibid., 50.

Bibliography:

Hudson, Valerie, N., ed. Culture and Foreign Policy . Boulder: L. Rienner Publishers, 1997.

Twyman, Michael. Lithography 1800-1850 . London: Oxford University Press, 1970.

UNICEF.  Generation in Jeopardy: Children in Central and Eastern Europe and the             Former Soviet Union . Edited by Alexander Zouev. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1999.

Books with Two or More Authors or Editors

1 Russell Keat and John Urry, Social Theory as Science, 2d ed. (London: Routledge and K. Paul, 1982), 196.

1 Toyoma Hitomi, "The Era of Dandy Beauties," in Queer Voices from Japan: First-Person Narratives from Japan's Sexual Minorities,  eds. Mark J. McLelland, Katsuhiko Suganuma, and James Welker ( Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2007), 157.

For references with more than three authors, cite the first named author followed by "et al." Cite all the authors in the bibliography.

1 Leonard B. Meyer, et al., The Concept of Style , ed. Berel Lang (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1979), 56.

2 Keat and Urry, Social Theory as Science , 200.

2 Meyer, et al., The Concept of Style , 90.

Keat, Russell, and John Urry. Social Theory as Science , 2d. ed. London: Routledge and K. Paul, 1982.

Hitomi, Toyoma. "The Era of Dandy Beauties." In Queer Voices from Japan: First-Person Narratives from Japan's Sexual Minorities,  edited by Mark J. McLelland, Katsuhiko Suganuma, and James Welker, 153-165.   Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2007.

Meyer, Leonard B., Kendall Walton, Albert Hofstadter, Svetlana Alpers, George Kubler, Richard Wolheim, Monroe Beardsley, Seymour Chatman, Ann Banfield, and Hayden White. The Concept of Style . Edited by Berel Lang.  Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1979.  

Electronic Books

Follow the guidelines for print books, above, but include the collection (if there is one), URL and the date you accessed the material.

1 John Rae, Statement of Some New Principles on the Subject of Political Economy (Boston: Hillard, Gray and Company, 1834), in The Making of the Modern World,   http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/MOME?af=RN&ae=U104874605&srchtp=a&ste=14  (accessed June 22, 2009).  

2 Rae, Statement of Some New Principles on the Subject of Political Economy .

Rae, John.  Statement of Some New Principles on the Subject of Political Economy. Boston: Hillard, Gray and Company, 1834. In The Making of the Modern World,   http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/MOME?af=RN&ae=U104874605&srchtp=a&ste=14  (accessed June 22, 2009).  

PERIODICAL ARTICLES

For periodical (magazine, journal, newspaper, etc.) articles, include some or all of the following elements in your first footnote or endnote and in your bibliography, in this order:

1. Author; 2. Article title; 3. Periodical title; 4. Volume or Issue number (or both); 5. Publication date; 6. Page numbers.

For online periodicals   , add: 7. URL and date of access; or 8. Database name, URL and date of access. (If available, include database publisher and city of publication.)

For an article available in more than one format (print, online, etc.), cite whichever version you used.

Journal Articles (Print)

1 Lawrence Freedman, "The Changing Roles of Military Conflict," Survival 40, no. 4 (1998): 52.

Here you are citing page 52.  In the bibliography (see below) you would include the full page range: 39-56.

If a journal has continuous pagination within a volume, you do not need to include the issue number:

1 John T. Kirby, "Aristotle on Metaphor," American Journal of Philology 118 (1997): 520.

Subsequent footnotes :

2 Freedman, "The Changing Roles of Military Conflict," 49.   

2 Kirby, "Aristotle on Metaphor," 545.

Freedman, Lawrence. "The Changing Roles of Military Conflict."   Survival 40, no. 4 (1998): 39-56.

Kirby, John T. "Aristotle on Metaphor."  American Journal of Philology 118 (1997): 517-554.  

Journal Articles (Online)

Cite as above, but include the URL and the date of access of the article.

On the Free Web

1 Molly Shea, "Hacking Nostalgia: Super Mario Clouds," Gnovis 9, no. 2 (Spring 2009), http://gnovisjournal.org/journal/hacking-nostalgia-super-mario-clouds  (accessed June 25, 2009).

Through a Subscription Database

1 John T. Kirby, "Aristotle on Metaphor," American Journal of Philology 118, no. 4 (Winter 1997): 524, http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/american_journal_of_philology/v118/118.4.kirby.html  (accessed June 25, 2009).

1 Michael Moon, et al., "Queers in (Single-Family) Space," Assemblage 24 (August 1994): 32, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3171189  (accessed June 25, 2009).

Subsequent Footnotes:

2 Shea, "Hacking Nostalgia."

2 Kirby, "Aristotle on Metaphor," 527. 

2 Moon, "Queers in (Single-Family) Space," 34. 

Shea, Molly. "Hacking Nostalgia: Super Mario Clouds," Gnovis 9, no. 2 (Spring 2009), http://gnovisjournal.org/journal/hacking-nostalgia-super-mario-clouds  (accessed June 25, 2009).

Kirby, John T. "Aristotle on Metaphor," American Journal of Philology 118, no. 4 (Winter 1997): 524, http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/american_journal_of_philology/v118/118.4.kirby.html  (accessed June 25, 2009).

Moon, Michael, Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick, Benjamin Gianni, and Scott Weir. "Queers in (Single-Family) Space." Assemblage 24 (August 1994): 30-7, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3171189  (accessed June 25, 2009).

Magazine Articles (Print)

Monthly or Bimonthly

           1 Paul Goldberger, "Machines for Living: The Architectonic Allure of the Automobile," Architectural Digest, October 1996, 82.

1 Steven Levy and Brad Stone, "Silicon Valley Reboots," Newsweek , March 25, 2002, 45.

          2 Goldberger, "Machines for Living," 82.

          2 Levy and Stone, "Silicon Valley Reboots," 46.

Goldberger, Paul.  "Machines for Living: The Architectonic Allure of the Automobile." Architectural Digest, October 1996.

Levy, Steven, and Brad Stone. "Silicon Valley Reboots." Newsweek , March 25, 2002.

Magazine Articles (Online)

Follow the guidelines for print magazine articles, adding the URL and date accessed.

1 Bill Wyman, "Tony Soprano's Female Trouble," Salon.com, May 19, 2001, http://www.salon.com/2001/05/19/sopranos_final/ (accessed February 13, 2017).

1 Sasha Frere-Jones, "Hip-Hop President." New Yorker , November 24, 2008, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=35324426&site=ehost-live (accessed June 26, 2009).

Wyman, Bill. "Tony Soprano's Female Trouble." Salon.com, May 19, 2001, http://www.salon.com/2001/05/19/sopranos_final/ (accessed February 13, 2017).

Frere-Jones, Sasha. "Hip-Hop President." New Yorker , November 24, 2008. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=35324426&site=ehost-live (accessed June 26, 2009).

Newspaper Articles

In most cases, you will cite newspaper articles only in notes, not in your bibliography. Follow the general pattern for citing magazine articles, although you may omit page numbers.

        1 Eric Pianin, "Use of Arsenic in Wood Products to End," Washington Post , February 13, 2002, final edition.

        1 Eric Pianin, "Use of Arsenic in Wood Products to End," Washington Post , February 13, 2002, final edition, in LexisNexis Academic (accessed June 27, 2009).

Note: In the example above, there was no stable URL for the article in LexisNexis, so the name of the database was given rather than a URL.

Review Articles

Follow the pattern below for review articles in any kind of periodical.

1 Alanna Nash, "Hit 'Em With a Lizard," review of Basket Case, by Carl Hiassen, New York Times , February 3, 2002, http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=105338185&sid=2&Fmt=6&clientId=5604&RQT=309&VName=PQD (accessed June 26, 2009).  

1 David Denby, "Killing Joke," review of No Country for Old Men , directed by Ethan and Joel Coen,  New Yorker, February 25, 2008, 72-73, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=fah&AN=30033248&site=ehost-live (accessed June 26, 2009). 

Second footnote:

2 Nash, "Hit 'Em With a Lizard."

2 Denby, "Killing Joke."

In most cases, you will be citing something smaller than an entire website. If you are citing an article from a website, for example, follow the guidelines for articles above. You can usually refer to an entire website in running text without including it in your reference list, e.g.: "According to its website, the Financial Accounting Standards Board requires ...".

If you need to cite an entire website in your bibliography, include some or all of the following elements, in this order:

1. Author or editor of the website (if known) 2. Title of the website 3. URL 4. Date of access

Financial Accounting Standards Board .  http://www.fasb.org  (accessed April 29, 2009).

FOR MORE HELP

Following are links to sites that have additional information and further examples:

Turabian Quick Guide (University of Chicago Press)

Chicago Manual of Style Online

RefWorks Once you have created an account, go to Tools/Preview Output Style to see examples of Turabian style.

Purdue's Online Writing Lab (OWL) Excellent source for research, writing and citation tips.

Citing Sources Duke University's guide to citing sources. The site offers comparison citation tables with examples from APA , Chicago , MLA and Turabian for both print and electronic works.

How to Cite Electronic Sources From the Library of Congress. Provides MLA and Turabian examples of citing formats like films, photographs, maps and recorded sound that are accessed electronically.

Uncle Sam: Brief Guide to Citing Government Publications The examples in this excellent guide from the University of Memphis are based on the Chicago Manual of Style and Kate Turabian's Manual .

Purdue Online Writing Lab Purdue OWL® College of Liberal Arts

Footnotes and Endnotes

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Copyright ©1995-2018 by The Writing Lab & The OWL at Purdue and Purdue University. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, reproduced, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed without permission. Use of this site constitutes acceptance of our terms and conditions of fair use.

Note:  This page reflects APA 6, which is now out of date. It will remain online until 2021, but will not be updated. The equivalent APA 7 page can be found here .

APA does not recommend the use of footnotes and endnotes because they are often expensive for publishers to reproduce. However, if explanatory notes still prove necessary to your document, APA details the use of two types of footnotes: content and copyright.

When using either type of footnote, insert a number formatted in superscript following almost any punctuation mark. Footnote numbers should not follow dashes ( — ), and if they appear in a sentence in parentheses, the footnote number should be inserted within the parentheses.

When using the footnote function in a word-processing program like Microsoft Word, place all footnotes at the bottom of the page on which they appear. Footnotes may also appear on the final page of your document (usually this is after the References page). Center the word “Footnotes” at the top of the page. Indent five spaces on the first line of each footnote. Then, follow normal paragraph spacing rules. Double-space throughout.

Content Notes

Content notes provide supplemental information to your readers. When providing content notes, be brief and focus on only one subject. Try to limit your comments to one small paragraph.

Content notes can also point readers to information that is available in more detail elsewhere.

Copyright Permission Notes

If you quote more than 500 words of published material or think you may be in violation of “Fair Use” copyright laws, you must get the formal permission of the author(s). All other sources simply appear in the reference list.

Follow the same formatting rules as with content notes for noting copyright permissions. Then attach a copy of the permission letter to the document.

If you are reproducing a graphic, chart, or table, from some other source, you must provide a special note at the bottom of the item that includes copyright information. You should also submit written permission along with your work. Begin the citation with “ Note .”

Note . From “Title of the article,” by W. Jones and R. Smith, 2007, Journal Title , 21, p. 122. Copyright 2007 by Copyright Holder. Reprinted with permission.

• Translation

How to use Footnotes and Endnotes in academic papers

By charlesworth author services.

• Charlesworth Author Services
• 28 January, 2022

How to use and write Footnotes and Endnotes in academic papers

Research papers and reports often include adjuncts such as charts and graphs, tables , diagrams, a hierarchy of headings, citations and references etc. Notes – whether footnotes or endnotes – are an important adjunct. They primarily serve the role of supplying additional information , which, if weaved into the main text, may reduce its ease of readability .

Footnotes vs. endnotes

• Location : By definition, footnotes appear at the foot of a page on which appears the text they support. Endnotes are placed at the end of a paper, a chapter or a book.
• Space : Footnotes, being located at the bottom of each individual page, are constrained by the amount of space available, whereas endnotes, located right at the end of the text, are afforded much more ample room.
• Amount of information (and flow) : The above point (space) is a useful distinction that tells readers what to expect. Footnotes offer small bits of information that you can choose to take in without breaking stride. You could take a quick look and return to the main text on the same page. On the other hand, endnotes may sometimes contain sizeable amounts of information, but you do not have to interrupt your reading of the main text. You can choose to read them once you have reached the end of the document.

Footnotes: Examples

As discussed, footnotes comprise small bits of information short enough to take in at a glance. Here are a couple of examples to illustrate the function of footnotes.

• A text may mention the name of an organisation and use a footnote to explain that the organisation had a different name in the past.
• A text may mention a certain sum of money in Korean Won, and the corresponding footnotes will indicate the equivalent sum in US dollars. 

Endnotes: Examples

As discussed too, endnotes can comprise much longer parcels of information. Here too are a couple of examples to illustrate the use of endnotes.

• While you may describe a certain method in your main text, you might use an endnote to outline in more detail some other tangential studies , perhaps from a slightly different field, which used that same method , the results they produced and why this may be of interest.
• You might cite an important quotation within the main body of your text and then include in a related endnote the full paragraph or section from which that quotation was taken, thus enabling interested readers to explore the wider context and additional insights if they wish. 

Usage in academic papers and digital documents

As an author of an academic paper, you can choose between footnotes and endnotes depending on how much additional information you want to give. Be aware, however, that footnotes and endnotes, especially endnotes, are virtually never used in research papers in the physical and biological sciences . They may sometimes be used in the social sciences and are more commonly seen in the humanities .

In digital documents, the distinction between footnotes and endnotes and their placement is less important, because the additional information can be connected to the main text with hyperlinks .

Writing footnotes and endnotes

• Superscripts and symbols : Within the main text, both footnotes and endnotes are typically signalled, or announced, using superscript numbers, although, for footnotes, other symbols such as a star or an asterisk (*), a dagger or obelisk (†), a double dagger or diesis (‡), a section mark (§), a pilcrow or blind p (¶), and so on are also employed, usually in that order. Do note that these symbols are never used with endnotes .
• Numbers : With numbered footnotes, the sequence either begins afresh on each page or can be continued throughout within a paper, a chapter (e.g. if the book has chapters by different contributors) or a book. Endnotes are always numbered and the sequence is always continuous .
• Heading for endnotes : Note that the heading for endnotes, when all of them are gathered at the end, is simply ‘Notes’ and not ‘Endnotes’.
• Footnotes for tables : Table titles, column or row headings, or specific cells within a table can all carry footnotes. Those footnotes are explained at the foot of the table in question and not at the foot of a page on which the table appears.

As a scholar, try to familiarise yourself with the idea of notes and their related mechanics as early on in your writing process as possible. These details can seem numerous at first, but once you master them, you will be able to spontaneously incorporate them into your writing.

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EndNote Guide / APA Referencing Guide

• About EndNote and APA referencing
• Accessing EndNote on campus computers
• Setting the reference style to APA 7th edition
• Navigating EndNote
• What are in-text citations and references?
• Manually adding references
• Exporting a reference from online databases
• Exporting a reference from Google Scholar
• Exporting a reference from Ebook Central
• Exporting a reference from eBook Academic Collection
• Editing a reference
• Attaching and annotating files

Adding your own research notes

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• Inserting and editing an in-text citation
• Inserting a secondary citation
• Deleting an in-text citation
• Mac computer EndNote tab loading issue
• Quick reference guides for using EndNote on Mac & Windows devices

EndNote provides a space for you to add your own personal notes to a reference.  Write any information about the source that will prove helpful when writing your assignment.  These notes can be referred back to at any time.

Please note: These research notes do not appear in the in-text citation or full reference.  

To add your own notes to the reference click the reference in the centre panel → In the right panel select Edit → Scroll down to the Research Notes section and write your notes.  Save your changes.  

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Endnotes – Guide to How to Use Them Correctly

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Citing sources properly is required to give acknowledgement to the writers whose work influenced your own, to direct readers to the sources you used, and to demonstrate the scope of your research. Although endnotes are used less frequently in student or academic papers than in-text citations or footnotes, they are extremely prevalent in books, where they contribute to a cleaner page. This article provides a thorough guide to using endnotes correctly with examples.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

• 1 Endnotes – In a Nutshell
• 2 Definition: Endnotes
• 3 Endnotes vs. footnotes
• 4 How to use endnotes
• 5 How to insert endnotes in Word

Endnotes – In a Nutshell

• They may be used instead of a list of cited sources, depending on the writing style.
• Even with the advent of word-processing software, these notes are considerably simpler to include in a document.
• Unlike footnotes, they don’t take up much space on the page.

Definition: Endnotes

Endnotes are the notes that come at the end of the text in an academic paper. They are denoted in the text by numbers or, occasionally, other symbols.

They are employed:

• for citations in particular styles
• to add supplementary material that does not flow with the primary text

Endnotes vs. footnotes

Endnotes and footnotes are commonly mistaken. Footnotes are similarly used to offer citations or additional information; however, they appear at the bottom of each page rather than at the conclusion .

Footnotes or endnotes should typically be used consistently. Your instructor may advise you on the appropriate note format.

How to use endnotes

Endnote numbers are placed after the clause or sentence to which they pertain. Unless an em dash concludes the sentence, the number comes before the punctuation , after which it is displayed. There is no space following the number.

The general agreement now—though there are dissenting voices 1 —is that this experiment was too methodologically faulty to provide valid results. 2

Notes are consecutively numbered in the order that they occur in the text. Each endnote is assigned a unique number; do not reuse a number, even when citing the same source multiple times.

Endnotes in Chicago style

Using footnotes or endnotes for citations is standard practice in Chicago style bibliographies and notes. Either type of note may also provide additional information, such as more examples, commentary on the sources you quote, or a more in-depth analysis of concepts mentioned in the text.

Place Chicago endnotes after the clause or sentence to which they pertain. A citation note provides complete information on a source the first time it is cited, and simplified information for subsequent citations.

You should still provide a complete list of your sources in a bibliography following the notes unless you are writing a brief paper and have been instructed otherwise.

The notes page follows the bibliography and begins with the word “Notes” printed in bold and centered. The basic format of the notes is as follows:

• A blank line should separate the notes, and the notes should be single-spaced.
• Start each note with an indentation.
• Place a period and a space after the note numbers, which should be written in regular text rather than a superscript.

Endnotes in APA style

Additional information can be included in endnotes or footnotes when writing in APA style . They are not used for citations; instead, use APA in-text citations .

When applicable, copyright attributions are included using APA endnotes. In addition, they can be used to build on the text’s themes or provide further instances. However, do so sparingly, as the APA advises against including redundant information.

The notes are placed on a separate page following the reference list, with the heading “Footnotes” (APA does not use the phrase “endnotes”) bold and centered at the top.

The notes are formatted as indented, double-spaced paragraphs. Each note should begin with its number in superscript, followed by a space.

Endnotes in MLA style

Endnotes can be used instead of MLA in-text citations if you must include many references in a single paragraph.

MLA notes may also convey more information, including clarifications, further illustrations, or elaboration of concepts briefly discussed in the text.

They should appear on a separate page before the Works Cited list and be titled “Notes” or “Endnotes.” Each endnote’s first line should be indented, and the number should be superscripted, followed by a space. They must use double spacing.

How to insert endnotes in Word

Many word processors, such as Microsoft Word, make it simple to insert notes automatically. Follow the steps below:

• Click the point within the text where the note number should appear.
• Click “Insert Endnote” after opening the “References” tab at the top.
• Input text in the note that appears at the end of your manuscript.

However, if you use one of the above styles, you must alter the formatting to meet their criteria and include a heading for the notes page.

What should I write in an endnote?

Footnotes and endnotes perform the same function. These are brief clarifications, additions, or copyright information. You can improve the reader’s experience by adding an endnote example outside the text.

How do I make the endnote numbers?

Don’t enter the numbers manually! The “Insert Citation” or “Insert Reference” function in your word processing software (such as MS Word) will add the note numbers and make room for the note automatically. This function’s name differs slightly between programs.

How is an endnote supposed to look?

A five-space indentation marks the first line of each endnote, and subsequent lines are flush to the left margin. Each endnote number should be preceded by a period and space, with the right note following the space.

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How to Do Endnotes

Last Updated: March 23, 2023 Fact Checked

This article was co-authored by Megan Morgan, PhD . Megan Morgan is a Graduate Program Academic Advisor in the School of Public & International Affairs at the University of Georgia. She earned her PhD in English from the University of Georgia in 2015. There are 14 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 234,353 times.

Proper citation of sources is necessary to give credit to the authors whose work informed yours, to point readers to the sources you used, and to show the breadth of your research. Though endnotes are less commonly used in student or academic papers than in-line citations or footnotes, they are quite common in books, where they make for a cleaner page. The basics of endnotes are always the same – numbered notes within the text refer to numbered entries in a notes section at the end of the document – but there are minor differences depending on whether you use Chicago or MLA (Modern Language Association) style.

Inserting Endnotes

• To avoid plagiarism, you must correctly attribute ideas and quotations, which is using someone else's ideas or material without acknowledgement (intentionally or unintentionally). If you are a student, plagiarism may result in disciplinary action. If you are an academic or professional, plagiarism will result in, at best, the rejection of your manuscript, and at worst disciplinary action. People have even their degrees revoked when plagiarism was discovered. [1] X Research source
• To allow the reader to check your work. Proper citations allow readers to look up the quotes and ideas you used in context, to see if they agree with your interpretation. [2] X Research source
• To allow interested readers to dig deeper. Endnotes allow readers interested in your topic to easily locate the sources that informed it so that they can read them as well.
• To show that you have considered a variety of sources. Endnotes allow you to show the reader that you have considered all of the major arguments regarding your given topic, or if you have not, allows them to easily see which authors you have failed to consider.

• Page number
• Author name, as well as the name of any editors or translators
• Book name, place of publishing, name of publisher, and year of publishing if a book
• Article name, periodical name, volume and series number, and date of publication

• Pushing citations to the end of a paper or work helps to create clean, uncluttered pages. This is why endnotes are often preferred in books.
• Having all the citations in one place allows the reader to digest them as a whole.
• On the other hand, not having citations on the page means the reader will have to flip to the back of your manuscript each time they want to look something up, which can be frustrating.
• Endnotes can give the impression that you are trying to hide your citations.

• Note numbers should follow punctuation. Never put a note number before a period, comma, or quotation mark.
• Note numbers should be consecutive throughout an entire paper.
• In a book, note numbers may restart with each chapter, in which case the endnotes should be divided by chapter.
• Put the superscript number at the end of the clause or sentence in which you reference someone else's materials. [5] X Research source For example: "According to Hoskins and Garrett, IQ tests are often problematic, 1 but I argue that it is still possible to implement them usefully in school settings."

• Indent the first line of each endnote half an inch (or 5 spaces) from the left margin. Additional lines within a single endnote should be flush with the left hand margin.
• Use the appropriate citation form per your style guide.

Using Chicago (Turabian) Style

• Chicago style uses endnotes (or footnotes) to cite sources, rather than providing inline citation. This is a key difference from MLA style, which uses inline citation.
• In Chicago style, it is recommended to always write the author name and title, not just the author name, in subsequent citations after the first full one.
• In Chicago style, a bibliography typically follows the endnotes. The bibliography lists all sources in alphabetical order by author’s last name. You should add entries to it every time you create a note. The format is slightly different from endnotes. See http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide.html for more information.

• Book (author) – Author’s First and Last Name, Title (Place of Publication: Publisher, Date of Publication), page number(s).
• Book (editor) – Author’s First and Last Name, ed., Title (Place of Publication: Publisher, Date of Publication), page number(s).
• Journal Article – Author’s First and Last Name, “Title of Article,” Title of Journal Volume (Year): page number(s).
• Newspaper – Author’s First and Last Name, “Title of Article,” Title of Newspaper , date, page number(s).
• For all source types, if there are two to three authors, list their names with commas between them. For more than three authors, write the first author's name, a comma, and “et al.” in place of any remaining authors.
• For a complete list of source types and their appropriate formats, see http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide.html .

• Author’s last name, Title, page number(s). (If the title is not fiction or poetry, you can use a shortened form of the title if it is longer than four words.)

• 1 Gabriel Garcia Marquez, Love in the Time of Cholera , trans. Edith Grossman (London: Cape, 1988), 27-28.
• 2 Ibid., 45.

• In some cases, your teacher may prefer you to single-space endnotes and leave a blank line between each entry. If you have questions, consult with your teacher. [12] X Research source

Using MLA Style

• MLA style does not recommend using endnotes to cite works. You should use inline citation in MLA style unless specifically told otherwise.
• In most cases, you will still need to provide a Works Cited page in addition to your endnotes.

• For example, "For further discussion of this phenomenon, see also King, 53; Norris, 175-185; and Kozinsky, 299-318."
• For example, "Several other studies also reach similar conclusions. For examples, see also Brown and Spiers 24-50, Chapel 30-45, and Philips 50-57."

• For example, "Although it is less commonly known than her major works, singer-songwriter Wendy's 1980 album Cookies also deals with the idea of ecofriendly agriculture."
• For example, "Johnson reiterated this point in a conference talk in 2013, although she worded it less forcefully there."

• Center the word Notes on the page. Do not use any formatting or quote marks. If you have only one endnote, use the word Note.
• Double-space endnotes in MLA style.

Community Q&A

• Other style guides may also use endnotes, although APA Style, commonly used in social sciences, does not. [16] X Trustworthy Source Purdue Online Writing Lab Trusted resource for writing and citation guidelines Go to source If you are writing for a journal or publisher that has an in-house style guide, consult with them about endnote requirements. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0

You Might Also Like

• ↑ https://edu.gcfglobal.org/en/useinformationcorrectly/avoiding-plagiarism/1/
• ↑ http://web.grinnell.edu/Dean/Tutorial/EUS/IC.pdf
• ↑ https://www.trentu.ca/academicskills/documentation-guide/chicago-style/footnotes-and-endnotes
• ↑ https://libguides.usc.edu/c.php?g=293795&p=1956824
• ↑ https://guides.lib.uw.edu/hsl/ama/intext
• ↑ https://support.office.com/en-US/article/Add-footnotes-and-endnotes-BFF71B0C-3EC5-4C37-ABC1-7C8E7D6F2D78
• ↑ https://support.office.com/en-US/article/Add-footnotes-and-endnotes-61F3FB1A-4717-414C-9A8F-015A5F3FF4CB
• ↑ https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/dam/jcr:e7d5f449-dd5e-42c7-89dc-a264d75f4c23/Turabian-Tip-Sheet-11.pdf
• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/chicago_manual_17th_edition/cmos_formatting_and_style_guide/chicago_manual_of_style_17th_edition.html
• ↑ http://www.library.georgetown.edu/tutorials/research-guides/turabian-footnote-guide
• ↑ http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/qanda/data/faq/topics/Documentation/faq0240.html
• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/mla_style/mla_formatting_and_style_guide/mla_endnotes_and_footnotes.html
• ↑ https://guides.library.brandeis.edu/citations/MLA
• ↑ https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/apa6_style/apa_formatting_and_style_guide/footnotes_and_endnotes.html

About This Article

To use endnotes in a paper, start by inserting a superscript number that corresponds with the source each time you reference it in your paper. Then, at the end of your paper, create a new page with the heading, “Notes.” List the sources, including the author’s first and last name, the title and date of the publication, and the page number for each one. Separate each element with a comma, then add a period after the page number. For two different ways to format your endnotes, read on! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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EndNote is the most commonly used reference manager at RMIT University. RMIT University pays for an institutional licence for all staff and students, and one of the main benefits of using EndNote is the support available from the Library.

Features of EndNote

In addition to the main features common to all reference managers, EndNote:

• provides unlimited storage for full-text documents and associated files
• works with a wide range of word processing applications including MS Word (Windows and Mac), OpenOffice and Apple Pages. EndNote also works reasonably well with Google Docs
• has a ‘Find full text’ function as well as the ability to attach full-text documents
• has good tools for editing existing referencing styles or creating new ones
• allows for the transfer of a Mendeley or Zotero library via a RIS, X ML or BibTeX file using the import functionality.

EndNote also provides an online version called EndNote Online . EndNote Online has limited functionality, for example, you can’t edit styles or use term lists for journal abbreviations. However, you can use EndNote Online to sync between devices and share groups, or your Library with others. Storage capacity for EndNote Online is dependent on your account type.

Pros and cons of EndNote

How to use EndNote 21 in seven minutes: Windows  (7:52 mins)

How to use EndNote 21 in seven minutes: Windows (7:52 mins) by EndNote ( YouTube )

How to use EndNote 21 in seven minutes: macOS  (7:52 mins)

How to use EndNote 21 in seven minutes: macOS (7:52 mins) by EndNote ( YouTube )

There are a number of resources for EndNote available. These include:

RMIT University Library guide – EndNote: a beginner’s guide

RMIT University Library website – EndNote reference manager

Instructional guides from Research Plus webinars – EndNote for your thesis

Research and Writing Skills for Academic and Graduate Researchers Copyright © 2022 by RMIT University is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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• Knowledge Base
• APA Style 7th edition
• APA Footnotes | Format & Examples

APA Footnotes | Format & Examples

Published on June 7, 2022 by Eoghan Ryan . Revised on January 17, 2024.

To cite sources in APA Style , you must use APA in-text citations , not notes.

However, you can use footnotes in APA to:

• Give additional information
• Provide copyright attribution

Footnotes can appear at the bottom of relevant pages, or they can be grouped together and placed on a separate page at the end of the text.

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Table of contents

Formatting footnotes in apa, content footnotes, copyright footnotes, frequently asked questions about apa footnotes.

Footnotes use superscript numbers and should appear in consecutive order. Footnote numbers typically appear at the end of a sentence or clause, after the period or other punctuation.

However, there are exceptions:

• If a footnote relates to text in parentheses, the footnote number should also appear inside the parentheses.
• If the footnote relates to material offset by a dash , the footnote number should come before the dash, rather than after.

Don’t repeat footnotes. If you need to refer to an earlier note again, write “see Footnote 3” or similar in the text or in parentheses.

Footnotes can appear either at the bottom of the relevant page, or at the end of the paper on a separate footnotes page. You can choose which approach to use.

Footnotes at the bottom of the page

You can use your word processor to automatically insert footnotes at the bottom of the page. This will ensure that each superscript number in the text corresponds to the correct footnote. It will also separate them from the main text.

Footnotes at the bottom of a page should be single-spaced.

There should be a single space between the superscript number and the footnote text.

Footnotes page at the end of the paper

When placing footnotes at the end of a text in APA, place them on a separate footnotes page, after the reference page .

The title of the page, “Footnotes,” should be centered and bold.

Indent the first line of each footnote and place a single space between the superscript number and the footnote text. Like most text in an APA format paper, footnotes at the end of the text should be double-spaced.

Footnotes should be presented in the order their numbers appear in the text.

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You can use content footnotes in APA to provide additional information to readers. For example, you might clarify a specific point or direct the reader to sources that contain more detail on a related topic.

As APA doesn’t encourage the use of footnotes, you should keep these notes as brief as possible. They should not exceed one paragraph. You can consider including longer material in an APA appendix instead.

If you include copyright material that exceeds fair use guidelines (like an extended passage from a book, or test or scale items), you may need to obtain permission from the copyright holder. You can use footnotes in APA to acknowledge this permission.

If you receive permission to reproduce an image or infographic, include this copyright note in the relevant caption, not in a footnote.

APA Style requires you to use APA in-text citations , not footnotes, to cite sources .

However, you can use APA footnotes sparingly for two purposes:

• Giving additional information
• Providing copyright attribution

APA footnotes use superscript numbers and should appear in numerical order. You can place footnotes at the bottom of the relevant pages, or on a separate footnotes page at the end:

• For footnotes at the bottom of the page, you can use your word processor to automatically insert footnotes .
• For footnotes at the end of the text in APA, place them on a separate page entitled “Footnotes,” after the r eference page . Indent the first line of each footnote, and double-space them.

For both approaches, place a space between the superscript number and the footnote text.

To insert a footnote automatically in a Word document:

• Click on the point in the text where the footnote should appear
• Select the “References” tab at the top and then click on “Insert Footnote”
• Type the text you want into the footnote that appears at the bottom of the page

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Ryan, E. (2024, January 17). APA Footnotes | Format & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved June 29, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/apa-style/apa-footnotes/

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Handbook for Historians

• Choosing a Paper Topic
• Thesis Statement
• Find Primary Sources
• Finding Secondary Sources
• Paraphrasing and Quoting Sources
• How to create an Annotated Bibliography
• Formatting Endnotes/Footnotes

Documenting your Sources

Endnote/footnote references: books, endnote/footnote references: journal articles, endnote/footnote references: websites, endnote/footnote references: other sources.

• Formatting Bibliographies
• Sample Papers
• Research Paper Checklist

If the source you wish to cite differs from all of the models given here, please consult Chicago Style Citation Quick Guide . If none of those seem to fit, ask your professor or the History Librarian.

DOCUMENTATION: FOOTNOTES/ENDNOTES

The History Department requires that papers contain endnotes or footnotes for proper documentation. Chicago style, as found in the Chicago Manual of Style is mandatory; the choice between footnotes and endnotes may vary from one professor to another. MLA, APA, and AMA documentation is unacceptable for use in History papers.

The examples on this page provide models for use in your own paper. Please note that the first reference to a book or periodical is very detailed; the second and all subsequent references to the same book or periodical are very brief. If none of those seem to fit, ask your own professor, the history librarian, or consult the Chicago Manual of Style: http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide.html .

PRO TIP : When formatting endnotes/footnotes in Chicago style think of the note as a sentence! The elements of the sentence are separated by commas, not periods, like in the bibliography. Also, in a sentence, you'd never refer to an author last name first, right?

Example: Citing a book

John Sullivan , Why I Wrote this Book (London: Oxford University Press, 2010), 185.

Bibliography:

Sullivan, John . Why I Wrote this Book. London: Oxford University Press. 2010.

A. A Book by a Single Author.

Author, first name first, Title (City of Publication: Publisher, year), page number.

1 Douglas R. Egerton, Death or Liberty: African Americans and Revolutionary America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 123.

2 Barbara J. Blaszak, The Matriarchs of England's Cooperative Movement: A Study in Gender Politics and Female Leadership, 1883-1921 (Westport: Greenwood Press, 2000), 63.

After you provide a full citation for a given source, such as seen in notes 1 & 2, you only need to provide the author’s last name, a portion of the book’s title, and page number for all subsequent citations from that same work.

3 Blaszak, Matriarchs , 64.

4 Egerton, Death or Liberty , 14.

NOTE: For all types of books, if more than one city of publication is listed, you need only cite the first city that is listed.

B. Books by Two, Three or Four Authors.

Authors, first name first, Title (City of Publication: Publisher, year), page number.

5 Edward H. Judge and John W. Langdon, A Hard and Bitter Peace: A Global History of the Cold War (New York: Prentice Hall, 1996), 168.

6 Judge and Langdon, Hard and Bitter Peace , 314.

7 Joseph P. Sánchez, Bruce A. Erickson, and Jerry L. Gurulé, Between Two Countries: A History of Coronado National Memorial, 1939-1990 (Los Ranchos de Albuquerque: Rio Grande Books, 2007), 54.

8 Sánchez, Erickson, and Gurulé, Between Two Countries , 119.

NOTE: If a Book has more than Four authors, list the first author, followed by et al.

9 Smith, John et al., Red Dawn (New York: Prentice Hall, 1996), 155.

C. Books by Corporate Authors.

Author, Title , edition (City of Publication: Publisher, year), page number.

10 American Historical Association Institutional Services Program, The Introductory History Course: Six Models , 2nd ed. (Washington: American Historical Association, 1984), 67.

11 American Historical Association, Introductory History Course , 33.

D. Edited Books/Parts of Collections of Writings by Different Authors .

Author(s), first name first, “Title of article,” in Title , ed(s). Name of editor(s) (City of Publication: Publisher, year), page number.

12 Robert Scully, "Saint Winefride's Well: The Significance and Survival of a Welsh Catholic Shrine from the Early Middle Ages to the Present Day," in Saints and Their Cults in the Atlantic World , ed. Margaret Cormack (Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 2007), 132.

13 Scully, “Saint Winefride’s Well,” 134.

D2. Edited Books (no other author) .

Author, first name first, ed., Title (City of Publication: Publisher, year), page number.

14 Jack Beatty, ed., Colossus: How the Corporation Changed America (New York: Broadway Books, 2001), 127.

15 Beatty, Colossus , 129.

E. Multivolume Books with a Single Title by a Single Author.

Author, first name first, Title , volumes (City of Publication: Publisher, year), volume number:page number.

16 William Henry Chamberlin, The Russian Revolution , 2 vols. (New York: Macmillan, 1935), 1:26.

17 Chamberlin, Russian Revolution , 2:318.

NOTE: The number preceding the colon is the number of the volume.

F. Multivolume Books by a Single Author with a Separate Title for Each Volume.

Author, first name first, Title , Volume number of Series title , Number of volumes. (City of Publication: Publisher, Year), volume number:page number.

18 Pierre Viansson-Ponté, Le temps des orphelins , Vol. 2 of Histoire de la République Gaullienne , 2 vols. (Paris: Fayard, 1976), 2:199.

19 Viansson-Ponté, Le temps , 2:227.

G. Multivolume Books with a Different Author and Title for Each Volume.

Author, first name first, Title , Volume number of editor’s name, ed. Series Title , Number of volumes (City of Publication: Publisher, Year), volume number:page number.

20 Lewis B. Spitz, The Protestant Reformation , Vol. 3 of William L. Langer, ed. The Rise of Modern Europe , 20 vols. (New York: Harper & Row, 1985), 3:189.

21 Spitz, The Protestant Reformation , 3:176.

H. Two or More Parts of a Collection of Writings by Different Authors. (Use this format if you are citing from several different sections of a multi-author book.)

Author, first name first, “Article’s title,” in Title , ed. Editor’s name (City of Publication: Publisher, year), page number.

22 Martin Hinterberger, “Emotions in Byzantium,” in A Companion to Byzantium , ed. Liz James (Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010), 127.

23 Hinterberger, “Emotions,” 129.

For subsequent citations from the same book, but from a different author, use a shortened version of the collected work.

24 Andrew Louth, “Christology and Heresy,” in James, Companion to Byzantium , 189.

25 Louth, “Christology,” 190.

I. Books With More than One Edition.

See Section C above. Second and subsequent references omit the number of the edition.

Author, first name first, Title , trans. Translator’s name (City of Publication: Publisher, year), page number.

26 Fritz Fischer, War of Illusions , trans. Marian Jackson (New York: Norton, 1975), 271.

27 Fischer, War , 344.

K. A Letter (or diary entry, memo, etc.) in a published collection. (If it is a letter, you do not need to specify that, but another type of document should be specified.)

Name of sender and recipient, date, in Title , ed. Editor’s name (City of Publication: publisher, year), page number.

28 Henry Adams to Charles Milnes Gaskell, 22 September 1867, in Letters of Henry Adams, 1858-1891 , ed. Worthington Chauncey Ford (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1930), 133-34.

29 Ford, Letters , 136.

30 Berchtold to Tisza, telegram, 8 July 1914, in July 1914: The Outbreak of the First World War , ed. Imanuel Geiss (New York: Norton, 1974), 102.

31 Geiss, July 1914 , 103.

32 Ronald Reagan, The “Evil Empire” Speech, 1983, in Speeches in World History , ed. Suzanne McIntire (New York: Facts on File, 2009), 496.

33 Reagan, Speeches , 497.

L. A Primary Source Quoted by a Second Source.

Note: It is preferable that the original source is consulted and cited on its own, but if the original source cannot be obtained, use this format.

Author of original source, first name first, Title (City of Publication: Publisher, year), page number, quoted in Author of secondary source, first name first, Title (City of Publication: Publisher, year), page number.

34 Hastings Ismay, The Memoirs of General Lord Ismay (New York: Viking, 1960), 199, quoted in James Holland, The Battle of Britain (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2010), 476.

35 Ismay, The Memoirs , 210, quoted in Holland, The Battle , 480.

M. Books published electronically.

Note: Cite the book as you would normally, but include the online format that you used, i.e., Kindle, Nook, pdf. If you accessed the book online (such as in Google Books or through an e-book in the library), include the date accessed and the URL. If your E-book does not provide page numbers, you should include the section title or chapter number instead.

36 Hasan Kayali, Arabs and Young Turks: Ottomanism, Arabism, and Islamism in the Ottoman Empire, 1908-1918 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 167, accessed 21 May 2009, http://escholarship.org/editions/view?docId=ft7n39p1dn;query=;brand=ucpress .

37 Kayali, Arabs , 186.

38 Winston Churchill, The Gathering Storm (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1947), 35, Kindle edition.

N. Articles in Print Journals.

Author, first name first, “Article title,” Journal Title Volume number: Issue number (Year): page number.

39 Yamin Xu, “Policing Civility on the Streets: Encounter with Litterbugs, ‘Nightsoil Lords,’ and Street Corner Urinators in Republican Beijing,” Twentieth-Century China 30:2 (2005): 45.

NOTE : 30:2 signifies volume 30 and issue number 2.

40 Xu, “Policing Civility,” 48.

NOTE : If a work has four authors or more , cite the first author's name followed by et al in the notes.

In the bibliography, cite all the authors names. DO THIS FOR BOOKS AND ARTICLES

41 John Smith, et al., "Red Empire Nation," Journal of American History 30:2 (2005): 55.

A Word about CITING ELECTRONIC SOURCES

Citations of electronic resources are different from citations for published sources. The following elements must be included:

• Electronic full-text Journal articles and E-Books from the library’s databases, though they are accessed online, are regarded as published sources. Citations for these must contain full documentation of the publication as well as electronic access information.
• Subscription databases, such as JSTOR or Proquest , must be accessed through a subscribing library or other institution.
• Because material on the internet can change without notice, the last date on which the material was accessed is part of the citation.
• The web address, or URL, is a required part of the citation. Most databases will include a stable URL, a permalink, or a DOI (digital object identifier) that you should use.

Proper citation formats, with examples, are shown below:

O. Articles from Online Journal.

Note: Many online publications use a DOI (digital object identifier) to create a persistent link to the article’s information. If no DOI is available, use the URL and the date accessed.)

Author, first name first, “Title of article,” Title of Journal or Website Volume:Issue Number (Year): page number (if specified), Date accessed, URL.

42 Douglas R. Egerton, “The Material Culture of Slave Resistance,” History Now: American History Online 2 (December 2004), accessed 20 June 2011, www.historynow.org/12_2004/historian2.html.

43 Egerton, “The Material Culture.”

44 Timothy S. Heubner, “Roger B. Taney and the Slavery Issue: Looking Beyond –and before- Dred Scott,” The Journal of American History 97:1 (2010): 17, doi: 10.2307/jahist/97.1.17.

45 Heubner, “Roger B. Taney,” 18.

P. Full-text newspaper articles

Author, first name first, “Title of Article,” Title of Newspaper, Date of newspaper article, page number (if available), Date accessed, URL.

46 Juan Forero, “Turbulent Bolivia Is Producing More Cocaine, the U.N. Reports,” New York Times on the Web, 15 June 2005, accessed 16 June 2005, www.nytimes.com/2005/06/15/international/americas/15coca.html.

For subsequent citations of this source cite the author’s last name and part of title.

Note: For regular print editions, omit date accessed and URL.

Q. Articles/Newspapers retrieved from a Database.

Note: Include all journal information and provide database name and a permanent link to the article from the database.

Format with url (seen in articles retrieved from ProQuest databases):

Author, first name first, “Title of Article,” Journal Title Volume:Issue Number (year): page number, Database name, url.

47 Robert Zens, “In the Name of the Sultan: Haci Mustapha, Pasha of Belgrade and Ottoman Provincial Rule in the Late 18th Century,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 44:1 (2012): 132, ProQuest Central, http://0-search.proquest.com.library.lemoyne.edu/docview/1531929597/4F00F029CDF14BBBPQ/16?accountid=27881

48 Zens, “In the Name of the Sultan,” 134.

Format with permalink (seen in articles retrieved from Ebsco databases):

Author, first name first, “Title of Article,” Journal Title Volume:Issue number (year): page number, Database name, Permanent link.

49 Barbara Blaszak, “Martha Jane Bury (1851-1913): A Case of Class Identity,” Labour History Review 67:2 (2002): 131, Historical Abstracts, http://0-search.ebscohost.com.library.lemoyne.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=hia&AN=9502395&site=ehost-live

50 Blaszak, “Martha Jane Bury,” 132.

Format with stable url link: (seen in articles retrieved from the JSTOR database)

51 Stephen Tisza and Hamilton Fish Armstrong, “A Letter of Count Tisza’s,” Foreign Affairs 6:3 (1928): 503, JSTOR , www.jstor.org/stable/20028631.

52 Tisza and Armstrong, “Letter,” 504.

Format for Newspaper with Permanent URL link:

Author, first name first (leave blank if no author), “Article Title,” Publication Title, Date, Database name, Permanent link.

53 “General Discussion of the Contest,” New York Times (1857-1922), 22 May 1861, ProQuest Historical Newspapers, http://0-proquest.umi.com.library.lemoyne.edu/pqdweb?did=78657656&sid=1&Fmt=2&clientId=1518&RQT=309&VName=HNP.

Web-based sources should be used sparingly and very carefully. Students must have all sources, Internet or otherwise, approved by the instructor before they are used.

R. Primary source documents found online. (Use this format when using approved websites containing primary source material.) Include as many of the following elements as are available. Include page numbers when appropriate before the URL.

Author of original document, first name first, “Title of document,” Date of document, Title of Web Site where document is found, Author, Editor, or Producer of site, accessed date, URL.

54 Sydney Smith, “Fallacies of Anti-Reformers,” 1824, Internet Modern History Sourcebook , Paul Halsall, ed., accessed 22 June 2011, http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/smithantireform.html.

55 Smith, “Fallacies of Anti-Reformers.”

56 Thorstein Veblen, “The Theory of the Leisure Class,” 1899, Internet Modern History Sourcebook, Paul Halsall, ed., accessed 22 June 2011, http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1899veblen.html.

57 Veblen, “Theory of the Leisure Class.”

Example (no author given):

58 “Codex Justinianus: Protection of Freewomen Married to Servile Husbands,” 530 A.D., Internet Medieval Source Book , Paul Halsall, ed., accessed 25 February 2002, http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/codexVIl-24-i.html.

59 “Codex Justinianus.”

Note: Many print primary sources are reproduced in digital format on various websites, such at the ones above. Most sites should give original publication information, but if not, you can try to locate original source information by searching online (try google books or worldcat.org). When possible, cite your sources according to the appropriate print format, and include the date accessed and the URL. For example, Veblen’s book The Theory of the Leisure Class can now be found in Google Books and would be cited similar to section M as follows:

60 Thorstein Veblen, The Theory of the Leisure Class: An Economic Study of Instituions, London: Macmillan & Co., 1912, accessed 22 June 2011, http://books.google.com/books?id=2kAoAAAAYAAJ&dq=inauthor%3A%22Thorstein%20Veblen%22&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q&f=false.

S. Other Approved Websites. (Include as much information as available.)

Author of webpage, “Title of Webpage,” Title of entire website , Publication Date, accessed Date, URL.

61 Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine, “May Day: On the Current Conditions of the Palestinian Working Class,” Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine , 21 May 2009, accessed 13 April 2010, http://www.pflp.ps/english/?q=may-day-current-conditions-struggle-palestinian-wo.

62 Popular Front, "May Day".

T. Book Reviews.

Book Review found in a journal:

Author of review, “Title of Review,” (if available) review of Title of Book, by Author of book, Title of Journal Volume: Issue (year), page, url.

63 Audrey Elisa Kerr, “Everybody’s Oprah,” review of Embracing Sisterhood: Class Identity and Contemporary Black Women, by Katrina Bell McDonald, The Women’s Review of Books 26:2 (2009), 31, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20476833

64  Kerr, “Everybody’s Oprah.”

Book Review found on a website:

Author, “Title of Review” (if available) review of Title of Book, by Reviewer Name, Website where review appeared, date, URL.

65  David Ponton, III, review of Spatializing Blackness: Architectures of Confinement and Black Masculinity in Chicago, by Rashad Shabazz, H-Net Online, June 2016, https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=46538.

66  Ponton, III, review of Spatializing Blackness.

U. Audio/Visual Materials (films, photographs, images, etc.)

Note: In most cases, visual sources are not acceptable; however some primary sources, such as the Watergate trials or Nazi propaganda, are appropriate and must be cited correctly. All sources must be approved by your instructor. The Library of Congress has an excellent set of example citations that you should consult.

General Format:

Author (or Creator) of image or video, “Title,” format, date, source , accessed date, URL.

Example: (primary video accessed from library)

67  The WPA Film Library, “Nazi Anti-Semitic Propaganda,” video, 1939, Films on Demand , accessed 14 September 2014, http://library.lemoyne.edu/record=b1418786

Example: (speech/video found online)

68  Harry S. Truman, “Speech after Hiroshima Bombing,” video, August 6, 1945, Critical Past, accessed 13 August 2016, https://youtu.be/e3Ib4wTq0jY

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State of Global Air Report 2024

The State of Global Air 2024 reports provides a comprehensive analysis of data for air quality and health impacts for countries around the world. The analysis finds that:

● Air pollution accounted for 8.1 million deaths globally in 2021, becoming the second leading risk factor for death, including for children under five years. Of the total deaths, noncommunicable diseases including heart disease, stroke, diabetes, lung cancer, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) account for nearly 90% of the disease burden from air pollution.

● In 2021, more than 700,000 deaths in children under 5 years were linked to air pollution; this represents 15% of all global deaths in children under five. As in previous years, the State of Global Air 2024 report and accompanying website provides comprehensive data on the levels and trends in air quality and health for every country in the world. This State of Global Air report was produced in partnership with UNICEF. In the State of Global Air 2024 interactive app , you can explore, compare, and download data and graphics reflecting the latest air pollution levels and associated burden of disease for over 200 individual countries, territories, and regions, as well as track trends from 1990 to 2021.