dance research paper questions

319 Dance Essay Topics & Research Questions on Hip Hop, Ballet, & More

Dancing is a universal form of expression and movement. It has been an integral part of human culture for centuries. From traditional cultural dances to contemporary urban dance styles, this art form transcends language barriers and brings people together.

But dancing is not just about entertainment. It is significant in various aspects of society, from its role in expressing emotions to its impact on mental health.

In this article, our expert team delves into the diverse world of dance. Below, you’ll find interesting dance topics to write about and explore the cultural, social, emotional, and physical dimensions of dance. Read till the end to find a writing guide with examples.

🔝 Top 10 Dance Essay Topics

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• Cultural significance of dance.
• Mental health benefits of dancing.
• Gender roles in dance.
• Dance as nonverbal communication.
• Technological innovations in dance.
• Social impact of dance activism.
• Dance education in schools.
• Emotional expression in dance.
• Dance and cultural identity.
• Politics of dance movements.

Why I Love Dance: Essay Prompt

Are you passionate about dance and want to write about it? Consider including the following points in your essay:

• Explain your deep-rooted passion for dance. Reflect on how dance has influenced your life, shaped your identity, and impacted your personal growth.
• Describe the specific styles or dance genres you are passionate about and explain why they hold a special place in your heart. Share experiences that have strengthened your love for dance, such as memorable performances, challenges , or inspirational moments.
• Discuss how dance has enriched your life and contributed to your overall well-being. Convey your dedication to dance and the importance of this art form in your life.

What Does Dance Mean to You: Essay Prompt

This essay is your chance to reflect on the place of dance in your life. Here are some ideas to include in your paper:

• Express your understanding and connection to dance. Describe what dance means to you on a deeply personal and emotional level. Share your unique perspective on the effects of dance on your life choices and identity.
• Discuss how dance has impacted your physical, mental, and emotional well-being. Write about its contribution to your personal growth and development. Describe the emotions and sensations you experience while dancing and how they enrich your life. Discuss any memorable dance experiences, performances, or interactions with fellow dancers that impressed you.
• Depict your passion and appreciation for dance. Articulate the role of dancing in your life. Consider how dance has allowed you to express yourself , connect with others, and navigate life.

Hip Hop Essay Prompt

Are you a fan of hip-hop dance? Then you might enjoy writing an essay about it! Consider the points below to cover in your paper:

• Explore the art and culture of hip-hop. Discuss the origins and evolution of hip-hop dance, including its roots in African, Caribbean, and African-American dance traditions. Study the key elements of hip-hop dance, including its unique style, movement vocabulary, and musicality.
• Discuss the impact of hip-hop dance on popular culture , including its influence on music videos, films, fashion, and the entertainment industry. Analyze the social and cultural significance of hip-hop dance, including its role as a form of self-expression, community-building, and activism . Discuss the diversity and inclusion within hip-hop dance, including its ability to bring people of different backgrounds together.
• Describe any personal experiences or connections with hip-hop dance , and discuss how it has influenced your understanding of dance and culture. Convey your appreciation for hip-hop dance’s artistry, creativity, and cultural relevance. Provide insights into this dynamic and influential dance form.

Why Dance Is a Sport: Essay Prompt

There’s been a long-lasting debate about whether dance should be considered an art or a sport. You can present your opinion on this issue in your essay. Here is a prompt to guide you:

• Study the arguments on both sides of the debate and articulate your stance. Discuss the physical demands of dance, including athleticism, strength, and endurance. Compare them to the criteria used to define sports.
• Explore the competitive nature of dance , including competitions, rankings, and performance expectations . Discuss the training, dedication, and discipline required for dance and compare them to other recognized sports.
• Examine the artistic and creative elements of dance and how they may differentiate dance from traditional sports. Discuss any challenges or controversies surrounding the classification of dance as a sport. It might be the lack of standardized rules, funding, and recognition.
• Consider the cultural, historical, and societal factors influencing perceptions of dance as a sport. Present your argument supported by evidence and examples. Provide a nuanced perspective on this complex and debated topic.

Below, you’ll find plenty of ideas for a college essay about dance. Read on to find a suitable topic for your paper!

Modern Dance Essay: Topics

Modern dance significantly differs from traditional dance forms like ballet. Nowadays, dancers prioritize emotional expression instead of following rigid rules. Here are some interesting dance titles & ideas for your essay on modern styles:

• The diversity of contemporary dance styles.
• Psychological determinants of choosing a particular dance style.
• Creative Movement and Dance in My School.
• Sociopolitical concerns through the prism of dance.
• Modern dance as a form of protest against classical dance.
• Modern Black dance: race in motion.
• Significant people who contributed to the modernization of dance.
• Features of post-modern dance.
• Art Therapy: Creativity as a Critical Part of Art Therapy .
• The new American dance forms.
• Modern dance in the US vs. Europe: differences and similarities.
• Injuries in modern dance: career options for dancers.
• The concepts of modernity, race, and nation in the early modern dance forms.
• Oxygen uptake during a modern dance class.
• Physical Therapy Services for Sports Injuries.
• Socio-demographic correlates of modern dance genre preferences.
• Indian modern dance and feminism.
• Self-expression in modern dance.
• National and transnational modern dance.
• Principles of modern dance therapy.
• Regular engagement in modern dance and depression treatment.
• Modern dance pioneers who revolutionized this art: a case of Lester Horton.
• Incorporating Physical Activity into Lesson Plans.
• Mood changes of people attending dance classes.
• Modern dance classes: can one learn to dance online?
• Evolving gay stereotypes in modern dance.
• Dance as a reflection of culture.
• Depression and Physical Exercise .
• German modern dance during the Nazi rule.
• Body image and modern dance engagement.
• Eating disorders in professional modern dancers.
• Significant elements of modern dance.
• Dance as a hobby and professional activity.
• Art Education, Its Role and Benefits.
• Examples of popular modern dance styles.
• Controversial dance practices.
• Is folk dance considered modern dance?
• Does modern dance come with serious choreography similar to classical dance?
• Class and ethnicity reflected in dance.
• Physical Activity and Sports Team Participation .
• Modern dance in France.
• The transformative power of flamenco dancing.

Dance Critique Essay: Topics

A dance critique essay requires you to evaluate carefully a particular dance performance or a specific aspect of this art form. Check out some dance titles for an essay to inspire your critical response :

• Degradation of dance quality in the 21st century.
• Passion versus physical characteristics in dance performance.
• Racism and gender discrimination at the dance competitions.
• Gender inequality in professional dance.
• Subway dance – a subculture or simply a weird place for practice?
• Dancing and Its Effects on Self-Esteem .
• How did industrialization contribute to the departure from classical dance?
• The rise of burlesque as a rebellion against ballet.
• The Role of Music and Movement in Education.
• The ideology and importance of radical dance.
• The Wigman technique of dance.
• José Limón’s contribution to contemporary dance.
• The place and influence of the American Dance Festival in modern American dance traditions.
• Art, Music, and Dance in Therapeutic Treatment .
• Combination of choreography and multimedia in Alwin Nikolais’s works.
• The flaws and loopholes of early modern dance.
• Popularization of African American dance across the world.
• Ballet elements in contemporary dance.
• The Importance of Arts in the School Curriculum .
• The contribution of Grete Wiesenthal to modern dance development.
• What place does concert dance occupy in the dance typology?
• Place of women in dance – now and then.
• Differences between modern and contemporary dance styles.
• Pole dance’s potential for inclusion in the Olympic Games list.

Dance Reflection Essay: Topic Ideas

Are you looking for thought-provoking dance topics to talk about in a reflection paper ? Check out the list below:

• What features and character traits should a good dance teacher possess?
• What does it mean to be a dance revolutionary?
• What did modern dance pioneers do to create new dance types?
• Should professional dance be taught in college?
• Sports Psychologist: Working With Athletes .
• The national dance of my country.
• My first experience in a dance class.
• My music preferences for dancing.
• Dances with Wolves Essay – Movie Analysis .
• Dancing as a personal form of relaxation and meditation.
• Why do some people prefer dancing alone at home and others need an audience?
• My favorite movie about dancing.
• Ballet as my passion and my greatest disappointment.
• My opinion of dancing as a profession.
• Music in the Service of Social Movements .
• Importance of dancing in my culture .
• What I think makes a good and bad dancer.
• My experience of participating in a dance contest.
• The role of dance in my family.
• My fascination with Indian dance.
• My dream is to become a hip-hop dancer.
• Benefits I see in regular dancing.
• The pros and cons of professional engagement in dance.

There are some controversial issues related to dance you can explore in your paper. Below, you’ll discover a list of dance topics to express your reasoned opinion about.

• Dance can be a tool for social change .
• How can culture be reflected through dance?
• Should College Athletes Be Paid?
• The impact of the environment on dance perception.
• The importance of dance styles and types for specific cultures.
• Dance as an intangible cultural heritage.
• Is dance a kind of sport?
• Sports-Related Problems and Conflicts .
• Why do people start to dance?
• Why is the audience attracted to dance performances?
• What is the motivation behind starting to dance at an early age?
• Why is contemporary dance more popular than classical dance today?
• The Cognitive Performance and Physical Activity Link.
• Are modern dance styles, like hip hop, easier than ballet dancing?
• Dance training is highly traumatic and shouldn’t be practiced at an early age.
• The risk of trauma and permanent injury among professional ballet dancers.
• Street dance is not serious dance.
• Exercise – The Mind and Body Connection.
• The impact of motivation and self-confidence on dance performance.
• Dancing positively affects the physical and cognitive health of aging adults.
• Dance is a tool against aging .
• Different dance styles and genres require different physical endurance and energy expenditure.
• Music Incorporation into Classes.
• Importance of choosing your dance style according to your BMI and bodily peculiarities.
• Partner dancing is healthier for motor control and coordination than solo dancing.
• Benefits of ballroom dancing.
• The economic effect of dance development.
• What is the hardest dance style?
• Cultural Appropriation in Music .
• Ghost dance as a religious movement.
• Electronic dance as a new subculture.
• Techniques of dancing to jazz music.
• Flamenco dance as a reflection of Spanish passion.
• Students’ Motivation and Satisfaction of Music Festival .
• Cultural significance of feminist dance films.
• The impact of proper nutrition on dance performance.
• The art of staging a dance performance.
• The social significance of street dance.
• Creative Art Therapy for Mental Illness .
• What does dance have to do with math?
• Belly dance as a recreational activity.
• Interpretative dance as a strong therapeutic tool.
• The use of dance therapy for individuals with Down syndrome.

Hip-hop dance is a popular street dance style that emerged in the second half of the 20th century. It encourages freedom of expression and is characterized by freestyle movements, particularly drops to the ground and sharp turns. If you seek to write a paper on hip-hop, here are catchy dance titles to inspire you:

• The role of dance in hip-hop culture.
• Chinese Hip Hop and Identity .
• Hip-hop dance and body power.
• Hip-hop as an African diaspora dance style.
• Meanings and messages in hip-hop dance.
• Genders, Sexuality, and Hip-Hop .
• Origins of hip-hop.
• Injury incidence in hip-hop training and performance.
• Commercialization of hip-hop dance.
• Core elements of hip-hop dancing.
• The Uprising of Hip-Hop: Music History .
• Hip-hop dance in modern ballet choreography.
• Low back pain in hip-hop dancers.
• B-boying in hip-hop.
• Motivations of hip-hop dancers for professional engagement with this dance style.
• The “breaks” concept in break dancing.
• The Evolution of Hip-Hop Culture .
• The roots of hip-hop choreography.
• Battling among hip-hop crews.
• Hip-hop scandals – sex and violence in hip-hop content.
• Theorizing hip-hop dance.
• Hip-Hop’s Response to Crime Analysis .
• Hip-hop dance consumption: who is the target audience?
• Globalization and hip-hop dancing.
• Principles of hip-hop dance codification.
• Hip-hop as a black social dance.
• Metaphors in hip-hop dance moves.
• Black feminism in hip-hop dance.
• Concepts of Elite Culture and Popular Culture .
• US Ebonics as the language of American hip-hop choreography.
• Extreme kinematics in hip-hop performances.
• What injuries are the most common among hip-hop dancers?
• Can hip-hop be a professional career?
• Basic rhythmic movements of hip-hop dance.
• Hip-hop practice’s impact on the dancer’s mood.
• Body poetics in hip-hop performances.
• Standards for judging hip-hop contests.
• Cultural Movement: Hip-Hop Related Films .
• Le hip hop – a French hip-hop subculture.
• The hip-hop culture in New York.
• Perceptions of race in the hip-hop community: white vs. black dancers.
• Hip-hop theater in London: a new level of dance style’s legitimization.

Do you want to learn more about dance? Then why not write a research paper on that? Below, you’ll discover a list of engaging dance topics to research.

• Novel approaches to dance: a blend with architecture at the Barnes Foundation’s exhibition.
• Dance from an anthropological perspective .
• Politics and poetics in dance.
• The biology of dance movements’ language.
• Teaching dance: should it be art or sport?
• Dance ethnology.
• Women in dance since antiquity : the images of sylphs and sirens.
• Philosophy of the dance: universal or nationally bound?
• What is a dance movement?
• Dancing and the brain.
• Psychology of dance.
• Dance as a mighty psychotherapeutic tool.
• Should national dance be included in the school curriculum?
• Living through psychological trauma in dance.
• The role of dance improvisations.
• Reform and revival of old dance styles.
• The role of space and subjectivity in dance.
• Shakespeare and the dance tradition of England.
• The social anthropology of dance performances.
• Theories and methodologies in dance research.
• A Eurocentric approach to the study of dance.
• Dance and the body.
• Dance as a method of self-study.
• Computer technology and dance.
• The evolution of Irish dance.
• The contribution of Merce Cunningham to modern dance.
• How does dance stimulate social fantasy?
• Partner dancing as a way to strengthen relationships in a couple .
• Verbal language of dancers and choreographers.
• The political side of national dancing.
• Dance and physics.
• The mind-body concept in dance.
• What can be regarded as contemporary dance?
• Dance imagery in various dance styles.
• What makes people dance? The philosophy of bodily movement.
• Dancing out one’s emotions: the dance of anger or happiness.
• The neural basis of human dance movements.
• Isadora Duncan’s revolutionary dance theory.
• The challenges of the interactive dance genre.
• Dance from the position of existential phenomenology.
• Dualism and body-soul separation: a dance perspective.
• Dance and embodiment.
• Dance and self: a philosophical perspective.
• Body as object vs. subject in dance.
• Freedom and intention in body movements during dance.
• Staged dance: the concept of created body.
• A tension between the personal and the universal in dance.
• Health benefits of recreational and professional dance.
• Japanese dance as an embodiment of culture.
• Turning body and identity into dance choreography.

The history of dance dates back millennia. So, there is so much to explore! Check out possible dance research project ideas for your history paper:

• Approaches to rethinking dance history.
• The elements of early European modern dance.
• Feminist perspectives on dance history.
• Dance at the dawn of history.
• History of somatic education and its relationship to dance.
• History of classic theatrical dancing.
• New media use in dance history reconstructions.
• The evolution of dance and sexuality relationship.
• Tools for capturing dance from the past.
• Dances in prehistory.
• Early records of dance performances in historical manuscripts.
• Ancient Greek dance traditions and forms.
• Dancing in Ancient Rome.
• Dance at court: the 16th-17th centuries in Europe.
• Evolution of dance from royal court to theater in the 18th century.
• The early dancing traditions in the 17th-century US.
• Dancing genres in Medieval Europe.
• The history of waltz: origin, evolution of dance elements, and traditions.
• How did the tango dance emerge?
• The emergence of belly dance.
• Flamenco dance history: a style born in Andalusia.
• Historical perspectives on dance research.
• The Ojibwa dance drum: history of the practice.
• Yoeme performs as a narrative of Yaqui history.
• The evolution of African American dance.
• The African roots of Latin American popular dance.
• Ethnographic elements of modern dance performances.
• The dance halls of Britain, 1918-1960.
• A historical overview of social dance.
• Global history of dance development.
• Dance in the French baroque opera.
• The history and meaning of tango dancing in Argentina.
• What materials to use when studying dance history?
• A cultural history of dance in the troubled areas: a case study of Palestine.
• The hidden history of capoeira: intersections of battle craft and dance.

Ballet is a highly formalized dance form with rigid rules and predefined positions. If you’re interested in this classical type of choreography, check out the dance research topics below:

• Is free dance a subtype of ballet?
• The evolution of ballet traditions by Isadora Duncan.
• Russo-American ballet at the start of the 20th century.
• Emerging American ballet: the 1930s onwards.
• Romantic and classical ballet traditions in the 19th century.
• Classical ballet in Russia.
• Classical ballet vs. modern dance: key similarities.
• Injuries in professional ballet.
• Static and functional balance in ballet dance.
• Ballet as a form of ethnic dance.
• The impact of ballet dance attire on female dancers’ self-perception.
• Endurance of pain among ballet dancers.
• The concept of the ideal ballet body.
• Methods of preventing hip and knee injuries in professional ballet.
• Physiological eligibility characteristics for classical ballet.
• Evolution of ballet dancer identity in the process of training.
• Incidence of sprained ankles in ballet dancers.
• Physiological responses to active ballet exercise among dancers of different ages.
• Importance of artistic performance ability in ballet dancers.
• Disordered eating patterns among ballet dancers.
• Management of stress fractures in ballet dancers.
• Ballet dancer career: an international perspective.
• Incidence of scoliosis in young ballet dancers.
• Travesty dancing in the 19th-century ballet tradition.
• Gender issues in ballet.
• The cultural power of ballet.
• Degenerative joint disease risks among female ballet trainees.
• Hip arthrosis as a long-term consequence of ballet training.
• History of the “Apollo’s Angels” ballet.
• Sleep quality in professional ballet dancers.
• Heteromasculinity images among male ballet dancers.
• Postural stability before and after a ballet injury.
• Dance classicism as an ideology.
• Royal Ballet’s dancers and body perception.
• How do professional ballet dancers perceive injury and aging?

Are you looking for research topics about dance in the form of questions? We’ve got you covered! Look through the list below to find good dance topics to research:

• How does dance education foster creativity in children?
• How do feminists view belly dance?
• What is the impact of technology on dance performances?
• How to preserve indigenous peoples’ traditional dance forms?
• How have traditional gender roles been challenged through dance?
• What creative strategies do choreographers employ?
• What is the impact of dance on community building?
• What factors contribute to the commercialization of dance?
• How does dance function as a means of storytelling?
• What is the link between dance and spirituality in different religions?
• What is the role of costumes and stage design in dance performances?
• What are the cognitive benefits of dance for older adults?
• How has ballet adapted to modern artistic movements?
• How has globalization affected the cross-cultural exchange of dance styles?
• What dance styles have been influenced by flamenco?

Do you need help writing an essay on dance? Below, we’ve prepared a short guide with examples. Read on to learn how to write each section of your dance essay.

Dance Essay Introduction

The introduction is the opening paragraph of an essay that should engage the readers. Use a hook to grab the readers’ interest and introduce your topic. It can be a catchy quote, interesting question, or controversial statement.

Hook example : Imagine a world where bodies move in perfect harmony, telling stories without words. That’s the magic of dance, an art form that transcends language and culture, captivating audiences for centuries.

After that, you can provide some background information about the subject. End your introduction with a thesis statement .

Thesis Statement about Dance

The thesis statement outlines the central argument or purpose of the essay. It is the last sentence of your introduction, summarizing the whole paper. Your thesis should include all the main points mentioned in your writing in the same sequence.

Dance thesis example : Dance is not only a form of artistic expression but also a means of communication, a tool for personal growth, and a reflection of cultural identity.

Essay about Dance: Body Paragraphs

The essay’s body contains paragraphs that provide evidence and support for the thesis statement. Each section should begin with a topic sentence that presents a point related to your central argument.

Topic sentence example : One significant aspect of dance is its ability to convey emotions and stories through movement.

Evidence, such as examples, facts, or research, should support the topic sentence. The evidence should be analyzed and explained to show how it supports the thesis statement.

Evidence example : In classical ballet, dancers’ graceful movements and facial expressions can portray a wide range of emotions, from love and joy to sorrow and anger.

Dancing Essay: Conclusion

The conclusion is the final part that summarizes the main points made in the essay’s body. It should also restate the thesis statement in a paraphrased form without introducing new information. The conclusion should leave a lasting impression and a sense of closure.

Conclusion example : In conclusion, dance is a powerful form of expression beyond mere movement. It is a universal language conveying emotions, facilitating personal growth, and reflecting cultural identity.

How to Describe Dancing: Words & Tips

When describing dancing in an essay, use vivid and sensory language to convey the experience. Words such as “graceful,” “rhythmic,” “expressive,” and “dynamic” can capture the movement and style of dancing.

Emotive words like “joy,” “passion,” “energy,” and “freedom” can convey the emotional impact of dancing. Describing the physical sensations of dancing can make the description more immersive. You can write about the feeling of one’s body in motion, the sound of feet tapping, the swish of skirts, or the rush of adrenaline.

Metaphors or similes, such as “floating like a butterfly,” can add depth and creativity. Overall, using vivid language that engages the senses and emotions will benefit your paper.

We hope you found a perfect essay topic in this article. Use our free online title generator to get even more creative topics about dance and writing inspiration.

• Dance 260: Introduction to Dance: Dance Topics | BYU Library
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• Writing a Dance Critique | Utah Tech University Library
• Glossary for Dance | Connecticut’s Official State Website
• Guidelines For Writing a Dance Review | Human Kinetics

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Effects of Dance Movement Therapy and Dance on Health-Related Psychological Outcomes. A Meta-Analysis Update

Sabine c. koch.

1 Department of Creative Arts Therapies and Therapy Sciences, Alanus University, Alfter, Germany

2 School of Therapy Sciences, SRH University Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany

Roxana F. F. Riege

3 Department of Psychology, Friedrich-Schiller-University, Jena, Germany

Katharina Tisborn

4 Department of Psychology, University of Bochum, Bochum, Germany

Jacelyn Biondo

5 Department of Creative Arts Therapies, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, United States

Lily Martin

Andreas beelmann, associated data.

Background: Dance is an embodied activity and, when applied therapeutically, can have several specific and unspecific health benefits. In this meta-analysis, we evaluated the effectiveness of dance movement therapy 1 (DMT) and dance interventions for psychological health outcomes. Research in this area grew considerably from 1.3 detected studies/year in 1996–2012 to 6.8 detected studies/year in 2012–2018.

Method: We synthesized 41 controlled intervention studies ( N = 2,374; from 01/2012 to 03/2018), 21 from DMT, and 20 from dance, investigating the outcome clusters of quality of life, clinical outcomes (with sub-analyses of depression and anxiety), interpersonal skills, cognitive skills, and (psycho-)motor skills. We included recent randomized controlled trials (RCTs) in areas such as depression, anxiety, schizophrenia, autism, elderly patients, oncology, neurology, chronic heart failure, and cardiovascular disease, including follow-up data in eight studies.

Results: Analyses yielded a medium overall effect ( d 2 = 0.60), with high heterogeneity of results ( I 2 = 72.62%). Sorted by outcome clusters, the effects were medium to large ( d = 0.53 to d = 0.85). All effects, except the one for (psycho-)motor skills, showed high inconsistency of results. Sensitivity analyses revealed that type of intervention (DMT or dance) was a significant moderator of results. In the DMT cluster , the overall medium effect was small, significant, and homogeneous/consistent ( d = 0.30, p < 0.001, I 2 = 3.47). In the dance intervention cluster , the overall medium effect was large, significant, yet heterogeneous/non-consistent ( d = 0.81, p < 0.001, I 2 = 77.96). Results suggest that DMT decreases depression and anxiety and increases quality of life and interpersonal and cognitive skills, whereas dance interventions increase (psycho-)motor skills. Larger effect sizes resulted from observational measures, possibly indicating bias. Follow-up data showed that on 22 weeks after the intervention, most effects remained stable or slightly increased.

Discussion: Consistent effects of DMT coincide with findings from former meta-analyses. Most dance intervention studies came from preventive contexts and most DMT studies came from institutional healthcare contexts with more severely impaired clinical patients, where we found smaller effects, yet with higher clinical relevance. Methodological shortcomings of many included studies and heterogeneity of outcome measures limit results. Initial findings on long-term effects are promising.

Introduction

Why this meta-analysis.

Dance movement therapy (DMT) is the psychotherapeutic use of movement, based on the assumption of the interconnection of body and mind, and the healing power of dance. The American Dance Therapy Association (ADTA) defines it as “the psychotherapeutic use of movement to promote emotional, social, cognitive, and physical integration of the individual, for the purpose of improving health and well-being” (ADTA, 2018 ); the European Association Dance Movement Therapy adds the “spiritual integration” to this list (EADMT, 2018 ). At the present state of professionalization, next to the development of knowledge on mechanisms of DMT (Koch, 2017 ), and of arts-based research methods (Hervey, 2000 ; Leavy, 2017 ), the implementation of evidence-based research is crucial for the survival, recognition, and thriving of the clinical field of DMT (see, e.g., Wengrower and Chaiklin, 2008 ; Bräuninger, 2012a , b ; Dunphy et al., 2019 ) in the worldwide healthcare systems.

While the use of dance as a healing art is presumably as old as mankind, DMT became an established profession in Western countries from the 1940s, when the first pioneers developed professional dance therapy concepts, which spread in Eastern countries and worldwide beginning in the 1990s. Most DMT professionals work in psychiatric hospitals, rehabilitation centers, schools, and private practice. Throughout its existence, there has been much qualitative research in DMT (see, e.g., Goodill, 2005 ; Cruz and Berrol, 2012 ). However, in recent years, evidence-based quantitative research is getting stronger, in terms of numbers and quality of studies (e.g., Peters, 2012 ). A more general empirical evidence-base on the effectiveness of DMT will provide an orientation for patients, therapists, researchers, educators, and healthcare associations and influence professional and public recognition of DMT (Koch et al., 2014 ). According to standards of evidence-based medical practice, there are five levels of evidence (from the bottom to the top level): Level 4: expert opinions/textbooks, Level 3: case studies/non-experimental studies, Level 2: quasi-experimental studies, Level 1b: randomized controlled studies, and Level 1a: meta-analyses/reviews (e.g., Sackett et al., 2000 ). The present meta-analysis is an update of the meta-analysis published by Koch et al. ( 2014 ), tackling high-quality evidence-based research in the field. The aim was to synthesize data from controlled intervention studies published worldwide between January of 2012 and March of 2018.

Since dance is an important therapeutic ingredient in DMT, we also included studies on the effect of dance interventions , similar to the previous meta-analysis (Koch et al., 2014 ). There is a growing number of artists offering dance interventions in clinical and subclinical contexts (see Martin et al., 2018 ). Including dance intervention studies in addition to DMT studies had the further advantage that we obtained enough data to conduct sensitivity analysis. Dance interventions in this context are practices of various dance styles (e.g., ballroom dance, folk dance, contemporary dance), which aim to improve the quality of life or other health-related psychological outcomes of the participants. It is possible to synthesize dance intervention and DMT intervention studies, because they presumably share many therapeutic mechanisms (also termed active factors , denominating the effective ingredient of an intervention; Kazdin, 2007 ; Koch, 2017 ). Koch ( 2017 ) has distinguished five mechanism clusters through which creative arts therapies 3 work that also apply to DMT and dance: (a) hedonism (pleasure and play, non-goal orientation), (b) aesthetic experience (experiencing beauty, body–mind unity, unity with a partner, etc.) and its authentic expression, (c) non-verbal meaning-making (communication, emotion expression and regulation, social interaction), (d) enactive transitional space (experiencing activity, agency, self-efficacy, constructive resources, test-acting, enactment, rituals, and transformation), and (e) creation (generativity, productivity; see Koch, 2017 ). In addition, there are mechanisms such as movement per se (arousal, hormonal changes, physiological changes through movement), dance per se (Jola and Calmeiro, 2017 ), as well as specific body feedback mechanisms related to distinct movement shape changes and qualities (Koch et al., 2007 , 2014 ). Moreover, there are mechanisms of health-related changes that DMT shares with other forms of psychotherapy such as the therapeutic relationship, problem actualization, resource activation, etc. (Grawe et al., 1994 ; Wampold, 2015 ; Wampold and Irmel, 2015 ). Other more specific therapeutic mechanisms are connected to techniques of DMT, such as mirroring, movement analysis, non-verbal metaphors, imaginative techniques, meditative techniques, introspection, and focusing (Bräuninger, 2014 ). Furthermore, there are also specific group mechanisms of change. For example, if the intervention is conducted in a group setting, such mechanisms as cohesion, experience to be part of something larger, mutual trust, corrective emotional experiences, empowerment, mutual support, probing social roles, and enactive interpersonal learning are important (Schmais, 1985 , 1998 ; Yalom, 1985 ; Rutan and Stone, 2001 ). More research is needed to deepen and sharpen the knowledge on therapeutic mechanism of DMT and dance interventions, and in turn improve outcome research in both fields.

The guiding questions and aim of this meta-analysis are to shed light on (a) the extent in which DMT and dance interventions initiate desired changes in health-related psychological outcomes, (b) the moderators or study characteristics that contribute to the variation of the effect sizes, and (c) the longevity or duration of these changes.

State of Research

In this section, we will provide an overview on the secondary trials (meta-analyses/systematic reviews) and some general information on the primary trials conducted on effects of DMT and dance between January 2012 and March 2018.

Overview of Meta-Analyses and Reviews (Secondary Trials)

Four general meta-analyses up to 2014.

The first general meta-analysis on DMT by Ritter and Graff Low ( 1996 ) provided a broad overview on the effects of DMT on health-related outcomes, incorporating 23 primary studies up to the year 1995. It yielded promising results about the effectiveness of DMT across various populations and diagnoses (children; adults; elderly; non-clinical, subclinical, and clinical populations; physical and psychiatric disorders), particularly improved anxiety symptoms. Furthermore, the authors reported health-improving changes in psychological conditions, movement, body-awareness, anger, and self-concept. Nevertheless, the study by Ritter and Graff Low ( 1996 ) had some limitations. The methodological quality of the incorporated studies varied considerably, and the authors did not report any analyses of heterogeneity (see critique of Cruz and Sabers, 1998 ).

Koch et al. ( 2014 ) replicated most of these findings. In their general meta-analysis on the effectiveness of DMT and dance interventions, they incorporated 23 primary studies published between 1995 and 2012. Results suggested that DMT and dance interventions improve anxiety levels [post-value comparison of standard mean differences (SMD; for a list of statistics and symbol abbreviation, see Appendix A ), taking into account the confidence interval (CI): SMD = 0.44, CI = 0.15–0.72], depression (SMD = 0.36, CI = 0.17–0.56), well-being (SMD = 0.30, CI = 0.07–0.53), quality of life (SMD = 0.37, CI = 0.18–0.55), and body image (SMD = 0.27, CI = –0.04–0.57). They also found a positive effect for interpersonal competence (SMD = 0.45, CI = 0.07–0.83), but this effect was inconsistent across studies ( I 2 = 52%). The results of this study ought to be interpreted with caution due to several methodological constraints of the primary trials, small analysis clusters (four to eight studies per outcome cluster), and broad confidence intervals.

In sum, we found 11 meta-analyses and nine reviews on effects of dance and DMT, published after the last literature search in 2012 of Koch et al. ( 2014 ) up to March 2018. Only one of these publications was a more general overview on the effects of DMT on depression, anxiety, and well-being. It was a Master thesis by Peters ( 2012 ), incorporating 26 randomized or quasi-randomized trials. The results indicated that dance/DMT had small, but significant and positive effects on general well-being ( d = 0.29, I 2 = 38.65%), depression ( d = 0.33, I 2 = 42.04%), and anxiety ( d = 0.31, I 2 = 2.97), corroborating with the findings of Koch et al. ( 2014 ). The effects for general well-being and depression were moderated by type of therapist (with specialized dance instructors and DMT therapists yielding larger effects than non-specialized therapists, physiotherapists, exercise instructors, or researchers), but were not moderated by age, gender, type of dance , or type of country .

Eighteen specific (disease-related) reviews

The remaining 18 reviews and meta-analyses on effects of DMT and dance interventions focused on patient samples with specific diagnoses: seven on Parkinson's disease, four on anxiety and depression, four on physiological impairments, three on dementia/elderly, and two on oncology. The reviews on Parkinson's disease investigated the effects of DMT and dance on motor function and quality of life (De Dreu et al., 2012 ; Kiepe et al., 2012 ; Hackney and Bennett, 2014 ; Sharp and Hewitt, 2014 ; Loetzke et al., 2015 ; Shanahan et al., 2015 ; Aguiar et al., 2016 ). Significant improvements in balance (Berg Balance Scale), motor impairments (UPDRS-Scale, Timed-Up-and-Go scale), and quality of life were found in the intervention groups. Some of the effects remained significant, when comparing the results to a control group. We also found studies that yielded no improvements in quality of life and motor function (e.g., freezing of gait). Most trials reported participants' satisfaction and high adherence to the treatment. The secondary trials on anxiety and depression reported effects of DMT and dance on both outcomes including psychological distress (Kiepe et al., 2012 ; Peters, 2012 ; Boehm et al., 2014 ; Meekums et al., 2015 ). A high-quality primary trial was the study by Jeong et al. ( 2005 ) on health improvements through DMT in adolescent girls with mild depression. It showed increasing plasma serotonin concentration and decreasing concentration of dopamine in the participants of the DMT intervention group compared to participants of the control group. The effects on medical conditions such as heart failure and hypertension were investigated by Conceição et al. ( 2016 ), Gomes Neto et al. ( 2014 ), Kiepe et al. ( 2012 ), and Rodrigues-Krause et al. ( 2016 ). The results indicate that DMT (in this context termed “medical DMT”; Goodill, 2005 ) and dance might improve physiological conditions (e.g., systolic and diastolic blood pressure, V02-peak, exercise capacity) and quality of life, but not beyond the effects of other exercise interventions. One review on dementia and DMT in care homes showed that problematic behaviors decreased and social interaction and enjoyment in residents and care staff increased; adverse effects were also acknowledged, for example, from the care staff's perspective, there were fears of over-attachment with residents or embarrassment with dancing and concerns about staff shortages affecting the organization of regular dance sessions in the home (Guzmán-García et al., 2013 ). Some residents showed signs of confusion, irritability, and anxiety during the dancing (Palo-Bengtsson and Ekman, 1997 ; Palo-Bengtsson et al., 1998 ). The meta-analysis on DMT and dementia by Karkou and Meekums ( 2017 ) did not include any studies, because no trials met the inclusion criteria (i.e., randomized controlled trial led by dance movement therapist). Regarding the effects of DMT and dance on quality of life in cancer patients , we found mixed results. One meta-analysis on DMT in oncology reported significant standard mean differences (SMD) for the reduction of anxiety (Boehm et al., 2014 ; see also Archer et al., 2015 ). The meta-analysis on DMT in oncology reports effects on quality of life, but no evidence for effects on depression, anxiety, stress, fatigue, or body image (Bradt et al., 2011 , 2015 ).

Because of the scarcity or low quality of evidence-based research in the field of DMT, most secondary studies (particularly the high quality Cochrane reviews) included only a few studies (between one and three studies). Besides that, most authors reported that their results did not have sufficient statistical power, because of methodological constraints of the primary trials. Nevertheless, in previous quantitative research, we can observe a pattern that DMT and dance interventions are as effective as traditional psychotherapy in various populations and conditions (Beelmann and Heinrichs, 2015 ). In addition, some high-quality qualitative research suggests that DMT and dance are beneficial supportive treatments to traditional care and have some specific advantages, such as the non-verbal approach, body-oriented treatment process, etc. (McNiff, 1993 ; Barba et al., 1995 ; Hervey, 2000 ; Levine and Land, 2016 ).

Information on Primary Trials

Included studies.

All included trials are displayed in Table 1 in the results section and are marked with an “ * ” in the reference section. They were at least controlled intervention studies. We distinguished between primary studies in DMT and primary studies in dance interventions, and found 21 studies on the effects of DMT and 20 studies on the effects of dance on health-related outcomes (see Table 1 for populations, criteria, and results).

Study characteristics chart of the included studies.

NEG, number of subjects in the intervention group; NCG, number of subjects in the control group; M, mean; MEG, mean in intervention group; SDEG, standard deviation in intervention group; TAU, treatment as usual; ES, effect size. Bold values indicate the total sample of each study .

Excluded studies

We located a number of high-quality primary studies that we were not able to include due to the defined criteria. Fourteen studies had been excluded due to missing data or other reasons outlined in the Methods section, some of which may be possibly recovered for future analyses. They investigated learning disabilities (Alotaibi et al., 2017 ), children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (Alrazain et al., 2018 ), fornix integrity (Burzynska et al., 2017 ), depression (Cross et al., 2012 ), falls (Duim et al., 2015 ), oncological patients (Ho et al., 2016b ), schizophrenia (Koch et al., 2017 ; Savill et al., 2017 ), Parkinson's disease (Lewis et al., 2014 ), autism (Mateos-Moreno and Atencia-Doña, 2013 ), trauma in unaccompanied minors (Meyer DeMott et al., 2017 ), development of kindergarteners (Stück and Villegas, 2017 ), personal development and increase of emotional intelligence in students (Vancea, 2013 ), and traumatized children (Van Westrhenen et al., 2019 ).

Mainly through the reviews, we also found a number of formerly undetected studies from 2011 and earlier, not yet included into the general meta-analyses. We consider it important to enumerate them here for potential future analyses: Belardinelli et al. ( 2008 ), Burgess et al. ( 2006 ), Chouhan and Kumar ( 2011 ), Connolly et al. ( 2011 ), Coubard et al. ( 2011 ), Hall ( 2011 ), Hwang et al. ( 2010 ), Kaltsatou et al. ( 2011 , 2015 ), Quiroga Murcia et al. ( 2009 ), and Xiong and Li ( 2009 ).

In general, our literature search revealed that there were at least as many studies on physiological changes after DMT and dance interventions as there were for psychological changes in health outcomes in the time frame of January 2012 to March 2018. We found around 50 primary studies with mere physical/physiological outcomes, which we excluded. However, since embodiment approaches such as DMT assume the body–mind unity, we would encourage researchers to include studies focusing on physical changes into future meta-analyses in dance and DMT.

Incorporated Outcomes

Synthesizing the outcome foci of the primary studies, this meta-analysis differentiates six outcome clusters: (a) quality of life, (b) clinical outcomes (e.g., anxiety, depression), (c) interpersonal skills, (d) cognitive skills, (e) (psycho-)motor skills, and (f) residuals (psychotic symptoms and physiological change). We based the allocation of dependent variables to outcome clusters on the meta-analysis of Koch et al. ( 2014 ) and detailed investigation of the primary trials. Our aim was to synthesize outcome clusters that were as comparable as possible (e.g., by similarity of measurement instruments).

Quality of Life

Quality of life is a broad construct, which contains subscales about subjective well-being (e.g., satisfaction with life) and conditions of daily living (e.g., general health, functional capacity and social integration). We decided to further include dependent variables about sleep quality, pain (invert coding), self-esteem, and control beliefs in this cluster. Most measures in this outcome cluster were based on self-report questionnaires (e.g., rating satisfaction with certain life conditions on a Likert scale), with only one study containing observations and ratings from an external person, who in this case was a clinician (Teixeira-Machado et al., 2017 ). We assume that DMT and dance interventions might influence quality of life on various dimensions, for example, movement might improve vitality and fitness, dance might foster joyful experiences (Koch et al., 2007 ), and interpersonal experiences might have a positive influence on social integration (Sandel et al., 1993 ).

Clinical Outcomes

Clinical outcomes summarize dependent variables directly related to conditions of mental health, particularly affective disorders (e.g., depression, anxiety, stress, anger). Studies in this cluster were conducted with a clinical (e.g., persons with a diagnosis of depression) or subclinical population (e.g., persons at risk for depression). Usually, the dependent variables were assessed with self-report questionnaires (e.g., HADS, BDI, BSI, STAXI). Two studies contained an interview and one study used external observation and rating. We decided to conduct a sub-analysis of anxiety and depression, because the treatment of these conditions is of broad public interest and has been discussed in the previous literature (Peters, 2012 ; Koch et al., 2014 ). We assumed that DMT and dance interventions improve psychological functions of emotion regulation, which may be mediated, for example, by authentic expression, experienced agency, body–mind integration, and physiological changes.

Interpersonal Skills

The term “interpersonal skills” relates to competences persons apply in social interaction (e.g., empathy, synchronization, communication, prosocial behavior, self-other awareness, maintaining a relationship). Most studies in this cluster were conducted with children, some of whom had been diagnosed with developmental disorders (ASD, ADHD). Therefore, researchers used external observations (e.g., by a parent, teacher, or clinician) more frequently. There were also two adult populations (ASD, schizophrenia). Interpersonal experiences in DMT and dance might particularly improve skills allocated to this cluster, for example, the therapeutic relationship, group cohesion, and (non-verbal) communication. In recent years, researchers have started to investigate whether the “mirroring” technique, proposed by dance movement therapist Marian Chace (Sandel et al., 1993 ), fosters empathy and enhances activity of mirror neurons in the brain (McGarry and Russo, 2011 ). A link of mirroring in movement and attachment has recently been established (see Feniger-Schaal et al., 2018 , this issue).

Cognitive Skills

Cognitive skills relate to the set of mental abilities and processes that we need to carry out any task from the simplest to the most complex (e.g., skills of language, memory, and conceptualizing). Because a decrease of these mental abilities is a typical issue in elderly persons, most primary studies focus on this population. Cognitive skills were assessed using psychological tests (e.g., memory tasks, word tasks, calculation tasks, attention tasks) and tests referring to body image or body imagery, which denominates the ability to perceive and visualize bodily charges and changes. Since the operationalizations of the concept in the included studies measure a mainly representational skill, we categorize it under cognitive skills, even though it includes sensorimotor and emotional aspects.

(Psycho-)Motor Skills

The assessment of (psycho-)motor skills was conducted in (mostly elderly) patients that were diagnosed with Parkinson's disease. It contained tests on walking, turning, balance, and freezing of gait, and self-report measures on daily functioning. Only dance interventions, no DMT, were found in this outcome cluster. Dance improves motor function by training muscular activity, balance, and flexibility. Furthermore, there is a training of cognitive skills associated with movement, for example, in executing imagined movements, following music, and observing bodily changes (Hashimoto et al., 2015 ). Because we focused on psychological changes in this meta-analysis, studies with outcomes on mere physical skills (e.g., exercise capacity, arm range) were excluded. However, in our literature search, we found at least as many studies on physiological changes after DMT and dance interventions as on psychological changes. It is important to note that changes in Parkinson's disease severity were categorized as psychomotor skills , because Parkinson's disease is an extrapyramidal and neurodegenerative disorder (ICD 10), which entails physical and psychological components. The included studies with a focus on Parkinson's disease measured mixed psycho-physiological variables (as outlined above).

Our residual category contained two types of outcomes too small to analyze in separate clusters: positive symptoms in schizophrenia and physiological changes (e.g., blood pressure). In schizophrenia, we distinguish positive symptoms (an overabundance of perceptions compared to average, e.g., hallucinations) from negative symptoms (a void or lack of perception and expression compared to average, e.g., apathy, mood, and blunted affect). While positive symptoms can be successfully addressed by anti-psychotic medication, DMT seems to be particularly useful for addressing negative symptoms (Röhricht and Priebe, 2006 ; Lee et al., 2015 ; Martin et al., 2016 ; Pohlmann et al., 2017 ). We allocated the negative symptoms to the clinical outcomes cluster. Pohlmann et al. ( 2017 ) postulated a concept of “disembodiment” in schizophrenia stressing that schizophrenia is a self-disorder and is characterized by disturbances of ipseity (selfhood). They state that mechanisms of body–mind integration improve self-awareness. Regarding physiological changes, the effects of dance and DMT are also detectable on a neural and hormonal level (e.g., Quiroga Murcia et al., 2009 ; Stück and Villegas, 2017 ; Abraham et al., 2018 ). Studies assessed positive symptoms in schizophrenia with self-report questionnaires or clinical interviews/observations, whereas physiological data were collected using medical examination procedures (e.g., sphygmomanometer).

Study Selection

The following inclusion criteria were used to filter studies for meta-analysis:

• Experimental intervention study (independent variable: dance or DMT intervention, dependent variable: health-related psychological outcomes)
• Control group design
• Availability of necessary statistics to calculate effect sizes (pre- and post-intervention assessment in intervention and control group, mean, SD, N, t , or F values)
• Language of publication: English or German
• Period of publication: 01/2012 to 04/2018

Because we wanted to get a broad picture, we also included studies with interventions named “body psychotherapy” or “movement integration.” We decided to classify an intervention as “DMT intervention” if a dance movement therapist conducted the session. When the qualification of therapist was missing (or unclear), we closely analyzed the descriptions of the intervention. If the intervention description suggested that predominantly typical tools of DMT were used (therapeutic use of dance/movement involving mirroring, conscious social interaction in movement, introspection and reflections on movement and body sensations; see also definition of DMT and description of DMT methods in Koch, 2019 ), we categorized the intervention as DMT. Trials that included dance elements but predominantly used methods of other creative arts therapies were excluded (Mateos-Moreno and Atencia-Doña, 2013 ; Jakobsen et al., 2017 ; Van Westrhenen et al., 2019 ). In contrast, we allocated methods to the dance intervention group, if they were dance training sessions conducted by dancers or exercise instructors from various backgrounds (physiotherapists, nurses, fitness instructors). We decided to include group as well as individual therapy sessions.

Literature Search

For this meta-analysis, we used multiple search strategies. First, we systematically searched electronic databases, namely, Psyndex, PsycINFO, ERIC, CENTRAL, and Google Scholar. We used different terms for dance movement therapy (DMT) and dance-related interventions as single keywords and combined search terms, putting together the single keywords and terms related to the study design (see Box 1 ).

Search terms.

The number of hits is reported in the flowchart below ( Figure 1 ). Additionally, we conducted a hand search examining professional journals without widespread indexing, sending requests for unpublished and in process EBM studies to national and international professional listservs, and directly wrote to researchers with a history in EBM research on dance therapy, asking for references we may have potentially missed; we also included references that were mentioned in some of the secondary studies and that slipped by our systematic literature search (we received detailed responses from Dr. Vicky Karkou, Dr. Bonnie Meekums, Dr. Iris Bräuninger, Susanne Bender, Indra Majore-Dusele, and others).

Flowchart of selection procedure. Included studies are displayed in the study characteristics overview ( Table 1 ).

The systematic database search yielded 132 records and was supplemented with 59 studies identified through hand search. Because each included research report contained only one study, we did not have to differentiate between the analysis of research reports and studies. After removing duplicates (i.e., the same studies found in different data sources), a total of 183 studies was screened. Fifty-four of these studies (30%) met the inclusion criteria, and their full-article texts were then assessed for eligibility.

We had to exclude 14 studies for the following reasons (more information in Appendix ):

• - Seven studies due to insufficient data (e.g., three had no data available; for four, it was not possible to calculate reliable effect sizes from the statistics provided)
• - Four studies because closer examination of the intervention methods revealed that they did not match the criteria of either DMT or dance intervention (e.g., combined creative arts therapies, observations of dance pieces)
• - One study contained only qualitative data
• - One study contained no comparable control group (participants of the control group were caregivers of participants with Parkinson's diagnosis in the experimental group)
• - For one study, data were reported and included from another publication

Finally, we were able to include a total of 41 studies into the analysis (see Figure 1 ).

Coding Procedure

We coded the study characteristics (see Table 1 ) using the following variables:

• - Identification: author, title, year
• - Publication: country, publication status
• - Sample: sample size, age range, percentage of female participants, clinical vs. non-clinical sample, diagnosis
• - Intervention: DMT or dance, qualification of implementing person, quality of intervention description (major intervention methods of DMT see Koch, 2019 )
• - Control Group: number of control groups, type of control group activity
• - Time: one session vs. process, length of intervention period, frequency of intervention, length of session, period follow-up
• - Methods: type of measurement, type of analysis, randomization, dropout

Data Synthesis

The analysis was done in SPSS (IBM, Version 25), employing meta-analysis macros by Wilson ( 2005 ). To synthesize data, we decided to use calculations of effect sizes. There were four levels of analysis (see Figure 2 ).

Hierarchy of effect sizes. EG, experimental group; CG, control group; d(c), weighted mean effect size per cluster; d(i), weighted mean effect size per study; d(i,c), weighted mean effect size per cluster within one study.

Most studies were using multiple scales or tests to measure the changes from pre- to post-intervention in one dependent construct (e.g., mental health, general health, and vitality as facets of quality of life). Furthermore, usually more than one dependent construct was observed in one study (e.g., quality of life, affect, and interpersonal skills). Thus, we had to synthesize data on several levels ( Figure 2 ). From Level IV to Level III and from Level III to Level II effect sizes within studies were synthesized. From Level II to Level I effect sizes across studies were synthesized. We started our analysis at the bottom level (Level IV), calculating effect sizes for each dependent variable (e.g., scales, tests). An adjusted formula of Cohen's d was used (Cohen, 1988 ):

This formula incorporates differences between pre- and post-intervention values in the intervention group controlling for changes that occurred in the control group (for abbreviations, see list of symbols in Appendix ). The effect is standardized using the pooled standard deviation, which is formed by the pooled variance of intervention and control group at the pre-intervention level. The natural variance of characteristic values in one sample is assumed to be confounded by the intervention; this is why the pooled variances at pre-time are more precise estimates of variation (Lipsey and Wilson, 2001 ).

Some studies reported median instead of mean and standard error of the mean or interquartile range instead of standard deviation. In these cases, we used the median as a mean and recalculated dispersion measures to approximate the effect sizes (Higgins and Green, 2008 ). In addition, we adjusted the polarization of the scales multiplying with −1, where necessary. Where the polarization of scales or tests remained unreported in the original study, we conducted a literature search to ascertain the direction of the effect. All effects were polarized to ensure that a positive effect size means that the health or resources of the participant improved (e.g., more interpersonal skills, less depression). In total, we calculated 306 effect sizes ranging from d = −0.82 to a maximum of 9.61. Sixteen effect sizes were larger than 3.0 and could be viewed as outlier effect sizes that could have serious impact on the mean effect size and the moderator analyses. Therefore, to avoid an overestimation of the effectiveness (Lipsey and Wilson, 2001 ), we recoded all effect sizes greater than three to d = 3.0, because it seems that those effect sizes are not realistic within intervention studies (Beelmann, personal communication). Next, calculating mean effect sizes, we aggregated the data of multiple dependent variables that measured changes in one dependent construct (outcome cluster). As a result, we obtained 78 effect sizes, with each effect size referring to one dependent construct in one study ( d c,i , Level III). Again, we calculated mean effect size, to synthesize the effect sizes of the dependent constructs into one mean effect size per study ( d i , Level II). Then, we planned to analyze data across studies (Level I) using methods developed by Hedges and Olkin ( 1985 ). Because studies with a greater sample size are generally more conclusive than smaller studies, each study was weighted with:

To get one overall weighted mean effect size, we calculated:

To obtain weighted mean effect sizes for outcome clusters (dependent constructs), we used the same formula replacing the mean effect sizes per study ( d i ) with the mean effect sizes per construct per cluster ( d c,i , Level III). Our analysis did not correct for multiple testing in order not to lose power. Instead, the chosen method is strong in avoiding Type I error. Having conducted 78 tests, it is important to note that four results may have been randomly significant (expecting five randomly significant results out of 100 tests).

Assessment of Heterogeneity

Heterogeneity is an important issue in meta-analysis. It deals with the question of whether all included studies measure the same intervention effect. Usually, if there is a more general research question and there are less strict inclusion criteria, as it is the case in our analysis, we expect that we can observe more differences between studies in content- and method-related characteristics. We analyzed the heterogeneity of the effects using Q -statistics. A significant Q means that the heterogeneity is larger than we would expect from sampling error. In this case, we would need to calculate a random instead of a fixed-effect model (Lipsey and Wilson, 2001 ). In a random-effect model, we use a new inverse variance component resulting in greater confidence intervals of the effect sizes. From Q -statistics, we can calculate I -square, which is an estimator for the inconsistency of the results (Higgins et al., 2003 ). It is interpreted as the percentage of variance of the effect that is caused by heterogeneity (25% = low heterogeneity, 50% = moderate heterogeneity, 75% = high heterogeneity; Cohen, 1988 ).

Analysis of Outliers and Publication Bias

Due to the file-drawer problem (i.e., the problem that studies failing to produce a statistically significant result are less likely to be published than those that do produce a statistically significant result), meta-analyses are in danger of overestimating the effects of an intervention (Rosenthal, 1979 ). We used a funnel plot and trim-and-fill analysis, two methods for assessing publication biases, to explore whether this might be the case in our analysis. We also investigated outliers that might bias the results.

Assessment of Sensitivity

To address issues of heterogeneity and to obtain a better understanding of which study characteristics might influence the assessment of effect sizes, we conducted sensitivity analysis for categorical variables (METAF, Macros from David B. Wilson; Lipsey and Wilson, 2001 ) and for metric variables (METAREG, Macros from David B. Wilson; Lipsey and Wilson, 2001 ). The study characteristics were incorporated as moderators of the effects.

To compare different control group types (e.g., waiting-list control group, physical exercise control groups), we additionally conducted separate analysis of studies with more than one control group, to ensure that all other study characteristics remained constant.

Analysis of Follow-Up Data

To obtain information about long-term effects, we created a separate file to analyze follow-up data. Using the same procedure as described above, we calculated the effects from pre-test to follow-up values.

Study Characteristics

Countries of publication.

The incorporated studies came from 14 different countries. Most studies were conducted in Germany (11 studies, 26.8%). Overall, 25 studies (60.98%) were conducted in Europe. In addition, eight studies (19.51%) were conducted in Asia, three studies (7.32%) in North America, two studies (4.88%) in Australia, two studies in South America (4.88%), and one study in Africa (2.44%). Generally, one can observe that most studies stemmed from “Western” countries (Germany, UK, USA, Canada, Australia, Mediterranean, and Scandinavian countries). Most Asian studies were conducted in Hong Kong, Korea, and Japan. The remaining studies stemmed from Malaysia, India, and Nigeria. We found seven studies that had not been published yet (Aweto et al., 2012 ; Ventura et al., 2016 ; De Natale et al., 2017 ; Koch, 2017 ; Pohlmann et al., 2017 ; Abraham et al., 2018 ; Aithal and Karkou, 2018 ). Figure 3 displays the number of studies that met the inclusion criteria found per year. The search dates were January 2012 to March 2018. While dance and DMT studies were equal in numbers in 2012, there were more DMT studies in 2013–2015, and more dance studies in 2016–2018.

Included studies per year with DMT or dance intervention.

Twenty-nine studies (70.73%) implemented the intervention in a clinical sample, and 11 (27.5%) were conducted with a non-clinical (educational) sample. From the clinical populations, 11 were diagnosed with affective disorders (depression), or reported feelings of stress, sadness, or anxiety. Six samples were diagnosed with Parkinson's disease, five with schizophrenia, four with ASD, and two with cognitive impairments. Overall, there were more female than male participants (percentage female participants: M = 65.66%, SD = 27.65). Comparing intervention and control group, the distribution of female and male participants was even.

Interventions

About half of the studies were DMT intervention studies (21 studies); the other half were dance intervention studies (20 studies). In the DMT group , 16 interventions were provided by a trained dance movement therapist, at least four of them were also qualified clinical psychologists. In four trials, descriptions of qualification of therapists were missing or dance movement therapists in training (Aweto et al., 2012 ; Serrano-Guzmán et al., 2016 ; Guerra-Balic et al., 2017 ; Wiedenhofer and Koch, 2017 ). We allocated them to the DMT group because the intervention was predominantly DMT (distinguishing criterion is described above). In the study by Abraham et al. ( 2018 ), classification of qualification of therapist was difficult. The intervention was provided by a physiotherapist specialized at “dynamic neuro-imagery” intervention, a DMT-like introspection intervention. We decided to allocate the study to the DMT group, because of content-related similarities of the intervention to DMT. In the dance intervention group , seven interventions were conducted by an instructor with dance education. Additionally, seven interventions were conducted by exercise instructors with other backgrounds (physical education, physiotherapy, nursing). Six trials contained no description about qualification of dance instructors and were allocated to the cluster because of content-related similarities to the other dance intervention studies.

The DMT studies differed in the technique, e.g., the technique by Marian Chace (“Chacian approach”, a standard method in DMT; Sandel et al., 1993 ), dance therapy with ethno-elements, DMT modified to suit Chinese culture, manualized body psychotherapy (conducted by dance therapists; manual of Röhricht and Papadopolous, unpublished), and dance therapy with elements of creative movement play (for more extensive description of intervention methods in DMT, see Koch, 2019 ). Dance interventions used various dance styles, mostly traditional folk dance or cultural dance forms (Irish set dancing, Greek traditional dance, Flamenco, Poco-Poco dance, Belly dance, Tango), further couple dance (Latin dance), and contemporary dance (jazz, modern, creative dance). All interventions took place in groups. DMT and dance interventions were modified to the age of the participants. In the studies of Meric and Ilhan ( 2016 ) and Panagiotopoulou ( 2018 ), the researcher and the implementing person were identical. The quality of intervention description differed widely across studies. Fifteen percent of the studies described the intervention very rudimentarily, 22.5% moderately, 22.5% more detailed, and 40% replicable, which is a clear increase in replicable descriptions compared to the seven studies in the former meta-analysis by Koch et al. ( 2014 ).

Control Groups

To control for unspecific effects, about one third of the studies (31.7%) used active control groups [e.g., listening to music, cycling, Pilates, physical education/sports exercises (physical exercises), psychoeducation, meditation, relaxation exercises], and 65.9% of the studies used a passive control group (e.g., waiting-list group or treatment as usual). One control group description was missing (Meric and Ilhan, 2016 ).

Duration of Interventions

Most of the included studies were implementing the intervention over a longer period of time (Mean = 11.41 weeks, SD = 7.89, Min = 1 week, Max = 32 weeks). Only the studies by Campion and Levita ( 2014 ) and Wiedenhofer and Koch ( 2017 ) implemented one single-dance/DMT session and assessed short time effects immediately after the intervention. Their sessions lasted for 5 min in the study by Campion and Levita ( 2014 ) and for 50 min in the study by Wiedenhofer and Koch ( 2017 ). The other sessions were usually carried out two times per week (Mean = 1.85, SD = 1.05, Min = once per week, Max = 4 times per week), and lasted for 1 h or 1 1/2 h (Mean = 71.32 min, SD = 19.02, Min = 40 min, Max = 120 min).

Statistical Tests and Assessment Methods

To assess and compare pre–post differences of the dependent variable in the intervention and control group, either t -tests, ANOVAs, or MANOVAs were calculated. Mostly self-report questionnaires were used for assessment (49%), followed by observation rating scales (17.6%), cognitive tests (13.4%), tests of motor functioning (11.1%), interviews (6.5%), and psychophysiological measures (2.3%).

Sample Sizes and Randomization

The meta-analysis included studies with large and very small sample sizes ( N: Mean = 57.90, SD = 49.61, Min = 11, Max = 275). In 21.95% of the cases, the samples were smaller than N = 30, 34.15% were N = 30–50, 31.70% N = 50–100, and 12.20% were larger than N = 100. The studies with the largest sample sizes are contributing most to the results (weighted mean effect sizes); these are (Priebe et al., 2016 ) ( N = 275), (Vankova et al., 2014 ) ( N = 162), (Bräuninger, 2012a ) ( N = 162), (Ho et al., 2016a ) ( N = 139), and (Duberg et al., 2013 ) ( N = 101). In general, smaller studies are less conclusive and generalizable than studies with larger sample sizes (unless their methodological quality is significantly better). Therefore, we weighted their results discriminatingly, calculating weighted mean effect sizes (see previous paragraph). Notably, most studies did not meet established criteria or rules of thumb that would define desirable sample sizes to conclude effects for a certain population (Harris, 1985 ; Kraemer and Thiemann, 1987 ; Green, 1991 ). Nevertheless, it is assumed that (apart from publication bias) studies with a small sample size would not significantly bias the results of meta-analyses but contribute important information, for example, about heterogeneity and the effects in sub-groups (Higgins et al., 2003 ; Grainge, 2015 ).

Randomization is an important criterion for the reliability and validity of estimated effect sizes, because it addresses the issue of comparability of the inspected groups. Fifty-two and a half percent (52.5%) of the studies used randomization as group allocation process, 22.5% used quasi-randomization techniques, and 25% of the studies used no randomization techniques (group allocation was based on self-selection or purposive sampling). Of the 10 non-randomized studies, only 5 included extra assessments of baseline differences, showing that there were significant differences in three of them (Pylvänäinen et al., 2015 ; Adam et al., 2016 ; Aithal and Karkou, 2018 ). The inclusion of studies with baseline differences is justified here, because our methodological approach takes those differences into account when calculating effect sizes. The studies from Biber ( 2016 ), Guerra-Balic et al. ( 2017 ), Meric and Ilhan ( 2016 ), and Panagiotopoulou ( 2018 ) used no statistical tests to assess baseline differences.

Thirty-one of the 41 studies reported dropout rates (Mean = 13.55%, SD = 15.18, Min = 0%, Max = 57.38%). Analysis of dropout rates revealed that 7 of the 31 studies reported a dropout that is higher than 30% (Pinniger et al., 2012 , 2013 ; Röhricht et al., 2013 ; and Rios Romenets et al., 2015 ; Hildebrandt et al., 2016 ; Martin et al., 2016 ; Pohlmann et al., 2017 ). This was in many cases due to the fact that severely impaired patients with schizophrenia or depression had to actively travel to outpatient treatment, requiring a strong motivational state, which is precisely one of the problems in these disorders.

Overall Quality of Included Studies

Because we applied mild selection criteria, the methodological quality of the included primary studies is considerably heterogeneous, and risk of bias is a concern in most of the included studies. Referring to the Cochrane Collaboration's tool for assessing risk of bias in randomized trials, there are six domains of bias that should be considered: selection bias, performance bias, detection bias, attrition bias, reporting bias, and other sources of bias (Higgins et al., 2011 ). Selection bias relates to the group allocation of participants. As reported above, a quarter of the studies had a great risk of selection bias (or in this respect), because no randomization or quasi-randomization tools were used. Additionally, in 12.2% of the trials, no baseline characteristics were checked. Secondly, performance bias relates to blinding of the participants and staff involved. Any of the investigated trials might be affected by this risk of bias (Rosenthal effect), because blinding is a challenge in any type of intervention study. While it is possible to conceal, which is the experimental vs. control condition in active control group trials, it is more difficult in waiting list designs, such as is the case in many of the DMT and dance interventions here. However, it is plausible that self-report measures and external rating scales are more affected by performance bias than cognitive or motor tests or physiological data. Detection bias addresses blinding of the researcher, who assesses and analyses the results. We were not able to extract this information from most of our primary trials, but we assume that researchers usually know the treatment allocation of the participants. Attrition bias is about the issue of the amount and handling of incomplete outcome data. As we assessed dropout rates (see section above), we can state that about 42% of the studies are in danger for this domain of risk of bias. Because selective reporting (reporting bias) is hard to extract from primary trails, we did not assess this domain. Concerning other risks of bias (e.g., conflicts of interest), in two studies, the researcher was also the implementing person (Meric and Ilhan, 2016 ; Panagiotopoulou, 2018 ). To conduct further analyses, we used dichotomous coding (higher-risk vs. lower-risk studies), including all studies in the higher-risk category that had a total N smaller than 30 or which yielded issues in any of the assessed domains of risk of bias (group allocation, attrition bias, other bias). A more detailed description on study characteristics is provided in Table 1 (study characteristics chart).

Overall Effect

Overall, we synthesized data from 2,374 participants from 41 studies (more than twice the number of the last general meta-analysis by Koch et al., 2014 ). According to Cohen ( 1988 ), effect sizes between d = 0.2 and d = 0.5 are small effects, effect sizes between d = 0.5 and d = 0.8 are medium effects, and effect sizes larger than d = 0.8 are large effects. The mean effect sizes per study (Level II, k = 41) varied between one small negative effect size and large positive effect sizes (Unweighted Mean: d = 0.67, Min: d = −0.17, adjusted Max: d = 2.96). The maximum effect size is not bigger than 3.0, because of the adjustments we obtained at Level III. The unadjusted Maximum would be d = 5.07. Further details about the distribution of effect sizes across studies are described in the paragraphs below.

We calculated a fixed-effect model to obtain a weighted mean effect size across studies (Level I). The weighted overall fixed effect was d = 0.48 ( p < 0.001, CI min = 0.40, CI max = 0.57). The analysis of heterogeneity showed a high inconsistency of results ( Q = 127.52, df = 40, p < 0.001, I 2 = 72.62%). Therefore, we calculated a random-effect model as recommended in Lipsey and Wilson ( 2001 ). The estimated weighted overall random effect was d = 0.60 ( p < 0.001, CI min = 0.44, CI max = 0.76). In the following paragraphs, we will only report results that were calculated with the random-effect model.

Effect Sizes According to Outcome Cluster

The weighted mean effects sorted by constructs (outcome clusters) are summarized in the chart below. The analysis yielded a significant effect for each outcome cluster. The effect for interpersonal skills was the largest one, followed by quality of life and (psycho-)motor skills. Furthermore, all effects but the effect for (psycho-)motor skills showed high heterogeneity. Since we calculated a random-effect model, all effects showed broad confidence intervals (see Table 2 ).

Effect sizes according to outcome cluster.

k, number of studies; ES, effect size; CI, confidence interval; SE, sampling error;

Subanalysis

The subanalysis of anxiety and depression revealed that the differentiation of the two constructs did not lead to more homogeneous results. Depression yielded a slightly larger effect than anxiety. Both effects were medium and showed high heterogeneity. The effect for physiological variables was large but heterogeneous; the effect for positive symptoms in schizophrenia reached significance on the p < 0.1 level and was also heterogeneous (see Table 3 ).

Effect sizes according to sub-clusters.

The one-session study from Campion and Levita ( 2014 ) was the only one to show a (small) negative effect ( d = −14). Other studies that were at the lower end of the distribution were Koch et al. ( 2015a , b ) that included an anti-violence training ( d = 0.02) and Ho et al. ( 2016a ) that aimed to improve the quality of life of cancer patients ( d = 0.06). On the other side of the distribution, we could observe large effect sizes ( d = 1.8 up to d = 2.96) in the studies of Cruz-Ferreira et al. ( 2015 ), Biber ( 2016 ), Teixeira-Machado et al. ( 2017 ), and Aithal and Karkou ( 2018 ). If we had not recoded the effect sizes from Chiang et al. ( 2016 ), Pohlmann et al. ( 2017 ), Teixeira-Machado et al. ( 2017 ), and Aithal and Karkou ( 2018 ) at Level IV, they would have been even larger (up to d = 5.07). Possible reasons for the effect size distribution across studies are detailed in the next paragraphs.

To analyze the distribution of effect sizes and to address the issue of publication bias, we created a funnel plot (see Figure 4 ) that shows the distribution of unweighted effect sizes as a function of sample sizes. The distribution would be asymmetrical in case of a publication bias, because then small sample studies with positive effect sizes would be published, whereas small sample studies with no positive effects would remain unpublished (Lipsey and Wilson, 2001 ).

Funnel plot.

The diagram in Figure 4 shows a skewed distribution to the right; that is, the large positive effect sizes on the right have no equivalent on the left. This is an indication of a publication bias. Therefore, we conducted a regression analysis (independent variable: sample size, dependent variable: unweighted effect size). There was a small negative gradient parameter that did not reach significance (β = −0.003, p = 0.147). We can thus assume that the publication bias does not have a great impact on the results. Nevertheless, the fact that the gradient parameter did not reach significance does not mean that there is no publication bias at all. We also conducted trim-and-fill analysis as a more elaborate method to explore publication bias using the random-effect model and an L 0 estimator (Duval and Tweedie, 2000 ). The number of estimated missing studies on the left side, meaning the number of studies that are assumed not to be found due to publication bias, was zero. Thus, the new estimated overall effect did not differ from the original one.

As described above, we conducted analysis of sensitivity using study characteristics as metric and categorical moderator of the effect sizes per study ( d i ).

Metric Variables

Regression analyses revealed that no metric variable alone reached significance as a moderator of effect sizes (see Table 4 below). N total was closest to significance, indicating that studies with a greater sample size yielded smaller effects. This can be interpreted as a result of the file-drawer problem, risk of bias of smaller studies, or as an estimator of quality of implementation (we can assume that, in smaller samples, the intervention was implemented more appropriate to the individual) (see Table 4 ).

Metric moderators.

EG, experimental group; CG, control group; β, gradient parameter; p, significance parameter .

Overall, 40.84% of variance ( R 2 ) was explained by metric moderators.

Categorical Variables

We conducted sensitivity analysis with the following categorical moderators: country, publication status, higher vs. lower risk of bias, age range, clinical vs. non-clinical sample, diagnosis, DMT vs. dance intervention, qualification of implementing person, quality of intervention description, one-session vs. process, randomization, dropout rates, type of control group activity, and measurement type.

Two moderators were significant on a p < 0.05 level: DMT vs. dance intervention studies (between variance: Q = 5.54, df = 1, p = 0.019), and qualification of implementing person (between variance: Q = 8.89, df = 3, p = 0.031). Trials with DMT interventions yielded significant but slightly lower effect sizes ( d = 0.35, p < 0.001) than trials with dance interventions ( d = 0.81, p < 0.001). In addition, the results of the group with DMT interventions were consistent ( I 2 = 3.47), whereas the results in the dance intervention group were inconsistent ( I 2 = 77.96). Country, higher vs. lower risk of bias, and age range were significant moderators of effect sizes on a p < 0.1 level. In children, teenagers, and seniors, larger effect sizes were observed than in adults, but the effect sizes in adults were more consistent. Furthermore, lower-risk studies yielded smaller effect sizes than higher-risk studies and were more homogeneous. In clinical trials, effect sizes were smaller than in non-clinical trials, but the results remained more consistent than in non-clinical trials (weighted mean effect sizes sorted by group, see Table 5 ).

Categorical moderators.

df, degree of freedom (df = k – 1) .

Control Group Type

Across all studies, the type of control group activity was not a significant moderator of effect sizes. A different picture resulted, when we only included studies with more than one control group into the analysis ( k = 9, active control groups: meditation, physical exercises). For these studies, the weighted mean effect size remained significant when compared to non-active control groups (in most cases, waiting list CGs), but declined to a visible but non-significant effect when compared to active control groups ( d = 0.43, p = 0.009 vs. d = 0.21, p = 0.126). Especially when compared to meditation intervention, the effects declined to almost zero, which means that the two interventions are equally effective.

Measurement Type

Type of measurement was a significant moderator of effect sizes (between variance: Q = 97.92, df = 5, p < 0.001). Observation rating scales yielded the largest effect sizes ( d = 1.34, p < 0.001, I 2 = 76.01%). They were followed by physiological data ( d = 0.71, p = 0.001, I 2 = n.s.), motor tests ( d = 0.58, p < 0.001, I 2 = n.s.), self-report-questionnaires ( d = 0.42, p < 0.001, I 2 = n.s.), cognitive tests ( d = 0.30, p = 0.002, I 2 = n.s.), and interviews ( d = 0.25, p = 0.001, I 2 = n.s.). We thus can assume that the type of measurement, especially observation rating scales, is one of the most significant sources of heterogeneity across studies. We also checked whether observation rating scales were more frequently used in dance intervention studies than in DMT studies, which was not the case.

Explorative Analyses

Since sensitivity analysis revealed type of intervention as a significant moderator, we decided to exploratively conduct separate analyses of the DMT and dance intervention trials (the results are reported in the Tables 6 , ​ ,7 7 below; they were also reported briefly in the paragraph above).

Effect sizes only in DMT studies.

Effect sizes only in dance intervention studies.

We also analyzed weighted mean effect sizes according to outcome clusters separately for the two groups. For quality of life, the effect remained significant in both clusters, but showed consistency only in the DMT group. For clinical outcomes, both effects were significant but heterogeneous. Related to interpersonal skills, there was a significant but inconsistent effect in the dance intervention group and a significant ( p = 0.05) and homogeneous effect in the DMT group. In the cognitive skills cluster, the effect remained significant but heterogeneous in the dance intervention group, but did not reach significance in the DMT group ( k = 3 trials). The effect for motor skills was significant and consistent in the dance intervention group; in the DMT group, it was not significant ( k = 2 trials).

In Tables 6 , ​ ,7, 7 , changes in depression and anxiety are the main outcomes under affect changes . It is notable that the changes in interpersonal skills just barely missed significance in DMT studies. Considering the high heterogeneity of outcome measures in this domain, they need in any case to be further investigated (plus more standardized outcome measured need to be developed). Changes in motor skills are most pronounced and consistent in dance intervention studies, with the most and the most rigorous evidence from studies of interventions for Parkinson patients (e.g., Hackney and Bennett, 2014 ; Sharp and Hewitt, 2014 ; Loetzke et al., 2015 ). Changes in motor skills are usually not in the focus of DMT studies. The non-significant results on motor skills confirm DMT as a psychotherapeutic intervention.

Assessment of Follow-Up Data

In order to obtain information about the long-term effects of DMT and dance interventions, we analyzed the available follow-up data (see Table 8 ). Eight studies reported follow-up data, the mean period from post- to follow-up assessment was 22 weeks. In most studies, the effect remained constant. The largest decline was observed in the study by Bräuninger ( 2012a , b ). The effect was reduced by half, but remained significant. In Baptista et al. ( 2012 ), Pylvänäinen et al. ( 2015 ) and Priebe et al. ( 2016 ), there was a slight decline, which was close to zero; in De Natale et al. ( 2017 ), there was a slight increase. In the studies from Pinniger et al. ( 2012 ), Duberg et al. ( 2013 ), and Cruz-Ferreira et al. ( 2015 ), there was a large increase (e.g., in Pinniger the effect tripled). The authors explain this unusual increase with an increase in mindfulness (detachment from negative thoughts, ruminations, and worries, which led to a reduction in symptom severity; Ree and Craigie, 2007 ) and a personal bond between the participants as a learning process, which became more effective after the participants had practiced for a while.

Effect sizes follow-up.

The bottom line displays the weighted mean effect sizes across the eight studies and a significance parameter (p-value); D, dance intervention study .

Summary of Results

In this meta-analysis, we investigated the effectiveness of DMT and dance interventions on health-related psychological outcomes. We included 41 primary trails published between 2012 and March of 2018 that contained a total of 2,374 participants. Twenty-one of these trials considered DMT interventions, whereas 20 trials considered dance interventions. We grouped the dependent variables into six outcome clusters: quality of life ( k = 20 trials), clinical outcomes (23 trials; sub-analysis: depression, anxiety), interpersonal skills ( k = 9 trials), cognitive skills ( k = 10 trials), (psycho-)motor skills ( k = 10 trials), and residuals ( k = 6 trials; physiological data, positive symptoms schizophrenia). The overall mean effect size was d = 0.60 ( p < 0.001, CI min = 0.44, CI max = 0.76), which is a significant medium effect (Cohen, 1988 ). Analysis of heterogeneity yielded that an estimated 71.62% of variance of results can be traced back to dissimilarity of results, which makes the interpretation of results more difficult. In the outcome clusters, we also obtained significant medium effect sizes [quality of life: d = 0.67, affect: d = 0.56, cognitive skills: d = 0.53, (psycho-)motor skills: d = 0.65, residuals d = 0.47] and one significant large effect size (interpersonal skills: d = 0.85). This could be due to the fact that in the interpersonal skills cluster, many trials assessed dependent variables with observation rating scales, which yielded larger effect sizes in general. Sub-analyses revealed that the mean effect in the anxiety cluster was as large as the effect in the depression cluster. Physiological data yielded a mean large, significant effect size, whereas improvements of schizophrenia yielded a mean small effect size, which reached the p < 0.1 level. Assessment of heterogeneity in the outcome clusters revealed that all mean effects, except the effect for (psycho-)motor skills, remained inconsistent (i.e., significant Q, I 2 larger 60%). Furthermore, the larger the mean effect, the larger the heterogeneity of results, which indicates that larger effects were produced by outliers rather than by consistently higher effect sizes (see end of the next paragraph).

In order to identify which study characteristics contributed most to dissimilarities of results, we conducted a sensitivity analysis. Most importantly, we found that the type of intervention (DMT vs. dance) was a significant moderator of results. Therefore, it was reasonable to analyze data in two separate groups to obtain more meaningful results:

In the DMT group , we obtained smaller but more consistent effects. The overall medium effect was small, significant, and consistent/homogeneous ( d = 0.30, p < 0.001, non-significant Q, I 2 = 3.47). For the individual outcomes, the effects varied between d = 0.26 and d = 0.51 and were all homogeneous. The effects for quality of life, affect, and cognitive skills remained significant, whereas the effect for interpersonal skills reached the p < 0.1 level. Effects of motor skills were non-significant, thus confirming DMT as a mainly psychotherapeutic intervention.

In the dance cluster , we observed larger but less consistent effects. The overall medium effect was large, significant but non-consistent/heterogeneous ( d = 0.81, p < 0.001, significant Q, I 2 = 77.96). The effects in the outcome cluster varied between d = 0.68 and d = 1.65. They were all significant, but only the effects for (psycho-)motor skills, cognitive skills, and affect were consistent (non-significant Q, I 2 < 50%). Apart from Koch et al. ( 2015a , b ) and Aithal and Karkou ( 2018 ), all outliers we mentioned in the “Analysis of outliers and publication bias” section were part of the dance intervention group. The consistent effects for (psycho)motor skills were carried by the dance for Parkinson studies.

Dance studies seem to uphold certain characteristics that produce a broader range of results, especially in the large-positive spectrum of effect sizes (i.e., greater than d = 1.0) that are not evident in DMT studies. One factor might be different sample characteristics: Most DMT studies were conducted in a clinical setting, whereas most dance studies were conducted in a non-clinical setting. In severely impaired patient samples, such as in most of the DMT primary studies that entered into this analysis, effects are usually smaller than in non-clinical or subclinical populations (we know this, for example, from pretests of designs with student populations; e.g., Koch, 2011 ). This may be a major reason why the dance intervention studies have yielded larger medium effect sizes. Non-clinical samples also contained a broader age range. Additionally, in dance interventions, the implementation and methods were more heterogeneous than in the DMT group. In terms of culture, most DMT studies were conducted in Germany and other Western European countries, whereas the majority of dance intervention studies were conducted in non-Western countries. Dance intervention studies tended to have smaller sample sizes, less randomization, and more missing information in the reporting of results.

In sum, we obtained encouraging results, which indicated that DMT and dance have positive effects on various health-related outcomes. Most studies found evidence on the effectiveness of DMT on clinical outcomes ( k = 12 trials), followed by quality of life ( k = 10 trials) and cognitive skills ( k = 3 trials). There was also a tendency that DMT improved interpersonal skills ( k = 6 trials; p = 0.051). We did not find enough studies on (psycho-)motor functioning, physiological changes, and positive symptoms of schizophrenia in the DMT cluster to draw conclusions. Dance interventions improved (psycho-)motor skills ( k = 8 trials), clinical outcomes ( k = 11 trials), and cognitive skills ( k = 7 trials). The high variety of results, especially in the dance cluster, needs more investigation in future studies.

Specific Research Issues and Practical Implications for Researchers

In our meta-analysis, we also assessed and analyzed various study characteristics to deepen our understanding of factors that influenced the effects of DMT and dance on health-related outcomes. One important issue in most intervention studies is the question about unspecific and specific effects of the intervention . Often the fact that we pay attention to the participants already can change their symptoms (Hawthorne effect: firstly described in Roethlisberger and Dickson ( 1964 ), and reviewed by McCambridge et al., 2014 ). Using alternative interventions in the control groups helps to distinguish attention effects from specific effects. Therefore, we assessed control group activity. In the primary trials, one third of the DMT and dance intervention groups were compared to active control groups. The participants followed the following tasks: listening to music, cycling, Pilates, physical exercises, psychoeducation, meditation, or relaxation exercises. Control group activity was not a significant moderator of effect, which means that the effects of DMT and dance interventions were still evident when we controlled for attention effects. In other words, this indicates that there are specific effects of DMT and dance interventions. Control group activity seemed to matter, when we kept all other study characteristics constant, which was only possible in studies with an active and a non-active control group ( k = 9).

We compared the intervention groups to control groups that participated in physical exercises and meditation exercises. The effects of DMT and dance interventions declined but remained significant. The advantages of DMT and dance interventions were larger compared to physical exercises than to meditation. This indicates that the change mechanisms of DMT and dance possibly lie beyond the pure execution of sports or mindfulness. This is in line with other research on the mechanisms of change in DMT and dance (Bräuninger, 2014 ; Koch, 2017 ). The effect sizes observed in DMT and dance intervention groups were about as large as the effect sizes in meditation interventions. There is plenty of evidence that meditation interventions, for example, training programs in mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR; Teasdale et al., 2000 ; Michalak et al., 2008 ), are successful in treating several psychological conditions (e.g., depression, anxiety, stress, obsessive–compulsive disorders; Bohlmeijer et al., 2010 ; Fjorback et al., 2011 ). On basis of this evidence, there is also an increase in promotion and support of mindfulness-based interventions by the health insurance companies, such as free MBSR training programs at work. Thus, observing that DMT and dance interventions seem to be as effective as meditation suggests promoting these kinds of interventions as well. One interesting research issue that we should investigate in more detail is: What do DMT/dance interventions and mindfulness-based interventions have in common? Mindfulness is an important component of DMT. For example, mindful investigation of body sensations is part of DMT, with similar techniques as the body-scan exercise in MBSR training programs (Dreeben et al., 2013 ). Besides that, getting mindfully in contact with other people (therapist or other group members) is an important mechanism of change in DMT. Concerning dance interventions, there is less explicit use of mindfulness, but if we look closer, similar mechanisms of change stand out. One central component frequently mentioned in the literature on mindfulness is the termination of rumination and automatic negative thoughts, which occurs, because there is high concentration, focus on the here-and-now, and a state of mind, which allows the participant to observe feelings and thoughts from a more distant perspective (non-judgmental state of mind). Future research should investigate to what extent these mechanisms are relevant in DMT and dance intervention and how they influence the outcomes of the interventions. Moreover, we assume that an important overarching therapeutic factor in both mindfulness practice and DMT could be introspection (Price and Smith-DiJulio, 2016 ). Another central mechanism of change in dance and DMT might be the experience of flow (Csikszentmihalyi and Csikszentmihalyi, 1975 ). It is based on the same principles as mindfulness, such as high concentration, absorption, focus on the here-and-now, physical presence, and joy (Csikszentmihalyi and Csikszentmihalyi, 1975 ).

In order to find out which populations DMT and dance interventions are indicated for, we investigated the influence of sample characteristics on the effect sizes. Age range and clinical vs. non-clinical populations were two correlating moderators on a p < 0.1 level. We observed larger mean effects in children and elderly than in younger and older adults. At the same time, there was higher heterogeneity of results in the group of children and elderly. The fact that outcome variables in children and elderly were assessed with observation rating scales more often might contribute to these differences. Furthermore, the larger effects in children may also have come about because there were more prevention studies or studies in educational context with children and older adults, whereas the adults were mostly severely impaired clinical populations. Prevention studies yielded larger effects but higher heterogeneity than clinical studies. Again, this means that rather than more pronounced effects, there are outliers at the large-positive spectrum of effect sizes. From these results, we cannot come to recommendations about the indication of treatment in certain populations. Further research is needed to ascertain moderators that produce the variety of results. Regarding outcomes characteristics , DMT is indicated when a psychological change is intended, whereas dance interventions are indicated to improve motor skills (the consistent effect only occurred on those).

The so-called method effect (“any characteristic of measurement procedure contributes to variance of scores”; Maul, 2013 ) is a widely discussed limitation of intervention studies. Thus, we assessed and analyzed methodological characteristics of studies. We found one significant moderator, type of measurement , and two moderators that reached a p < 0.1 level, country of publication and methodological quality of study (risk of bias, randomization, sample size). Observation rating scales yielded the largest effect sizes followed by physiological data, motor tests, self-report questionnaires, cognitive tests, and interviews. Some measurements may be superior to detect changes or more sensitive to certain risks of bias, therefore producing larger effects than others. For example, observation rating scales and self-report questionnaires are more likely to be affected by expectation effects, which will be discussed further in the limitations of the present study paragraph. However, it is important to mention that method effects can also systematically bias the results. There was also a correlation between country of publication and methodological characteristics of the trials (risk of bias, randomization, sample size), with both factors having a slight influence on the observed effects. This is not surprising, because standards and traditions of research vary between countries. In countries with less evidence-based research traditions, methodological standards tend to be less strict and resulting effects tend to be larger. However, the effect of country could also be related to other cultural factors such as experience with the specific dance form, or the (sub-)cultural value system around dance, which may all influence motivation for and responsiveness to treatment.

We also analyzed whether the intensity of treatment had an influence on effect sizes. The intensity of treatment was indicated by three factors: duration of the whole treatment, duration of one session, and frequency of treatment. None of these factors reached significance. Frequency of treatment was closest to significance (β = 0.1375, p = 0.091), indicating that higher frequency of treatment corresponded with slightly higher effect sizes.

In the last paragraphs, we discussed moderators that showed a significant influence on the effects of DMT and dance in our sensitivity analysis. However, we assume that there are more potentially important moderators of effects , which we were not able to address in our analysis. In the literature, there are factors that we can allocate to four clusters: (a) factors that relate to characteristics of the participants, (b) factors that relate to characteristics of the intervention, (c) factors that relate to characteristics of the implementing person, and (d) factors of environment and factors that relate to the relation between persons involved.

Firstly, we will discuss characteristics of participants. Savill et al. ( 2017 ) stated that gender is an important moderator for the effectiveness of body psychotherapy on negative symptoms in schizophrenia. They performed a secondary analysis with the data of a large multicenter randomized controlled trial by Priebe et al. ( 2016 ), the so-called “NESS paper.” The interaction between gender and treatment allocation as a predictor of outcomes was examined in 275 participants (72 women and 203 men) randomized to either a body psychotherapy or a Pilates group (for a critique of the study, particularly its control group selection, see the last paragraph of the discussion on the need for mechanism studies). Negative symptoms in schizophrenia “were found to significantly decrease in women randomized to the body psychotherapy condition in comparison to Pilates, while no such effect was detected in men” (Savill et al., 2017 , p. 1). To approach this issue, we also assessed percentages of female participants in intervention and control groups in our meta-analysis. We conducted a sensitivity analysis using the total percentage of female participants and the relation between female and male participants of intervention group and control group as a moderator. We found no significant influence of gender. This type of analysis has low power, which means that there is a high risk for a β-error. Thus, future research needs to investigate whether gender is an important moderator of effects. Further potential participant-related factors are self-efficacy or outcome expectations (Murrock and Madigan, 2008 ), attitude toward intervention (treatment adherence, motivation), and previous dance experiences. Regarding characteristics of DMT interventions, there is a high variety of methods and therapeutic styles, because only a few of the trials included manualized implementation of treatment (Martin et al., 2016 ; Priebe et al., 2016 ). Dance instructors used many different dance styles and teaching approaches. Although it was not possible in our meta-analysis, it would be useful to investigate differences between the effects of several methods and styles in the DMT and dance spectrum, in order to gain more knowledge about differential indications (Koch, 2019 ) and therapeutic factors. In her meta-analysis, Peters ( 2012 ) found qualification of therapist to be a significant moderator of effects. Concerning environmental factors, she discussed the influence of social support . Murrock and Madigan ( 2008 ) found that social support from friends mediated the effect between culturally specific dance and lifestyle physical activity. Finally, as in most therapeutic interventions, the relationship between the therapist and the participant is important (Grawe et al., 1994 ; Wampold and Irmel, 2015 ). As previously mentioned in the Introduction, the relationship between participants (group cohesion) is also assumed to be an important mediator of effects (Schmais, 1985 , 1998 ; Yalom, 1985 ) in interventions that are conducted in a group setting.

It is always difficult to observe long-term effects in meta-analyses. In our sample, only eight of the included trials reported follow-up data (mean period: 22 weeks). The analyses yielded various results, but most effects remained constant or increased. Regarding the encouraging follow-up findings, we assume that DMT and dance interventions have the potential to initiate a learning process (body access, interoception, insight) that might instigate positive changes several months after the intervention. Additionally, it is plausible that the permanence of effects depends on the participants' behavior after the intervention, such as revising what they have learned, continuing dance or movement classes, or maintaining contact with the other participants. Further research needs to follow to investigate long-term effects and their moderators.

Limitations

One of the biggest limitations of our present study was the heterogeneity of results, which occurred due to mild inclusion criteria and various study characteristics of the included trials. The heterogeneity mostly concerned the dance intervention studies, whereas the DMT studies were rather homogeneous. Heterogeneity was caused, for example, by dissimilarities in methodological designs of studies, methods of interventions, and sample characteristics. Besides that, we observed effects on several different health-related psychological outcomes. For this reason, we employed a random-effect model, which considers that not all studies measure the same effect. Consequently, we obtained broad 95% confidence intervals, meaning that the “true effects” could also be much larger or smaller than the weighted mean effect sizes reported in this paper (e.g., some of the confidence intervals varied between no effect and medium effects or small effects and large effects). Such results are less conclusive. This leads to a typical critique of meta-analysis as “ comparing apples and oranges ” (Sharpe, 1997 ), which means that non-comparable outcomes are unjustifiably compared with each other. Yet, in cases where there is not a lot of evidence, it might be a useful start, if we want to obtain information about “fruits”—to stay in the metaphor. However, we should be aware that we lose specific information about discrete sorts of fruits and mostly create a starting point to generate useful hypotheses for future, more specific secondary analyses and primary trials.

Our meta-analysis is one of the first in the field to conduct sensitivity analysis , which is one approach to deepen the understanding about the sources of heterogeneity. Nevertheless, it is impossible to detect all important factors and to draw firm conclusions about causal relationships between those factors. The strength of our paper is that it provides a broad overview of current research on the therapeutic use of dance as an orientation for researchers (summarize findings, identify explanatory variables, help identifying research gaps and develop research questions, control standards of research). It informedly transfers knowledge about the effectiveness of DMT and dance interventions to practitioners, clients, and public decision-makers. However, the disadvantage of broad analyses is that we only obtain results for a rough orientation. It is the assignment of secondary analyses with more narrow research questions (such as provided in Cochrane Reviews for single clinical populations) to gain sharp and more detailed knowledge about the effectiveness of DMT and dance interventions and the interdependency with contributing contextual factors.

Another issue is the so-called “garbage-in–garbage-out problem,” meaning that the results are less conclusive if we include primary outcome trials with poor methodological quality. In the present study, we also included studies with considerable methodological constraints (e.g., small N , no randomization, high dropout, deficient report of implementation or statistics, conflicts of interest). The most important question is how much the methodological constraints may systematically bias the results reported in this paper (the weighted medium effect sizes). We approached the methodological variety of primary trials with sensitivity analysis. There was a tendency that more outliers, especially with large effect sizes, were studies with more severe methodological constraints. “Higher vs. lower risk studies” was a moderator of effects on a p < 0.1 level. The medium effect size in “lower risk studies” was d = 0.48 ( p < 0.001, I 2 = 8.68%), which is slightly lower and more homogeneous than the overall weighted mean effect size ( d = 0.60, p = 0.001, I 2 = 72.62%). This might be a hint that studies with more significant methodological constraints tend to overestimate the effects of DMT and dance. Since all of these problems were more pronounced in the dance intervention studies, one resulting recommendation is to separate DMT and dance intervention studies in the next general meta-analysis.

One important source of bias might be the “Rosenthal effect” or expectancy effect , which means that the expectations of the researcher are subtly communicated to the participants. By guessing the goal of the research, participants try to comply with its assumed goal (Rosenthal, 1966 ). Thus, self-report-questionnaires or observation rating scales are more prone to bias than cognitive, physiological, or motor test, which are somewhat less subjective, but still reactive (note that the reactiveness of measurement type ranked differently in our study as indicated above). Furthermore, it is possible that researchers tend to analyze, interpret, and report results in favor of positive effects, because of their own expectancies or potential conflicts of interest.

Another critical element that might contribute to the fact that higher-risk studies yielded larger effect sizes could be publication bias . One criterion of methodological quality of study was sample size. If there is publication bias, smaller studies yield larger effects, on average, because smaller studies, which did not detect positive effects, remained unpublished. In the distribution of our sample of primary trials, there was a small tendency for publication bias, which did not affect our results significantly (see Methods section). Furthermore, smaller studies yielding larger effects could also be explained by the fact that, in smaller samples, the intervention was more tailored to the individual and therefore more focused.

Apart from quality of included trials, quantity of studies is also a matter in meta-analysis. Compared to Koch et al. ( 2014 ), we obtained larger analysis clusters; however, especially for interpersonal skills, cognitive skills, and (psycho-)motor outcomes, more research is needed to obtain more meaningful results. The advantage of a bigger sample per outcome would be that more homogeneous clusters could be considered and addressed with sensitivity analysis. In addition, several included trials were conducted by the same research group (total: 7 of 41 trials by Koch et al., 2019 ), which is a threat to external validity. This is particularly relevant, when it comes to analysis of clusters (DMT group: 7 of 21 trials, clinical outcome cluster: 4 of 12 trials, interpersonal skills trials: 2 of 6 studies by the research group of Koch et al., 2019 ).

Finally, there is a general discussion on the issue of whether quantitative analyses are the appropriate means to evaluate the therapeutic use of dance. Borg ( 1993 ) stated that the dilemma of scientific (positivistic) research in behavioral sciences is that it applies traditional concepts of physical science to the study of living organisms, although living organisms are far more complex than physical objects of study. The authors imply that naturally dynamic, interdependent networks of factors involved in psychological phenomena are sometimes hard to detect when we apply concepts of causality, predictability, and scientific reducibility. This argument is underlined by a vivid discussion on the ecological validity of studies reducing complex processes, such as an aesthetic experience or the impact of art perception and production on health, into its single components (see e.g., Christensen and Jola, 2015 ). While quantitative methods are helpful for generating facts and explanations, qualitative methods might be more suitable for meaning-making and understanding of such (Berrol, 2000 ). In order to overcome the gaps between a non-linear reality and linear means of investigation, and to generate new scientific insights, quantitative research ought to be applied together with qualitative research, ideally in mixed-methods designs that reflect the epistemological background assumptions of the studied processes.

Hervey ( 2000 ) takes the discussion a step further by stating that artistic inquiry is needed to adequately reflect the results of such process-oriented domains as DMT. She introduces the concept of artistic inquiry, as part of arts-based research to DMT, which implies the use of the respective art form (dance) not only as an intervention to help the recipient but also as a form of data assessment, analysis, and presentation that aims at answering the research question. Leavy's textbook (2017) is the basic source for arts-based research today, providing a terminological and historical overview and best practice examples of arts-based research. Best practice examples of specific and particularly well-described arts-based research methods are Jola's embodied neuroscience (Jola, 2013 ), and Eberhard's aesthetic answering (Lange et al., in press ), both participatory approaches with the researcher in an active embodied role, diving into non-verbal processes to inform and answer the research question. However, at this point, final recommendations about arts-based research as a method are difficult, because the field is young and in a dynamic development (Leavy, 2017 ). Generally, non-verbal methods employing DMT or dance may detect changes in psychological outcomes that are not necessarily accessible with traditional methods and thus create innovative knowledge.

Recommendations for Future Research

This meta-analysis shows that quantitative research on the therapeutic use of dance is augmenting. However, there is still an urgent quest for more trials with rigorous standards in respect to the chosen way of research (quantitative, qualitative, arts-based). Quantitative trials should consider larger sample sizes, randomized controlled designs, and active control groups, which compare DMT and dance interventions to other psychotherapeutic interventions with existing knowledge about therapeutic mechanisms (different types of psychodynamic therapies, cognitive behavioral therapy, pharmacological therapy). Furthermore, a detailed description of the intervention and its implementation is necessary (e.g., for replications). To avoid bias, there should be as much blinding as possible involved in the process. While complete blinding is not possible in therapy studies (and should thus not be part of the quality assessment of therapeutic trials to add this critique here), blinding of the randomization process and the accessor should be standard. Researchers ought to employ assessment tools that are least sensitive to expectation effects (e.g., standardized tests, psychophysiological measurement). All relevant treatment conditions should be reported in as much detail as possible (e.g., sample characteristics, characteristics of therapists, dropouts, structure and content of the treatment, other therapies provided, and interim circumstances, i.e., all “external” events that occurred in the time of the treatment, such as change of partner or job, etc.). Statistical results should be reported in detail including results that were not in line with the central hypotheses of the papers and descriptive statistics (means, standard deviations, and sample sizes in each group). To provide information on the impact of a treatment, long-term effects must be considered. Therefore, we highly recommend including follow-up assessment in intervention studies on the therapeutic use of DMT and dance.

In order to obtain more comparable research across the globe, there should be more communication between researchers, and they should strive for international standards. We recommend researchers conducting future meta-analyses to include more precise assessment of risk of bias, than was possible here. In addition, systematic analyses of moderators of effects should be performed in the future. Because we observed many dissimilarities between DMT and dance intervention studies, we recommend analysing those two types of studies separately in future studies.

Finally, to draw conclusions for practice, there is a need to complement quantitative research inquiry with qualitative and arts-based research (best in mixed-methods designs, reflecting the epistemological framework) and with clinical mechanism studies.

Mechanism Research Needs to Inform Outcome Research

The urgent need for mechanism studies (Kazdin, 2007 ) and their interdependency with outcome studies shall here be exemplified with the debate around the included “NESS paper” (Priebe et al., 2016 ). Priebe et al. ( 2016 ) tested the decrease of negative symptoms in patients with schizophrenia after movement therapy (i.e., body psychotherapy, BPT, conducted by dance movement therapists; for definition of these terms, see Martin et al., 2016 ) in a randomized sample of N = 275 participants. They found that “the adjusted difference in negative symptoms was 0.03 (95% CI −1.11 to 1.17), indicating no benefit from body psychotherapy. Small improvements in expressive deficits and movement disorder symptoms were detected in favor of body psychotherapy. No other outcomes were significantly different.” With the interpretation of these findings, the authors question other relevant studies of the field, including their own earlier work (see Röhricht and Priebe, 2006 ; Lee et al., 2015 ; and Martin et al., 2016 —the latter a study from the same year, employing the same treatment manual (Röhricht and Papadopolous, unpublished). with a TAU control group, showing a significant reduction of negative affect after DMT (measured with the SANS). The NESS paper's data were mixed though, and further analyses in the secondary trial of Savill et al. ( 2017 ) have shown that the null effect discussed in the NESS paper was only true for men, not for women after the intervention.

Three arguments call for the necessity of a reappraisal of the NESS paper: the problematic domain overgeneralization from DMT/BPT to all arts therapies (domain and terminology-related aspect), the control group selection (DMT/BPT vs. Pilates), and the selective reporting and shortfall in conclusions, which do not appropriately reflect what is evidenced in the data (e.g., from the measures of negative symptoms, the PANSS showed no significant difference between groups, whereas the CAINS did; SANS, PANSS, and CAINS are all standardized observational measures to assess positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia). In the context of the mechanism problem, we will merely discuss the second argument here.

Active control groups are recommended for most studies by the increasing standards of the evidence-based medicine. Priebe et al. ( 2016 ) thus tried to implement a suitable active control group. From the perspective of DMT though, with its present pronounced research on therapeutic mechanisms, Pilates is not a suited control group to DMT. Both interventions, DMT/BPT and Pilates, employ methods that are suited to increase body awareness. In Pilates, the torso is the focus of the work, the muscle tone is actively controlled and altered in specific regions of the torso, the muscles are strengthened and stretched, and the practice includes breath work for bringing the movements of the torso in resonance with the breath. Pilates had the goal of addressing the trinity of body, mind, and spirit in a holistic way (“Return to Life through Contrology,” Pilates and Miller, 1945 ). In DMT theory, the torso is the seat of the emotions, and the breath brings the emotions to the fore: on the basis of DMT core knowledge, the work with the torso and breath is the direct pathway to sensation, experience, and expression of emotions (e.g., Caldwell, 1996 ). Thus, the resulting null findings on the PANSS are not surprising. While we know very little about the mechanisms of BPT and DMT, we know even less about the mechanisms of Pilates and other body practices. Thus, it is very difficult, if not impossible, to select suitable active control groups for DMT studies, without any knowledge of either intervention's main mechanisms. This example shows that good outcome research needs scholarly mechanisms research (Hayes, 2013 ) and that there is a strong interdependency between these two types of clinical research.

Because mechanisms of DMT/BPT are not well-researched, and even less so mechanisms of Pilates, both the experimental group and the control group may have experienced similar working mechanisms, which may have caused the inconclusive results. As long as the major mechanisms of these therapies remain unclear, it is hard to draw any valid conclusions from the according outcome research. Thus, the effect of DMT/BPT on the reduction of negative symptoms needs to be investigated with a range of control groups. Primarily therapeutic mechanisms of DMT/BPT and potential control interventions, respectively, need to be further investigated, before conducting another primary study of the scope of the NESS paper. With this paragraph, we hope to have illustrated the urgent need for mechanisms studies due to their intricate interdependency with outcome research.

In conclusion, the results of our meta-analysis suggest that therapeutic use of dance potentially affects various health-related psychological outcomes. In total, there was a medium significant overall effect based on heterogeneous results. However, since type of intervention was a significant source of heterogeneity, we explored trials on DMT and trials on dance interventions in two separate groups. We found empirical evidence that DMT consistently and with a high homogeneity improved affect-related psychological conditions by decreasing anxiety and depression levels, and increased quality of life and cognitive skills. Concerning interpersonal skills, the effect reached the p < 0.1 level. More high-quality primary studies need to be conducted and included into meta-analyses to expand the evidence. Dance intervention studies consistently improved motor skills, while findings for the other outcomes had a high heterogeneity. Results of this meta-analysis suggest that DMT and dance interventions improve clinical outcomes, cognitive outcomes, and (psycho-)motor outcomes. The high variability of results, especially in the dance cluster, needs further attention. Moreover, this study contributes initial findings that DMT and dance interventions have persistent long-term effects. These encouraging results are limited by methodological shortcomings of the primary studies. Further research is needed that expands on the evidence of effects of DMT and dance interventions on health-related psychological outcomes.

Author Contributions

SK conceived, planned, co-wrote and revised the study and supervised the Master's (RR, KT) and doctoral level students (LM, JB). LM and KT did the systematic literature search. LM, KT, and SK did the hand search. RR and AB planned and implemented the methodological approach, AB supervised the methodology of the study. KT, JB, and RR organized the results. RR analyzed the results and wrote the first draft. All authors contributed to the paper and revised it into its final version.

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank Simea Schönenberger, Friederike Klodwig, and Katrin Sachau for helping to extract data from the primary studies as part of their DMT student elective hours. We would like to thank all colleagues who have supported us to find relevant literature, and all authors of primary studies who helped to clarify data issues. Thanks to all participants of the primary studies for completing the scales and driving research on embodied interventions further.

1 This term includes the practice of dance movement psychotherapy (UK terminology) and dance/movement therapy (US terminology).

2 For a list of abbreviations, see Appendix .

3 Creative Arts Therapies (European term: Arts Therapies; Karkou and Sanderson, 2006 ) consist mainly of art therapy, music therapy, dance movement therapy, drama therapy, and poetry therapy/expressive writing.

References marked with an asterisk indicate studies that are included in the meta-analysis; references marked with a circle were screened but excluded studies.

Funding. The study was conducted by the Research Institute for Creative Arts Therapies (RIArT) at Alanus University funded by the Software AG Foundation in Darmstadt, in colaboration with the University of Jena, Drexel University, and SRH University Heidelberg. The Faculty of Therapy Sciences at SRH University Heidelberg funded the publication.

Supplementary Material

The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01806/full#supplementary-material

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Princeton University Library

Dance: a guide to research and resources.

• Introduction
• Dance Encyclopedias & Resources

Key Dance Periodicals (Print or Online)

Dance periodical databases (citations & full text), music periodical databases with significant dance coverage, subject search links for dance & ballet periodicals.

• Streaming Dance Resources
• Dance Companies & Organizations
• Archives & Collections
• American Journal of Dance Therapy
• Dance Chronicle Publishes research on dance and seeks to expand the constituencies, methodologies, and theoretical frameworks represented within the field of dance studies.
• Dance Magazine First published in June 1927 as The American Dancer. Dance Magazine has multiple sister publications, including Pointe, Dance Spirit, Dance Teacher, Dance 212, and DanceU101.
• Dance Research Journal Includes scholarly articles on dance history, theory, pedagogy, politics, science, ethnography, and intersections with cultural, gender, critical race, and diasporic studies. Published 3 times a year by the Congress on Research in Dance.
• Dance Research: The Journal of the Society for Dance Research Covers dance worldwide both from a historical and contemporary perspecive, engaging with current debates on dance and across cognate disciplines with dance at the centre of inquiry.
• Journal of Dance Education The official publication of the National Dance Education Organization.
• Performing Arts Periodicals Database This link opens in a new window Comprehensive coverage of the performing arts, including dance, film, television, drama, theater, stagecraft, musical theater, broadcast arts, comedy, opera, and more. IIPA indexes more than 210 periodicals. Full text is available from 1998 to the present; citations to articles are indexed back to 1864. Formerly known as International Index to the Performing Arts Full Text.
• International Bibliography of Theatre & Dance with Full Text This link opens in a new window Provides extensive full-text of articles, reviews, & other content from many leading, primarily English-language journals & magazines in theater, dance, & the performing arts (1995+). Also offers citations, abstracts, & some full text for articles, books, book chapters, & dissertations back to 1982. Additional selective content dates back to 1929.
• RILM Abstracts of Music Literature with Full Text This link opens in a new window Covers all aspects of music, including historical musicology, ethnomusicology, instruments and voice, dance, and music therapy. If related to music, works in other fields, such as literature, dramatic arts, visual arts, anthropology, sociology, philosophy and physics are included. 1967+
• Dance periodicals--English language
• Dance periodicals--all titles
• Dance periodicals--online
• Ballet periodicals--English language
• Ballet periodicals--all titles
• Ballet periodicals--online

These prefabricated searches of the Princeton University Library catalog capture select groups of journal titles (including annuals) by subject terms dance or ballet. The default sort is alphabetical by title. After clicking and retrieving the result set, you can further refine the results by the search limits in the left sidebar (date range, language, etc.) as well as re-sort the list by other options. You can also click the back-up button to view the original catalog search and design your own (changing the geographical area, language, etc.).

Note: there is some overlap between the result sets for subject searches on dance or ballet (some cataloging records include both keywords). But a number of journal titles have only one or the other subject descriptor depending upon the focus of the journal.

• << Previous: Dance Encyclopedias & Resources
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• Last Updated: Mar 18, 2024 1:11 PM
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Designing Dance into Qualitative Research

• First Online: 23 January 2020

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• Claus Springborg 5 , 6  

Part of the book series: Palgrave Studies in Business, Arts and Humanities ((PSBAH))

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Dancers are increasingly seeing their art as a form of research. This is reflected in the development of new techniques, dance notation, and ever-expanding choices of topics that dancers deal with through their performances. Consequently, dance has become a treasure chest for researchers. In this chapter, I present a range of ideas for how elements from the world of dance can be adopted by researchers in business, management, and humanities. Adopting such elements from the world of dance is particularly useful when studying unconscious, affective, and aesthetic aspects of organisational life. For inspiration, I have included four different research designs drawing on dance. However, the possibilities are endless, and the reader is encouraged to be creative.

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Springborg, C. (2020). Designing Dance into Qualitative Research. In: Ward, J., Shortt, H. (eds) Using Arts-based Research Methods. Palgrave Studies in Business, Arts and Humanities. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-33069-9_3

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Society for Dance Research

Welcome to the society for dance research.

The Society for Dance Research is an internationally focused, British-based non-profit society that supports and develops scholarly interests in all forms of dance through seminars, conferences, performances, and publications. Our journal, Dance Research , is addressed to scholars and practitioners working within the many disciplines which constitute dance studies, providing an international forum for the presentation and discussion of contemporary dance research.

CHOREOGRAPHIC FORUM “AILEY” – 20 MAY 2023  BOLOGNA – Choreographic Forum online 

Screening of the film Ailey by Jamila Wignot (2021), followed by Choreographic Forum in which the themes addressed by the film will be discussed in the presence of scholars, dancers and the film’s director.

Inspired by an event organised by the Society for Dance Research last year in Bristol, the evening will include the projection of the film Ailey by Jamila Wignot (2021, duration 95 minutes, Italian subtitles) accompanied by a Choreographic Forum, in which the themes addressed by the film will be discussed thanks to the presence of scholars, dancers and the director of the film. The introduction is entrusted to Elena Cervellati, who will introduce the figure of Alvin Ailey in the context of the American dance scene; some reflections on the figure of Ailey will be proposed by Thomas DeFrantz, professor at Northwestern University and director of SLIPPAGE: Performance, Culture, Technology, by the director of the film, as well as by other artists and scholars.

The Choreographic Forum will also be accessible online, via Zoom, for members of the Society for Dance Research and Kauma Arts, as well as for other guests who cannot be in Italy.

Viewers are invited to watch Alvin Ailey’s masterpiece Revelations (1960, duration 30 minutes), available on YouTube.

The aim of the Choreographic Forum is to begin to reflect critically, also in Italy, on dance techniques and innovations originating from the African continent and diasporas. Alvin Ailey was a pioneer, through the Alvin Ailey American Dance Theatre Company and especially his masterpiece Revelations (1960), in promoting the participation and visibility of black communities and the African diaspora in the dance industry.

You can purchase/watch Ailey via the following link: https://watch.dogwoof.com/film/ailey/

https://site.unibo.it/damslab/it/eventi/proiezione-del-film-ailey-di-jamila-wignot-2021 

New Mobilities “on the Turn”? Society for Dance Research, The  Place & Dance Studies Association 

CALL FOR PAPERS

A quarter of a century after the ‘mobile turn’ in anthropology, cultural studies, geography, migration studies and sociology, this symposium sets out to explore the limitations of/to mobility in the current historical moment. The phrase ‘…on the turn’ speaks both to mobility as a paradigm across the humanities being in a state of change, and to mobility and its promises turning sour, giving way to critiques and a leaning into mobility’s limitations. In London, for instance, this question manifests itself in response to the impact of Covid-19 lockdowns, the full implementation of Brexit, the increasing unease with the environmental impacts of travel and the changes in arts and education policies towards disability and social mobility issues. We propose to question how dance and performance studies might speak to the various mobilizations of movement as it encounters pandemics, wars, migration, and border controls. Hence, this event seeks to bring together voices from within and beyond the disciplinary boundaries of dance and performance, through conversations and interventions. 

Submissions by 25 May 2023 Click here to read more and apply

University of Bedfordshire and Society for Dance Research

Early career researchers are invited to a researcher development day focusing on the theme Dance, Health and Communities.

The day will offer opportunities to workshop and develop writing, opportunities to present work in progress and research papers in progress.   The day will be facilitated by the University of Bedfordshire and the Society for Dance Research.

All early career researchers whose work focuses on Dance, Health and Communities are welcome to attend. Early career researchers can include MPhil/PhD students and those within eight years of completing their PhD studies.  

The day will take place at the Bedford Campus, with access to both classrooms and dance studio spaces.

Join us for a day that aims to inspire and catalyse your research development, and network with like-minded peers.

A small number of travel bursaries of up to £50 are available for those from outside of the University of Bedfordshire who need support with travel.

Programme for the day:

10.30 am Arrival and registration

11.00 – 11.15 Introductions

11.15 – 13.15 Workshop session 1

13.15 – 14.15 Lunch

14.15 – 15.30 Presentations and showings of research in progress  

15.30 – 15.45 break

15.45 – 17.00 Workshop session 2

17.00 – 17.15 Closing and next steps

If you wish to attend the day, please send an expression of interest in an email to [email protected] giving a brief overview your current research, your researcher development needs, and if you wish to share some work in progress, either practice or presentation. Please indicate if you wish to apply for a travel bursary.

Please send all expressions of interest and applications for travel bursaries by Monday 15 May 2023.  

Society for Dance Research AGM 2023 Sat 4 March, 11am – 1pm  The Place, London  Click here to reserve your free place 

The Society are delighted to invite you to this year’s Annual General Meeting. 

The AGM will begin with a provocation from Thea Stanton and Jane Chan and a celebration of Dance Books, followed by a summary of The Society’s annual activities. 

Attached to this email you will find the list of nominees and the ballot paper.

Packaging process: Exploring the risks, effort and challenges in holding and sharing a dance product, whilst maintaining an ongoing practice in a capitalist state

In a deliberate attempt not to create a ‘fixed or finished’ presentation, Jane and Thea will be exploring the following provocations in a series of voice notes between 6 February and 28 February 2023, drawing inspiration from the method introduced by Broderick Chow and Royona Mitra for the 2021 Critical Pedagogies annual lecture, where they exchanged a series of voice note conversations prompting an opening up, as opposed to a pinning down.

Excerpts of these voice notes, as well as Thea and Jane’s in person responses to the provocations, their ongoing dialogue and their own practice and research will be shared at the SDR AGM on 4 March 2023. The entirety of the voice notes will also be available online following the AGM. 

List of provocations

• What are the risks and effort in producing and disseminating a dance product, whilst maintaining a practice in a capitalist state/way of being?
• How do you package process? 
• How do societal structures and situations such as covid and being a woman of the global majority affect our approaches with disseminating dance/research?
• How might methods of dissemination such as podcasts and zines be playful, fun and disruptive and invite the unexpected? 
• How does abstractness / intention play a part in dissemination for example, doodles / visuals/ voice notes? What are their value(s)?
• What role does/should access play in the dissemination of dance research?

Jane Chan  is an independent dance artist and works at the intersections of making, performance, teaching, project managing, mentoring, writing and change instigation. She is the lead artist of F-ing Good Provocation and one of thirty Clore leaders, Clore Leadership Inclusive Cultures 2022. She is also a lecturer at London Contemporary Dance School and a member of Amina Khayyam Dance Company. She works in an artist-advisory capacity for Akademi and Sadler’s Wells & mentor for Arts Emergency. Her work is auto-ethnographical; it questions and reclaims cultural / social misrepresentation, as well as dismantling, redistributing and reconstructing the

power dynamics within dance and beyond. 

Thea Stanton  is an indigenous Chilean British dance researcher, choreographer and educator currently undertaking a Practice as Research PhD at the University of Chichester where she is exploring the notion of immersive choreography as a means to negotiate, boundaries, difference and societal power structures within immersive and participatory performance frameworks. Thea is currently a Lecturer at Bath Spa University, and a Visiting Lecturer and Supervisor at Rose Bruford College and Roehampton University. Recently, Thea has presented papers at Our Dance Democracy 2, The Society for Dance Research Inclusion and Intersectionality Symposium, TaPRA 2021, The Dance Studies Association Conference 2022, and What Dance Can Do (Chichester University). She is currently a co-convenor for the Theatre and Performance Research Association, Body and Performance Working Group, and has been invited to speak on SDR’s Inclusion and Intersectionality Podcast as well as the ResDance podcast, produced by Dr Gemma Harman. Thea is a recipient of the Society for Dance Research’s Ivor Guest Research Grant 2022. 

Click here to view the AGM Agenda 

The Society for Dance Research is pleased to announce the recipients of the 4th round of the Ivor Guest Research Grant: 

• Adesola Akinleye 
• Clare Parfitt
• Daniela Perazzo 
• Rachael Davies
• Thea Stanton
• Laura Smith

You can read more about the recipients projects here

Society for Dance Research statement on Dance programmes at risk  –  29 June 2022  

The members of the Society for Dance Research are very dismayed to hear of recent proposals to make significant cuts to performing arts staff and courses at several UK higher education institutions (HEIs). In particular, the proposed plans for the University of Wolverhampton and the University of Roehampton, t he latter hosting one of the top Dance departments in the UK in terms of research, will have a detrimental effect on dance provision nationally resulting in a negative impact both on the field of dance and opportunities to widen access to the performing arts. For a relatively new discipline built upon the extraordinary efforts of internationally recognised scholars, such cuts will have a significant negative impact. However, we recognise that these cuts are prevalent throughout the Arts and Humanities and the Society also stands with and supports colleagues similarly affected at other HEIs including at Huddersfield, De Montfort, Dundee, The Royal College of Art and Goldsmiths.

While the cuts affect teaching course provision, they will also reduce research capacity. Additionally, research posts will be lost. Therefore, we are concerned about the detrimental effect these changes will have to the outstanding dance research culture present in the UK.  

These recent decisions result from cuts to HE arts funding which follow on from changes in secondary education and have been detrimental to the arts, and particularly the performing arts. The Society for Dance Research stands firmly against such attacks on the prized and vital arts and cultural provision fostered in the UK. In the wake of national and international division, the COVID-19 pandemic and worsening pressures on public life (cost of living, mental health crises), the arts are needed now more than ever. Please read One Dance UK’s advocacy statement  here  for more on the impact of these cuts and the importance of continuing high-quality and geographically diverse dance provision.  

The Society for Dance Research rejects the perpetuated narrative that a shift towards greater skills-based courses requires a reduction in arts provision. We want to encourage leadership at HEIs to engage in purposeful and open dialogue with staff and students to explore and develop ways forward that address their emerging pressures. We believe dance as a field has much to offer in developing responsible, skilled, and creative graduates who can play a vital part in a changing world.  

We are aware that statements of support are only one facet of activism, so we are also seeking out practical ways that we can help. Should you want to show your support and take action, below are some suggestions of how you can get involved: 

• University of Roehampton: Sign this open Letter  https://forms.gle/38C4yUKUd6jQS9oM8  and/or petition  https://chng.it/jnHQkHy7z7   
• University of Wolverhampton: read updates on the ongoing situation via UCU  here
• Write to your MP to express your concerns  https://www.theyworkforyou.com/   
• Share your thoughts on social media using the hashtags #stopthecutsUoW and #Roestopthecuts  

Black Lives Matter – Solidarity Statement

The Executive Committee of the Society for Dance Research wishes to express solidarity with the Black Lives Matter movement and people of colour around the world suffering under structures of systemic racism, white supremacy, inequality and oppression.

We recognise we have further work to do to embed anti-racist practices in our work to advance the field of dance research. As a starting point, we commit to prioritising the work of dance scholars of colour for funding and support and to addressing the underrepresentation of BAME people on the Executive Committee.

We welcome any suggestions for action from members and others who engage with the Society through different channels.

The Executive Committee of the Society for Dance Research

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What to write about.

You may be interested in discussing a particular form or genre of dance in your research paper. You can combine the discussion of a form or genre with a specific time, place or person.

Examples of forms and genres:

• Click here to see a longer list

Sample research questions:What are the differences and similarities between disco style in the 1970s and disco revival in the 2000s? How was the career of Sammy Davis Jr. important to the evolution of tap dance style in America?

You may wish to develop your topic with a specific style in mind, such as ballroom or ballet, or specific techniques such as en pointe or gancho. You can combine the discussion of a style or technique with a specific time, place or person.

Examples of styles and techniques:

• aplomb (ballet)
• enpointe (ballet)
• bourree (ballet)
• Guapacha timing (ballroom)
• Promenade position (ballroom)
• Headspin (hip-hop)
• The worm (hip-hop)
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• Graham (Contemporary dance technique)

Sample research questions: What are differences and similarities in the swing dance styles on the east and west coasts? What are the differences and similarities of the release technique as taught by (person) and (person)?

If your interest is dance history, styles and periods are central concepts to consider. You may wish to use historical time periods such as Baroque, Medieval, and Renaissance as organizing concepts. Sometimes specific groups of dancers are associated with movements or genres within a specific time period.

Examples of periods and styles:

• Renaissance
• English Regency
• Polka craze (mid 19th century)
• Roaring twenties
• Swing (30's and 40's)
• Contemporary

Sample research questions: Although they derive from quite different cultures, how are the dances of Japan and Afghanistan similar?  Explore the relationship between superstitions and fears and the dances of a particular culture.

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Dance Research Paper Topics

Original & engaging dance research paper topics.

There are a lot of aspects you can cover in your dance research paper. For example, you can choose a specific dancer that was famous or significantly contributed to the development of specific dancing techniques. Or, you can write about modern dancing styles, their characteristics, and history.

How to Select the Best Dance Research Paper Topic?

The variety of research papers about styles, techniques, history, and other aspects is wide, and sometimes it is challenging to select only one subject. But we are here to help you with it. So please keep reading to find helpful advice on selecting a research paper topic and some of our ideas for your paper.

Tips on Choosing the Best Dance Research Paper Topic

Choosing an interesting topic is essential for creating a good paper, as professors usually appreciate original works. Thus, it is necessary to thoroughly investigate the subject and find new topics and current issues in performing arts to understand what you should focus on in your research. To choose an engaging topic for your paper, keep in mind the following tips:

• A perfect topic should be not too broad and not too narrow. You can create a comprehensive research paper without exceeding the requested word count.
• Focus on your interests. Please don’t choose a boring topic, as it will make the research and writing process way more difficult for you.
• Make sure there is enough data for conducting in-depth research. Otherwise, your research paper will not be as detailed and exciting as you want.

To ensure your topic is the best, you can request assistance from our writers. Then, all you need is to describe which aspects are interesting for you, and we will come up with an ideal topic for a research paper.

Useful Sources With Fresh and Interesting Topic Ideas for Dance Research Paper

Wondering where to look for engaging topic ideas? Here are a lot of sources that can help you, but we want to share with you the most useful ones:

• News about dancing in online newspapers
• Dancing forums and websites
• Academic articles and journals.

If you don’t want or don’t have enough time to search through all these sources, you can ask us for help. We are ready to assist all students who need any academic writing help. So please place your order or call us now, and our experts will help you to choose the best topic and create an A+ research paper.

List of Dance Research Paper Topics — 15 Great Ideas

Instead of wasting hours searching for decent research paper topics about dance, you can look at the lists we prepared for you. Below, you will find original ideas that can become the main focus of your research.

• Jive Technique: Common Mistakes Among Beginner Dancers
• How Do Contemporary Dances Improve Creative Thinking?
• Choreography and Film Techniques: How Dances Add Meaning to Movies
• Diversity of Traditional Dancing in Asia: China, Japan, India, and the Philippines
• Folk Dances & Hip Hop: Main Differences and Similarities
• Dance Injuries in Teens and How to Prevent Them
• What Dancing Style Tell Us About People’s Personalities
• Establishing a New Dancing School: Initial Steps and Challenges
• Children Dancing Classes: Methods for Teaching a Pop Dance Class.
• Children’s Emotional Growth and Ballroom Dancing: What Is the Connection?
• Techniques and Artistic Decisions Used by Dancer Gregory Hines
• Ballet Pas de Deux Exhibition: Connection Between Dancing and Architecture
• What Practical Skills Can We Learn From Dancing?
• Eclecticism and Stylization in Modern Dancing
• How Are Dancing Styles Chosen for Singers?

10 Dance History Research Paper Topics

Dances have a long history, and it can be exciting to investigate the stages of development of different styles. Here are some ideas for a history research paper.

• The History of the Philippine Traditional Dances
• Dances of Medieval People: Techniques and Styles
• Dancing Styles of Famous Singers Throughout the History
• Folk Dancing of Slavic People: How Did They Change?
• Hip Hop Dancing : How Did They Become Popular?
• The Development of Musical Theaters: From Middle Ages to the 21st Century
• Viennese Waltz: History of Creation and Interesting Facts
• The Overview of the Dance Scene in the 17th and 18th Centuries
• Origin of African American Dancing Style
• What is the background of tap dancing?

10 Modern Dance Research Paper Topics

In the last decades, many new dancing styles have been created. Their history and characteristics can become great topics for your research.

• Dances Today: What Are the Most Popular Types of Dancing?
• Research of Types of K-Pop Dancing Movements
• The Most Famous American Dancers of Our Time
• Relation of Music and Dances: How Does Modern Music Impact the Development of Dancing Styles?
• Modern Dances Inspired by African Traditional Dancing Movements
• The Impact of High Heels Dance on Health
• Incorporating Social Dances Into Athletic and Artistic Performances
• Pop Dance Growth Over the Decades
• Reasons for the Global Popularity of Electronic Dancing Music
• Teaching Contemporary Dancing: Practices, Opinions, and Guidelines.

10 Popular Dance Research Paper Topics in 2023

• The Evolution of Contemporary Dance.
• Cultural Appropriation in Dance. Balancing Appreciation and Respect.
• The Impact of Dance on Mental and Emotional Well-being.
• Gender Representation in Ballet. Breaking Stereotypes and Embracing Diversity.
• Exploring the Intersection of Dance and Technology.
• The Role of Dance in Social Activism and Community Engagement.
• Dance Education. Strategies for Enhancing Teaching and Learning Methods.
• The Significance of Dance in Rituals and Celebrations Across Cultures.
• Dance and Aging. Promoting Healthy Aging and Well-being Through Movement.
• Analyzing the Influence of Dance on Popular Culture and Media.

10 Unique & Engaging Dance Research Paper Ideas

Are you looking for something exciting and original to surprise your professor? Here are some topic ideas that will make your paper stand out from others.

• Tik Tok Dance Phenomenon: The Secret of Success
• Sub Styles of Bachata and Other Latin Dances
• The Positive Impact of Dancing on Mental Health
• The World’s Most Famous Tango Performers
• Evaluation of Dancing Performances: Main Principles and Criteria
• The Most Challenging Dancing Styles: From Ballet to Capoeira
• The Uniqueness of Folk Dancing Around the World and Their Significance for Each Culture
• Ballroom: The Main Rules and Purpose of the Female Dress Code
• Inclusive Ballroom: How to Teach Dancing Classes for People With Disability
• What Are the Drawbacks and Benefits of Dancing for the Body?

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153 Dance Topics & Essay Examples

Whether you’re writing about the importance of dance, modern choreography, or weight loss benefits of dancing as a hobby, we can help. In this article, our team came up with some ideas of what to cover in your paper.

🏆 Best Dance Topic Ideas & Essay Examples

✅ most interesting dance topics to write about, 📑 good research topics about dance, ⭐ dance topics to talk about in your paper, 📌 simple & easy dance titles for essay, ❓ dance essay topics and questions.

• Benefits of Dancing Essay Dance is an art that refers to the movement of part of the body, some of the parts or the whole body while keeping rhythmical to music.
• Exploring Relationship in Raymond Carver’s “Why Don’t You Dance?” In the story, the author juxtaposes the young couple with the man to highlight the solitary existence of the latter. In contrast to the man, the boy and the girl feel as the people around […]
• What Is Dance: Definition and Genres Jazz dancing is a unique dance as it consists of dancers interpreting steps as well as moves in their own way.
• Dance Elements in “Swan Lake” and “Night Journey” Ballets One of the most famous ballet scenes in Swan Lake is the dance of little swans. In terms of choreography and music, it is a good example of art, since each of the three central […]
• Garba Dance, Its History and Specifics: A Traditional Indian Dance The inhabitants of the state believe that the dance dates back to the ancient times of Krishna. I have seen the live performance of Garba at a Navratri festival; both the dance and music were […]
• Dance and Mathematics Relationship Choreographers, in teaching dance techniques, can use knowledge of mathematics, the knowledge is also used to arrange dancers on the stage and control their movements.
• History and Development of Dance The art of dancing was connected by Greeks to the idea of harmony and perfection of human body: therefore, dancing ultimately had to be graceful in order to emphasize and not to destroy the natural […]
• “And the Soul Shall Dance” by Wakako Yamauchi and “Silent Dancing” by Judith Ortiz Cofer: Significance of Dancing as Theme There is only one “dancing” character in Yamauchi’s literary work and though the woman is not the protagonist of the short story, the theme of dancing becomes a central one due to the strength and […]
• Hip Hop Dance The TV shows such as the Wild style, Soul Train and Breakin, Beat Street also contributed in showcasing hip hop dance styles during the early periods of hip hop hype.
• Dance Analysis: Social and Cultural Context A study of dance involves connection of ideas between the past and the present with an aim of improving the quality of performance in regards to other social practices that arise from cultural beliefs.
• “Shall We Dance”: Movie Analysis This leads a person to hide their actions and lead a life of secrecy which is uncomfortable to the individual and people that are around.
• The Shiva as Lord of Dance (Nataraja) Sculpture In the sculpture, Shiva is dancing within a halo of flame, in his right hand holding the damaru, which is a hand drum that made the first sounds of creation, and the agni in his […]
• “The Dance Class” Painting by Edgar Degas In addition to properly chosen techniques and materials, the artist was able to create a story with the past, the present, and the future.
• “Dance of the Dead” by Richard Matheson Although the story mostly belongs to the science fiction genre, its central scene is focused on horror, and more specifically, the horror of the unknown that is emblematic of the dark fantasy genre according to […]
• The Ritual Dance Important Elements On the outside, the ritual dance has all the same elements the other types do: the costumes, the music, the patterns are generally recognizable.
• History of Samba in Brazilian Society: A Traditional Brazilian Dance The word samba is derived from the Angolan word “semba” which means the movement of the body which is described as the act of thrusting forward the body and which requires the contact of the […]
• Impact of the Dance as Education The importance is great for every human being to acquire the vital skills which one will be able to carry through one’s entire life, the skills which will enrich the person’s life and will add […]
• Jazz Dance and Its Techniques The modern and ballet dance styles can be also applied to jazz, as the kind of popular dance styles involves a wide range of dance elements.
• Beauty: When the Other Dancer Is the Self With the help of her essay, Walker is able to write her own autobiography of her early years of life. Towards the end of her essay, it is evident that she is a successful woman […]
• Capoeira Dance History and Popularity This paper discusses the history of capoeira, how people relate to it in Brazil, where it went after the end of slavery in Brazil and its popularity worldwide.
• Traditional Chinese Lion Dance and Its Styles The first performer adorns the head of the lion and the other moves the body of the lion. The Japanese Lion Dance is used in traditional and religious festivals.
• Jazz Social Dance and Impact on American Culture Jazz is one of the common music genres that define the culture and racial history of the United States. Additionally, the nature of jazz dance was a new opportunity for African Americans to describe the […]
• Alvin Ailey American Dance Theater and Its History Alvin Ailey is an American dancer and choreographer, the founder of the Alvin Ailey American Dance Theatre, who made a significant contribution to the popularization of modern dance and the emergence of black dancers on […]
• The Grass Dance Cultural Importance Historians believe that the Grass Dance emerged during the early years of The Reservation Period among the warrior societies. This explains that the movement of the dance was meaningful to the natives.
• Modern Dance by Jiri Kylian On the whole, analyzing the first part of the ballet from the beginning, we have to point out the appropriateness of the absence of sound accompaniment, which leads the onlooker to concentrate on the pattern […]
• Dance Writing in Creative and Studying Processes Eventually, the writing did not only feed the creative process but later on was used as an element of the performance, enhancing the experience of spectators, possibly developing more new treatments for the dance and […]
• “The World of Dance” Event As we have already stated, the World of Dance is a unique event in the sphere of art that tries to attract the attention of people across the world.
• Indian Culture: Dances of Rajasthan Diwali is one of the major festivals in the country. Ghoomar dance is also common in the region.
• Flamenco Dance and History of Passion Whenever people think of Spain and the Spanish culture, the first thing that comes to their mind is flamenco the dance of passion and the only way to express the nature of a Spaniard, the […]
• Feminist Films: “Stella Dallas” and “Dance Girl, Dance” In my opinion, the film’s main idea is the relations between the mother and the daughter. In other words, I would like to point out that it is a female subjectivity, which is recognized to […]
• Modern Dance in the United States At the beginning of the XX century, American choreographers and dancers contributed to the development of modern dance by adding their ideas and techniques.
• Nostalgic Feeling Among Asylee Immigrants: The Role of Dance The broad phenomenon of acculturation as a process of adjusting one’s values, beliefs, and habits according to the socio-cultural environment of an individual is an extremely complex social issue.
• Argentine Tango Dance for Cancer Survivors: A Feasibility Study Hence, over the course of this study, the authors evaluated the effect of the adapted Argentine Tango on the cancer patient’s neurological function.
• The “Bellyache” Dance by Billie Eilish The most identified element of the dance is space and energy, while time is the minor element the audience can recognize. One of the components of dance is time, which dance choreography and performance both […]
• Performance Art: Dance Concept It is recommended to resort to performance art to make the gallery attractive to people and demonstrate its relevance in the modern world.
• Creative Destruction and the Virtual Studio of Sydney Dance Company From his perspective, industrial mutations occur in the form of the revolutionization of economic structures, the destruction of older ways of doing things, and the emergence of the replacing practices or products.
• A Generational Dance: How Parents and Kids Relate In summation, it is vital to note that the well-being and development of a child depend on the wholesome relations with their parents.
• Anna Pavlova and Dance Culture in the United States The dance originated from a variety of movements and gestures associated with the processes of activity and emotional impressions of a person from the world around him.
• Poi Dance as Cultural Performance The theme of this dance is the traditional culture of the Maori people, in particular the expression of joy and gratitude.
• Interpretive Dance and Costume Design in Enhancing Music and Plays The ballet dancer’s frequent moves increase the intensity of the song’s message with every rhyme and beat as the song proceeds.
• Belly Dance: Rewarding Activity and an Art Form The dance emphasizes the individuality of a woman, it is believed that each dancer puts a story into the dance – from the rituals of birth to the dances of the priests of the Goddess.
• African Dance Taught by Rujeko Dumbutshena In this dance class, from a series by the Kennedy Center Education Digital Learning, Rujeko Dumbutshena teaches how to use the concept of dancing on the clock to learn African Dance.
• “Shiva as Lord of Dance” (ca. 11th Century): Norton Simon Museum It is evident that the emphasis in the sculpture is put on Shiva, acting as a focal point of the piece. The sculpture of “Shiva as Lord of Dance” emphasizes the complexity of layers the […]
• The Ghost Dance Movement and Its Emergence To conclude, the Ghost Dance was a movement that accumulated the various aspects of American Indians living in the 19th century and delivered their cry for justice and salvation.
• Flamingo or Flamenco Dance This is a very expressive dance in nature and it involves movement of the whole body but more specifically the hands in such a way that the audience can follow and understand the whole dance.
• Case Analysis Article “Shall We Dance?” They both agree on the idea of targeting the boomers because of the role they play in the economy of Canada.
• Flamenco Music and Dance History: Spanish Carte-De-Visite Born in Andalusia The dance is much spread in the world and is considered to be a part of human civilization’s heritage by UNESCO.
• Loïe Fuller: An American Dancer and Actor Fuller recalls that she invented her serpentine dance during her rehearsal for the part in the play. Even when Fuller came to Paris, she met there a young woman who copied her style, and she […]
• The Salsa: Music and Dance Review In the dance perspective, it refers to a dance that tries to communicate the beats found in the salsa music. All these are in an effort to spice up the salsa dance and music.
• Dance in the African Diaspora: History and Effects The dances the slaves performed were distinct in that they were against the culture of the slave owners and yet they were blended in with the culture of the slave owners.
• Classical Dance: Term Definition In Plutarch’s work, when Theseus and the other Athenian youths escape from the Minotaur, they participate in a dance of celebration.”The dances of the ancient times are characterized as dances of war or dances of […]
• History of Capoeira in the Brazilian Community: Social Dance and Form of Martial Arts Some of the historical implications of the capoeira include: originally this art was practiced by the underclasses in the Brazilian community. The middle class accepted the art and this led to the unification of the […]
• Space in Dance Theatre Employing space, a choreographer has an opportunity to establish a connection between the spectators and the performers, thus influencing the perception of the show and emphasizing the core ideas.
• Artists in Jazz Music and Dance Development The core areas in this study will include; the presentation, the ensemble, the musical instruments, and the memories of the events.
• Art, Dance, Nutrition Studies and Their Benefits For architectures to come up with great masterpieces they have to combine the mechanics of construction and the creativity of Art.
• “The Power of Myth” and “Lord of the Dance” Films The setting of the dance when the movie starts is a church and the dancing troupe is led by a clergy this gives the dance a religious association.
• Ballet Pas De Deux: Dance and Architecture Exhibition The theory of choreology is concerned with the elaboration of the connection between the conscious expression of movement patterns in dance and the principles that guide those movements.
• Ballet and Jazz Dance: Styles Description The form and line used in ballet dance underline the stage performance and make sure that the main and secondary performers each have their place. The forms and rhythm in jazz dance reflect the people’s […]
• Dance and Architecture in “Ballet Pas de Deux” Exhibition Therefore, dance and architecture are related due to the fact that both of them utilize space as a ground in which creativity is embodied.
• Beyond Description: Writing Beneath the Surface According to Jowitt, in order to describe a dance properly the writer is to possess a variety of different skills allowing them to select appropriate metaphors, apply correct judgment, draw clever comparisons, and present dance […]
• The Royal Ballet Dance in Covent Garden The event was staged by the house of Royal Oprah with mysterious, exciting, and arduous ballet dance broadcast to the audience.
• Lindy Hop Dance: Development, Events, Figures Besides, all the aspects of this dance are going to be taken into consideration the movements, the music, and its origin, dressing styles of the performers throughout the years, public perception of this form of […]
• Alvin Ailey’ and Alexander Pushkin’ Views on the Modern Dance In particular, he greatly contributed to the popularization of the so-called modern dance which was developed at the beginning of the twentieth century.
• The Culture of Electronic Dance Music In a bid to realize its aim, the paper discusses the relationship between attending EDM events and the rationality that leads to the consumption of illicit drugs such as ecstasy.
• The CSN Fall Dance Concert Even if a person is informed about some details of the dance concert and the guests, who are going to participate, it is hard to cope with the emotions and attitudes to everything that can […]
• Ghost Dance Religious Movement The circle dance formed the belief systems of the Native Americans and was later given the name the ghost dance. Jack Wilson also known as Wovoka by the Paiute people, was the founder of the […]
• Contemporary Dance: Continuity and Inimitability The study is based on observation of literature sources devoted to contemporary dance and our observation of works of contemporary dance, live and on the video.
• Dancer Alvin Ailey: Techniques and Artistic Choices Alvin Ailey was able to merge dancing techniques which previously seemed to be completely incompatible with one another, and it is one of the major achievements in the history of choreography because such artistic choices […]
• Dance: Alonzo King Lines Ballet Choreography is one of the strongest aspects of the performance. The entire attention is drawn to the dancers and the dance.
• Chicano Folklore: Mexican Folk Dance Some musicians have also supported this subgenre in different parts of the world. This genre also portrays the realities and experiences of many Mexican Americans in the country.
• The Dance Video “Matthew Bourne’s Swan Lake 2” The choreographer has also selected the best styles for the dance. This is successful because of the lyrical and comic aspect of the dance.
• Moon – Solo Dance by Yang LiPing It could be defined as a large stage ethnic primitive genre if it was not for the complexity of the hidden innuendoes that the interpretation of the dance suggests.
• Music and Dance as a Part of Our Culture Our family has a unique connection to the dance and music, and how it was used in the family and in social settings.
• Lord of Dance This paper looks at the relevance of the image of Shiva to the Hindu culture, and the disparity between its presence in a temple and display in a museum of art, away from the culture […]
• The Way of Geisha Dance The way of Geisha dance demonstrates to us the importance of maiko in the traditional Japanese culture. The dance is crucial to the lives of many Japanese women.
• Dance Education and Culture The important elements under discussion for all the dance styles analyzed include, the progression, the uniqueness in steps and the relevance of the knowledge gained to the student.
• Miami Dance Project for Autistic Children For me, what the Miami dance project represents is in line with what is known as the concept of confidence building wherein through the development of certain talents children with autism will begin to have […]
• Role of Advertising in Launching a New Dance School In order to launch a new dance school in the US, it would be necessary to analyze the market. Since its establishment in 1905, the institution has managed to offer training services to over 800 […]
• The Tangs Dancing Business The Tangs spent most of their time running their business as a result, they have no time to refine and polish their sales pitch.
• The Taxi Driver and the Dance With Wolves Films In the film Dance with Wolves, the director seems to be unable to convey the poetry and philosophical inclinations of the colonial masters and the natives of India.
• Survey of Contemporary Dances The aim of this report is to present and interpret the results of the survey on the attitude of people to contemporary dances.
• Arts Education: Music, Dance and Theatre They will be able to identify the role of “telephones” and “telephone” operators in their society. According to Moser and McKay, it is critical for the students to learn how to determine the type and […]
• The Cosmic Dance of Siva Conclusively, the aspect on sex as an element, which contributed to the extinction of dinosaurs lacks enough support to qualify as a fact. Therefore, due to the lack of tangible evidence and a testable hypothesis […]
• Ritual and Philippine Folk Dance
• Dance Therapy for Down Syndrome Effects and Improvements
• Dance and Movement Therapy in Cancer Care
• The Differences Between Real Music and Electronic Dance Music
• Capoeira Brazillian Dance: Martial Art
• Classical Ballet and Modern Dance
• American Music and Culture: Jazz Dance
• American History: Indian Tribes and Ghost Dance
• Dance Movements and Enhance Song Learning in Deaf Children With Cochlear Implants
• The Difference Between Lyrical Dance and Ballet
• Dance and Fitness Concepts for the Physically Impaired
• Beauty That Moves: Dance for Parkinson’s Effects, Self-Efficacy, Gait Symmetry, and Dual-Task Performance
• Hypnotic Dance Music
• Dances and Different Styles in Dance Groups
• The Positive and Negative Effects of Dance on the Body
• Art Forms: Painting, Music, Theater, and Dance
• Different Cultural Beliefs About Dance
• Dance and Architecture: Spatiality and Orientation
• Irish Folk and Dance Music – History and Role
• Bollywood Dance Movies and Indian American Identity Formation
• History, Role, and Origin of Merengue Dance
• Polarized America: The Dance of Ideology and Unequal Riches
• The Dancing Brain: Structural and Functional Signatures of Expert Dance Training
• Street Dance: Frolic Progress Towards Unity Amidst Diversity
• Music, Theater, and Dance: From the Inside Out
• Ballet and Modern Dance: A Revolution Between Traditional and Modern Style
• Modern Dance and Gender Relations
• African American Dance Style
• Abstracting Dance: Detaching Ourselves From the Habitual Perception of the Moving Body
• Hip Hop Dance and the Entertainment Industry
• Relationship Between Electronic Dance Music and Drug Use Among Youth
• Honeybee Linguistics Comparative Analysis of the Waggle Dance Among Species of Apis
• The Lakota Sun Dance: An Overview of the Interconnectivity With All Aspects of Lakota Culture and the Changes Incurred During the Reservation Period
• Dance and Body Expression in the Video Dance and the Real World
• Dance Teaching Philosophies
• Pride and Prejudice: The Function of Dance
• Dance, Music, Meter, and Groove: A Forgotten Partnership
• Cause and Effect: Learning to Dance
• The Origin and History of Dance
• Creek and Cherokee Tribes and Traditional Southeastern Dance Decline
• Can Dance Inspire Change in the Society?
• How Does Culture Relate to Dance?
• How Does the Environment Affect the Viewing of the Dance?
• Will Pole Dance Future Olympic Sport?
• Why Is Dance Important to the Culture?
• How Is Electronic Dance Music Taking Over the World?
• How Is Dance Dance Revolution Getting Kids off the Couch?
• What Was the First Type of Dance?
• How Is Dance Used Today in Our Culture?
• What Are the Benefits of Dance in Mental and Emotional?
• How Can Dancing Improve Your Life and Health?
• How Does Dance Reflect Life?
• What Impact Does the Mass Media Have On the Perception of Dance on Society?
• Does the Waggle Dance Help Honey Bees for Longer Distances Than Expected for Their Body Size?
• How Has Dance Changed?
• How Has the Recent Financial Recession Affected the Arts & Dance Industry?
• When Did Dance First Start?
• Can Dance Change the World?
• How Swing Dance and Jazz Music Impacted America?
• Why Ecstasy Associated With Dance Music?
• How Dance Reflects Culture?
• How Does Ballet Relate to Dance?
• Can Dance Help to Express Emotions?
• How Does Dance Reflect Society?
• How Can Dance Inspire Change?
• How Can Dance Inspire Social or Political Change?
• Why Are Dance Lessons Good for Heart?
• How Can Music Make Us Get Up and Dance?
• How Is Ballet Different From Other Dances?
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Dance Research Guide: Writing about dance; citing sources

• Dance guide home
• Dance encyclopedias+
• Dance dictionaries
• Using FrogScholar
• Using the library catalog
• Dance journals at TCU & beyond
• Finding journal articles and other research materials in databases
• Finding dance reviews, news and commentary
• Writing about dance; citing sources
• Videos from the TCU Library; Video guides
• Online dance videos
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• Videos in special collections; video distributors
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• Where/how to find...
• Catalog browsing by call number or subject heading
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On this page ...

Writing dance reviews and papers.

1. Introduction -- 2. Research Methods and Problems -- Current Research and Issues -- 3. Dance Pedagogy -- 4. Practice-as-Research -- 5. Dance and Politics -- 6. Dance and Identity -- 7. Dance Science -- 8. Screendance Harmony Bench -- 9. Dance Ethnography -- 10. Popular Dance -- 11. Dance History  -- 12. Dance and Philosophy -- 13. Digital Dance -- 14. New Directions -- 15. Annotated Bibliography -- 16. A to Z of Key Concepts in Dance Studies .

Researching Dance:  Evolving Modes of Inquiry ( ebook , University of Pittsburgh Press, 1999) .  Directed toward graduate or honors students, this work introduces readers to research methods in dance.  Part I examines and defines the discipline

Digital craftsmanship; Copyright resources

Some selected resources are below.

TCU Center for Digital Expression - TCU's CfDE provides information and guidance for the use of many different types of materials, for students, faculty and staff, geared to a variety of academic assignments and professional purposes. Its copyright-related page, additionally, offers links and tools such as the Fair Use Evaluator .

On the Student Resources page , you can scroll down to  Audio / Video / Images / Document design / Presentation design – for example, under Images: Tips and Tools is " Copyright Fair Use and How it Works for Online Images ."

Other copyright-related resources

The Art of Dance Composition: Writing the Body / Routledge, 2024 has a lengthy chapter on intellectual property, notably on the use of music in dance, but extends beyond that to include aspects such as movement.

Copyright Primer for the Dance Community / Dance Heritage Coalition, 2003

Best Practices in Fair Use of Dance-related materials / Dance Heritage Coalition, 2009 (via the Center for Media and Social Impact)

What are the copyright guidelines for music, video and other multimedia items ? / TCU Library "LibAnswers" FAQ (links to online guides)

Transmission in Motion : the Technologizing of Dance [ ebook ] / Routledge, 2016 - chapter, Digital Dance : The Challenges for Traditional Copyright Law

The art of dance composition : writing the body [ ebook ]  / Routledge, 2024 - chapters, What is not dance? and  Intellectual property  

Writing dance reviews and papers, cont'd

Dance criticism.

A "Subject heading" search for "dance criticism" leads to a number of works on the technique of dance criticism.  Some examples are below.

Style/citation guides and other help

Citation and style

MLA Style Manual and Guide to Scholarly Publishing - searchable online

Owl Online at Purdue University offers A very handy online  MLA Formatting and Style Guide .

Other style guides, plus citation tools, available from the Databases page ( faq )

Knight Cite

This handy tool from Calvin College, Michigan lets you select one of three style manuals (including MLA), select the type of resource (book, encyclopedia, etc.), and type the details into boxes, after which it produces the finished citation for you.

Searching, evaluating sources, writing (general)

MLA Guide to Digital Literacy

What Is Digital Literacy? / Understanding Filters and Algorithms, Bots, and Visual Manipulation / Understanding Online Searches / Conducting Online Research / Go to the (Primary) Source ! /  Surveying the Conversation by Reading Laterally / Exploring the Credibility of Sources / Working with Your Sources / Additional Strategies and Resources / Customizing Your Online Experience / Appendix: Sample Lesson Plans

T CU FAQ: What are scholarly, peer-reviewed articles ?

A Writer's Reference

This Bedford/St. Martins book, 2011, covers important basic writing and researching procedures in chapters titled Composing and revising; Academic writing; Sentence style; Word choice; Grammatical sentences; ESL challenges; Punctuation; Mechanics; Researching; MLA, APA/CMS [style]; Basic grammar.   Located in the  Reference stacks by call number PE 1408 H2778.

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The TCU Writing Center

The TCU Writing Center provides personal coaching on the entire process of writing a paper, from focusing your initial ideas to properly formatting a footnote.  Its main office is located in Reed Hall, room 419.  Online help is available through the Writing Center's website.

Citation tools

The TCU Library offers a number of tools for compiling and editing citations you compile for possible use in papers or other projects. Refworks is one, with a how-to video at https://libguides.tcu.edu/c.php?g=360387 ; also EndNote is available, with an instructional guide at  https://libguides.tcu.edu/EndNote20 .  Both citation apps can be chosen from the alphabetical lists on the Databases page  - the Databases tab is on the library's home page at https://library.tcu.edu .

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