define conceptual problem solving

Understanding the Difference between Procedural vs. Conceptual Understanding

What’s the difference.

Procedural understanding is when students hoard steps and algorithms. They rely on the memorization of these formulas to answer questions, and they rarely make deep connections during instruction.

Conceptual understanding is knowing the procedural steps to solving a problem and understanding why those algorithms and approaches work, similar to a recognition that there is a man hiding behind the giant head in The Wizard of Oz. This level of understanding has students reaching higher depths of knowledge because they are making connections from one skill to another. As you plan your math lessons, ensure that you are targeting both procedural and conceptual understanding with an unbalanced approach. I use the 80-20 rule. Of the questions I pose to my students, 80% are conceptual-based. This is no easy feat when the majority of textbooks follow a 20-80 rule, where most of the work is procedural-based. We all know those textbooks and workbooks. They have 20+ rote questions for long division on a single page. As educators, we have to go after those meaningful questions.

Here are examples of questions aligned to the 4.MD.3 standard: Apply the area and perimeter formulas for rectangles in real world and mathematical problems.

Take the time to find materials that require your students to deeply evaluate curriculum. With specific questioning you’ll be able to cross over the threshold from procedural to conceptual understanding.

My line of Power Problems are designed to target conceptual understanding of standards. They are available for grades 3rd-6th.

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What is Conceptual thinking? Unleashing Your Creative Potential

Have you ever come across the term “conceptual thinking” and pondered its true essence?

Well, it’s far from being just another trendy phrase; it’s a cognitive prowess capable of transforming the way you tackle problems, foster innovation, and ignite your creativity.

In this article, we’re diving deep into the core of conceptual thinking, unveiling its profound significance across various aspects of life, and even serving up some down-to-earth advice on how to nurture this invaluable skill.

So, come aboard as we embark on a captivating journey through the realms of imagination and inventive thinking.

What is Conceptual Thinking?

Conceptual thinking is the ability to visualize abstract ideas, think beyond the surface, and connect seemingly unrelated concepts.

It enables individuals to see the bigger picture and find innovative solutions by rearranging ideas and sparking creativity .

It’s like having the combined abilities of an artist, inventor, and philosopher, allowing one to explore profound questions, create groundbreaking innovations, and approach problems with unique solutions.

The Importance of Conceptual Thinking

Problem-solving .

When it comes to problem-solving, conceptual thinking is your reliable ally.

It’s not just some abstract concept but rather a mental Swiss army knife that equips you to tackle intricate problems from every conceivable angle.

Imagine yourself as a detective armed with a magnifying glass, meticulously examining every clue to unveil new and innovative solutions that might have eluded you otherwise.

This skill opens doors to a world of creative problem-solving .

Creativity thrives on conceptual thinking; it’s not just about solving problems.

If you’re an artist striving to paint a masterpiece, a writer weaving an engaging story, or an entrepreneur seeking the next groundbreaking idea, conceptual thinking becomes your muse.

Imagine it as possessing an endless well of imagination, capable of conjuring new ideas and concepts like a magician who continuously pulls surprises out of a hat.

This skill fuels the fires of creativity in all your endeavors.

Innovation 

Innovation owes its existence to conceptual thinking – it’s not merely a cerebral workout.

Visualize it as the driving force behind trailblazers, the catalyst sparking groundbreaking inventions, and the North Star guiding revolutionary business strategies.

It’s what separates the visionaries from the masses, enabling them to perceive opportunities where others perceive obstacles.

Conceptual thinking births innovation , propelling us towards uncharted territories of progress and change.

Decision-making 

In the realm of decision-making, conceptual thinking serves as your reliable compass.

Crafting well-informed decisions extends beyond superficial considerations; it necessitates a profound grasp of the underlying concepts.

It’s akin to possessing a map that not only unveils the destination but also unveils the entire landscape, enabling you to make choices that are not solely logical but also all-encompassing.

Conceptual thinking acts as your guiding star, illuminating the path to sound and comprehensive decision-making.

How to Develop Your Conceptual Thinking Skills

Now that you grasp the importance, here are some practical steps to enhance your conceptual thinking:

Diversify your knowledge

To supercharge your conceptual thinking, it’s time to become a knowledge explorer.

Picture your mind as an adventurous traveler, and the world of information as your vast playground.

The more you expose yourself to various fields and subjects, the broader your conceptual playground becomes.

It’s like having an ever-expanding map of ideas, where each new piece of knowledge adds a new dimension to your mental landscape.

Practice mindfulness 

Just like a fitness regimen keeps your body in shape, practicing mindfulness exercises can keep your mind sharp and focused .

It’s like having a mental gym membership, where you strengthen your ability to connect ideas and concepts.

Imagine it as doing mental push-ups for your brain, improving your cognitive flexibility and creativity.

Ask questions 

Never shy away from posing questions that challenge the status quo. Ask the ever-potent “why” and “what if” inquiries.

It’s akin to assuming the role of a detective within the realm of ideas.

These penetrating questions are not mere surface-level inquiries; they are profound dives into the vast ocean of concepts.

As you pose these inquiries, picture yourself unearthing hidden treasures and unfurling the enigmatic tapestry of the mental landscape.

Inquisitiveness becomes your guiding star, illuminating uncharted territories of knowledge and insight.

Mind mapping 

Imagine it as your visual toolkit.

With mind maps , you can connect and organize ideas in a way that’s both creative and structured.

It’s like building a roadmap for your thoughts, where every idea has its place, and you can see the intricate web of conceptual relationships.

It’s a powerful tool to make sense of complex ideas and visualize the bigger picture.

Practice solving problems

The content emphasizes the importance of practicing problem-solving to enhance conceptual thinking skills.

It likens problem-solving to a training ground where one can apply conceptual thinking techniques.

Starting with simple puzzles and gradually moving to more complex challenges is compared to climbing a mountain, and each problem solved is likened to a puzzle piece contributing to improved conceptual thinking.

In a world that ceaselessly evolves, placing a premium on innovation and ingenious problem-solving, conceptual thinking emerges as a critical skill poised to elevate you to unparalleled heights.

It possesses the transformative potential to unlock your innate abilities, whether you don the hat of an artist, a scientist, or an entrepreneur.

As you diligently nurture and foster your conceptual thinking prowess, you’re not merely liberating yourself from the constraints of conventional thought – you’re taking on the role of an architect, crafting new and uncharted paradigms that define the future.

Absolutely! Conceptual thinking is a skill that can be honed through practice and a curious mindset.

Yes, exercises like brainstorming, mind mapping, and lateral thinking puzzles can sharpen your conceptual thinking abilities.

Not at all. Conceptual thinking is valuable in all fields, from business and science to everyday problem-solving. It’s a universally beneficial skill.

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McKinsey Problem Solving: Six steps to solve any problem and tell a persuasive story

The McKinsey problem solving process is a series of mindset shifts and structured approaches to thinking about and solving challenging problems. It is a useful approach for anyone working in the knowledge and information economy and needs to communicate ideas to other people.

Over the past several years of creating StrategyU, advising an undergraduates consulting group and running workshops for clients, I have found over and over again that the principles taught on this site and in this guide are a powerful way to improve the type of work and communication you do in a business setting.

When I first set out to teach these skills to the undergraduate consulting group at my alma mater, I was still working at BCG. I was spending my day building compelling presentations, yet was at a loss for how to teach these principles to the students I would talk with at night.

Through many rounds of iteration, I was able to land on a structured process and way of framing some of these principles such that people could immediately apply them to their work.

While the “official” McKinsey problem solving process is seven steps, I have outline my own spin on things – from experience at McKinsey and Boston Consulting Group. Here are six steps that will help you solve problems like a McKinsey Consultant:

Step #1: School is over, stop worrying about “what” to make and worry about the process, or the “how”

When I reflect back on my first role at McKinsey, I realize that my biggest challenge was unlearning everything I had learned over the previous 23 years. Throughout school you are asked to do specific things. For example, you are asked to write a 5 page paper on Benjamin Franklin — double spaced, 12 font and answering two or three specific questions.

In school, to be successful you follow these rules as close as you can. However, in consulting there are no rules on the “what.” Typically the problem you are asked to solve is ambiguous and complex — exactly why they hire you. In consulting, you are taught the rules around the “how” and have to then fill in the what.

The “how” can be taught and this entire site is founded on that belief. Here are some principles to get started:

Step #2: Thinking like a consultant requires a mindset shift

There are two pre-requisites to thinking like a consultant. Without these two traits you will struggle:

• A healthy obsession looking for a “better way” to do things
• Being open minded to shifting ideas and other approaches

In business school, I was sitting in one class when I noticed that all my classmates were doing the same thing — everyone was coming up with reasons why something should should not be done.

As I’ve spent more time working, I’ve realized this is a common phenomenon. The more you learn, the easier it becomes to come up with reasons to support the current state of affairs — likely driven by the status quo bias — an emotional state that favors not changing things. Even the best consultants will experience this emotion, but they are good at identifying it and pushing forward.

Key point : Creating an effective and persuasive consulting like presentation requires a comfort with uncertainty combined with a slightly delusional belief that you can figure anything out.

Step #3: Define the problem and make sure you are not solving a symptom

Before doing the work, time should be spent on defining the actual problem. Too often, people are solutions focused when they think about fixing something. Let’s say a company is struggling with profitability. Someone might define the problem as “we do not have enough growth.” This is jumping ahead to solutions — the goal may be to drive more growth, but this is not the actual issue. It is a symptom of a deeper problem.

Consider the following information:

• Costs have remained relatively constant and are actually below industry average so revenue must be the issue
• Revenue has been increasing, but at a slowing rate
• This company sells widgets and have had no slowdown on the number of units it has sold over the last five years
• However, the price per widget is actually below where it was five years ago
• There have been new entrants in the market in the last three years that have been backed by Venture Capital money and are aggressively pricing their products below costs

In a real-life project there will definitely be much more information and a team may take a full week coming up with a problem statement . Given the information above, we may come up with the following problem statement:

Problem Statement : The company is struggling to increase profitability due to decreasing prices driven by new entrants in the market. The company does not have a clear strategy to respond to the price pressure from competitors and lacks an overall product strategy to compete in this market.

Step 4: Dive in, make hypotheses and try to figure out how to “solve” the problem

Now the fun starts!

There are generally two approaches to thinking about information in a structured way and going back and forth between the two modes is what the consulting process is founded on.

First is top-down . This is what you should start with, especially for a newer “consultant.” This involves taking the problem statement and structuring an approach. This means developing multiple hypotheses — key questions you can either prove or disprove.

Given our problem statement, you may develop the following three hypotheses:

• Company X has room to improve its pricing strategy to increase profitability
• Company X can explore new market opportunities unlocked by new entrants
• Company X can explore new business models or operating models due to advances in technology

As you can see, these three statements identify different areas you can research and either prove or disprove. In a consulting team, you may have a “workstream leader” for each statement.

Once you establish the structure you you may shift to the second type of analysis: a bottom-up approach . This involves doing deep research around your problem statement, testing your hypotheses, running different analysis and continuing to ask more questions. As you do the analysis, you will begin to see different patterns that may unlock new questions, change your thinking or even confirm your existing hypotheses. You may need to tweak your hypotheses and structure as you learn new information.

A project vacillates many times between these two approaches. Here is a hypothetical timeline of a project:

Step 5: Make a slides like a consultant

The next step is taking the structure and research and turning it into a slide. When people see slides from McKinsey and BCG, they see something that is compelling and unique, but don’t really understand all the work that goes into those slides. Both companies have a healthy obsession (maybe not to some people!) with how things look, how things are structured and how they are presented.

They also don’t understand how much work is spent on telling a compelling “story.” The biggest mistake people make in the business world is mistaking showing a lot of information versus telling a compelling story. This is an easy mistake to make — especially if you are the one that did hours of analysis. It may seem important, but when it comes down to making a slide and a presentation, you end up deleting more information rather than adding. You really need to remember the following:

Data matters, but stories change hearts and minds

Here are four quick ways to improve your presentations:

Tip #1 — Format, format, format

Both McKinsey and BCG had style templates that were obsessively followed. Some key rules I like to follow:

• Make sure all text within your slide body is the same font size (harder than you would think)
• Do not go outside of the margins into the white space on the side
• All titles throughout the presentation should be 2 lines or less and stay the same font size
• Each slide should typically only make one strong point

Tip #2 — Titles are the takeaway

The title of the slide should be the key insight or takeaway and the slide area should prove the point. The below slide is an oversimplification of this:

Even in consulting, I found that people struggled with simplifying a message to one key theme per slide. If something is going to be presented live, the simpler the better. In reality, you are often giving someone presentations that they will read in depth and more information may make sense.

To go deeper, check out these 20 presentation and powerpoint tips .

Tip #3 — Have “MECE” Ideas for max persuasion

“MECE” means mutually exclusive, collectively exhaustive — meaning all points listed cover the entire range of ideas while also being unique and differentiated from each other.

An extreme example would be this:

• Slide title: There are seven continents
• Slide content: The seven continents are North America, South America, Europe, Africa Asia, Antarctica, Australia

The list of continents provides seven distinct points that when taken together are mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive . The MECE principle is not perfect — it is more of an ideal to push your logic in the right direction. Use it to continually improve and refine your story.

Applying this to a profitability problem at the highest level would look like this:

Goal: Increase profitability

2nd level: We can increase revenue or decrease costs

3rd level: We can increase revenue by selling more or increasing prices

Each level is MECE. It is almost impossible to argue against any of this (unless you are willing to commit accounting fraud!).

Tip #4 — Leveraging the Pyramid Principle

The pyramid principle is an approach popularized by Barbara Minto and essential to the structured problem solving approach I learned at McKinsey. Learning this approach has changed the way I look at any presentation since.

Here is a rough outline of how you can think about the pyramid principle as a way to structure a presentation:

As you build a presentation, you may have three sections for each hypothesis. As you think about the overall story, the three hypothesis (and the supporting evidence) will build on each other as a “story” to answer the defined problem. There are two ways to think about doing this — using inductive or deductive reasoning:

If we go back to our profitability example from above, you would say that increasing profitability was the core issue we developed. Lets assume that through research we found that our three hypotheses were true. Given this, you may start to build a high level presentation around the following three points:

These three ideas not only are distinct but they also build on each other. Combined, they tell a story of what the company should do and how they should react. Each of these three “points” may be a separate section in the presentation followed by several pages of detailed analysis. There may also be a shorter executive summary version of 5–10 pages that gives the high level story without as much data and analysis.

Step 6: The only way to improve is to get feedback and continue to practice

Ultimately, this process is not something you will master overnight. I’ve been consulting, either working for a firm or on my own for more than 10 years and am still looking for ways to make better presentations, become more persuasive and get feedback on individual slides.

The process never ends.

The best way to improve fast is to be working on a great team . Look for people around you that do this well and ask them for feedback. The more feedback, the more iterations and more presentations you make, the better you will become. Good luck!

If you enjoyed this post, you’ll get a kick out of all the free lessons I’ve shared that go a bit deeper. Check them out here .

Do you have a toolkit for business problem solving? I created Think Like a Strategy Consultant as an online course to make the tools of strategy consultants accessible to driven professionals, executives, and consultants. This course teaches you how to synthesize information into compelling insights, structure your information in ways that help you solve problems, and develop presentations that resonate at the C-Level. Click here to learn more or if you are interested in getting started now, enroll in the self-paced version ($497) or hands-on coaching version ($997). Both versions include lifetime access and all future updates.

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How to master the seven-step problem-solving process

In this episode of the McKinsey Podcast , Simon London speaks with Charles Conn, CEO of venture-capital firm Oxford Sciences Innovation, and McKinsey senior partner Hugo Sarrazin about the complexities of different problem-solving strategies.

Podcast transcript

Simon London: Hello, and welcome to this episode of the McKinsey Podcast , with me, Simon London. What’s the number-one skill you need to succeed professionally? Salesmanship, perhaps? Or a facility with statistics? Or maybe the ability to communicate crisply and clearly? Many would argue that at the very top of the list comes problem solving: that is, the ability to think through and come up with an optimal course of action to address any complex challenge—in business, in public policy, or indeed in life.

Looked at this way, it’s no surprise that McKinsey takes problem solving very seriously, testing for it during the recruiting process and then honing it, in McKinsey consultants, through immersion in a structured seven-step method. To discuss the art of problem solving, I sat down in California with McKinsey senior partner Hugo Sarrazin and also with Charles Conn. Charles is a former McKinsey partner, entrepreneur, executive, and coauthor of the book Bulletproof Problem Solving: The One Skill That Changes Everything [John Wiley & Sons, 2018].

Charles and Hugo, welcome to the podcast. Thank you for being here.

Hugo Sarrazin: Our pleasure.

Charles Conn: It’s terrific to be here.

Simon London: Problem solving is a really interesting piece of terminology. It could mean so many different things. I have a son who’s a teenage climber. They talk about solving problems. Climbing is problem solving. Charles, when you talk about problem solving, what are you talking about?

Charles Conn: For me, problem solving is the answer to the question “What should I do?” It’s interesting when there’s uncertainty and complexity, and when it’s meaningful because there are consequences. Your son’s climbing is a perfect example. There are consequences, and it’s complicated, and there’s uncertainty—can he make that grab? I think we can apply that same frame almost at any level. You can think about questions like “What town would I like to live in?” or “Should I put solar panels on my roof?”

You might think that’s a funny thing to apply problem solving to, but in my mind it’s not fundamentally different from business problem solving, which answers the question “What should my strategy be?” Or problem solving at the policy level: “How do we combat climate change?” “Should I support the local school bond?” I think these are all part and parcel of the same type of question, “What should I do?”

I’m a big fan of structured problem solving. By following steps, we can more clearly understand what problem it is we’re solving, what are the components of the problem that we’re solving, which components are the most important ones for us to pay attention to, which analytic techniques we should apply to those, and how we can synthesize what we’ve learned back into a compelling story. That’s all it is, at its heart.

I think sometimes when people think about seven steps, they assume that there’s a rigidity to this. That’s not it at all. It’s actually to give you the scope for creativity, which often doesn’t exist when your problem solving is muddled.

Simon London: You were just talking about the seven-step process. That’s what’s written down in the book, but it’s a very McKinsey process as well. Without getting too deep into the weeds, let’s go through the steps, one by one. You were just talking about problem definition as being a particularly important thing to get right first. That’s the first step. Hugo, tell us about that.

Hugo Sarrazin: It is surprising how often people jump past this step and make a bunch of assumptions. The most powerful thing is to step back and ask the basic questions—“What are we trying to solve? What are the constraints that exist? What are the dependencies?” Let’s make those explicit and really push the thinking and defining. At McKinsey, we spend an enormous amount of time in writing that little statement, and the statement, if you’re a logic purist, is great. You debate. “Is it an ‘or’? Is it an ‘and’? What’s the action verb?” Because all these specific words help you get to the heart of what matters.

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Simon London: So this is a concise problem statement.

Hugo Sarrazin: Yeah. It’s not like “Can we grow in Japan?” That’s interesting, but it is “What, specifically, are we trying to uncover in the growth of a product in Japan? Or a segment in Japan? Or a channel in Japan?” When you spend an enormous amount of time, in the first meeting of the different stakeholders, debating this and having different people put forward what they think the problem definition is, you realize that people have completely different views of why they’re here. That, to me, is the most important step.

Charles Conn: I would agree with that. For me, the problem context is critical. When we understand “What are the forces acting upon your decision maker? How quickly is the answer needed? With what precision is the answer needed? Are there areas that are off limits or areas where we would particularly like to find our solution? Is the decision maker open to exploring other areas?” then you not only become more efficient, and move toward what we call the critical path in problem solving, but you also make it so much more likely that you’re not going to waste your time or your decision maker’s time.

How often do especially bright young people run off with half of the idea about what the problem is and start collecting data and start building models—only to discover that they’ve really gone off half-cocked.

Hugo Sarrazin: Yeah.

Charles Conn: And in the wrong direction.

Simon London: OK. So step one—and there is a real art and a structure to it—is define the problem. Step two, Charles?

Charles Conn: My favorite step is step two, which is to use logic trees to disaggregate the problem. Every problem we’re solving has some complexity and some uncertainty in it. The only way that we can really get our team working on the problem is to take the problem apart into logical pieces.

What we find, of course, is that the way to disaggregate the problem often gives you an insight into the answer to the problem quite quickly. I love to do two or three different cuts at it, each one giving a bit of a different insight into what might be going wrong. By doing sensible disaggregations, using logic trees, we can figure out which parts of the problem we should be looking at, and we can assign those different parts to team members.

Simon London: What’s a good example of a logic tree on a sort of ratable problem?

Charles Conn: Maybe the easiest one is the classic profit tree. Almost in every business that I would take a look at, I would start with a profit or return-on-assets tree. In its simplest form, you have the components of revenue, which are price and quantity, and the components of cost, which are cost and quantity. Each of those can be broken out. Cost can be broken into variable cost and fixed cost. The components of price can be broken into what your pricing scheme is. That simple tree often provides insight into what’s going on in a business or what the difference is between that business and the competitors.

If we add the leg, which is “What’s the asset base or investment element?”—so profit divided by assets—then we can ask the question “Is the business using its investments sensibly?” whether that’s in stores or in manufacturing or in transportation assets. I hope we can see just how simple this is, even though we’re describing it in words.

When I went to work with Gordon Moore at the Moore Foundation, the problem that he asked us to look at was “How can we save Pacific salmon?” Now, that sounds like an impossible question, but it was amenable to precisely the same type of disaggregation and allowed us to organize what became a 15-year effort to improve the likelihood of good outcomes for Pacific salmon.

Simon London: Now, is there a danger that your logic tree can be impossibly large? This, I think, brings us onto the third step in the process, which is that you have to prioritize.

Charles Conn: Absolutely. The third step, which we also emphasize, along with good problem definition, is rigorous prioritization—we ask the questions “How important is this lever or this branch of the tree in the overall outcome that we seek to achieve? How much can I move that lever?” Obviously, we try and focus our efforts on ones that have a big impact on the problem and the ones that we have the ability to change. With salmon, ocean conditions turned out to be a big lever, but not one that we could adjust. We focused our attention on fish habitats and fish-harvesting practices, which were big levers that we could affect.

People spend a lot of time arguing about branches that are either not important or that none of us can change. We see it in the public square. When we deal with questions at the policy level—“Should you support the death penalty?” “How do we affect climate change?” “How can we uncover the causes and address homelessness?”—it’s even more important that we’re focusing on levers that are big and movable.

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Simon London: Let’s move swiftly on to step four. You’ve defined your problem, you disaggregate it, you prioritize where you want to analyze—what you want to really look at hard. Then you got to the work plan. Now, what does that mean in practice?

Hugo Sarrazin: Depending on what you’ve prioritized, there are many things you could do. It could be breaking the work among the team members so that people have a clear piece of the work to do. It could be defining the specific analyses that need to get done and executed, and being clear on time lines. There’s always a level-one answer, there’s a level-two answer, there’s a level-three answer. Without being too flippant, I can solve any problem during a good dinner with wine. It won’t have a whole lot of backing.

Simon London: Not going to have a lot of depth to it.

Hugo Sarrazin: No, but it may be useful as a starting point. If the stakes are not that high, that could be OK. If it’s really high stakes, you may need level three and have the whole model validated in three different ways. You need to find a work plan that reflects the level of precision, the time frame you have, and the stakeholders you need to bring along in the exercise.

Charles Conn: I love the way you’ve described that, because, again, some people think of problem solving as a linear thing, but of course what’s critical is that it’s iterative. As you say, you can solve the problem in one day or even one hour.

Charles Conn: We encourage our teams everywhere to do that. We call it the one-day answer or the one-hour answer. In work planning, we’re always iterating. Every time you see a 50-page work plan that stretches out to three months, you know it’s wrong. It will be outmoded very quickly by that learning process that you described. Iterative problem solving is a critical part of this. Sometimes, people think work planning sounds dull, but it isn’t. It’s how we know what’s expected of us and when we need to deliver it and how we’re progressing toward the answer. It’s also the place where we can deal with biases. Bias is a feature of every human decision-making process. If we design our team interactions intelligently, we can avoid the worst sort of biases.

Simon London: Here we’re talking about cognitive biases primarily, right? It’s not that I’m biased against you because of your accent or something. These are the cognitive biases that behavioral sciences have shown we all carry around, things like anchoring, overoptimism—these kinds of things.

Both: Yeah.

Charles Conn: Availability bias is the one that I’m always alert to. You think you’ve seen the problem before, and therefore what’s available is your previous conception of it—and we have to be most careful about that. In any human setting, we also have to be careful about biases that are based on hierarchies, sometimes called sunflower bias. I’m sure, Hugo, with your teams, you make sure that the youngest team members speak first. Not the oldest team members, because it’s easy for people to look at who’s senior and alter their own creative approaches.

Hugo Sarrazin: It’s helpful, at that moment—if someone is asserting a point of view—to ask the question “This was true in what context?” You’re trying to apply something that worked in one context to a different one. That can be deadly if the context has changed, and that’s why organizations struggle to change. You promote all these people because they did something that worked well in the past, and then there’s a disruption in the industry, and they keep doing what got them promoted even though the context has changed.

Simon London: Right. Right.

Hugo Sarrazin: So it’s the same thing in problem solving.

Charles Conn: And it’s why diversity in our teams is so important. It’s one of the best things about the world that we’re in now. We’re likely to have people from different socioeconomic, ethnic, and national backgrounds, each of whom sees problems from a slightly different perspective. It is therefore much more likely that the team will uncover a truly creative and clever approach to problem solving.

Simon London: Let’s move on to step five. You’ve done your work plan. Now you’ve actually got to do the analysis. The thing that strikes me here is that the range of tools that we have at our disposal now, of course, is just huge, particularly with advances in computation, advanced analytics. There’s so many things that you can apply here. Just talk about the analysis stage. How do you pick the right tools?

Charles Conn: For me, the most important thing is that we start with simple heuristics and explanatory statistics before we go off and use the big-gun tools. We need to understand the shape and scope of our problem before we start applying these massive and complex analytical approaches.

Simon London: Would you agree with that?

Hugo Sarrazin: I agree. I think there are so many wonderful heuristics. You need to start there before you go deep into the modeling exercise. There’s an interesting dynamic that’s happening, though. In some cases, for some types of problems, it is even better to set yourself up to maximize your learning. Your problem-solving methodology is test and learn, test and learn, test and learn, and iterate. That is a heuristic in itself, the A/B testing that is used in many parts of the world. So that’s a problem-solving methodology. It’s nothing different. It just uses technology and feedback loops in a fast way. The other one is exploratory data analysis. When you’re dealing with a large-scale problem, and there’s so much data, I can get to the heuristics that Charles was talking about through very clever visualization of data.

You test with your data. You need to set up an environment to do so, but don’t get caught up in neural-network modeling immediately. You’re testing, you’re checking—“Is the data right? Is it sound? Does it make sense?”—before you launch too far.

Simon London: You do hear these ideas—that if you have a big enough data set and enough algorithms, they’re going to find things that you just wouldn’t have spotted, find solutions that maybe you wouldn’t have thought of. Does machine learning sort of revolutionize the problem-solving process? Or are these actually just other tools in the toolbox for structured problem solving?

Charles Conn: It can be revolutionary. There are some areas in which the pattern recognition of large data sets and good algorithms can help us see things that we otherwise couldn’t see. But I do think it’s terribly important we don’t think that this particular technique is a substitute for superb problem solving, starting with good problem definition. Many people use machine learning without understanding algorithms that themselves can have biases built into them. Just as 20 years ago, when we were doing statistical analysis, we knew that we needed good model definition, we still need a good understanding of our algorithms and really good problem definition before we launch off into big data sets and unknown algorithms.

Simon London: Step six. You’ve done your analysis.

Charles Conn: I take six and seven together, and this is the place where young problem solvers often make a mistake. They’ve got their analysis, and they assume that’s the answer, and of course it isn’t the answer. The ability to synthesize the pieces that came out of the analysis and begin to weave those into a story that helps people answer the question “What should I do?” This is back to where we started. If we can’t synthesize, and we can’t tell a story, then our decision maker can’t find the answer to “What should I do?”

Simon London: But, again, these final steps are about motivating people to action, right?

Charles Conn: Yeah.

Simon London: I am slightly torn about the nomenclature of problem solving because it’s on paper, right? Until you motivate people to action, you actually haven’t solved anything.

Charles Conn: I love this question because I think decision-making theory, without a bias to action, is a waste of time. Everything in how I approach this is to help people take action that makes the world better.

Simon London: Hence, these are absolutely critical steps. If you don’t do this well, you’ve just got a bunch of analysis.

Charles Conn: We end up in exactly the same place where we started, which is people speaking across each other, past each other in the public square, rather than actually working together, shoulder to shoulder, to crack these important problems.

Simon London: In the real world, we have a lot of uncertainty—arguably, increasing uncertainty. How do good problem solvers deal with that?

Hugo Sarrazin: At every step of the process. In the problem definition, when you’re defining the context, you need to understand those sources of uncertainty and whether they’re important or not important. It becomes important in the definition of the tree.

You need to think carefully about the branches of the tree that are more certain and less certain as you define them. They don’t have equal weight just because they’ve got equal space on the page. Then, when you’re prioritizing, your prioritization approach may put more emphasis on things that have low probability but huge impact—or, vice versa, may put a lot of priority on things that are very likely and, hopefully, have a reasonable impact. You can introduce that along the way. When you come back to the synthesis, you just need to be nuanced about what you’re understanding, the likelihood.

Often, people lack humility in the way they make their recommendations: “This is the answer.” They’re very precise, and I think we would all be well-served to say, “This is a likely answer under the following sets of conditions” and then make the level of uncertainty clearer, if that is appropriate. It doesn’t mean you’re always in the gray zone; it doesn’t mean you don’t have a point of view. It just means that you can be explicit about the certainty of your answer when you make that recommendation.

Simon London: So it sounds like there is an underlying principle: “Acknowledge and embrace the uncertainty. Don’t pretend that it isn’t there. Be very clear about what the uncertainties are up front, and then build that into every step of the process.”

Hugo Sarrazin: Every step of the process.

Simon London: Yeah. We have just walked through a particular structured methodology for problem solving. But, of course, this is not the only structured methodology for problem solving. One that is also very well-known is design thinking, which comes at things very differently. So, Hugo, I know you have worked with a lot of designers. Just give us a very quick summary. Design thinking—what is it, and how does it relate?

Hugo Sarrazin: It starts with an incredible amount of empathy for the user and uses that to define the problem. It does pause and go out in the wild and spend an enormous amount of time seeing how people interact with objects, seeing the experience they’re getting, seeing the pain points or joy—and uses that to infer and define the problem.

Simon London: Problem definition, but out in the world.

Hugo Sarrazin: With an enormous amount of empathy. There’s a huge emphasis on empathy. Traditional, more classic problem solving is you define the problem based on an understanding of the situation. This one almost presupposes that we don’t know the problem until we go see it. The second thing is you need to come up with multiple scenarios or answers or ideas or concepts, and there’s a lot of divergent thinking initially. That’s slightly different, versus the prioritization, but not for long. Eventually, you need to kind of say, “OK, I’m going to converge again.” Then you go and you bring things back to the customer and get feedback and iterate. Then you rinse and repeat, rinse and repeat. There’s a lot of tactile building, along the way, of prototypes and things like that. It’s very iterative.

Simon London: So, Charles, are these complements or are these alternatives?

Charles Conn: I think they’re entirely complementary, and I think Hugo’s description is perfect. When we do problem definition well in classic problem solving, we are demonstrating the kind of empathy, at the very beginning of our problem, that design thinking asks us to approach. When we ideate—and that’s very similar to the disaggregation, prioritization, and work-planning steps—we do precisely the same thing, and often we use contrasting teams, so that we do have divergent thinking. The best teams allow divergent thinking to bump them off whatever their initial biases in problem solving are. For me, design thinking gives us a constant reminder of creativity, empathy, and the tactile nature of problem solving, but it’s absolutely complementary, not alternative.

Simon London: I think, in a world of cross-functional teams, an interesting question is do people with design-thinking backgrounds really work well together with classical problem solvers? How do you make that chemistry happen?

Hugo Sarrazin: Yeah, it is not easy when people have spent an enormous amount of time seeped in design thinking or user-centric design, whichever word you want to use. If the person who’s applying classic problem-solving methodology is very rigid and mechanical in the way they’re doing it, there could be an enormous amount of tension. If there’s not clarity in the role and not clarity in the process, I think having the two together can be, sometimes, problematic.

The second thing that happens often is that the artifacts the two methodologies try to gravitate toward can be different. Classic problem solving often gravitates toward a model; design thinking migrates toward a prototype. Rather than writing a big deck with all my supporting evidence, they’ll bring an example, a thing, and that feels different. Then you spend your time differently to achieve those two end products, so that’s another source of friction.

Now, I still think it can be an incredibly powerful thing to have the two—if there are the right people with the right mind-set, if there is a team that is explicit about the roles, if we’re clear about the kind of outcomes we are attempting to bring forward. There’s an enormous amount of collaborativeness and respect.

Simon London: But they have to respect each other’s methodology and be prepared to flex, maybe, a little bit, in how this process is going to work.

Hugo Sarrazin: Absolutely.

Simon London: The other area where, it strikes me, there could be a little bit of a different sort of friction is this whole concept of the day-one answer, which is what we were just talking about in classical problem solving. Now, you know that this is probably not going to be your final answer, but that’s how you begin to structure the problem. Whereas I would imagine your design thinkers—no, they’re going off to do their ethnographic research and get out into the field, potentially for a long time, before they come back with at least an initial hypothesis.

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Hugo Sarrazin: That is a great callout, and that’s another difference. Designers typically will like to soak into the situation and avoid converging too quickly. There’s optionality and exploring different options. There’s a strong belief that keeps the solution space wide enough that you can come up with more radical ideas. If there’s a large design team or many designers on the team, and you come on Friday and say, “What’s our week-one answer?” they’re going to struggle. They’re not going to be comfortable, naturally, to give that answer. It doesn’t mean they don’t have an answer; it’s just not where they are in their thinking process.

Simon London: I think we are, sadly, out of time for today. But Charles and Hugo, thank you so much.

Charles Conn: It was a pleasure to be here, Simon.

Hugo Sarrazin: It was a pleasure. Thank you.

Simon London: And thanks, as always, to you, our listeners, for tuning into this episode of the McKinsey Podcast . If you want to learn more about problem solving, you can find the book, Bulletproof Problem Solving: The One Skill That Changes Everything , online or order it through your local bookstore. To learn more about McKinsey, you can of course find us at McKinsey.com.

Charles Conn is CEO of Oxford Sciences Innovation and an alumnus of McKinsey’s Sydney office. Hugo Sarrazin is a senior partner in the Silicon Valley office, where Simon London, a member of McKinsey Publishing, is also based.

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What Are Conceptual Skills?

Definition and Examples of Conceptual Skills

Types of Conceptual Skills

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Creative Thinking

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Conceptual skills help employees avoid the pitfall of not “seeing the forest for the trees,” as the saying goes. If you possess conceptual skills, you can both envision problems and brainstorm solutions. Having these skills likely means that you're a creative type, and can work through abstract concepts and ideas. 

Employers value conceptual skills, and in some roles, having them is essential. 

Find out more about the various varieties of conceptual skills, and why they're important. 

Conceptual skills allow someone to see how all the parts of an organization work together to achieve the organization’s goals. 

They're essential for leadership positions, particularly upper-management and middle-management jobs. Managers need to make sure everyone working for them is helping to achieve the company’s larger goals. Rather than just getting bogged down in the details of day-to-day operations, upper and middle managers also need to keep the company’s “big picture” aims in mind.

However, conceptual skills are useful in almost every position. 

Even when you have a particular list of duties, it is always helpful to know how your part fits into the broader goals of your organization. Plus, if you have conceptual skills, you can tackle big challenges that come up for your team and devise creative and thoughtful solutions that go beyond fulfilling rote tasks. 

Take a look at this list of the most important conceptual skills sought by most employers. It also includes sublists of related skills that employers tend to seek in job applicants.

Develop and emphasize these abilities in job applications, resumes, cover letters, and interviews. 

You can use these skills lists throughout your job search process. Insert the soft skills you’ve developed into your  resume  when you detail your work history, and highlight your conceptual abilities during interviews. 

A very important conceptual skill is the ability to  analyze  and evaluate whether a company is achieving its goals and sticking to its business plan. Managers have to look at how all the departments are working together, spot particular issues, and then decide what steps need to be taken.

• Analytical abilities
• Analysis and diagnosis of complex situations
• Cognitive abilities
• Defining strategies for reaching goals
• Diagnosing problems within the company
• Forecasting for the business or department
• Questioning the connection between new initiatives and the strategic plan
• Recognizing opportunities for improvement
• Seeing the key elements in any situation
• Selecting important information from large data sets
• Understanding relationships between departments
• Understanding relationships between ideas, concepts, and patterns
• Understanding the organization’s business model

Without strong  communication skills , an employee won’t be able to share their solutions with the right people. Someone with conceptual skills can explain a problem and offer solutions. They can speak effectively to people at all levels in the organization, from upper management to employees within a specific department. 

People with conceptual skills are also good  listeners . They have to listen to the needs of the employers before devising a plan of action.

• Active listening
• Contextualizing problems
• Effectively communicating strategy
• Implementing thinking
• Interpersonal
• Interrelational
• Presentational
• Verbal communication

People with conceptual skills must be very creative. They must be able to devise creative solutions to abstract problems, which involves thinking outside of the box. They must consider how all the departments within an organization work together, and how they can work to solve a particular problem.

• Abstract thinking
• Being open-minded 
• Creative thinking
• Examining complex issues
• Formulating ideas
• Formulating processes
• Intuitive thinking
• Organization

Someone with conceptual skills also has strong leadership skills. They need to convince employees and employers to follow their vision for the company. They need to inspire others to trust and follow them, and that takes strong leadership.

• Commitment to achieving company goals
• Persuasiveness
• Strategic planning
• Task direction
• Task implementation
• Team building
• Visualizing the company as a whole

Once an employee analyzes a situation and identifies a problem, they then have to decide how to solve that problem. People with conceptual skills are good at solving problems and making strong, swift decisions that will yield results.

• Able to ignore extraneous information
• Broad thinking
• Critical thinking
• Breaking down a project into manageable pieces
• Decision making
• Executing solutions
• Formulating effective courses of action
• Logical thinking
• Multitasking
• Prioritization
• Resolving industry problems

Key Takeaways

• Conceptual skills allow you to foresee issues, brainstorm solutions, and understand the strategic big picture behind a company's day-to-day operations. 
• Possessing conceptual skills is particularly important for people in managerial roles, but they're helpful if you're in any role. 
• Include relevant types of conceptual skills in your resume and cover letter. Plus, use skills keywords during your job interviews. Be prepared to give examples of how you've used each one.

A problem-solving conceptual framework and its implications in designing problem-posing tasks

• Published: 05 August 2012
• Volume 83 , pages 9–26, ( 2013 )

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• Florence Mihaela Singer 1 , 2 &
• Cristian Voica 3  

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The links between the mathematical and cognitive models that interact during problem solving are explored with the purpose of developing a reference framework for designing problem-posing tasks. When the process of solving is a successful one, a solver successively changes his/her cognitive stances related to the problem via transformations that allow different levels of description of the initial wording. Within these transformations, the passage between successive phases of the problem-solving process determines four operational categories: decoding (transposing the text into more explicit relations among the data and the operating schemes, induced by the constraints of the problem), representing (transposing the problem via a generated mental model), processing (identifying an associated mathematical model based on the mental configurations suggested by the problem and own mathematical competence), and implementing (applying identified mathematical techniques to the particular situation of the problem, with the purpose of drafting a conventional solution). The study of this framework in action offers insights for more effective teaching and can be used in problem posing and problem analysis in order to devise questions more relevant for deep learning.

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The paper was partially supported by the project POSDRU/17/1.1/G/37412.

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Singer, F.M., Voica, C. A problem-solving conceptual framework and its implications in designing problem-posing tasks. Educ Stud Math 83 , 9–26 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10649-012-9422-x

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What is it?

• The researcher’s understanding/hypothesis/exploration of either an existing framework/model or how existing concepts come together to inform a particular problem. Shows the reader how different elements come together to facilitate research and a clear understanding of results.
• Informs the research questions/methodology (problem statement drives framework drives RQs drives methodology)
• A tool (linked concepts) to help facilitate the understanding of the relationship among concepts or variables in relation to the real-world. Each concept is linked to frame the project in question.
• Falls inside of a larger theoretical framework (theoretical framework = explains the why and how of a particular phenomenon within a particular body of literature).
• Can be a graphic or a narrative – but should always be explained and cited
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• Explains or predicts the way key concepts/variables will come together to inform the problem/phenomenon
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• Introduces your research and how it will advance your field of practice. A conceptual framework should include concepts applicable to the field of study. These can be in the field or neighboring fields – as long as important details are captured and the framework is relevant to the problem. (alignment)

What should be in it?

• Variables, concepts, theories, and/or parts of other existing frameworks

How to make a conceptual framework

• With a topic in mind, go to the body of literature and start identifying the key concepts used by other studies. Figure out what’s been done by other researchers, and what needs to be done (either find a specific call to action outlined in the literature or make sure your proposed problem has yet to be studied in your specific setting). Use what you find needs to be done to either support a pre-identified problem or craft a general problem for study. Only rely on scholarly sources for this part of your research.
• Begin to pull out variables, concepts, theories, and existing frameworks explained in the relevant literature.
• If you’re building a framework, start thinking about how some of those variables, concepts, theories, and facets of existing frameworks come together to shape your problem. The problem could be a situational condition that requires a scholar-practitioner approach, the result of a practical need, or an opportunity to further an applicational study, project, or research. Remember, if the answer to your specific problem exists, you don’t need to conduct the study.
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• As you move through your study, you may need to revise your framework.
• Note for qualitative/quantitative research: If doing qualitative, make sure your framework doesn’t include arrow lines, which could imply causal or correlational linkages.
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Let’s say I’ve just taken a job as manager of a failing restaurant. Throughout the first week, I notice the few customers they have are leaving unsatisfied. I need to figure out why and turn the establishment into a thriving restaurant. I get permission from the owner to do a study to figure out exactly what we need to do to raise levels of customer satisfaction. Since I have a specific problem and want to make sure my research produces valid results, I go to the literature to find out what others are finding about customer satisfaction in the food service industry. This particular restaurant is vegan focused – and my search of the literature doesn’t say anything specific about how to increase customer service in a vegan atmosphere, so I know this research needs to be done.

I find out there are different types of satisfaction across other genres of the food service industry, and the one I’m interested in is cumulative customer satisfaction. I then decide based on what I’m seeing in the literature that my definition of customer satisfaction is the way perception, evaluation, and psychological reaction to perception and evaluation of both tangible and intangible elements of the dining experience come together to inform customer expectations. Essentially, customer expectations inform customer satisfaction.

I then find across the literature many variables could be significant in determining customer satisfaction. Because the following keep appearing, they are the ones I choose to include in my framework: price, service, branding (branched out to include physical environment and promotion), and taste. I also learn by reading the literature, satisfaction can vary between genders – so I want to make sure to also collect demographic information in my survey. Gender, age, profession, and number of children are a few demographic variables I understand would be helpful to include based on my extensive literature review.

Note: this is a quantitative study. I’m including all variables in this study, and the variables I am testing are my independent variables. Here I’m working to see how each of the independent variables influences (or not) my dependent variable, customer satisfaction. If you are interested in qualitative study, read on for an example of how to make the same framework qualitative in nature.

Also note: when you create your framework, you’ll need to cite each facet of your framework. Tell the reader where you got everything you’re including. Not only is it in compliance with APA formatting, but also it raises your credibility as a researcher. Once you’ve built the narrative around your framework, you may also want to create a visual for your reader.

See below for one example of how to illustrate your framework:

If you’re interested in a qualitative study, be sure to omit arrows and other notations inferring statistical analysis. The only time it would be inappropriate to include a framework in qualitative study is in a grounded theory study, which is not something you’ll do in an applied doctoral study.

A visual example of a qualitative framework is below:

Some additional helpful resources in constructing a conceptual framework for study:

• Problem Statement, Conceptual Framework, and Research Question. McGaghie, W. C.; Bordage, G.; and J. A. Shea (2001). Problem Statement, Conceptual Framework, and Research Question. Retrieved on January 5, 2015 from http://goo.gl/qLIUFg
• Building a Conceptual Framework: Philosophy, Definitions, and Procedure
• https://www.scribbr.com/dissertation/conceptual-framework/
• https://www.projectguru.in/developing-conceptual-framework-in-a-research-paper/

Conceptual Framework Research

A conceptual framework is a synthetization of interrelated components and variables which help in solving a real-world problem. It is the final lens used for viewing the deductive resolution of an identified issue (Imenda, 2014). The development of a conceptual framework begins with a deductive assumption that a problem exists, and the application of processes, procedures, functional approach, models, or theory may be used for problem resolution (Zackoff et al., 2019). The application of theory in traditional theoretical research is to understand, explain, and predict phenomena (Swanson, 2013). In applied research the application of theory in problem solving focuses on how theory in conjunction with practice (applied action) and procedures (functional approach) frames vision, thinking, and action towards problem resolution. The inclusion of theory in a conceptual framework is not focused on validation or devaluation of applied theories. A concise way of viewing the conceptual framework is a list of understood fact-based conditions that presents the researcher’s prescribed thinking for solving the identified problem. These conditions provide a methodological rationale of interrelated ideas and approaches for beginning, executing, and defining the outcome of problem resolution efforts (Leshem & Trafford, 2007).

The term conceptual framework and theoretical framework are often and erroneously used interchangeably (Grant & Osanloo, 2014). Just as with traditional research, a theory does not or cannot be expected to explain all phenomenal conditions, a conceptual framework is not a random identification of disparate ideas meant to incase a problem. Instead it is a means of identifying and constructing for the researcher and reader alike an epistemological mindset and a functional worldview approach to the identified problem.

Grant, C., & Osanloo, A. (2014). Understanding, Selecting, and Integrating a Theoretical Framework in Dissertation Research: Creating the Blueprint for Your “House. ” Administrative Issues Journal: Connecting Education, Practice, and Research, 4(2), 12–26

Imenda, S. (2014). Is There a Conceptual Difference between Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks? Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi/Journal of Social Sciences, 38(2), 185.

Leshem, S., & Trafford, V. (2007). Overlooking the conceptual framework. Innovations in Education & Teaching International, 44(1), 93–105. https://doi-org.proxy1.ncu.edu/10.1080/14703290601081407

Swanson, R. (2013). Theory building in applied disciplines . San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler Publishers.

Zackoff, M. W., Real, F. J., Klein, M. D., Abramson, E. L., Li, S.-T. T., & Gusic, M. E. (2019). Enhancing Educational Scholarship Through Conceptual Frameworks: A Challenge and Roadmap for Medical Educators . Academic Pediatrics, 19(2), 135–141. https://doi-org.proxy1.ncu.edu/10.1016/j.acap.2018.08.003

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What Are Conceptual Skills? (Example List Included)

Jeff Gillis 0 Comments

By Jeff Gillis

When people think about the skills they need to excel at work, they usually focus on problem-solving , collaboration , and other classics. But conceptual skills are also crucial.

Conceptual thinking helps you understand the big picture, examine abstract ideas, and so much more. If you’re wondering, “What are conceptual skills, and why do they matter?” here’s what you need to know.

What Are Conceptual Skills?

Before we take a deep dive into the various conceptual skills, it’s important to answer one question: what are conceptual skills? Well, to understand what they are, it’s helpful to break everything down a bit.

First, according to the Cambridge Dictionary , “concept” means “a principle or idea.” In some cases, concepts are considered thoughts or notions.

Conceptualizing is the act of coming up with these principles, ideas, thoughts, or notions. Usually, in the business world, conceptualizing is identifying potential solutions to a problem or creative strategies by thinking in an abstract way. It involves understanding and visualizing complex situations to get to an innovative answer.

So, knowing that, conceptual skills are capabilities that help you come up with those solutions or strategies, usually through abstract thinking.

More often than not, conceptual skills are soft skills . Things like creativity, strategic thinking, and adaptability play a big part in the conceptual thinking equation. However, that doesn’t mean specific hard skills aren’t valuable.

Usually, you also need the proper technical knowledge to get a complete understanding of the complex workplace scenario you want to navigate. Which hard skills matter depends on the nature of the job and the problem you’re trying to solve.

In the end, any ability, trait, or area of expertise that allows you to conceptualize effectively and come up with critical answers can qualify as a conceptual skill.

How Are Conceptual Skills Relevant to a Job Search?

At this point, you should have a reasonable understanding of what conceptual skills are, so it’s time to talk about why they matter during a job search. Let’s begin with the actual job search itself.

Conceptual skills are relevant to a job search in a few ways. First, if you think about it, finding a new job isn’t unlike problems in the workplace. Your goal is to secure a new position. To make that happen, you have to analyze the situation, identify potential paths toward success, and take strategic action.

With conceptual thinking, your approach can be more effective. You can envision the various pathways you can take and estimate how each method may (or may not) get you the desired result. You’ll be able to see the forest for the trees, ensuring you take the big picture into account.

Conceptual skills may also help you identify the right opportunities. While you might not know exactly what a position involves simply by reading a job ad, conceptual thinking allows you to come up with a solid guess.

Plus, they can help you create a better resume and higher-quality interview answers. Again, conceptual thinking involves the ability to assess scenarios and visualize solutions. In this case, the situation is finding a job, and the solutions are creating standout applications and responses to the hiring manager’s questions.

By taking in data about the situation – in this case, details from the job description and information about the company from its website, social media pages, and other resources – you can visualize what the hiring manager wants to find in a candidate. As you do that, you can determine how to position yourself as the ideal fit, making it easier to stay ahead of the competition.

After all, 80 percent of companies believe that soft skills are increasingly important to business success. So, by showing off your conceptual skills the right way, you can look like a stronger candidate for nearly any job type.

Okay, now it’s time to move onto the second part. Ultimately, conceptual skills are valuable in a wide range of jobs. But if you have your sights set on a management or leadership position, they are outright critical.

With management positions, conceptual thinking is typically part of the role. Upper-level roles commonly have to solve higher-level problems for the organization. Strategy development and innovation can be core responsibilities.

In those cases, having conceptual thinking capabilities is essential if you want to land the job and perform well in the position. They’ll make you a more effective problem-solver for issues at that level.

So, what are the conceptual skills hiring managers are looking for in 2022? Well, two of the biggest are analytical skills and problem-solving skills. Creativity and innovative thinking are also in demand.

But that really only scratches the surface. Remember, any skill that makes you effective at conceptual thinking can be valuable, especially if it helps you separate yourself from the pack.

How to Highlight Conceptual Skills for a Job Search

At this point, you probably have a solid idea about why conceptual skills are important to your job search. That means it’s time to move on and talk about how to showcase those capabilities when you’re looking for a new position.

In most cases, squaring away your resume and cover letter is what you’ll need to tackle first. Those are both parts of a typical application, so getting them right is essential.

When you’re creating your resume and cover letter, being achievement-focused is the better approach. By focusing on accomplishments, you can show the hiring manager how you put your skills to work, as well as highlight the results of your efforts.

If your goal is to highlight conceptual skills, you need to choose achievements where conceptual thinking played a big role in your success.

Okay, but what if you have several accomplishments that fit that bill? How do you pick the right ones to include? Well, by using the Tailoring Method .

The Tailoring Method is all about relevancy. It helps you choose achievements that will mean the most to that specific hiring manager. You take the employer’s needs and preferences into account, ensuring you’re sharing details that matter to them.

Once you’d done with your resume and cover letter, it’s time to start practicing job interview answers. You can use the Tailoring Method to help create responses for both traditional job interview questions and tricky behavioral interview questions .

For behavioral interview questions, adding a healthy dash of the STAR Method is a good move. You’ll turn your answers into engaging stories, making your responses informative and interesting in the eyes of the hiring manager.

How to Develop Conceptual Skills If You Don’t Have Them

If you don’t have conceptual skills, developing them is a good idea. It can help you stand out from other candidates and prepare you for the kinds of problem-solving you’ll likely need to do as you advance in your career.

The thing is, most people have some experience with conceptual thinking. For example, if you had to do science projects while you were in school, you’ve probably used some conceptual skills.

But whether you think you’re starting from scratch or that you have a bit of a foundation, that doesn’t mean you can’t acquire and hone these capabilities. If you aren’t sure how to go about it, here are some tips for building your conceptual skills.

1. Observe Conceptual Thinkers You Admire

Observation can be an incredibly powerful tool. By watching conceptual thinkers that you admire analyze problems and devise solutions, you can get amazing insights into the process.

While it may seem like observing conceptual thinkers in action would be difficult to do, that isn’t always the case. If there is a manager you admire at work, you may get to see them in action during staff meetings or planning sessions.

However, if you don’t have access to a suitable person in the workplace, then go online. For example, you could look up YouTube videos featuring people creating solutions to unique problems.

Mark Rober is an excellent example of a conceptual thinker in action. While his focus is on engineering, he presents information in a straightforward fashion and openly discusses his thought process. Plus, the results of his work are often quite entertaining.

2. Identify a Workplace Problem and Use It as a Case Study

If you want to put your conceptual skills to work, here’s one way to go about it. Identify a problem in your workplace – big or small – and treat it like a case study. Examine the issue from several angles. Talk with colleagues about it. See if you can create potential solutions that align with the company’s broader mission and goals.

You don’t necessarily have to succeed in finding an answer to make this approach worthwhile. It’s all about teaching yourself to think conceptually.

But if you do find a solution, that’s a great bonus. You can present your idea to the appropriate leaders and might be able to create meaningful, beneficial change, giving you a new achievement to add to your resume.

3. Volunteer for Cross-Departmental Projects

When a project involves several departments, it’s an opportunity to learn more about how different organizational areas view problems and devise solutions. It’s a chance to broaden your horizons and learn new ways to find answers by engaging with people who have different skillsets and perspectives.

List of Conceptual Skills

Alright, now is the moment you’ve been waiting for: the list of conceptual skills. Ultimately, there are a lot of capabilities that can fall into this category. By knowing which ones potentially land in this group, you can pick ones to highlight on your resume or cover letter – or in your answers to interview questions – to showcase your conceptual thinking abilities.

Here is a list of conceptual skills examples:

• Problem-Solving
• Innovative-Thinking
• Abstract-Thinking
• Critical-Thinking
• Idea Formulation
• Resourcefulness
• Adaptability
• Strategic-Thinking
• Negotiation
• Flexibility
• Prioritization
• Organization
• Active Listening
• Open-Mindedness
• Logical-Thinking

All of the capabilities and traits above could qualify as conceptual skills. However, that doesn’t mean they are the only ones. Any ability to lets you assess big-picture problems and develop unique solutions could also be a part of that list, so don’t limit yourself to just those included above.

It’s also critical to understand that you don’t have to get all of the skills above squeezed into your resume, cover letter, or interview answers. If you did, you probably went a bit overboard.

Instead, review the job description and company information. Then, use the Tailoring Method to pick the skills and traits that align with the hiring manager’s priorities. That way, you can discuss achievements that matter in their eyes, increasing the odds that you’ll look like an exceptional fit for the position.

Plus, it ensures you have room to discuss other essential capabilities. If you’d like to find out more about the different skills to put on a resume , check out our in-depth piece on the topic. It’ll give you valuable insights into what to highlight, allowing you to take your job search to the next level.

Putting It All Together

In the end, conceptual skills are incredibly valuable, especially if you want to work your way up into a management or leadership role. By honing yours now, you’ll be ready to tackle all of that big-picture, innovative thinking, ensuring you can come up with solutions to a range of challenging problems.

Plus, by reviewing the information above, you know how to showcase your conceptual thinking abilities effectively. Use that to your advantage. That way, when a new job opportunity comes around, you can position yourself as the ideal candidate for the role.

Co-founder and CTO of TheInterviewGuys.com. Jeff is a featured contributor delivering advice on job search, job interviews and career advancement, having published more than 50 pieces of unique content on the site , with his work being featured in top publications such as INC , ZDnet , MSN and more.

Learn more about The Interview Guys on our About Us page .

About The Author

Jeff gillis.

Co-founder and CTO of TheInterviewGuys.com. Jeff is a featured contributor delivering advice on job search, job interviews and career advancement, having published more than 50 pieces of unique content on the site , with his work being featured in top publications such as INC , ZDnet , MSN and more. Learn more about The Interview Guys on our About Us page .

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Definition of Conceptual Reasoning

What is the definition of conceptual reasoning, general definition, conceptual reasoning in science, conceptual reasoning in the humanities, conceptual reasoning in psychology.

Conceptual reasoning, also known as conceptual thinking, refers to a specific type of thought that involves abstraction and reflection, as well as creative thinking and problem solving. It is a term that encompasses many types of thought, which all relate to thinking in abstract concepts and intuitive ways. Conceptual reasoning has many applications and is referred to in many different fields. Scientists, academics and psychologists are a few of the professionals who deal routinely with different kinds of conceptual reasoning. Conceptual thinkers also use this type of reasoning in their thought processes and in their ideas.

Conceptual reasoning means ways of critical thinking that include problem solving, analyzing, developing new ideas and reflecting on past and present experiences. People sometimes define this kind of reasoning as thinking outside the box. When we use conceptual reasoning, we are willing to see things in a different way and accept that there is not one sole objective truth to how things work. We put aside common beliefs and approach a problem with a fresh mind.

One area where conceptual reasoning is particularly relevant is science. Depending on the kind of science, conceptual reasoning solves many problems and creates new ideas and ways of thinking. Scientists have to acknowledge current theories, but often must put them aside to allow their own ideas to emerge. Fields such as medicine, environmental engineering and technology rely heavily on conceptual reasoning for the development of new ways of looking at the world. For example, much of today's scientific thought around environmentally sound energy sources involves conceptual thinking. Biodiesel gas, wind harnessing and solar power all require conceptual reasoning for problem solving.

In addition to its concrete uses in the sciences, conceptual reasoning is a major part of studying and working within a vast array of humanities. Artists constantly see reality in new ways and have to be open to creativity and reinvention. When studying literature or history, scholars reflect upon events and think outside conventional frameworks to develop new ideas. New forms of music also spring from the idea of conceptual reasoning and the way it works within abstraction. Using conceptual reasoning allows us to see the big picture in some settings and situations, so day-to-day actions and happenings can be analyzed within decision-making for more abstract thinking and abstract ideas.

Finally, the ability to use conceptual reasoning plays a role in our psychology. Psychologists use it as a measure of IQ and mental capability. When a person has difficulty with conceptual reasoning, he may have trouble with social interactions, problem solving and learning from mistakes. Competencies are also studied in these conceptual thinking skills when implementing new concepts and using problem-solving skills in reasoning needs.

Soft skills, cognition, communication skills, creative thinking skills, lateral thinking, management skills, mental health, open-mindedness, and strong leadership skills are all able to be analyzed by conceptual reasoning for fellow team members or people in our society. Higher levels of reasoning can show examples of conceptual skills in some people, and these skills can be used as templates for teaching others and for stakeholders in some situations. Cover letters can also prove these needs as a real world example of its application.

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• Forbes: How to Develop 5 Critical Thinking Types
• Leadership for Health Professionals; Gerald R. Ledlow and M. Nicholas Coppola
• Model-Based Reasoning in Scientific Discovery; L. Magnani, et. al.
• Brain Injury and Mental Retardation: Psychopharmacology and Neuropsychiatry; C. Thomas Gualtieri

Abbey Baker is a writer and teacher at an alternative school in Burlington, Vt., where she specializes in working with students who have learning disabilities. Baker has a Master of Fine Arts in fiction writing and writes short stories. She recently had a short story published in "Eleven Eleven" journal.

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How to Improve Your Conceptual Skills

Learn how to improve your conceptual skills in the workplace by exploring what conceptual skills are and which ones are key to building as a professional.

Conceptual skills are key for professionals of all levels. These thinking skills allow you to approach problems and complex ideas from a broad view and develop innovative ways to approach new ideas. In this article, we will explore what conceptual skills are, how professionals use them in the workplace, and how you can build them in your professional environment.

What are conceptual skills?

Conceptual skills are abilities that allow you to understand the larger picture and ultimate goal. While being detail-oriented allows you to focus on the smaller specifics of a project, conceptual skills help you envision the project or concept as a whole. This is especially useful for complex or abstract ideas and is important for professionals for several reasons.

For one, understanding the bigger picture allows you to find ways to break down a complicated idea into actionable steps. It also ensures you are completing tasks in ways that serve a greater purpose. This can encourage you to focus on the right areas while cutting less important details if necessary. Conceptual skills also help you maintain a clear perspective of why things are being done the way they are. For example, if an organization is trying to save money to fund an exciting new project, you may understand why company lunches have a lower budget in the short term. 

What are some examples of conceptual skills?

Conceptual skills are important in managerial roles. Analyzing, creative thinking, problem-solving, and communicating are all significant conceptual skills.

Analytical skills such as research, critical thinking, information analysis, data analysis, and deductive reasoning are important for many roles. These skills allow professionals to break down complex concepts into small, easily-understood pieces of information. To effectively use analytical skills, professionals need to take a bird's eye view of the problem and determine the most appropriate way to formulate the solution. This involves analyzing risks, actionable steps, and the team members involved in the process.

Creative thinking is another key conceptual skill. When viewing the larger picture, professionals that can use creative thinking to view the end goal from different perspectives and brainstorm multiple solutions are often able to find new and innovative ways of approaching the topic. Skills in this area include restructuring skills, abstractive thinking, innovation, open-mindedness, and strategic planning.

Problem-solving skills such as decision-making, troubleshooting, solution execution, and logical thinking are essential for professionals employing their conceptual skills. These skills take the idea through to execution. Once you have viewed the solution from different angles, identified the best course of action, and determined the next step, problem-solving skills will allow you to effectively follow through with your plan.

Communication goes hand-in-hand in this phase, as clearly articulating each step will help project members and teams remain on track with a clear end goal in mind.

Other examples of important conceptual skills include leadership skills such as management, empathy, team-building, motivation, persuasion, and negotiation. When approaching a complex problem, leaders need to be able to put together teams with the right skill set and motivate them to want to solve the problem at hand. If leaders are unable to manage groups of professionals effectively, they will have more difficulty bringing their solutions to life.

How can you get better at conceptual skills?

Industry experts can often mentor you in the conceptual skills that will most benefit you in your position. Connect with professional leaders in your network that have demonstrated good conceptual skills. They may help you find ways to build these skills and practice conceptualizing relevant concerns.

Conceptual skills can be useful in almost every workplace role. Whether you are looking at company-wide concepts or understanding a new team mission, conceptual skills can allow you to form a deeper understanding of information and align your actions in the right direction.

Consider building the following conceptual skills to elevate your effectiveness and success in the workplace:

Actively listen.

Learning how to actively listen is important to hear critical information. This ensures you are in line with your team members and have a clear view of the topic. When working with a team, using good listening skills will benefit your communication and make it easier for you to function as a collective unit.

Be more observant.

Observing others who use conceptual skills is a great way to gain an understanding of what these skills are and how they are used in your industry. Observe leadership in your department and look for how each member breaks down complex problems and finds the easiest solution.

Ask lots of questions.

Asking questions is a great way to understand how leadership in your field thinks. This may provide insight into how to approach problems or complex concepts from new angles.

Keep an open mind.

Being open-minded is essential when allowing yourself to view a problem or concept from new perspectives. If you work with diverse teams or in an evolving environment, being open-minded will help prevent you from becoming stuck in a certain thought pattern.

Brainstorm.

Brainstorming helps to generate new and creative ideas. This can teach you to conceptualize concepts in new ways and expand your perspective to new potential solutions.

Improve your problem-solving abilities.

The world is constantly changing. Working on your ability to adapt to new situations will benefit your ability to conceptualize foreign concepts and come up with new ideas and solutions. This is a critical skill when managing teams and working in goal-oriented environments.

Read critically.

Reading books, articles, blog posts, reports, and studies can help you practice thinking in new ways and open your mind to new perspectives. It can also push you to conceptualize new types of problems and generate creative ideas.

Practice persuasion.

Being persuasive can help team members accept your idea and build trust in your leadership skills.

Improve your interpersonal skills.

To bring a concept through to the end stages, you will likely need to work with diverse team members and stakeholders. Learning how to negotiate, lead with empathy, and communicate effectively will help enhance your ability to lead projects.

How are conceptual skills used in business?

Many positions in the business industry use conceptual skills, but the most valuable conceptual skills will depend on your job responsibilities. For example, a manager may rely more on analytical skills such as information analysis and deductive reasoning, while an executive may need to use leadership skills such as persuasion and negotiation more often.

People regularly use conceptual skills in business to improve current operations. This involves looking at the company operations as a whole and identifying how certain areas may be contributing to lower productivity or affecting certain outcomes. An analysis can then be conducted to understand how different solutions may impact the working environment and which will yield the best results. Team changes and improvements can then be put in place to boost business success.

Build your conceptual skills with a course from a top university on Coursera. Practice collecting, analyzing, and thinking about data with Mindware: Critical Thinking for the Information Age from the University of Michigan or Introduction to Negotiation: A Strategic Playbook for Becoming a Principled and Persuasive Negotiator from Yale.

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This content has been made available for informational purposes only. Learners are advised to conduct additional research to ensure that courses and other credentials pursued meet their personal, professional, and financial goals.

A Math Word Problem Framework That Fosters Conceptual Thinking

Conceptual thinking is a crucial math skill that goes beyond memorizing formulas and step-by-step procedures. It means having a deeper understanding of math concepts and being able to use them in different situations. To help students develop this kind of thinking in math, it’s important to use word problems that focus on understanding, critical thinking, and solving problems. In this article, we’ll talk about why conceptual thinking is important in math and share a framework that helps students develop this skill through word problems.

The Importance of Conceptual Thinking in Mathematics

Conceptual thinking in mathematics refers to a student’s ability to grasp the underlying concepts and principles of mathematical ideas, rather than merely memorizing procedures or algorithms. This higher-level thinking skill allows students to:

• Understand the “Why”: Conceptual thinkers go beyond knowing “how” to solve a problem; they understand “why” a particular approach or solution is valid.
• Apply Knowledge: Conceptual thinking enables students to apply their mathematical knowledge to various real-world problems and scenarios.

• Make Connections: Conceptual thinkers can connect different mathematical concepts, seeing how they relate and build upon each other.
• Adapt to Novel Problems: They are better prepared to tackle new or unfamiliar mathematical problems, as they can draw upon their conceptual understanding.
• Develop Problem-Solving Skills: Conceptual thinking is closely linked to problem-solving skills, as it requires students to analyze, strategize, and reason their way through mathematical challenges.

The traditional approach to teaching mathematics often focuses on procedural fluency, where students memorize algorithms and formulas to solve specific types of problems. While procedural fluency is important, it is only one aspect of mathematical competence. To truly excel in mathematics and other fields that require mathematical thinking, students need to develop conceptual understanding.

8 Steps That Promote Conceptual Thinking To Creating Math Word Problems:

Math word problems provide an excellent opportunity to foster conceptual thinking. However, not all word problems are created equal. To maximize their potential, educators can adopt a math word problem framework that emphasizes conceptual understanding. Here’s a step-by-step approach to creating math word problems that promote conceptual thinking:

1. Real-World Context

Start with a real-world context that is relatable to the students. The problem should be meaningful and relevant to their lives. For example, use scenarios involving daily activities, such as shopping, cooking, or sports.

2. Focus on Concepts

Identify the mathematical concepts you want to reinforce or introduce. These concepts could range from basic arithmetic operations to more advanced topics like algebra, geometry, or calculus. Clearly define the primary concept for each problem.

3. Open-Ended Questions

Formulate open-ended questions that require students to apply the chosen mathematical concept. Open-ended questions don’t have a single correct answer and encourage critical thinking and problem-solving. For example, instead of asking, “What is 5 + 3?” you might ask, “How can you represent the relationship between the number of apples and bananas in a pie?”

4. Multiple Approaches

Encourage students to explore different approaches and strategies to solve the problem. For instance, they could use visual representations, models, or diagrams to represent the situation. The goal is to promote flexibility in problem-solving.

Related: The Alchemical Transformation of Your Math Classroom into a Thinking Classroom

5. Collaborative Learning

Encourage collaborative learning and discussions. Group work allows students to share their thought processes and learn from their peers. It’s an opportunity for students to see various approaches and strategies, fostering a deeper understanding of the mathematical concepts.

6. Reflection and Explanation

After students have solved the problem, ask them to reflect on their approach and explain their reasoning. This step is crucial for reinforcing the conceptual understanding of the math word problem.

7. Real-World Application

Conclude the problem by discussing how the mathematical concept is relevant in real-world applications. Show students how the math they’ve learned is not confined to the classroom but has practical uses.

8. Varied Complexity

Gradually introduce problems of varying complexity. Start with simple problems that reinforce fundamental concepts and progress to more challenging problems that require the application of multiple concepts and critical thinking.

Examples of Conceptual Math Word Problems

Let’s take a look at a few examples of math word problems that follow the conceptual thinking framework:

• Real-World Context: You are planning a school picnic, and you need to calculate the total cost of sandwiches. Each sandwich costs $3, and you plan to buy a variety of sandwiches, including turkey, ham, and vegetarian. How can you find the total cost of the sandwiches for your picnic?
• Open-Ended Questions : “How can you determine the total cost of sandwiches for the picnic using addition and multiplication? Can you think of more than one way to solve this problem?”
• Multiple Approaches: Students can use addition to find the cost of each type of sandwich separately and then add them together. Alternatively, they can use multiplication to calculate the total cost by multiplying the number of each type of sandwich by its price.
• Collaborative Learning: In groups, students can discuss their approaches and share their methods. They can learn different ways to solve the problem from their peers.

• Reflection and Explanation: After solving the problem, students can explain their chosen approach, why it worked, and how it relates to real-life situations like planning picnics.
• Real-World Application: Discuss how understanding addition and multiplication is essential for calculating costs in various scenarios, such as shopping, budgeting, and planning events.
• Varied Complexity: Introduce more complex problems that involve multiple items, discounts, and custom orders to challenge students and deepen their conceptual understanding.

Benefits of the Conceptual Thinking Math Word Problem Framework

Adopting a math word problem framework that fosters conceptual thinking offers several advantages for both students and educators:

• Deep Understanding: Conceptual thinking encourages a deeper understanding of mathematical concepts, enabling students to apply their knowledge more effectively.
• Critical Thinking: Open-ended questions and varied approaches promote critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity.
• Real-World Relevance: Relatable, real-world contexts make math more relevant and practical, demonstrating its applicability beyond the classroom.
• Collaborative Learning: Group discussions and collaborative learning foster peer-to-peer interaction and the exchange of diverse problem-solving strategies.
• Self-Reliance: Students become more self-reliant, confident in their mathematical abilities, and able to tackle a wider range of problems independently.
• Lifelong Learning: Conceptual thinking equips students with the skills they need for lifelong learning, as they can adapt their knowledge to new situations and challenges.

In conclusion, nurturing conceptual thinking in mathematics is essential for developing well-rounded, proficient problem solvers. The math word problem framework presented in this article emphasizes comprehension, critical thinking, and practical application, helping students transcend mere procedural fluency. By creating math word problems that encourage conceptual understanding, educators empower students to not only excel in mathematics but also see its value and relevance in their everyday lives and future endeavors.

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What Is Creative Problem-Solving & Why Is It Important?

• 01 Feb 2022

One of the biggest hindrances to innovation is complacency—it can be more comfortable to do what you know than venture into the unknown. Business leaders can overcome this barrier by mobilizing creative team members and providing space to innovate.

There are several tools you can use to encourage creativity in the workplace. Creative problem-solving is one of them, which facilitates the development of innovative solutions to difficult problems.

Here’s an overview of creative problem-solving and why it’s important in business.

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What Is Creative Problem-Solving?

Research is necessary when solving a problem. But there are situations where a problem’s specific cause is difficult to pinpoint. This can occur when there’s not enough time to narrow down the problem’s source or there are differing opinions about its root cause.

In such cases, you can use creative problem-solving , which allows you to explore potential solutions regardless of whether a problem has been defined.

Creative problem-solving is less structured than other innovation processes and encourages exploring open-ended solutions. It also focuses on developing new perspectives and fostering creativity in the workplace . Its benefits include:

• Finding creative solutions to complex problems : User research can insufficiently illustrate a situation’s complexity. While other innovation processes rely on this information, creative problem-solving can yield solutions without it.
• Adapting to change : Business is constantly changing, and business leaders need to adapt. Creative problem-solving helps overcome unforeseen challenges and find solutions to unconventional problems.
• Fueling innovation and growth : In addition to solutions, creative problem-solving can spark innovative ideas that drive company growth. These ideas can lead to new product lines, services, or a modified operations structure that improves efficiency.

Creative problem-solving is traditionally based on the following key principles :

1. Balance Divergent and Convergent Thinking

Creative problem-solving uses two primary tools to find solutions: divergence and convergence. Divergence generates ideas in response to a problem, while convergence narrows them down to a shortlist. It balances these two practices and turns ideas into concrete solutions.

2. Reframe Problems as Questions

By framing problems as questions, you shift from focusing on obstacles to solutions. This provides the freedom to brainstorm potential ideas.

3. Defer Judgment of Ideas

When brainstorming, it can be natural to reject or accept ideas right away. Yet, immediate judgments interfere with the idea generation process. Even ideas that seem implausible can turn into outstanding innovations upon further exploration and development.

4. Focus on "Yes, And" Instead of "No, But"

Using negative words like "no" discourages creative thinking. Instead, use positive language to build and maintain an environment that fosters the development of creative and innovative ideas.

Creative Problem-Solving and Design Thinking

Whereas creative problem-solving facilitates developing innovative ideas through a less structured workflow, design thinking takes a far more organized approach.

Design thinking is a human-centered, solutions-based process that fosters the ideation and development of solutions. In the online course Design Thinking and Innovation , Harvard Business School Dean Srikant Datar leverages a four-phase framework to explain design thinking.

The four stages are:

• Clarify: The clarification stage allows you to empathize with the user and identify problems. Observations and insights are informed by thorough research. Findings are then reframed as problem statements or questions.
• Ideate: Ideation is the process of coming up with innovative ideas. The divergence of ideas involved with creative problem-solving is a major focus.
• Develop: In the development stage, ideas evolve into experiments and tests. Ideas converge and are explored through prototyping and open critique.
• Implement: Implementation involves continuing to test and experiment to refine the solution and encourage its adoption.

Creative problem-solving primarily operates in the ideate phase of design thinking but can be applied to others. This is because design thinking is an iterative process that moves between the stages as ideas are generated and pursued. This is normal and encouraged, as innovation requires exploring multiple ideas.

Creative Problem-Solving Tools

While there are many useful tools in the creative problem-solving process, here are three you should know:

Creating a Problem Story

One way to innovate is by creating a story about a problem to understand how it affects users and what solutions best fit their needs. Here are the steps you need to take to use this tool properly.

1. Identify a UDP

Create a problem story to identify the undesired phenomena (UDP). For example, consider a company that produces printers that overheat. In this case, the UDP is "our printers overheat."

2. Move Forward in Time

To move forward in time, ask: “Why is this a problem?” For example, minor damage could be one result of the machines overheating. In more extreme cases, printers may catch fire. Don't be afraid to create multiple problem stories if you think of more than one UDP.

3. Move Backward in Time

To move backward in time, ask: “What caused this UDP?” If you can't identify the root problem, think about what typically causes the UDP to occur. For the overheating printers, overuse could be a cause.

Following the three-step framework above helps illustrate a clear problem story:

• The printer is overused.
• The printer overheats.
• The printer breaks down.

You can extend the problem story in either direction if you think of additional cause-and-effect relationships.

4. Break the Chains

By this point, you’ll have multiple UDP storylines. Take two that are similar and focus on breaking the chains connecting them. This can be accomplished through inversion or neutralization.

• Inversion: Inversion changes the relationship between two UDPs so the cause is the same but the effect is the opposite. For example, if the UDP is "the more X happens, the more likely Y is to happen," inversion changes the equation to "the more X happens, the less likely Y is to happen." Using the printer example, inversion would consider: "What if the more a printer is used, the less likely it’s going to overheat?" Innovation requires an open mind. Just because a solution initially seems unlikely doesn't mean it can't be pursued further or spark additional ideas.
• Neutralization: Neutralization completely eliminates the cause-and-effect relationship between X and Y. This changes the above equation to "the more or less X happens has no effect on Y." In the case of the printers, neutralization would rephrase the relationship to "the more or less a printer is used has no effect on whether it overheats."

Even if creating a problem story doesn't provide a solution, it can offer useful context to users’ problems and additional ideas to be explored. Given that divergence is one of the fundamental practices of creative problem-solving, it’s a good idea to incorporate it into each tool you use.

Brainstorming

Brainstorming is a tool that can be highly effective when guided by the iterative qualities of the design thinking process. It involves openly discussing and debating ideas and topics in a group setting. This facilitates idea generation and exploration as different team members consider the same concept from multiple perspectives.

Hosting brainstorming sessions can result in problems, such as groupthink or social loafing. To combat this, leverage a three-step brainstorming method involving divergence and convergence :

• Have each group member come up with as many ideas as possible and write them down to ensure the brainstorming session is productive.
• Continue the divergence of ideas by collectively sharing and exploring each idea as a group. The goal is to create a setting where new ideas are inspired by open discussion.
• Begin the convergence of ideas by narrowing them down to a few explorable options. There’s no "right number of ideas." Don't be afraid to consider exploring all of them, as long as you have the resources to do so.

Alternate Worlds

The alternate worlds tool is an empathetic approach to creative problem-solving. It encourages you to consider how someone in another world would approach your situation.

For example, if you’re concerned that the printers you produce overheat and catch fire, consider how a different industry would approach the problem. How would an automotive expert solve it? How would a firefighter?

Be creative as you consider and research alternate worlds. The purpose is not to nail down a solution right away but to continue the ideation process through diverging and exploring ideas.

Continue Developing Your Skills

Whether you’re an entrepreneur, marketer, or business leader, learning the ropes of design thinking can be an effective way to build your skills and foster creativity and innovation in any setting.

If you're ready to develop your design thinking and creative problem-solving skills, explore Design Thinking and Innovation , one of our online entrepreneurship and innovation courses. If you aren't sure which course is the right fit, download our free course flowchart to determine which best aligns with your goals.

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Problem solving through values: A challenge for thinking and capability development

• • This paper introduces the 4W framework of consistent problem solving through values.
• • The 4W suggests when, how and why the explication of values helps to solve a problem.
• • The 4W is significant to teach students to cope with problems having crucial consequences.
• • The paper considers challenges using such framework of thinking in different fields of education.

The paper aims to introduce the conceptual framework of problem solving through values. The framework consists of problem analysis, selection of value(s) as a background for the solution, the search for alternative ways of the solution, and the rationale for the solution. This framework reveals when, how, and why is important to think about values when solving problems. A consistent process fosters cohesive and creative value-based thinking during problem solving rather than teaching specific values. Therefore, the framework discloses the possibility for enabling the development of value-grounded problem solving capability.The application of this framework highlights the importance of responsibility for the chosen values that are the basis for the alternatives which determine actions. The 4W framework is meaningful for the people’s lives and their professional work. It is particularly important in the process of future professionals’ education. Critical issues concerning the development of problem solving through values are discussed when considering and examining options for the implementation of the 4W framework in educational institutions.

1. Introduction

The core competencies necessary for future professionals include problem solving based on complexity and collaborative approaches ( OECD, 2018 ). Currently, the emphasis is put on the development of technical, technological skills as well as system thinking and other cognitive abilities (e.g., Barber, 2018 ; Blanco, Schirmbeck, & Costa, 2018 ). Hence, education prepares learners with high qualifications yet lacking in moral values ( Nadda, 2017 ). Educational researchers (e.g., Barnett, 2007 ; Harland & Pickering, 2010 ) stress that such skills and abilities ( the how? ), as well as knowledge ( the what? ), are insufficient to educate a person for society and the world. The philosophy of education underlines both the epistemological and ontological dimensions of learning. Barnett (2007) points out that the ontological dimension has to be above the epistemological one. The ontological dimension encompasses the issues related to values that education should foster ( Harland & Pickering, 2010 ). In addition, values are closely related to the enablement of learners in educational environments ( Jucevičienė et al., 2010 ). For these reasons, ‘ the why ?’ based on values is required in the learning process. The question arises as to what values and how it makes sense to educate them. Value-based education seeks to address these issues and concentrates on values transfer due to their integration into the curriculum. Yazdani and Akbarilakeh (2017) discussed that value-based education could only convey factual knowledge of values and ethics. However, such education does not guarantee the internalization of values. Nevertheless, value-based education indicates problem solving as one of the possibilities to develop values.

Values guide and affect personal behavior encompassing the ethical aspects of solutions ( Roccas, Sagiv, & Navon, 2017 ; Schwartz, 1992 , 2012 ; Verplanken & Holland, 2002 ). Therefore, they represent the essential foundation for solving a problem. Growing evidence indicates the creative potential of values ( Dollinger, Burke, & Gump, 2007 ; Kasof, Chen, Himsel, & Greenberger, 2007 ; Lebedeva et al., 2019) and emphasizes their significance for problem solving. Meanwhile, research in problem solving pays little attention to values. Most of the problem solving models (e.g., Newell & Simon, 1972 ; Jonassen, 1997 ) utilize a rational economic approach. Principally, the research on the mechanisms of problem solving have been conducted under laboratory conditions performing simple tasks ( Csapó & Funke, 2017 ). Moreover, some of the decision-making models share the same steps as problem solving (c.f., Donovan, Guss, & Naslund, 2015 ). This explains why these terms are sometimes used interchangeably ( Huitt, 1992 ). Indeed, decision-making is a part of problem solving, which emerges while choosing between alternatives. Yet, values, moral, and ethical issues are more common in decision-making research (e.g., Keeney, 1994 ; Verplanken & Holland, 2002 ; Hall & Davis, 2007 ; Sheehan & Schmidt, 2015 ). Though, research by Shepherd, Patzelt, and Baron (2013) , Baron, Zhao, and Miao (2015) has affirmed that contemporary business decision makers rather often leave aside ethical issues and moral values. Thus, ‘ethical disengagement fallacy’ ( Sternberg, 2017, p.7 ) occurs as people think that ethics is more relevant to others. In the face of such disengagement, ethical issues lose their prominence.

The analysis of the literature revealed a wide field of problem solving research presenting a range of more theoretical insights rather empirical evidence. Despite this, to date, a comprehensive model that reveals how to solve problems emphasizing thinking about values is lacking. This underlines the relevance of the chosen topic, i.e. a challenge for thinking and for the development of capabilities addressing problems through values. To address this gap, the following issues need to be investigated: When, how, and why a problem solver should take into account values during problem solving? What challenges may occur for using such framework of thinking in different fields of education? Aiming this, the authors of the paper substantiated the conceptual framework of problem solving grounded in consistent thinking about values. The substantiation consists of several parts. First, different approaches to solving problems were examined. Second, searching to reveal the possibilities of values integration into problem solving, value-based approaches significant for problem solving were critically analyzed. Third, drawing on the effect of values when solving a problem and their creative potential, the authors of this paper claim that the identification of values and their choice for a solution need to be specified in the process of problem solving. As a synthesis of conclusions coming from the literature review and conceptual extensions regarding values, the authors of the paper created the coherent framework of problem solving through values (so called 4W).

The novelty of the 4W framework is exposed by several contributions. First, the clear design of overall problem solving process with attention on integrated thinking about values is used. Unlike in most models of problem solving, the first stage encompass the identification of a problem, an analysis of a context and the perspectives that influence the whole process, i.e. ‘What?’. The stage ‘What is the basis for a solution?’ focus on values identification and their choice. The stage ‘Ways how?’ encourages to create alternatives considering values. The stage ‘Why?’ represent justification of a chosen alternative according particular issues. Above-mentioned stages including specific steps are not found in any other model of problem solving. Second, even two key stages nurture thinking about values. The specificity of the 4W framework allows expecting its successful practical application. It may help to solve a problem more informed revealing when and how the explication of values helps to reach the desired value-based solution. The particular significance is that the 4W framework can be used to develop capabilities to solve problems through values. The challenges to use the 4W framework in education are discussed.

2. Methodology

To create the 4W framework, the integrative literature review was chosen. According to Snyder (2019) , this review is ‘useful when the purpose of the review is not to cover all articles ever published on the topic but rather to combine perspectives to create new theoretical models’ (p.334). The scope of this review focused on research disclosing problem solving process that paid attention on values. The following databases were used for relevant information search: EBSCO/Hostdatabases (ERIC, Education Source), Emerald, Google Scholar. The first step of this search was conducted using integrated keywords problem solving model , problem solving process, problem solving steps . These keywords were combined with the Boolean operator AND with the second keywords values approach, value-based . The inclusion criteria were used to identify research that: presents theoretical backgrounds and/or empirical evidences; performed within the last 5 years; within an educational context; availability of full text. The sources appropriate for this review was very limited in scope (N = 2).

We implemented the second search only with the same set of the integrated keywords. The inclusion criteria were the same except the date; this criterion was extended up to 10 years. This search presented 85 different sources. After reading the summaries, introductions and conclusions of the sources found, the sources that do not explicitly provide the process/models/steps of problem solving for teaching/learning purposes and eliminates values were excluded. Aiming to see a more accurate picture of the chosen topic, we selected secondary sources from these initial sources.

Several important issues were determined as well. First, most researchers ground their studies on existing problem solving models, however, not based on values. Second, some of them conducted empirical research in order to identify the process of studies participants’ problem solving. Therefore, we included sources without date restrictions trying to identify the principal sources that reveal the process/models/steps of problem solving. Third, decision-making is a part of problem solving process. Accordingly, we performed a search with the additional keywords decision-making AND values approach, value-based decision-making . We used such inclusion criteria: presents theoretical background and/or empirical evidence; no date restriction; within an educational context; availability of full text. These all searches resulted in a total of 16 (9 theoretical and 7 empirical) sources for inclusion. They were the main sources that contributed most fruitfully for the background. We used other sources for the justification the wholeness of the 4W framework. We present the principal results of the conducted literature review in the part ‘The background of the conceptual framework’.

3. The background of the conceptual framework

3.1. different approaches of how to solve a problem.

Researchers from different fields focus on problem solving. As a result, there still seems to be a lack of a conventional definition of problem solving. Regardless of some differences, there is an agreement that problem solving is a cognitive process and one of the meaningful and significant ways of learning ( Funke, 2014 ; Jonassen, 1997 ; Mayer & Wittrock, 2006 ). Differing in approaches to solving a problem, researchers ( Collins, Sibthorp, & Gookin, 2016 ; Jonassen, 1997 ; Litzinger et al., 2010 ; Mayer & Wittrock, 2006 ; O’Loughlin & McFadzean, 1999 ; ect.) present a variety of models that differ in the number of distinct steps. What is similar in these models is that they stress the procedural process of problem solving with the focus on the development of specific skills and competences.

For the sake of this paper, we have focused on those models of problem solving that clarify the process and draw attention to values, specifically, on Huitt (1992) , Basadur, Ellspermann, and Evans (1994) , and Morton (1997) . Integrating the creative approach to problem solving, Newell and Simon (1972) presents six phases: phase 1 - identifying the problem, phase 2 - understanding the problem, phase 3 - posing solutions, phase 4 - choosing solutions, phase 5 - implementing solutions, and phase 6 - final analysis. The weakness of this model is that these phases do not necessarily follow one another, and several can coincide. However, coping with simultaneously occurring phases could be a challenge, especially if these are, for instance, phases five and six. Certainly, it may be necessary to return to the previous phases for further analysis. According to Basadur et al. (1994) , problem solving consists of problem generation, problem formulation, problem solving, and solution implementation stages. Huitt (1992) distinguishes four stages in problem solving: input, processing, output, and review. Both Huitt (1992) and Basadur et al. (1994) four-stage models emphasize a sequential process of problem solving. Thus, problem solving includes four stages that are used in education. For example, problem-based learning employs such stages as introduction of the problem, problem analysis and learning issues, discovery and reporting, solution presentation and evaluation ( Chua, Tan, & Liu, 2016 ). Even PISA 2012 framework for problem solving composes four stages: exploring and understanding, representing and formulating, planning and executing, monitoring and reflecting ( OECD, 2013 ).

Drawing on various approaches to problem solving, it is possible to notice that although each stage is named differently, it is possible to reveal some general steps. These steps reflect the essential idea of problem solving: a search for the solution from the initial state to the desirable state. The identification of a problem and its contextual elements, the generation of alternatives to a problem solution, the evaluation of these alternatives according to specific criteria, the choice of an alternative for a solution, the implementation, and monitoring of the solution are the main proceeding steps in problem solving.

3.2. Value-based approaches relevant for problem solving

Huitt (1992) suggests that important values are among the criteria for the evaluation of alternatives and the effectiveness of a chosen solution. Basadur et al. (1994) point out to visible values in the problem formulation. Morton (1997) underlines that interests, investigation, prevention, and values of all types, which may influence the process, inspire every phase of problem solving. However, the aforementioned authors do not go deeper and do not seek to disclose the significance of values for problem solving.

Decision-making research shows more possibilities for problem solving and values integration. Sheehan and Schmidt (2015) model of ethical decision-making includes moral sensitivity, moral judgment, moral motivation, and moral action where values are presented in the component of moral motivation. Another useful approach concerned with values comes from decision-making in management. It is the concept of Value-Focused Thinking (VFT) proposed by Keeney (1994) . The author argues that the goals often are merely means of achieving results in traditional models of problem solving. Such models frequently do not help to identify logical links between the problem solving goals, values, and alternatives. Thus, according to Keeney (1994) , the decision-making starts with values as they are stated in the goals and objectives of decision-makers. VFT emphasizes the core values of decision-makers that are in a specific context as well as how to find a way to achieve them by using means-ends analysis. The weakness of VFT is its restriction to this means-ends analysis. According to Shin, Jonassen, and McGee (2003) , in searching for a solution, such analysis is weak as the problem solver focuses simply on removing inadequacies between the current state and the goal state. The strengths of this approach underline that values are included in the decision before alternatives are created. Besides, values help to find creative and meaningful alternatives and to assess them. Further, they include the forthcoming consequences of the decision. As VFT emphasizes the significant function of values and clarifies the possibilities of their integration into problem solving, we adapt this approach in the current paper.

3.3. The effect of values when solving a problem

In a broader sense, values provide a direction to a person’s life. Whereas the importance of values is relatively stable over time and across situations, Roccas et al. (2017) argue that values differ in their importance to a person. Verplanken and Holland (2002) investigated the relationship between values and choices or behavior. The research revealed that the activation of a value and the centrality of a value to the self, are the essential elements for value-guided behavior. The activation of values could happen in such cases: when values are the primary focus of attention; if the situation or the information a person is confronted with implies values; when the self is activated. The centrality of a particular value is ‘the degree to which an individual has incorporated this value as part of the self’ ( Verplanken & Holland, 2002, p.436 ). Thus, the perceived importance of values and attention to them determine value-guided behavior.

According to Argandoña (2003) , values can change due to external (changing values in the people around, in society, changes in situations, etc.) and internal (internalization by learning) factors affecting the person. The research by Hall and Davis (2007) indicates that the decision-makers’ applied value profile temporarily changed as they analyzed the issue from multiple perspectives and revealed the existence of a broader set of values. The study by Kirkman (2017) reveal that participants noticed the relevance of moral values to situations they encountered in various contexts.

Values are tightly related to personal integrity and identity and guide an individual’s perception, judgment, and behavior ( Halstead, 1996 ; Schwartz, 1992 ). Sheehan and Schmidt (2015) found that values influenced ethical decision-making of accounting study programme students when they uncovered their own values and grounded in them their individual codes of conduct for future jobs. Hence, the effect of values discloses by observing the problem solver’s decision-making. The latter observations could explain the abundance of ethics-laden research in decision-making rather than in problem solving.

Contemporary researchers emphasize the creative potential of values. Dollinger et al. (2007) , Kasof et al. (2007) , Lebedeva, Schwartz, Plucker, & Van De Vijver, 2019 present to some extent similar findings as they all used Schwartz Value Survey (respectively: Schwartz, 1992 ; ( Schwartz, 1994 ), Schwartz, 2012 ). These studies disclosed that such values as self-direction, stimulation and universalism foster creativity. Kasof et al. (2007) focused their research on identified motivation. Stressing that identified motivation is the only fully autonomous type of external motivation, authors define it as ‘the desire to commence an activity as a means to some end that one greatly values’ (p.106). While identified motivation toward specific values (italic in original) fosters the search for outcomes that express those specific values, this research demonstrated that it could also inhibit creative behavior. Thus, inhibition is necessary, especially in the case where reckless creativity could have painful consequences, for example, when an architect creates a beautiful staircase without a handrail. Consequently, creativity needs to be balanced.

Ultimately, values affect human beings’ lives as they express the motivational goals ( Schwartz, 1992 ). These motivational goals are the comprehensive criteria for a person’s choices when solving problems. Whereas some problem solving models only mention values as possible evaluation criteria, but they do not give any significant suggestions when and how the problem solver could think about the values coming to the understanding that his/her values direct the decision how to solve the problem. The authors of this paper claim that the identification of personal values and their choice for a solution need to be specified in the process of problem solving. This position is clearly reflected in humanistic philosophy and psychology ( Maslow, 2011 ; Rogers, 1995 ) that emphasize personal responsibility for discovering personal values through critical questioning, honest self-esteem, self-discovery, and open-mindedness in the constant pursuit of the truth in the path of individual life. However, fundamental (of humankind) and societal values should be taken into account. McLaughlin (1997) argues that a clear boundary between societal and personal values is difficult to set as they are intertwined due to their existence in complex cultural, social, and political contexts at a particular time. A person is related to time and context when choosing values. As a result, a person assumes existing values as implicit knowledge without as much as a consideration. This is particularly evident in the current consumer society.

Moreover, McLaughlin (1997) stresses that if a particular action should be tolerated and legitimated by society, it does not mean that this action is ultimately morally acceptable in all respects. Education has possibilities to reveal this. One such possibility is to turn to the capability approach ( Sen, 1990 ), which emphasizes what people are effectively able to do and to be. Capability, according to Sen (1990) , reflects a person’s freedom to choose between various ways of living, i.e., the focus is on the development of a person’s capability to choose the life he/she has a reason to value. According to Webster (2017) , ‘in order for people to value certain aspects of life, they need to appreciate the reasons and purposes – the whys – for certain valuing’ (italic in original; p.75). As values reflect and foster these whys, education should supplement the development of capability with attention to values ( Saito, 2003 ). In order to attain this possibility, a person has to be aware of and be able to understand two facets of values. Argandoña (2003) defines them as rationality and virtuality . Rationality refers to values as the ideal of conduct and involves the development of a person’s understanding of what values and why he/she should choose them when solving a problem. Virtuality approaches values as virtues and includes learning to enable a person to live according to his/her values. However, according to McLaughlin (1997) , some people may have specific values that are deep or self-evidently essential. These values are based on fundamental beliefs about the nature and purpose of the human being. Other values can be more or less superficial as they are based on giving priority to one or the other. Thus, virtuality highlights the depth of life harmonized to fundamentally rather than superficially laden values. These approaches inform the rationale for the framework of problem solving through values.

4. The 4W framework of problem solving through values

Similar to the above-presented stages of the problem solving processes, the introduced framework by the authors of this paper revisits them (see Fig. 1 ). The framework is titled 4W as its four stages respond to such questions: Analyzing the Problem: W hat ? → Choice of the value(s): W hat is the background for the solution? → Search for the alternative w ays of the solution: How ? → The rationale for problem solution: W hy is this alternative significant ? The stages of this framework cover seven steps that reveal the logical sequence of problem solving through values.

The 4 W framework: problem solving through values.

Though systematic problem solving models are criticized for being linear and inflexible (e.g., Treffinger & Isaksen, 2005 ), the authors of this paper assume a structural view of the problem solving process due to several reasons. First, the framework enables problem solvers to understand the thorough process of problem solving through values. Second, this framework reveals the depth of each stage and step. Third, problem solving through values encourages tackling problems that have crucial consequences. Only by understanding and mastering the coherence of how problems those require a value-based approach need to be addressed, a problem solver will be able to cope with them in the future. Finally, this framework aims at helping to recognize, to underline personal values, to solve problems through thinking about values, and to take responsibility for choices, even value-based. The feedback supports a direct interrelation between stages. It shapes a dynamic process of problem solving through values.

The first stage of problem solving through values - ‘ The analysis of the problem: What? ’- consists of three steps (see Fig. 1 ). The first step is ‘ Recognizing the problematic situation and naming the problem ’. This step is performed in the following sequence. First, the problem solver should perceive the problematic situation he/she faces in order to understand it. Dostál (2015) argues that the problematic situation has the potential to become the problem necessary to be addressed. Although each problem is limited by its context, not every problematic situation turns into a problem. This is related to the problem solver’s capability and the perception of reality: a person may not ‘see’ the problem if his/her capability to perceive it is not developed ( Dorst, 2006 ; Dostál, 2015 ). Second, after the problem solver recognizes the existence of the problematic situation, the problem solver has to identify the presence or absence of the problem itself, i.e. to name the problem. This is especially important in the case of the ill-structured problems since they cannot be directly visible to the problem solver ( Jonassen, 1997 ). Consequently, this step allows to determine whether the problem solver developed or has acquired the capability to perceive the problematic situation and the problem (naming the problem).

The second step is ‘ Analysing the context of the problem as a reason for its rise ’. At this step, the problem solver aims to analyse the context of the problem. The latter is one of the external issues, and it determines the solution ( Jonassen, 2011 ). However, if more attention is paid to the solution of the problem, it diverts attention from the context ( Fields, 2006 ). The problem solver has to take into account both the conveyed and implied contextual elements in the problematic situation ( Dostál, 2015 ). In other words, the problem solver has to examine it through his/her ‘contextual lenses’ ( Hester & MacG, 2017 , p.208). Thus, during this step the problem solver needs to identify the elements that shape the problem - reasons and circumstances that cause the problem, the factors that can be changed, and stakeholders that are involved in the problematic situation. Whereas the elements of the context mentioned above are within the problematic situation, the problem solver can control many of them. Such control can provide unique ways for a solution.

Although the problem solver tries to predict the undesirable results, some criteria remain underestimated. For that reason, it is necessary to highlight values underlying the various possible goals during the analysis ( Fields, 2006 ). According to Hester and MacG (2017) , values express one of the main features of the context and direct the attention of the problem solver to a given problematic situation. Hence, the problem solver should explore the value-based positions that emerge in the context of the problem.

The analysis of these contextual elements focus not only on a specific problematic situation but also on the problem that has emerged. This requires setting boundaries of attention for an in-depth understanding ( Fields, 2006 ; Hester & MacG, 2017 ). Such understanding influences several actions: (a) the recognition of inappropriate aspects of the problematic situation; (b) the emergence of paths in which identified aspects are expected to change. These actions ensure consistency and safeguard against distractions. Thus, the problem solver can now recognize and identify the factors that influence the problem although they are outside of the problematic situation. However, the problem solver possesses no control over them. With the help of such context analysis, the problem solver constructs a thorough understanding of the problem. Moreover, the problem solver becomes ready to look at the problem from different perspectives.

The third step is ‘ Perspectives emerging in the problem ’. Ims and Zsolnai (2009) argue that problem solving usually contains a ‘problematic search’. Such a search is a pragmatic activity as the problem itself induces it. Thus, the problem solver searches for a superficial solution. As a result, the focus is on control over the problem rather than a deeper understanding of the problem itself. The analysis of the problem, especially including value-based approaches, reveals the necessity to consider the problem from a variety of perspectives. Mitroff (2000) builds on Linstone (1989) ideas and claims that a sound foundation of both naming and solving any problem lays in such perspectives: the technical/scientific, the interpersonal/social, the existential, and the systemic (see Table 1 ).

The main characteristics of four perspectives for problem solving

Whereas all problems have significant aspects of each perspective, disregarding one or another may lead to the wrong way of solving the problem. While analysing all four perspectives is essential, this does not mean that they all are equally important. Therefore, it is necessary to justify why one or another perspective is more relevant and significant in a particular case. Such analysis, according to Linstone (1989) , ‘forces us to distinguish how we are looking from what we are looking at’ (p.312; italic in original). Hence, the problem solver broadens the understanding of various perspectives and develops the capability to see the bigger picture ( Hall & Davis, 2007 ).

The problem solver aims to identify and describe four perspectives that have emerged in the problem during this step. In order to identify perspectives, the problem solver search answers to the following questions. First, regarding the technical/scientific perspective: What technical/scientific reasons are brought out in the problem? How and to what extent do they influence a problem and its context? Second, regarding the interpersonal/social perspective: What is the impact of the problem on stakeholders? How does it influence their attitudes, living conditions, interests, needs? Third, regarding the existential perspective: How does the problem affect human feelings, experiences, perception, and/or discovery of meaning? Fourth, regarding the systemic perspective: What is the effect of the problem on the person → community → society → the world? Based on the analysis of this step, the problem solver obtains a comprehensive picture of the problem. The next stage is to choose the value(s) that will address the problem.

The second stage - ‘ The choice of value(s): What is the background for the solution?’ - includes the fourth and the fifth steps. The fourth step is ‘ The identification of value(s) as a base for the solution ’. During this step, the problem solver should activate his/her value(s) making it (them) explicit. In order to do this, the problem solver proceeds several sub-steps. First, the problem solver reflects taking into account the analysis done in previous steps. He/she raises up questions revealing values that lay in the background of this analysis: What values does this analyzed context allow me to notice? What values do different perspectives of the problem ‘offer’? Such questioning is important as values are deeply hidden ( Verplanken & Holland, 2002 ) and they form a bias, which restricts the development of the capability to see from various points of view ( Hall & Paradice, 2007 ). In the 4W framework, this bias is relatively eliminated due to the analysis of the context and exploration of the perspectives of a problem. As a result, the problem solver discovers distinct value-based positions and gets an opportunity to identify the ‘value uncaptured’ ( Yang, Evans, Vladimirova, & Rana, 2017, p.1796 ) within the problem analyzed. The problem solver observes that some values exist in the context (the second step) and the disclosed perspectives (the third step). Some of the identified values do not affect the current situation as they are not required, or their potential is not exploited. Thus, looking through various value-based lenses, the problem solver can identify and discover a congruence between the opportunities offered by the values in the problem’s context, disclosed perspectives and his/her value(s). Consequently, the problem solver decides what values he/she chooses as a basis for the desired solution. Since problems usually call for a list of values, it is important to find out their order of priority. Thus, the last sub-step requires the problem solver to choose between fundamentally and superficially laden values.

In some cases, the problem solver identifies that a set of values (more than one value) can lead to the desired solution. If a person chooses this multiple value-based position, two options emerge. The first option is concerned with the analysis of each value-based position separately (from the fifth to the seventh step). In the second option, a person has to uncover which of his/her chosen values are fundamentally laden and which are superficially chosen, considering the desired outcome in the current situation. Such clarification could act as a strategy where the path for the desired solution is possible going from superficially chosen value(s) to fundamentally laden one. When a basis for the solution is established, the problem solver formulates the goal for the desired solution.

The fifth step is ‘ The formulation of the goal for the solution ’. Problem solving highlights essential points that reveal the structure of a person’s goals; thus, a goal is the core element of problem solving ( Funke, 2014 ). Meantime, values reflect the motivational content of the goals ( Schwartz, 1992 ). The attention on the chosen value not only activates it, but also motivates the problem solver. The motivation directs the formulation of the goal. In such a way, values explicitly become a basis of the goal for the solution. Thus, this step involves the problem solver in formulating the goal for the solution as the desired outcome.

The way how to take into account value(s) when formulating the goal is the integration of value(s) chosen by the problem solver in the formulation of the goal ( Keeney, 1994 ). For this purpose the conjunction of a context for a solution (it is analyzed during the second step) and a direction of preference (the chosen value reveals it) serves for the formulation of the goal (that represents the desired solution). In other words, a value should be directly included into the formulation of the goal. The goal could lose value, if value is not included into the goal formulation and remains only in the context of the goal. Let’s take the actual example concerning COVID-19 situation. Naturally, many countries governments’ preference represents such value as human life (‘it is important of every individual’s life’). Thus, most likely the particular country government’s goal of solving the COVID situation could be to save the lifes of the country people. The named problem is a complex where the goal of its solution is also complex, although it sounds simple. However, if the goal as desired outcome is formulated without the chosen value, this value remains in the context and its meaning becomes tacit. In the case of above presented example - the goal could be formulated ‘to provide hospitals with the necessary equipment and facilities’. Such goal has the value ‘human’s life’ in the context, but eliminates the complexity of the problem that leads to a partial solution of the problem. Thus, this step from the problem solver requires caution when formulating the goal as the desired outcome. For this reason, maintaining value is very important when formulating the goal’s text. To avoid the loss of values and maintain their proposed direction, is necessary to take into account values again when creating alternatives.

The third stage - ‘ Search for the alternative ways for a solution: How? ’ - encompasses the sixth step, which is called ‘ Creation of value-based alternatives ’. Frequently problem solver invokes a traditional view of problem identification, generation of alternatives, and selection of criteria for evaluating findings. Keeney (1994) ; Ims and Zsolnai (2009) criticize this rational approach as it supports a search for a partial solution where an active search for alternatives is neglected. Moreover, a problematic situation, according to Perkins (2009) , can create the illusion of a fully framed problem with some apparent weighting and some variations of choices. In this case, essential and distinct alternatives to the solution frequently become unnoticeable. Therefore, Perkins (2009) suggest to replace the focus on the attempts to comprehend the problem itself. Thinking through the ‘value lenses’ offers such opportunities. The deep understanding of the problem leads to the search for the alternative ways of a solution.

Thus, the aim of this step is for the problem solver to reveal the possible alternative ways for searching a desired solution. Most people think they know how to create alternatives, but often without delving into the situation. First of all, the problem solver based on the reflection of (but not limited to) the analysis of the context and the perspectives of the problem generates a range of alternatives. Some of these alternatives represent anchored thinking as he/she accepts the assumptions implicit in generated alternatives and with too little focus on values.

The chosen value with the formulated goal indicates direction and encourages a broader and more creative search for a solution. Hence, the problem solver should consider some of the initial alternatives that could best support the achievement of the desired solution. Values are the principles for evaluating the desirability of any alternative or outcome ( Keeney, 1994 ). Thus, planned actions should reveal the desirable mode of conduct. After such consideration, he/she should draw up a plan setting out the actions required to implement each of considered alternatives.

Lastly, after a thorough examination of each considered alternative and a plan of its implementation, the problem solver chooses one of them. If the problem solver does not see an appropriate alternative, he/she develops new alternatives. However, the problem solver may notice (and usually does) that more than one alternative can help him/her to achieve the desired solution. In this case, he/she indicates which alternative is the main one and has to be implemented in the first place, and what other alternatives and in what sequence will contribute in searching for the desired solution.

The fourth stage - ‘ The rationale for the solution: Why ’ - leads to the seventh step: ‘ The justification of the chosen alternative ’. Keeney (1994) emphasizes the compatibility of alternatives in question with the values that guide the action. This underlines the importance of justifying the choices a person makes where the focus is on taking responsibility. According to Zsolnai (2008) , responsibility means a choice, i.e., the perceived responsibility essentially determines its choice. Responsible justification allows for discovering optimal balance when choosing between distinct value-based alternatives. It also refers to the alternative solution that best reflects responsibility in a particular value context, choice, and implementation.

At this stage, the problem solver revisits the chosen solution and revises it. The problem solver justifies his/her choice based on the following questions: Why did you choose this? Why is this alternative significant looking from the technical/scientific, the interpersonal/social, the existential, and the systemic perspectives? Could you take full responsibility for the implementation of this alternative? Why? How clearly do envisaged actions reflect the goal of the desired solution? Whatever interests and for what reasons do this alternative satisfies in principle? What else do you see in the chosen alternative?

As mentioned above, each person gives priority to one aspect or another. The problem solver has to provide solid arguments for the justification of the chosen alternative. The quality of arguments, according to Jonassen (2011) , should be judged based on the quality of the evidence supporting the chosen alternative and opposing arguments that can reject solutions. Besides, the pursuit of value-based goals reflects the interests of the individual or collective interests. Therefore, it becomes critical for the problem solver to justify the level of responsibility he/she takes in assessing the chosen alternative. Such a complex evaluation of the chosen alternative ensures the acceptance of an integral rather than unilateral solution, as ‘recognizing that, in the end, people benefit most when they act for the common good’ ( Sternberg, 2012, p.46 ).

5. Discussion

The constant emphasis on thinking about values as explicit reasoning in the 4W framework (especially from the choice of the value(s) to the rationale for problem solution) reflects the pursuit of virtues. Virtues form the features of the character that are related to the choice ( Argandoña, 2003 ; McLaughlin, 2005 ). Hence, the problem solver develops value-grounded problem solving capability as the virtuality instead of employing rationality for problem solving.

Argandoña (2003) suggests that, in order to make a sound valuation process of any action, extrinsic, transcendent, and intrinsic types of motives need to be considered. They cover the respective types of values. The 4W framework meets these requirements. An extrinsic motive as ‘attaining the anticipated or expected satisfaction’ ( Argandoña, 2003, p.17 ) is reflected in the formulation of the goal of the solution, the creation of alternatives and especially in the justification of the chosen alternative way when the problem solver revisits the external effect of his/her possible action. Transcendent motive as ‘generating certain effects in others’ ( Argandoña, 2003, p.17 ) is revealed within the analysis of the context, perspectives, and creating alternatives. When the learner considers the creation of alternatives and revisits the chosen alternative, he/she pays more attention to these motives. Two types of motives mentioned so far are closely related to an intrinsic motive that emphasizes learning development within the problem solver. These motives confirm that problem solving is, in fact, lifelong learning. In light of these findings, the 4W framework is concerned with some features of value internalization as it is ‘a psychological outcome of conscious mind reasoning about values’ ( Yazdani & Akbarilakeh, 2017, p.1 ).

The 4W framework is complicated enough in terms of learning. One issue is concerned with the educational environments ( Jucevičienė, 2008 ) required to enable the 4W framework. First, the learning paradigm, rather than direct instruction, lies at the foundation of such environments. Second, such educational environments include the following dimensions: (1) educational goal; (2) learning capacity of the learners; (3) educational content relevant to the educational goal: ways and means of communicating educational content as information presented in advance (they may be real, people among them, as well as virtual); (5) methods and means of developing educational content in the process of learners’ performance; (6) physical environment relevant to the educational goal and conditions of its implementation as well as different items in the environment; (7) individuals involved in the implementation of the educational goal.

Another issue is related to exercising this framework in practice. Despite being aware of the 4W framework, a person may still not want to practice problem solving through values, since most of the solutions are going to be complicated, or may even be painful. One idea worth looking into is to reveal the extent to which problem solving through values can become a habit of mind. Profound focus on personal values, context analysis, and highlighting various perspectives can involve changes in the problem solver’s habit of mind. The constant practice of problem solving through values could first become ‘the epistemic habit of mind’ ( Mezirow, 2009, p.93 ), which means a personal way of knowing things and how to use that knowledge. This echoes Kirkman (2017) findings. The developed capability to notice moral values in situations that students encountered changed some students’ habit of mind as ‘for having “ruined” things by making it impossible not to attend to values in such situations!’ (the feedback from one student; Kirkman, 2017, p.12 ). However, this is not enough, as only those problems that require a value-based approach are addressed. Inevitably, the problem solver eventually encounters the challenges of nurturing ‘the moral-ethical habit of mind’ ( Mezirow, 2009, p.93 ). In pursuance to develop such habits of mind, the curriculum should include the necessity of the practising of the 4W framework.

Thinking based on values when solving problems enables the problem solver to engage in thoughtful reflection in contrast to pragmatic and superficial thinking supported by the consumer society. Reflection begins from the first stage of the 4W framework. As personal values are the basis for the desired solution, the problem solver is also involved in self-reflection. The conscious and continuous reflection on himself/herself and the problematic situation reinforce each step of the 4W framework. Moreover, the fourth stage (‘The rationale for the solution: Why’) involves the problem solver in critical reflection as it concerned with justification of ‘the why , the reasons for and the consequences of what we do’ (italic, bold in original; Mezirow, 1990, p.8 ). Exercising the 4W framework in practice could foster reflective practice. Empirical evidence shows that reflective practice directly impacts knowledge, skills and may lead to changes in personal belief systems and world views ( Slade, Burnham, Catalana, & Waters, 2019 ). Thus, with the help of reflective practice it is possible to identify in more detail how and to what extent the 4W framework has been mastered, what knowledge gained, capabilities developed, how point of views changed, and what influence the change process.

Critical issues related to the development of problem solving through values need to be distinguished when considering and examining options for the implementation of the 4W framework at educational institutions. First, the question to what extent can the 4W framework be incorporated into various subjects needs to be answered. Researchers could focus on applying the 4W framework to specific subjects in the humanities and social sciences. The case is with STEM subjects. Though value issues of sustainable development and ecology are of great importance, in reality STEM teaching is often restricted to the development of knowledge and skills, leaving aside the thinking about values. The special task of the researchers is to help practitioners to apply the 4W framework in STEM subjects. Considering this, researchers could employ the concept of ‘dialogic space’ ( Wegerif, 2011, p.3 ) which places particular importance of dialogue in the process of education emphasizing both the voices of teachers and students, and materials. In addition, the dimensions of educational environments could be useful aligning the 4W framework with STEM subjects. As STEM teaching is more based on solving various special tasks and/or integrating problem-based learning, the 4W framework could be a meaningful tool through which content is mastered, skills are developed, knowledge is acquired by solving pre-prepared specific tasks. In this case, the 4W framework could act as a mean addressing values in STEM teaching.

Second is the question of how to enable the process of problem solving through values. In the current paper, the concept of enabling is understood as an integral component of the empowerment. Juceviciene et al. (2010) specify that at least two perspectives can be employed to explain empowerment : a) through the power of legitimacy (according to Freire, 1996 ); and b) through the perspective of conditions for the acquisition of the required knowledge, capabilities, and competence, i.e., enabling. In this paper the 4W framework does not entail the issue of legitimacy. This issue may occur, for example, when a teacher in economics is expected to provide students with subject knowledge only, rather than adding tasks that involve problem solving through values. Yet, the issue of legitimacy is often implicit. A widespread phenomenon exists that teaching is limited to certain periods that do not have enough time for problem solving through values. The issue of legitimacy as an organizational task that supports/or not the implementation of the 4W framework in any curriculum is a question that calls for further discussion.

Third (if not the first), the issue of an educator’s competence to apply such a framework needs to be addressed. In order for a teacher to be a successful enabler, he/she should have the necessary competence. This is related to the specific pedagogical knowledge and skills, which are highly dependent on the peculiarities of the subject being taught. Nowadays actualities are encouraging to pay attention to STEM subjects and their teacher training. For researchers and teacher training institutions, who will be interested in implementing the 4W framework in STEM subjects, it would be useful to draw attention to ‘a material-dialogic approach to pedagogy’ ( Hetherington & Wegerif, 2018, p.27 ). This approach creates the conditions for a deep learning of STEM subjects revealing additional opportunities for problem solving through values in teaching. Highlighting these opportunities is a task for further research.

In contrast to traditional problem solving models, the 4W framework is more concerned with educational purposes. The prescriptive approach to teaching ( Thorne, 1994 ) is applied to the 4W framework. This approach focuses on providing guidelines that enable students to make sound decisions by making explicit value judgements. The limitation is that the 4W framework is focused on thinking but not executing. It does not include the fifth stage, which would focus on the execution of the decision how to solve the problem. This stage may contain some deviation from the predefined process of the solution of the problem.

6. Conclusions

The current paper focuses on revealing the essence of the 4W framework, which is based on enabling the problem solver to draw attention to when, how, and why it is essential to think about values during the problem solving process from the perspective of it’s design. Accordingly, the 4W framework advocates the coherent approach when solving a problem by using a creative potential of values.

The 4W framework allows the problem solver to look through the lens of his/her values twice. The first time, while formulating the problem solving goal as the desired outcome. The second time is when the problem solver looks deeper into his/her values while exploring alternative ways to solve problems. The problem solver is encouraged to reason about, find, accept, reject, compare values, and become responsible for the consequences of the choices grounded on his/her values. Thus, the problem solver could benefit from the 4W framework especially when dealing with issues having crucial consequences.

An educational approach reveals that the 4W framework could enable the development of value-grounded problem solving capability. As problem solving encourages the development of higher-order thinking skills, the consistent inclusion of values enriches them.

The 4W framework requires the educational environments for its enablement. The enablement process of problem solving through values could be based on the perspective of conditions for the acquisition of the required knowledge and capability. Continuous practice of this framework not only encourages reflection, but can also contribute to the creation of the epistemic habit of mind. Applying the 4W framework to specific subjects in the humanities and social sciences might face less challenge than STEM ones. The issue of an educator’s competence to apply such a framework is highly important. The discussed issues present significant challenges for researchers and educators. Caring that the curriculum of different courses should foresee problem solving through values, both practicing and empirical research are necessary.

Declaration of interests

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Both authors have approved the final article.

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Understanding conceptual skills (With definitions, types, examples, and tips)

Management roles have changed a lot over the years, especially in Singapore's fast-paced business landscape. Higher-level managers now turn their companies' visions into actionable strategies. They make decisions balancing strategic objectives with calculated risks. They help their organisations adapt to changing trends for long-term growth. Good conceptual skills enable managers to perform these tasks competently.

If you aspire to be a successful manager, mastering conceptual skills is essential. These skills help you grasp high-level ideas and tackle challenging situations creatively. From managing projects to resolving conflicts , these skills can significantly enhance your leadership and managerial abilities.

In this article, we will discuss what conceptual skills are. You will learn how to develop them to get ahead in your career. The topics we will cover include:

What are conceptual skills?

Types of conceptual skills, why are conceptual skills important for people in management roles, examples of conceptual skills in the workplace, demonstrating conceptual skills in interviews, how to improve your conceptual skills.

Conceptual skills are the ability to think broadly, strategically, and creatively to make informed decisions and plans. They essentially involve seeing beyond immediate details. This helps understand how different elements fit together and how they can be utilised to achieve goals.

Conceptual skills are different from technical and human skills. Technical skills encompass practical abilities and expertise necessary to perform specific tasks in specialised fields. Human skills revolve around interpersonal relationships, communication, and leadership abilities. These are interpersonal skills and are crucial for teamwork and effective people management.

Conceptual skills include strategic planning, critical thinking, problem-solving and the ability to analyse complex situations. They are essential for leaders to navigate uncertainty and drive organisational success.

Examples of conceptual thinking in management scenarios:

• Strategic planning : Developing a long-term growth strategy for a company based on market trends and competitive analysis.
• Problem-solving : Identifying root causes of organisational inefficiencies and proposing systemic solutions.
• Conflict resolution : Understanding underlying issues in team conflicts and mediating to foster constructive outcomes.

Check out this conceptual skill list to find out how to become a conceptual manager:

Active listening skills

Active listening is the ability to pay attention to a speaker, understand what they mean, and respond appropriately. Listening skills include attention, empathy, patience, validation, nonverbal communication, and situational awareness.

Communication skills

This is the ability to convey information and ideas clearly and effectively. Examples include written communication, verbal communication, nonverbal communication, presentation skills, active listening, and asking the right questions.

Analytical skills

Analytical skills entail examining and interpreting data to understand relationships, patterns, and trends. Examples include research, data analysis, critical thinking, and creativity.

Problem-solving skills

Problem-solving skills enable you to identify issues and come up with effective solutions. Some skills that fall under problem-solving include logical thinking, critical thinking, multitasking, troubleshooting, and decision-making.

Creative thinking skills

Creative thinking skills involve thinking in new and original ways to solve complex issues. Examples include open-mindedness, strategic planning, collaboration, and idea formulation.

Abstract thinking skills

Abstract thinking allows you to interpret information beyond its literal meaning. Examples include creativity, mindfulness, counterfactual thinking, prediction, emotional intelligence, and strategic thinking.

Decision-making skills

Decision-making involves choosing between different courses of action in a rational and informed way. Examples include problem-solving, creativity, logical thinking, leadership, critical thinking, collaboration, and intuition.

Leadership skills

Leadership skills enable guiding and motivating a team to achieve a desired outcome. Examples include team building, management, empathy, delegation, flexibility, and persuasion.

Managerial skills

Managerial skills are abilities required to lead a team to achieve specific objectives. Examples include communication, planning, decision-making, problem-solving, delegation, and motivation.

Conceptual skills are critical for leadership positions, especially in middle- and upper-management roles within Singapore. A manager should ensure each employee works towards the organisation's larger goals, always keeping the big picture in mind. With strong conceptual skills, you can identify challenges and use your analytical and abstract thinking to develop effective solutions that drive the company's success.

For example, if you are a manager overseeing a market research team, you might notice changes in the company's customer base in Singapore. Without the conceptual and analytical abilities to interpret this data, you could miss potential opportunities to reach new customers, resulting in lost business prospects for the company.

In addition, conceptual skills can enhance your ability to manage a team in Singapore. By combining conceptual and technical skills, you can identify how each team member contributes to the organisation's goals, facilitating more effective delegation. You can also use conceptual and interpersonal skills to address and resolve conflicts among team members, fostering a more positive work environment.

Conceptual skills and their role in decision-making

Conceptual skills help you identify issues early within your organisation. This foresight allows you to make decisions that benefit the company in the long run.

For instance, foreseeing a move towards sustainability, you might invest in eco-friendly technologies ahead of competitors. Your strong conceptual skills enable you to predict market shifts and make timely investments.

Decisions shaped by conceptual skills lead to sustainable growth and competitive advantage. By strategically positioning resources and anticipating future trends, you can maintain relevance and profitability over time.

For example, using your conceptual skills, you might predict customer preferences in your retail chain. You can adjust inventory accordingly, preventing overstocking and enhancing customer satisfaction. This proactive approach boosts sales and profitability.

Conceptual skills and their role in problem-solving

Conceptual skills help you form effective business strategies by allowing you to see the big picture. You can analyse complex situations, address core problems and leverage opportunities for growth.

By understanding industry trends and predicting future challenges, you can set your organisation’s vision and long-term goals. Conceptual skills enable you to think outside the box and come up with unique solutions. When faced with a difficult problem, you can generate creative ideas that others might not consider.

Leaders at Netflix for instance, used their conceptual skills to foresee the decline of physical media and the rise of digital content. They shifted the company's focus from DVD rentals to streaming services. This strategic pivot ensured their long-term success.

Business strategy development

A manager at a tech company observes a rising demand for smart home devices. Using conceptual skills, they devise a strategic approach to enter this market. They analyse trends, identify potential challenges, and create a plan to pivot the business model. This strategic decision opens new revenue streams and positions the company for future growth.

Organisational restructuring

In a manufacturing firm experiencing declining productivity, a leader uses conceptual skills to restructure the organisation. They identify inefficiencies across departments, streamline operations, and enhance productivity. This move optimises resources and strengthens the company's competitive position.

Crisis management

During a PR crisis caused by a product defect, a leader applies conceptual skills to navigate the company through turmoil. They develop a comprehensive crisis management strategy, including transparent communication, product recalls, and risk mitigation plans. This decisive action rebuilds trust and stabilises the company's reputation.

Innovative product development

A product manager at a consumer electronics company identifies a market need for eco-friendly gadgets. Using conceptual skills, they lead the development of a new product line that meets sustainability demands. Through feasibility studies and creative problem-solving, they successfully launch innovative products, enhancing market competitiveness and brand reputation.

Case studies of renowned leaders

Jeff Bezos (Amazon)

Jeff Bezos strategically used conceptual skills to expand Amazon beyond an online bookstore into a global e-commerce powerhouse . Anticipating market shifts and leveraging technological advancements, he transformed Amazon's business model and diversified its offerings.

Indra Nooyi (PepsiCo)

Indra Nooyi demonstrated strong conceptual skills by restructuring PepsiCo's product portfolio to focus on healthier options. Recognising consumer trends towards health and wellness, she led strategic initiatives that reshaped PepsiCo's brand identity and market position.

Showing your conceptual skills in job interviews can help you stand out from other job seekers. Follow these tips to land your next great opportunity:

Preparation strategies

Before an interview, you should prepare by analysing the job description thoroughly. This helps you understand where conceptual skills are most needed. Research the company's strategic direction and the challenges it faces. This understanding will enable you to prepare examples from your experience that show how your conceptual abilities align with the company's needs.

Answering interview questions effectively

Anticipate interview questions that may test your conceptual skills. Here are some examples:

Can you describe your problem-solving process?

Sample answer :

In addressing problems, I begin by clearly defining the issue at hand. I consult with relevant stakeholders to gather diverse perspectives and insights. After understanding the problem's context, I brainstorm possible solutions and assess their feasibility and potential impact. I prioritise the most viable option, implement it, and closely monitor the outcomes. I also make adjustments as necessary and document the process for future reference.

How do you make data-driven decisions?

I start by clearly defining the question or problem that needs to be addressed. Next, I collect relevant data from reliable sources, ensuring the information is accurate and comprehensive. I analyse the data using appropriate tools and techniques to uncover trends and patterns. Based on these insights, I formulate a decision, considering the data's strengths and limitations. I then implement the decision and monitor the outcomes to refine future decision-making processes.

Showcasing past experiences

During interviews, highlight past experiences where conceptual skills played a critical role. Discuss the specific challenges you encountered, the innovative approaches you implemented, and the outcomes achieved. Emphasise how these experiences contributed to your personal and professional growth.

Consider preparing a portfolio or other tangible evidence that demonstrates your conceptual skills. This could include case studies, projects, or strategic plans where you made significant contributions.

You can advance your career by enhancing your conceptual skills. Here are some steps to consider:

Develop a reading habit

Regular reading can significantly improve your conceptual skills. Seek out articles or books that challenge your abstract thinking abilities.

Volunteer to be a team leader

Take opportunities to lead your team. Setting practical goals and actively participating in brainstorming sessions and strategic meetings can hone your conceptual thinking.

Training and education

Explore online courses and workshops focused on conceptual skills. These programs can help you develop crucial abilities such as data analysis, decision-making, problem-solving, critical thinking, and abstract thinking, making you a more effective manager.

If you want to improve your conceptual skills to advance your career in Singapore, consider these steps:

• Develop a reading habit : Reading can help you build conceptual skills. Consider seeking out articles or books that challenge your abstract thinking abilities.
• Volunteer to be a team leader : When the opportunity arises, volunteering to lead your team is a great way to practise your conceptual skills. Set small and practical goals and participate in brainstorming sessions and strategic meetings.
• Training and education : Some online courses and workshops focus on conceptual skills, which are particularly valuable in Singapore's dynamic business environment. These programs help develop key competencies such as data analysis, decision-making, problem-solving, cost-benefit assessment, critical thinking, and abstract thinking. All of these skills are crucial for effective management in the region.

Conceptual skills are essential for leadership, managerial, and executive professionals. They enable you to analyse and understand complex concepts, use analytical and abstract thinking, and develop actionable strategies for long-term growth. These abilities can benefit an organisation and help you stand out from your colleagues or other job seekers. Read books and attend courses to improve your conceptual skills and advance your career continually .

Here are some questions people often ask about conceptual skills:

• What are examples of conceptual skills? ⁠ Examples of important conceptual skills include analytical, creative, and abstract thinking. They also include communication, problem-solving, decision-making, leadership, and managerial skills.
• Why are conceptual skills important for leadership roles? ⁠ A leader should do more than complete tasks and manage day-to-day operations. You also need to see the big picture and understand how your team's efforts contribute to the organisation's goals. You must solve problems and make decisions. Conceptual skills can help you perform all these functions more effectively.
• How can I develop my conceptual skills? ⁠ Some ways to conceptual skills them include reading texts about conceptual abilities, volunteering to become a leader, and attending courses and workshops.
• How do I demonstrate conceptual skills in a resume or cover letter? ⁠ You can highlight your conceptual skills in the work experience, achievements, skills, or summary section of your resume. If you want to include them, mention a time in your career when you used your conceptual abilities to overcome complex problems.
• How can an interviewer test your conceptual skills? ⁠ Your interviewer may assess your conceptual skills by asking questions about your analytical, abstract thinking, problem-solving, decision-making, or leadership abilities.
• How do I balance showcasing conceptual and practical skills in an interview? ⁠ If you want to showcase conceptual and practical skills in an interview, explain how the two types of skills complement each other. For instance, you can talk about how you use your conceptual abilities to analyse data but make decisions based on objective information rather than assumptions.
• What are common mistakes when trying to demonstrate conceptual skills? ⁠ Some of the common mistakes that job seekers make when demonstrating conceptual skills include using vague or irrelevant examples, not quantifying results, and failing to prepare for behavioural questions .
• What local resources can help improve my conceptual skills in Singapore? ⁠Consider enrolling in courses offered by Singapore Management University (SMU) or Nanyang Technological University (NTU). These institutions offer programs that can enhance your conceptual and strategic thinking skills.

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• Competencies
• Customisation
• PILA for Research

Competency framework

Conceptual framework of the PILA Computational Problem Solving module

What is computational problem solving.

‘Computational problem solving’  is the iterative process of developing  computational solutions to problems. Computational solutions are expressed as logical sequences of steps (i.e. algorithms), where each step is precisely defined so that it can be expressed in a form that can be executed by a computer. Much of the process of computational problem solving is thus oriented towards finding ways to use the power of computers to design new solutions or execute existing solutions more efficiently.

Using computation to solve problems requires the ability to think in a certain way, which is often referred to as ‘computational thinking’. The term originally referred to the capacity to formulate problems as a defined set of inputs (or rules) producing a defined set of outputs. Today, computational thinking has been expanded to include thinking with many levels of abstractions (e.g. reducing complexity by removing unnecessary information), simplifying problems by decomposing them into parts and identifying repeated patterns, and examining how well a solution scales across problems.

Why is computational problem solving important and useful?

Computers and the technologies they enable play an increasingly central role in jobs and everyday life. Being able to use computers to solve problems is thus an important competence for students to develop in order to thrive in today’s digital world. Even people who do not plan a career in computing can benefit from developing computational problem solving skills because these skills enhance how people understand and solve a wide range of problems beyond computer science.

This skillset can be connected to multiple domains of education, and particularly to subjects like science, technology, engineering or mathematics (STEM) and the social sciences. Computing has revolutionised the practices of science, and the ability to use computational tools to carry out scientific inquiry is quickly becoming a required skillset in the modern scientific landscape. As a consequence, teachers who are tasked with preparing students for careers in these fields must understand how this competence develops and can be nurtured. At school, developing computational problem solving skills should be an interdisciplinary activity that involves creating media and other digital artefacts to design, execute, and communicate solutions, as well as to learn about the social and natural world through the exploration, development and use of computational models.

Is computational problem solving the same as knowing a programming language?

A programming language is an artificial language used to write instructions (i.e. code) that can be executed by a computer. However, writing computer code requires many skills beyond knowing the syntax of a specific programming language. Effective programmers must be able to apply the general practices and concepts involved in computational thinking and problem solving. For example, programmers have to understand the problem at hand, explore how it can be simplified, and identify how it relates to other problems they have already solved. Thus, computational problem solving is a skillset that can be employed in different human endeavours, including programming. When employed in the context of programming, computational problem solving ensures that programmers can use their knowledge of a programming language to solve problems effectively and efficiently. 

Students can develop computational problem solving skills without the use of a technical programming language (e.g. JavaScript, Python). In the PILA module, the focus is not on whether students can read or use a certain programming language, but rather on how well students can use computational problem solving skills and practices to solve problems (i.e. to “think” like a computer scientist).

How is computational problem solving assessed in PILA?

Computational problem solving is assessed in PILA by asking students to work through dynamic problems in open-ended digital environments where they have to interpret, design, or debug computer programs (i.e. sequences of code in a visual format). PILA provides ‘learning assessments’, which are assessment experiences that include resources and structured support (i.e. scaffolds) for learning. During these experiences, students iteratively develop programs using various forms of support, such as tutorials, automated feedback, hints and worked examples. The assessments are cumulative, asking students to use what they practiced in earlier tasks when completing successive, more complex tasks.

To ensure that the PILA module focuses on foundational computational problem solving skills and that the material is accessible to all secondary school students no matter their knowledge of programming languages, the module includes an assessment application, ‘Karel World’, that employs an accessible block-based visual programming language. Block-based environments prevent syntax errors while still retaining the concepts and practices that are foundational to programming. These environments work well to introduce novices to programming and help develop their computational problem solving skills, and can be used to generate a wide spectrum of problems from very easy to very hard.

What is assessed in the PILA module on computational problem solving?

Computational problem solving skills.

The module assesses the following set of complementary problem solving skills, which are distinct yet are often used together in order to create effective and efficient solutions to complex problems:

• Decompose problems

Decomposition is the act of breaking down a problem goal into a set of smaller, more manageable sub-goals that can be addressed individually. The sub-goals can be further broken down into more fine-grained sub-goals to reach the granularity necessary for solving the entire problem.

• Recognise and address patterns

Pattern recognition refers to the ability to identify elements that repeat within a problem and can thus be solved through the same operations. Adressing repeating patterns means instructing a computer to iterate given operations until the desired result is achieved. This requires identifying the repeating instructions and defining the conditions governing the duration of the repetition.

• Generalise solutions

Generalisation is the thinking process that results in identifying similarities or common differences across problems to define problem categories. Generalising solution results in producing programs that work across similar problems through the use of ‘abstractions’, such as blocks of organised, reusable sequence(s) of instructions.

• Systematically test and debug

Solving a complex computational problem is an adaptive process that follows iterative cycles of ideation, testing, debugging, and further development. Computational problem solving involves systematically evaluating the state of one’s own work, identifying when and how a given operation requires fixing, and implementing the needed corrections.

Programming concepts

In order to apply these skills to the programming tasks presented in the module, students have to master the below set of programming concepts. These concepts can be isolated but are more often used in concert to solve computational problems:

• Sequences

Sequences are lists of step-by-step instructions that are carried out consecutively and specify the behavior or action that should be produced. In Karel World, for example, students learn to build a sequence of block commands to instruct a turtle to move around the world, avoiding barriers (e.g. walls) and performing certain actions (e.g. pick up or place stones).

• Conditionals

Conditional statements allow a specific set of commands to be carried out only if certain criteria are met. For example, in Karel World, the turtle can be instructed to pick up stones ‘if stones are present’.

To create more concise and efficient instructions, loops can communicate an action or set of actions that are repeated under a certain condition. The repeat command indicates that a given action (i.e. place stone) should be repeated through a real value (i.e. 9 times). A loop could also include a set of commands that repeat as long as a Boolean condition is true, such as ‘while stones are present’.

• Functions

Creating a function helps organise a program by abstracting longer, more complex pieces of code into one single step. By removing repetitive areas of code and assigning higher-level steps, functions make it easier to understand and reason about the various steps of the program, as well as facilitate its use by others. A simple example in Karel World is the function that instructs the turtle to ‘turn around’, which consists of turning left twice.

How is student performance evaluated in the PILA module?

Student performance in the module is evaluated through rubrics. The rubrics are structured in levels, that succinctly describe how students progress in their mastery of the computational problem solving skills and associated concepts. The levels in the rubric (see Table 1) are defined by the complexity of the problems that are presented to the students (simple, relatively complex or complex) and by the behaviours students are expected to exhibit while solving the problem (e.g., using functions, conducting tests). Each problem in the module is mapped to one or more skills (the rows in the rubric) and classified according to its complexity (the columns in the rubric). Solving a problem in the module and performing a set of expected programming operations thus provide evidence that supports the claims about the student presented in the rubric. The more problems at a given cell of the rubric the student solves, the more conclusive is the evidence that the student has reached the level corresponding to that cell. 

Please note: the rubric is updated as feedback is received from teachers on the clarity and usefulness of the descriptions.

Table 1 . Rubric for computational problem solving skills

Learning management skills

The performance of students on the PILA module depends not just on their mastery of computational problem solving skills and concepts, but also on their capacity to effectively manage their work in the digital learning environment. The complex tasks included in the module invite students to monitor, adapt and reflect on their understanding and progress. The assessment will capture data on students’ ability to regulate these aspects of their own work and will communicate to teachers the extent to which their students can:

• Use resources

PILA tasks provide resources such as worked examples that students can refer to as they build their own solution. Students use resources effectively when they recognise that they have a knowledge gap or need help after repeated failures and proceed to accessing a learning resource.

• Adapt to feedback

As students work through a PILA assessment, they receive different types of automated feedback (e.g.: ‘not there yet’, ‘error: front is blocked’, ‘try using fewer blocks’). Students who can successfully adapt are able to perform actions that are consistent with the feedback, for example inserting a repetition block in their program after the feedback ‘try using fewer blocks’.

• Evaluate own performance

In the assessment experiences designed by experts in PILA, the final task is a complex, open challenge. Upon completion of this task, students are asked to evaluate their own performance and this self-assessment is compared with their actual performance on the task.

• Stay engaged

The assessment will also collect information on the extent to which students are engaged throughout the assessment experience. Evidence on engagement is collected through questions that are included in a survey at the end of the assessment, and through information on students’ use of time and number of attempts.  

Learn about computational problem solving-related learning trajectories:

• Rich, K. M., Strickland, C., Binkowski, T. A., Moran, C., & Franklin, D. (2017). K-8 Learning Trajectories Derived from Research Literature: Sequence, Repetition, Conditionals. Proceedings of the 2017 ACM Conference on International Computing Education Research, 182–190.
• Rich, K. M., Strickland, C., Binkowski, T. A., & Franklin, D. (2019). A K-8 Debugging Learning Trajectory Derived from Research Literature. Proceedings of the 50th ACM Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education, 745–751. https://doi.org/10.1145/3287324.3287396
• Rich, K. M., Binkowski, T. A., Strickland, C., & Franklin, D. (2018). Decomposition: A K-8 Computational Thinking Learning Trajectory. Proceedings of the 2018 ACM Conference on International Computing Education Research  - ICER ’18, 124–132. https://doi.org/10.1145/3230977.3230979

Learn about the connection between computational thinking and STEM education:

• Weintrop, D., Beheshti, E., Horn, M., Orton, K., Jona, K., Trouille, L., & Wilensky, U. (2015). Defining Computational Thinking for Mathematics and Science Classrooms. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 25(1), 127–147. doi:10.1007/s10956-015-9581-5

Learn how students apply computational problem solving to Scratch:

• Brennan, K., & Resnick, M. (2012). Using artifact-based interviews to study the development of computational thinking in interactive media design. Paper presented at annual American Educational Research Association meeting, Vancouver, BC, Canada.

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