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Global Education and Critical Thinking: A Necessary Symbiosis to Educate for Critical Global Citizenship

Global Citizenship Education (GCE) is a topic of relevance in current international educational debates, which increasingly focus on the formation of critical citizenship. This makes it necessary to discover from a critical pedagogical perspective the relationships between this pedagogical approach, Critical Thinking (CT), and GCE. Throughout this study, through an extensive theoretical review of the literature, we try to show the characteristics in which critical pedagogy, GCE, and CT converge, giving rise to the Critical GCE towards which we must move today. Therefore, this study is revealing for discovering the path towards which GCE is currently heading by clearly showing the symbiosis between CT and GCE. In conclusion, if we want to educate global citizens, it is necessary not only to have a strong background in GCE but also to develop CT to understand global society critically and the need to act to try to transform the world into one free from oppression and injustice.

1 Introduction

Global Citizenship Education (GCE) in recent years stresses the need to create critical citizens to go beyond putting themselves in the situation suffered by people living in impoverished countries; that is, it is intended that Critical GCE – or for social transformation – instructs literate people who think critically and act to transform society through dialogue and respect (Bosio & Waghid, 2022 ; País & Costa, 2020; Torres & Bosio, 2020 ).

Now, what is scientific-critical literacy? The concept of scientific literacy has several interpretations, such as Bybee ( 1996 ) points out four types of scientific literacy: nominal, functional, conceptual–processual, and multidimensional; Hurd’s ( 1998 ) notion, understanding it as a civic competence should develop the ability to think rationally about social, political, economic, or personal issues. Scientific literacy is linked to the development of Critical Thinking (CT) and is understood as the civic competence necessary to think rationally about socioeconomic or personal issues; therefore, a literate person can: differentiate ideas, analyze data, and use scientific knowledge, appreciate the various perspectives (environmental, socioeconomic, and political) from which a problem can be faced, analyze information, apply scientific knowledge, make decisions, and act to solve complex situations (Anderson, 2019 ; Tenreiro-vieira & Vieira, 2013 ).

Educational centers should be aware of the importance of educating literate people who have a global and contextualized vision of social reality. However, this is not usually the case because schools tend to transmit content in a decontextualized and fragmented manner by subject; this results in ending up leaving aside the conflicts that occur in the world and that affect, in one way or another, the daily lives of students (De Castro, 2013 ; Maithreyi, Prabha, & Viknesh, 2022 ). This idea is reflected in the International Manifesto on the GCE elaborated by Oxfam ( 2008 ), which states that educational processes are related to the “growing complexity of the social, economic and political processes of the world in which we live, […] the school continues to be organized today according to an inefficient educational model that does not always respond to the challenges of our contemporaneity” (Oxfam, 2008 , p. 4).

The undeniable role of educational institutions in transforming society from a critical perspective has been one of the topics of pedagogical debates since the end of the twentieth century (Aubert, Duque, Fisas, & Valls, 2004 ; Balls, 2021 ; Hodorovská & Rankovová, 2023 ). Several authors of great pedagogical relevance defend critical pedagogy: Apple ( 2000 , 2002 ), Dewey ( 1938 ), Freire ( 1967 , 1970 ), Giroux ( 1980 , 1997 ), Kincheloe ( 2008 ), Macedo ( 1994 ), or Willis ( 1988 ). Among them, it is worth highlighting Giroux ( 1997 ) who understands critical pedagogy as an “ethical project with roots in critical theory, so that it incorporates both a vision of how society should be constructed and a theory of how current society exploits, dehumanizes and denigrates certain groups of people” (Scott, 2007 , p. 103).

For his part, Freire ( 1997a , b ) does not conceive of an education that does not promote training in values and affirms that the approach to educational reality must be carried out critically in order to transform it and also achieve a change in citizenship. In agreement with this author, Dewey ( 1938 , 1995 ) defends that from education, people should be trained to understand the need to act to transform social reality (Feinberg & Torres, 2014 ). For this reason, critical education is constantly evolving to adapt to the changes occurring in the world, and therefore, from the educational field, it should never “lose sight of the fact that its fundamental concern is human suffering” (Kincheloe, 2008 , p. 40).

Currently, critical pedagogy continues to develop from a similar perspective, seeking an understanding of both the world and the educational system that does not focus solely on the mere acquisition of content. Post-critical or post-modern authors (Astolfi, 1999 ; Morín, 1987 , 2000 ) are situated under this perspective and not only promote renovating currents at the curricular level or the acquisition of knowledge but also emphasize the need to move to action. In this sense, Astolfi ( 1999 ) points out that “learning is not only increasing the “stock” of knowledge, but also […] transforming the ways of conceiving the world” (Astolfi, 1999 , p. 65). Another of the postmodern pedagogues mentioned earlier is Morín ( 1987 , 2000 ), who speaks of complex thinking and indicates a “primordial need to learn to contextualize and, better said, to globalize; that is, to situate knowledge in its organized whole” (Morín, 2000 , p. 61).

These ideas, which underlie Morin’s approach and those of the referent authors in critical and post-critical pedagogy mentioned above, are reflected in the notion of Critical GCE in current research and in the urgency of moving towards the development of global citizens who think critically (Dill & Zambrana, 2020 ; Santamaría-Cárdaba, Martínez-Scott, & Vicente-Mariño, 2021 ). Therefore, Critical GCE seeks to go beyond sensitizing people by promoting the need to act and acquire knowledge in a contextualized manner favoring CT so that everyone understands his or her role in the global society.

2 CT: Key to Global Citizenship

CT is essential in education for global citizenship, but for what reasons? What are the characteristics of CT and why are they related to Critical GCE? This section provides answers to these questions, and therefore, before trying to define CT, it is necessary to highlight some of the most relevant ideas on this issue: 1) thinking carries with it the assimilation of content because we always think about something; 2) thinking is the most valuable way in which people assimilate knowledge through 3 operations: perception, acquisition, and retention; 3) obtaining new knowledge is only possible thanks to the inference capacity of our thinking, which initially starts from the notions already acquired.

There are multiple conceptions of what CT is due to the fact that it is an issue present in various academic fields, but none is universally accepted (Paul & Elder, 2002 ; Philley, 2005 ; Tenreiro-Vieira & Vieira, 2013 ). This lack of consensus leads to the consideration of all notions about CT which encourages Delphi studies on the definition of this concept (Facione, 1990 ). Table 1 shows the definitions proposed by the most relevant authors: Beyer ( 1985 ), Ennis ( 1985 , 1987 , 1996 ), Facione ( 1990 , 2007 ), Halpern ( 1998 , 2006 , 2014 ), Kurfiss ( 1988 ), Lipman ( 1998 ), McPeck ( 1981 ), Paul ( 1993 , 2005 ) or Paul and Elder ( 2002 , 2003 ), among others.

Definitions of CT

Note. Own elaboration.

After observing the definitions given above, a question arises: is CT considered a skill or a way of thinking and a set of capabilities? If attention is paid to the above definitions, it is possible to understand which notion of CT is defended by each author; specifically, CT as a skill can be seen in the definitions of Beyer ( 1985 ), Halpern ( 1998 , 2006 , 2014 ) and McPeck ( 1981 ). However, in the idea of CT as a way of thinking and set of skills is found in the definitions of Ennis ( 1985 , 1987 , 1996 ), Facione ( 1990 , 2007 ), Franco et al. ( 2017 ), Paul ( 1993 , 2005 ), Paul and Elder ( 2002 , 2003 ), Saiz ( 2017 , 2018 ), Solbes and Torres ( 2012 ), and Tamayo et al. ( 2016 ). However, not all definitions of CT can be framed within these two perspectives as is the case of those proposed by Kurfiss ( 1988 ) and Lipman ( 1998 ).

Based on the above definitions, it is possible to appreciate traits in common among them and some allusion to the dimensions of CT, which are: knowledge, norms, dispositions, and capabilities (Vieira, 2018 ). Beyer ( 1985 ), Ennis ( 1985 , 1987 , 1996 ), and Lipman ( 1992 , 1998 ) refer to the capabilities dimension in their definitions by conceiving CT as the ability to analyze information to rely only on reliable sources and to establish reasoned conclusions. Like these authors, Facione ( 1990 , 2007 ) adds to the performance of information analysis the skills of interpreting, evaluating, and drawing inferences to make informed judgments. For his part, Halpern ( 1998 , 2006 , 2014 ) states that the critical thinker must be able to solve problems and make decisions; even, Saiz ( 2017 ) points out that CT requires the ability to reason and decide to solve conflict.

Kurfiss ( 1988 ) focuses his definition on the knowledge dimension, commenting on the need to possess all possible information to be able to investigate a problem and propose hypotheses. In turn, Lipman ( 1998 ) stresses the relevance of knowing the context being studied in order to make reasoned judgments. Likewise, Paul ( 1993 , 2005 ) together with Paul and Elder ( 2002 , 2003 ) emphasize that CT should consist of knowing oneself to improve the quality of reasoning. Tamayo et al. ( 2016 ) propose that CT requires the acquisition of knowledge that allows one to doubt what is established as true to put all issues in doubt and thus place thinking before the need to resolve a conflict.

As McPeck ( 1981 ), Solbes and Torres ( 2012 ), and Walters ( 1994 ) warn, CT requires dispositions, i.e., a critical thinker must be sensitized and informed to act and participate responsibly in society. In this sense, the dimension related to standards is implicit in all the definitions analyzed since a critical thinker must be rigorous, precise, use reliable sources, and be responsible taking into account the social and cultural context of the problem under study. It should be noted that the definition of CT proposed by Franco et al. ( 2017 ) compiles these dimensions noting that CT integrates capacities, dispositions, knowledge, and norms to achieve making assessments, deciding, and solving problems.

In summary, the diversity of definitions provides a wide range of possibilities when it comes to understanding CT. However, if we try to synthesize all the definitions compiled, we could define CT as a way of thinking that comprises various skills to enable people to analyze any situation or problem, differentiate irrelevant information from important information, seek various explanations, establish reasoned and truthful judgments based on evidence, be able to make decisions, and act in search of the best possible solution.

2.1 Components of CT and its Purposes

After understanding what CT is, it is important to comment on the elements that make up this thinking. Plummer, Kebritchi, Leary, and Halverson ( 2022 ) point out the relevance of possessing skills such as interpreting, analyzing, or inferring, although these should not be the objective of CT teaching and assessment. Nowadays, it is considered that the acquisition of skills may not imply CT, since it is likely that they are possessed but that they do not know how to apply them correctly; thus, it is the dispositional or attitudinal component that promotes the ability to adequately apply their skills to think critically. For this reason, most of the reference authors in this field (Ennis, 1996 ; Facione, 2007 ; Halpern, 1998 ; McPeck, 1981 ) consider, from the philosophical viewpoint, that CT is constituted by two elements: cognitive skills and dispositions or attitudes.

In line with this idea from the perspective of psychology, Saiz ( 2018 ) considers that CT has two types of components: cognitive and non-cognitive. The cognitive ones are associated with skills and are only “the processes of perception, learning, and memory […], thinking is an acquisition process, inferential in nature, which encompasses any form of reasoning” (Saiz, 2018 , p. 21). While the non-cognitive or motivational ones are linked to feelings, emotions, or attitudes. The components of CT are interrelated in such a way that “we reason and decide to solve, and we solve to achieve” (Saiz, 2018 , p. 24); that is, people act to change a situation that is unsatisfactory to them and prevents them from achieving well-being.

Therefore, the purpose possessed by the development of CT capabilities is linked to the formation of an active citizenship that understands and acts critically in various “contexts and situations of everyday life, from understanding the meaning of a news item […]; through decision making and personal problem solving […]; to participation in decision-making on public issues” (Vieira, Tenreiro-Vieira, & Martins, 2010 , pp. 101–102). For this reason, didactic resources should be designed based on the dimensions mentioned earlier to promote CT citizenship.

2.2 Capacities, Dispositions, and Difficulties of CT

The complexity of defining the term CT is also reflected when it comes to agreeing on the skills that a critical thinker must develop; in this situation, Tenreiro-Vieira and Vieira ( 2000 ) have been used as a reference and the skills that must be possessed to think critically according to the most relevant authors in the area of CT have been synthesized in Table 2 .

CT capabilities according to different conceptual definitions

In summary, what are the skills that a critical thinker should possess? The most relevant skills that make CT based on Paul ( 2005 ) and Santiuste et al. ( 2001 ) are 1) understanding (identifying the problem and discovering the existing relationships); 2) analyzing (analyzing the information available on the problem, causes, effects, etc.); 3) inferring (inferring data or information that does not appear explicitly on the problem); 4) proposing solutions (being able to formulate solutions to problems and overcome obstacles), and 5) making decisions (choosing a plan of action to achieve a proposed objective).

Before concluding this section, the existing difficulties in proceeding to think critically should be pointed out, which according to Solbes and Torres ( 2012 ) are 1) assuming science as a distant and decontextualized knowledge, which entails not being aware of current social problems; 2) questioning opinions and beliefs based on dominant discourses and ignoring indirect interests; 3) analyzing socio-scientific problems encompassing all their dimensions (scientific, ethical, cultural, social, etc.); 4) to make value judgments on socio-scientific and technological issues in terms of their contribution to the resolution of global problems; and 5) to avoid comfortable and passive attitudes.

Therefore, the formation of a critical global citizenship involves the acquisition of a scientific-critical literacy and is the key to the GCE, by trying to create people capable of thinking for themselves, questioning everything, analyzing both their local and international contexts, comparing the different existing perspectives, and acting by making their own decisions in the face of any problem or situation of injustice.

3 GCE from a Critical Pedagogical Perspective

Education plays a leading role in developing CT to promote democratic citizenship that acts against inequalities and situations that cause suffering to people (Jamatia, 2022 ; McLaren & Kincheloe, 2008 ; Peach & Clare, 2017 ). For this reason, educational centers should enhance the critical literacy of students so that they understand the situations of injustice and contradiction present in today’s world; that is, they should develop a democratic and critical view of reality at both global and local levels to transform the world (Giroux, 2003 ; Jones & Manion, 2023 ).

The Critical GCE seeks to avoid passivity in citizenship, promoting consciences that do not accept existing inequalities and favoring their protagonist in individual and collective actions to try to curb social injustices. Therefore, the aim is to create critical global citizenship, which is why it is argued that education should promote egalitarian societies in which any type of discrimination or oppression should be sold (Leite, 2022 ; Melber, Bjarnesen, Lanzano, & Mususa, 2023 ). In addition, the training provided by schools should not be limited to the memorization of content, since practical exercises should be used to prepare people to live in today’s society (Borghi, 2012 ; McArthur, 2023 ). In other words, if the aim is to educate people who actively participate in transforming society, they must learn by doing.

Thus, if the aim is to build an active global citizenry that participates in today’s democratic society, it is imperative that people do not merely understand issues superficially and that they reflect to make informed judgments (Naiditch, 2010 ; Peach & Clare, 2017 ). As Kitts ( 2022 ) warn, critical pedagogy must be contemplated in educational curricula to be more effective for teachers and students.

However, what are the features of critical citizenship? Table 3 shows these characteristics according to Johnson and Morris ( 2010 , 2012 ) who base themselves on the four objectives of citizenship education proposed by Cogan, Morris, and Print ( 2002 ): “the knowledge, skills, values, and dispositions of citizens” (p. 4).

Features of education for critical citizenship

Note. Own elaboration; own adaptation from the study by Johnson and Morris ( 2010 , p. 90).

In accordance with the above characteristics, it can be seen that education for social transformation requires citizens to know both the reasons for social inequalities and their rights and to be aware of their capacity to act on reality (Mata, Ballesteros, & Padilla, 2013 ). Andreotti ( 2006 ) adds, as previously mentioned, that it is essential to make students critically literate in order for them to understand social reality and North–South inequalities since critical literacy is a key dimension for Critical GCE.

This same author, after studying the arguments on global citizenship proposed by Dobson ( 2005 , 2006 ) and analyzing the effects of colonialism on North–South relations according to Spivak ( 2003 , 2004 ), made a comparison between the soft GCE and the critical GCE. In this sense, recent studies such as those by Andreotti ( 2022 ), Bosio and Waghid ( 2023 ), Giroux and Bosio ( 2021 ), McLaren and Bosio ( 2022 ), or Stein, Andreotti, Suša, Ahenakew, and Čajková ( 2022 ) analyze from a decolonial perspective the importance of educating people who question the information they receive and can think critically from the perspective of GCE.

Understanding Critical GCE in the same way as DeLeon ( 2006 ), as both consider that advocates of critical pedagogy understand education as an act of public character through which they seek to “transform schools towards the pursuit of social justice […] and use education to generate social change and empower educational actors” (DeLeon, 2006 , p. 73). This vision of education as a means to transform society permeates the current GCE, since the Critical GCE requires that people possess the ability to think critically to understand the causes of inequality and social injustices so that they can act to transform society and defend human rights.

The critical citizenship referred to in this study must possess a high level of social responsibility, think critically, and be aware of global problems. This same concept of critical global citizenship is used by Oxley and Morris ( 2013 ) to refer to people who focus on reducing inequalities and actively advocating for social justice; likewise, these authors include the notion of social global citizenship to allude to citizenship that is grounded in critical and postcolonial ideas. However, Jooste and Heleta ( 2017 ) use another different denomination when referring to critical global citizenship as “scholarly” citizenship, which they differentiate from “closed-minded” citizenship being the one that does not care about people living in other areas of the world or possessing another religious ideology.

Today’s changing society makes it necessary for people to acquire various competencies in order to act appropriately in complex situations, and the way forward is CT. Therefore, the formation of critical global citizenship carries with it the development of CT by focusing on “inequality and oppression, critiquing the role of current power relations and economic agendas” (Goren & Yemini, 2017 , p. 171). Authors such as Johnson and Morris ( 2012 ) already announced that CT was directly related to critical pedagogy; in this line, Lipman ( 2003 ) and Moon ( 2008 ) emphasize that the acquisition of new knowledge and the ability to make a judgment are two key aspects of CT and conscientization because “it involves the discovery that one is oppressed and the judgment that such hegemonic power exists in society” (Johnson & Morris, 2012 , p. 286).

4 Conclusion

The GCE that is currently emerging seeks the formation of global and critical citizens, giving rise to a union between the characteristics of the GCE and those of CT, which configures the Critical GCE. Figure 1 illustrates the convergence between the definition and dimensions of both issues; specifically, the definition of GCE and the dimensions proposed by Ortega ( 2007 , 2008 ) are included, and a definition of CT is shown together with the dimensions established by Vieira ( 2018 ), and the result of this union is captured in the definition of Critical GCE, and the dimensions proposed by Johnson and Morris ( 2010 ).

Critical GCE as an area of confluence between GCE and TC. Note: Own elaboration.

As can be seen in the previous figure, the vision of Critical GCE already implies the need to think critically and has dimensions similar to those of CT, since, although it does not have a dimension called thinking criteria, all of them are implicit in the dimensions of Critical GCE.

In conclusion, critical global citizenship needs not only to have solid training in GCE but also to develop its CT as a necessary symbiosis to understand society from a critical perspective, thus aiming to act against injustices and promote a change towards a more sustainable and just society.

Funding information : This study has been funded by the Ministry of Universities through the University Teacher Training (FPU) sub-programme (Reference FPU16/01102).

Author contributions: Noelia Santamaría-Cárdaba has developed this research as part of her doctoral thesis and is the result of a stay at the University of Aveiro. She has written the complete article. Vanessa Ortega-Quevedo has revised and helped to improve the critical thinking section. Judith Cáceres-Iglesias and Katherine Gajardo have revised, corrected, and translated the article into English.

Conflict of interest: The authors state no conflict of interest.

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Knowledge and Skills for Becoming Global Citizens

Subscribe to the center for universal education bulletin, allison anderson allison anderson former brookings expert.

January 30, 2013

The current education e-discussion for the post-2015 development agenda on the  World We Want platform offers an opportunity for all stakeholders to weigh in on the issues of global citizenship, jobs and skills. This consultation, taking place from January 23 to February 6, is gathering views from around the world to build a collective vision for the education sector on priorities for a post-2015 development framework.  This discussion is not only important in building education sector consensus, but it is also important because a summary of these opinions will be given to the United Nations General Assembly and world leaders when they meet in September to propose a new development agenda. The Center for Universal Education encourages all stakeholders to add their voice to this discussion .

As pointed out within the World We Want consultation, ensuring that education produces individuals who can read, write and count is an important but insufficient step toward global development. The 2012 Education for All Global Monitoring Report Youth and Skills: Putting education to work noted that, beyond the foundational skills of literacy and numeracy, transferrable skills—such as problem solving and leadership skills—and technical and vocational skills that impart specific technical know-how are needed.  To be relevant, education must provide young people with the necessary knowledge and skills to become “ responsible global citizens who can take joint actions .”  Just which knowledge and skills will enable young people to reach this goal is a current matter of debate.

While there are clearly many important ways in which education contributes to global citizenship knowledge and skills, based on our research, one issue is clear: Given the global, interconnected challenges of sustainable development, peaceful and inclusive society building, and climate change mitigation and adaption, it is essential to prioritize knowledge and skills that are linked to 21st century livelihoods, conflict resolution and sustainable development. These skills include critical thinking, problem solving, and relevant content knowledge like environmental and climate change education, disaster risk reduction and preparedness, sustainable consumption and lifestyles, and green technical and vocational education and training.

Learning for Resilient, Sustainable Societies

The past 20 years have seen an accelerated process of globalization that has impacted countries around the world.  However, not all have benefited equally and many have benefited little or not at all from this process.  Moreover, a global economy based on current patterns of consumption and production is placing heavy stresses on many ecosystems.  As such, sustainable development—or development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs—continues to be an unrealized goal.

As expanded upon in a recent Environment Magazine article and Brookings Center for Universal Education commentary on learning for sustainable development, the education sector can help shift the global demand away from resource- and energy-intensive commodities and towards green products, the production of such commodities, and in sustainable lifestyles.  Empowering learners to contribute to sustainable development helps to make education more relevant and responsive to contemporary and emerging challenges.  For instance, a green economy calls for seizing opportunities to advance economic and environmental goals simultaneously.  Education can assist in the process of shifting the global demand away from resource- and energy-intensive commodities and towards greener products and technologies, sustainable lifestyles and less pollution.  Moreover, restructuring towards a green economy will require transferable skills, ones that are not necessary linked to specific occupations.  Thinking critically, solving problems, collaborating and managing risks and uncertainty are core competencies that are critical for employment in a green economy and living together peacefully in a sustainable society.

Since the effects of climate change are already being felt, the education sector can also play a critical role in teaching relevant skills for successful climate change adaptation and mitigation.  Teaching and learning should integrate environmental education, climate change and scientific literacy, disaster risk reduction and preparedness, and education for sustainable lifestyles and consumption.  Learners need a basic understanding of scientific concepts, including knowledge of the history and causes of climate change; knowledge of and ability to distinguish between certainties, uncertainties, risks and consequences of environmental degradation, disasters and climate change; knowledge of mitigation and adaptation practices that can contribute to building resilience and sustainability; and understanding of varying interests that shape different responses to climate change and the ability to critically judge the validity of these interests in relation to the public good.  Furthermore, evidence shows that educational interventions are most successful when they focus on local, tangible and actionable aspects of sustainable development, climate change and environmental education, especially those that can be addressed by individual behavior.

For instance, in the Philippines , communities have worked with the ministry of education, Plan International and other partners to prepare children and young people to adapt to climate change, thereby reducing vulnerabilities and building resilient societies.  Children learned about climate change adaptation and how to reduce their vulnerability to disasters through education and training in early warning systems.  This included education on rain gauges, disaster simulation and drills as well as carrying out risk mapping and learning first aid, swimming and water safety.  Children were then encouraged to express what they had learned through theater and music activities, thus delivering information on potential hazards and the practical solutions to the hazards to their communities.  These efforts have already saved lives.  For example, in 2006 after three days of continuous rain in Liloan and San Francisco villages, children and adults used the knowledge they gained from adaptation-focused risk reduction contingency planning and evaluation procedures to evacuate before landslides covered their homes.

In another example, the Global Action Network for Energy Efficiency Education (GANE) is using a multi-disciplinary teaching and learning approach to change energy consumption behavior within education programs and training institutions.  In order to prepare the next generation of workers for an energy-efficient future, GANE engages young people in hands-on experiential learning that will prepare them for the energy efficiency job market. GANE’s Green Schools Program  in the United States provides training and tools that make students the focus of green schools by placing them in leadership positions to carry out energy diagnostics in their school building.  The green building becomes a learning lab for students to apply science, math and language arts to solve the sustainable energy and global climate change challenge.  Through basic changes in operations, maintenance and individual behavior, schools participating in the GANE Green Schools Program have reduced their energy consumption and equipped students to promote energy efficiency in their homes and communities.  Outside of the classroom, teachers, students and administrators’ knowledge and advocacy can influence their families, markets and decision-makers.

In order for education to truly be transformative and cultivate global citizens with a shared concern for the world, various strategies must be pursued, including: curriculum development for climate mitigation and adaptation community engagement and labor market partnerships, experiential learning opportunities outside the classroom, and safe and sustainable school environments. We must ensure that education systems work closely with community leaders and possible employers to cultivate experiences and knowledge that prepares young people for the labor market and for their future lives.  As is clear in these two examples, and supported by research from Bangladesh, El Salvador, India, Indonesia, Ghana, Kenya, Malawi, Nepal, the Philippines, Zambia and elsewhere, for global citizenship knowledge and skills to truly take hold, it is essential that community members, and especially young people, are empowered as active agents of change.

Global Education

Global Economy and Development

Center for Universal Education

Thinley Choden

May 3, 2024

December 4, 2023

September 13, 2023

Global Citizenship Education: Topics and learning objectives

UNESCO has just launched its new publication on Global Citizenship Education (GCED) titled Global Citizenship Education: Topics and Learning Objectives. This is the first pedagogical guidance on GCED produced by UNESCO in an effort to help Member States integrate GCED in their education systems, formal and non-formal.

The guidance, presented during the World Education Forum 2015, suggests ways of translating GCED concepts into age-specific topics and learning objectives based on the three domains of learning – cognitive, socio-emotional and behavioural. It also presents examples of existing practices and implementation approaches in various countries. This pedagogical guidance can be adapted and implemented in an easy and flexible manner in any given context. It will be particularly useful for educators, curriculum developers, trainers as well as policy-makers but also other education stakeholders working in non-formal and informal settings.

The guidance was developed in consultation with experts on GCED from different parts of the world and it was field tested in selected Member States and various stakeholders including teachers, learners and ministry officials in all regions to ensure that the content is relevant and appropriate in various geographical and cultural contexts.  

This publication was produced with technical and financial support from the Asia-Pacific Centre of Education for International Understanding (APCEIU), a UNESCO Category 2 Centre. 

The publication in English is available here .

The French version will soon be available / La version française sera bientôt disponible.

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Critical thinking is clear, rational, logical, and independent thinking. It’s about improving thinking by analyzing, assessing, and reconstructing how we think. It also means thinking in a self-regulated and self-corrective manner. It’s thinking on purpose! The Critical Thinking Workbook helps you and your students develop mindful communication and problem-solving skills with exciting games and activities. It has activities that are adaptable to any grade level you want. The activity pages in the Critical Thinking Workbook are meant to be shared and explored. Use it as an electronic document or as worksheets. You can either print off the pages and use them as activity sheets, or you can edit them directly right in the document on your computer. There are also Answer Keys for the activities that need them provided at the back of the book.

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Soft versus critical global citizenship education

Global Citizenship

Understanding global issues often requires learners to examine a complex web of cultural and material processes and contexts on local and global levels.  Vanessa Andreotti explores how critical global citizenship can be an effective way to support learners in that process.   Introduction   At the end of a ‘Make Poverty History’ (MPH) training session for activists, as an inspiration for a group of about 30 young people to write their action plans, a facilitator conducts the following visualisation (reproduced from my notes):   “Imagine a huge ball-room.  It is full of people wearing black-tie.  They are all celebrities.  You also see a red carpet leading to a stage on the other side.  On the stage there is Nelson Mandela.  He is holding a prize.  It is the activist of the year prize.  He calls your name.  You walk down that corridor.  Everyone is looking at you. W hat are you wearing? How are you feeling?  Think about how you got there: the number of people that have signed your petitions, the number of white bands on the wrists of your friends, the number of people you have taken to Edinburgh.  You shake Mandela’s hands.  How does that feel?  He gives you the microphone.  Everyone is quiet waiting for you to speak.  They respect you.  They know what you have done.  Think about the difference you have made to this campaign!  Think about all the people you have helped in Africa…”   Listening to this as a Southern person was disturbing, but what was even more worrying was to observe that, when the young people opened their eyes and I asked around if they thought the visualisation was problematic, the answer was overwhelmingly ‘no’.  They confirmed that their primary motivation for ‘training as an activist’ was related to self-improvement, the development of leadership skills or simply having fun, enhanced, of course, by the moral supremacy and vanguardist feeling of being responsible for changing or saving the world ‘out there’.  This actually echoed one of the sayings in a poster of the organisation that was running the course “do what you love doing, but save the world while you do it”.

            Part of the reason why I felt so uncomfortable was that the group seemed to be unaware that the thought patterns and effects of ‘what they love doing’ could be directly related to the causes of the problems they were trying to tackle in the first place.  This points to a central issue in global citizenship education: whether and how to address the economic and cultural roots of the inequalities in power and wealth/labour distribution in a global complex and uncertain system.

            In order to understand global issues, a complex web of cultural and material local/global processes and contexts needs to be examined and unpacked.  My argument is that if we fail to do that in global citizenship education, we may end up promoting a new ‘civilising mission’ as the slogan for a generation who take up the ‘burden’ of saving/educating/civilising the world.  This generation, encouraged and motivated to ‘make a difference’, will then project their beliefs and myths as universal and reproduce power relations and violence similar to those in colonial times. How can we design educational processes that move learners away from this tendency?

            This article aims to introduce the argument for critical global citizenship education. It is divided into three parts.  In the first part I present Andrew Dobson’s arguments in relation to the grounds for global citizenship and his critique of the notions of the ‘global citizen’ and ‘interdependence’.  In the second part, I present Gayatri Spivak’s analysis of some cultural effects of colonialism in the relationship/assumptions of North and South.  In the last part I compare and contrast soft and critical citizenship education in general terms based on Dobson’s and Spivak’s analyses and briefly explore the notion of critical literacy as a significant dimension of critical global citizenship education.  I argue that, for educators, a careful analysis of the context of work is paramount for informed decisions in terms of what focus to choose, but that it is imperative to know the risks and implications of the options available in order to make responsible pedagogical choices.   Common humanity or justice: The material dimension of citizenship education   Andrew Dobson is a British political author and Professor at the Open University, specialising in environmental politics.  His most famous work is entitled Green Political Thought.  He addresses the grounds for global citizenship and the notions of a ‘global citizen’ and ‘interdependence’.  He starts his analysis with what he perceives as a common question in the ‘Northern’ context:   “How can severe poverty of half of humankind continue despite enormous economic and technological progress and despite the enlightened moral norms and values of our heavily dominant Western civilisation?” (Pogge, 2002:3 cited in Dobson, 2006:170).               He states that, for many in the political sciences today, it is precisely the assumptions of progress and values/morality of the West that are at the root of the problem.  He poses another question: “what should (then) be the basis for our concern for those whom we have never met and are never likely to meet?”  He proposes that the answer should be framed around political obligation for doing justice and the source of this obligation should be a recognition of complicity or “causal responsibility” in transnational harm (Dobson, 2006).

            Dobson argues that the globalisation of trade creates ties based on “chains of cause and effect that prompt obligations of justice, rather than sympathy, pity or beneficence” (p.178).  He offers the ecological footprints as an illustration of how this operates “as a network of effects that prompts reflection on the nature of the impacts they comprise” (p.177).  He also mentions unjust practices imposed by the North as a global institutional order that reproduce poverty and impoverish people (p.177). 

            Two of the central pleas of the MPH campaign point in the same direction. The calls for trade justice and debt relief suggested that the North had something to do with the poverty created elsewhere.  However, this acknowledgement of complicity did not translate into the campaigning strategies.  The use of images, figures and slogans emphasised the need to be charitable, compassionate and ‘active’ locally (in order to change institutions), based on a moral obligation to a common humanity, rather than on a political responsibility for the causes of poverty.

            Dobson argues that acts grounded on this moral basis are easily withdrawn and end up reproducing unequal (paternalistic) power relations and increasing the vulnerability of the recipient (Dobson, 2006).  For him, justice is a better ground for thinking as it is political and prompts fairer and more equal relations.  He makes a distinction between being human and being a citizen: being human raises issues of morality; being a citizen raises political issues (Dobson, 2005).

            Unlike what was suggested in the ‘Make Poverty History’ campaign, Dobson emphasises individual - rather than institutional - responsibility.  He quotes Pogge to stress this point:   “We are familiar, through charity appeals, with the assertion that it lies in our hands to save the lives of many or, by doing nothing, to let these people die. We are less familiar with the assertion examined here of a weightier responsibility: that most of us not merely let people starve but also participate in starving them” (Pogge, 2002:214 cited in Dobson, 2006:182).               Dobson also challenges the concepts of a ‘global citizen’, interdependence and world-wide interconnectedness that often accompany unexamined notions of a common humanity in global citizenship education. He asserts that they do not take sufficient account of unequal power relations between the North and the South, as Vandana Shiva states:   “The ‘global’ in the dominant discourse is the political space in which a particular dominant local seeks global control, and frees itself of local, national and international restrains.  The global does not represent the universal human interest; it represents a particular local and parochial interest which has been globalised through the scope of its reach.  The seven most powerful countries, the G7, dictate global affairs, but the interests that guide them remain narrow, local and parochial” (Shiva, 1998: 231 cited in Dobson, 2005: 261).               Shiva and Dobson argue that only certain countries have globalising powers - others are globalised.  In this sense, the North has a global reach while the South only exists locally:   “Globalisation is, on this reading, an asymmetrical process in which not only its fruits are divided up unequally, but also in which the very possibility of ‘being global’ is unbalanced” (Dobson, 2005: 262).               Having the choice to traverse from the local to the global space is the determining factor for whether or not you can be a global citizen.  If you are not ‘global’, “the walls built of immigration controls, of residence laws and of ‘clean streets’ and ‘zero tolerance’ grow taller” (Bauman, 1998:2 cited in Dobson, 2005: 263) to try to contain the diffusion of ideas, goods, information and peoples in order to protect specific local spaces from unwanted ‘contamination’.  Thus, we end up with a one way transfusion (in its legal form at least) rather than a diffusion. As the capacity to act globally is limited, Dobson concludes that those who can and do act globally are in effect often projecting their local (assumptions and desires) as everyone else’s global (Dobson, 2005:264).  This is well illustrated in one of MPH’s campaign slogans: “Make History” (Whose history? Who is making this history? In whose name? For whose benefit?).

            Dobson’s analyses raises important questions for global citizenship education: who is this global citizen?  What should be the basis of this project?  Whose interests are represented here?  Is this an elitist project?  Are we empowering the dominant group to remain in power?  Are we doing enough to examine the local/global dimensions of our assumptions?

            However, Dobson’s account also seems to oversimplify North-South relations by presenting the South as only a site for Western forceful dominance or some ‘grassroots’ resistance.  In analysing the cultural aspects of the historical construction of this relationship, other critics present a more complex picture, taking into account the ‘complicity’ of the South itself in maintaining Northern dominance.   Sanctioned ignorance: The cultural dimension   A cultural analysis raises complementary questions for global citizenship education.  The emphasis here is on the implications of the projection of Northern/Western values and interests as global and universal which naturalises the myth of Western supremacy in the rest of the world. Gayatri Spivak, a professor at Columbia University in the United States who has had a great impact on the theoretical development in the areas of cultural studies, critical theory and colonial discourse analysis, calls this process “worlding of the West as world” (Spivak, 1990).

            Spivak argues that this naturalisation occurs by a disavowal of the history of imperialism and the unequal balance of power between the ‘First’ and ‘Third’ Worlds in the global capitalist system.  The outcome of this naturalisation is a discourse of modernisation in which colonialism is either ignored or placed securely in the past, so that we think it is over and does not affect - and has not affected - the construction of the present situation.

            The result is a sanctioned ignorance (constitutive disavowal) of the role of colonialism in the creation of the wealth of what is called the ‘First World’ today, as well as the role of the international division of labour and exploitation of the ‘Third World’ in the maintenance of this wealth.  Within this naturalised logic, the beginning of the Third World is post-WWII “with ‘First’ World growth patterns serving as history’s guide and goal” (Kapoor, 2004: 669).

            This ideology produces the discourse of ‘development’ and policies of structural adjustment and free trade which prompt Third World countries to buy (culturally, ideologically, socially and structurally) from the ‘First’ a “self-contained version of the West”, ignoring both its complicity with and production by the ‘imperialist project’ (Spivak, 1988).  Also within this framework, poverty is constructed as a lack of resources, services and markets, and of education (as the right subjectivity to participate in the global market), rather than a lack of control over the production of resources (Biccum, 2005:1017) or enforced disempowerment. This sanctioned ignorance, which disguises the worlding of the world, places the responsibility for poverty upon the poor themselves and justifies the project of development of the Other as a ‘civilising mission’.

            For Spivak the epistemic violence of colonialism (where colonialism affects the coloniser’s capacity to know their situation of real exploitation) makes this sanctioned ignorance work both ways with complementary results: the First World believes in its supremacy and the Third World forgets about the worlding and ‘wants’ to be civilised/catch up with the West.  In line with Said, Bhabha and Fanon, Spivak affirms that the colonial power changes the subaltern’s perception of self and reality and legitimises its cultural supremacy in the (epistemic) violence of creating an ‘inferior’ other and naturalising these constructs.  Spivak illustrates that in the ‘First World’ it reinforces Eurocentrism and triumphalism as people are encouraged to think that they live in the centre of the world, that they have a responsibility to ‘help the rest’ and that “people from other parts of the world are not fully global” (Spivak, 2003:622).

            This is echoed in policies related to the ‘global dimension’ in England in the notion that different cultures only have ‘traditions, beliefs and values’ while the West has (universal) knowledge (and even constructs knowledge about these cultures).  The idea of a ‘common history’, which only acknowledges the contribution of other cultures to science and mathematics also reinforces this perception, which projects the values, beliefs and traditions of the West as global and universal, while foreclosing the historical processes that led to this universalisation.

            This has significant implications for the notion of ‘global citizenship’. However, in terms of the reproduction of this ideology, for Spivak the class culture is more important than geographic positioning: she refers to an elite global professional class (consisting of people in or coming from the First and the Third Worlds) marked by access to the internet and a culture of managerialism and of international non-governmental organisations involved in development and human rights.  She maintains that this global elite is prone to project and reproduce these ethnocentric and developmentalist mythologies onto the Third World ‘subalterns’ they are ready to help to ‘develop’. She also states that in order to change this tendency educational interventions should emphasise ‘unlearning’ and ‘learning to learn from below’ (Spivak, 2004).

            The analyses of Dobson and Spivak are not isolated examples in their disciplines.  Several academics and practitioners have questioned the ideologies behind development and global citizenship education in recent years and a few pedagogical initiatives have been developed based on these analyses.  However, in general terms, the articulations between new thinking and new practices have been weak.   Soft versus critical citizenship education and the notion of critical literacy   From the analyses of Dobson and Spivak it is possible to contrast soft and critical frameworks in terms of basic assumptions and implications for citizenship education.  Table 1 illustrates this comparison in very general terms, in order to prompt discussion.   Table 1: Soft versus critical citizenship education  

The notions of power, voice and difference are central for critical citizenship education.  Thus, for the creation of an ethical relationship with learners (and with the South), the development of critical literacy becomes necessary.  I conceptualise critical literacy as a level of reading the word and the world that involves the development of skills of critical engagement and reflexivity: the analysis and critique of the relationships among perspectives, language, power, social groups and social practices by the learners.  Criticality, in this context, does not refer to the dominant notion that something is right or wrong, biased or unbiased, true or false. It is an attempt to understand origins of assumptions and implications.  In this sense, critical literacy is not about ‘unveiling’ the ‘truth’ for the learners, but about providing the space for them to reflect on their context and their own and others’ epistemological and ontological assumptions: how we came to think/be/feel/act the way we do and the implications of our systems of belief in local/global terms in relation to power, social relationships and the distribution of labour and resources.             Critical literacy is based on the strategic assumption that all knowledge is partial and incomplete, constructed in our contexts, cultures and experiences. Therefore, we lack the knowledge constructed in other contexts, cultures and experiences.  So we need to engage with our own and other perspectives to learn and transform our views, identities and relationships - to think otherwise.  Action is always a choice of the individual after a careful analysis of the context of intervention, of different views, of power relations (especially the position of who is intervening) and of short and long term (positive and negative) implications of goals and strategies.             In contrast with soft global citizenship education, this approach tries to promote change without telling learners what they should think or do, by creating spaces where they are safe to analyse and experiment with other forms of seeing/thinking and being/relating to one another.  The focus is on the historical/cultural production of knowledge and power in order to empower learners to make better informed choices - but the choices of action and meaning (what ‘we’ are or ‘should be’) are never imposed, as the ‘right to signify’ is recognised and respected (as an ethical relationship ‘commands’).

            However, as there is no universal recipe or approach that will serve all contexts, it is important to recognise that ‘soft’ global citizenship education is appropriate to certain contexts - and can already represent a major step.  But it cannot stop there or the situation illustrated at the beginning of this paper will become the norm.  If educators are not ‘critically literate’ to engage with assumptions and implications/limitations of their approaches, they run the risk of (indirectly and unintentionally) reproducing the systems of belief and practices that harm those they want to support.  The question of how far educators working with global citizenship education are prepared to do that in the present context in the North is open to debate.   References   Bauman, Z (1998) Globalization: the Human Consequences , New York: Columbia University Press.   Bhabha, H (1994) The Location of Culture , London: Routledge.   Biccum, A (2005) ‘Development and the 'new' imperialism: a reinvention of colonial discourse in DFID promotionalliterature’, Third World Quarterly, Vol. 26, pp. 1005-1020.   Dobson, A (2005) ‘Globalisation, cosmopolitanism and the Environment’, International Relations , Vol. 19, pp. 259-273.   Dobson, A (2006) ‘Thick Cosmopolitanism’, Political Studies , Vol. 54, pp.165-184.   Kapoor, I (2004) ‘Hyper-self-reflexive development? Spivak on representing the Third World “Other”’, Third World Quarterly , Vol. 4, pp. 627-647.   Pogge, T (2002) World Poverty and Human Rights , Cambridge: Polity Press.   Shiva, V (1998) ‘The Greening of Global Reach’ in G Thuatail, S Dalby and P Routledge (eds.), The Geopolitics Reader , London: Routledge, pp. 230-143.   Spivak, G (1988) ‘“Can the Subaltern Speak?”’, in C Nelson and L Grossberg (eds.), Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture ,  Chicago: University of Illinois Press, pp. 271-313.   Spivak, G (1990) The Post-colonial Critic: Interviews, Strategies, Dialogues , New York and London: Routledge.   Spivak, G (2003) ‘A conversation with Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak: politics and the imagination’, interview by J Sharpe, Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society , Vol. 28, pp. 609-624.   Spivak, G (2004) ‘Righting wrongs’,  The South Atlantic Quarterly , Vol. 103, pp. 523-581.   Vanessa Andreotti is a Brazilian educator who has worked as a practitioner/researcher in the fields of global citizenship/development education for the last seven years.  She is a research fellow at the Centre for the Study of Social and Global Justice at the University of Nottingham where she coordinates the Open Spaces for Dialogue and Enquiry initiative ( www.osdemethodology.org.uk ) and the project ‘Through Other Eyes’ about indigenous understandings of the development agenda.  She is also finishing a PhD on the representations of ‘North and South’ in global citizenship education in England. She would like to thank the following friends and colleagues who provided extremely valuable feedback, ideas and insights to earlier versions of this article: Linda Barker, Katy Newell-Jones, Doug Bourn, Ange Grunsell, April Biccum and Lynn Mario de Souza.

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Ultimate Critical Thinking Cheat Sheet

18 thoughts on “ Ultimate Critical Thinking Cheat Sheet ”

Can I use this for company training? Is there a purchase/copyright.

Hi, Dale: You will need to contact the Global Digital Citizen Foundation to request permission to use this resource.

#hi, where can i get a chart?

Hi, Alma! The good folks at the Global Digital Citizen Foundation can help you here: https://globaldigitalcitizen.org/critical-thinking-skills-cheatsheet-infographic

Where is the actual critical aspect of the “thinking”? I would want to see, “What are the premises of the argument? Are they actually true? What evidence supports it and contradicts it? What other explanations might cause that result? What would be the result of the intervention? Does the proposed intervention actually address the problem identified? Is the problem identified the right problem?”

Thank you, PaulR! The fact that these basic rhetorical questions are missing from this infographic illustrates what is wrong with our current methods of “debate” on issues from climate change to healthcare.

Great post. Thanks

Excellent. Useful for the classroom.

Go to the previous page where you saw this graphic. There is a link above it that will allow you to download it.

I want to purchase

https://globaldigitalcitizen.org/critical-thinking-skills-cheatsheet-infographic

How may I obtain a copy? Thanks.

I’m interested in a copy too.

I’d like to get one too. How can one be purchased? Thank you

Is this a poster that can be purchased? How can I get a copy?

I would appreciate to know if someone have translated that Cheatsheet in French language

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Global Citizenship Education

Critical and International Perspectives

• Open Access
• © 2020

You have full access to this open access Book

• Abdeljalil Akkari 0 ,
• Kathrine Maleq 1

Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland

You can also search for this editor in PubMed   Google Scholar

University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland

• Opens new perspectives on and counterbalances the mainstreaming of the global citizenship education discourse in global agendas
• Brings a comparative and critical approach to citizenship education at local, national and global levels
• Gives a voice to stakeholders from geographic regions that are too often overlooked in the global citizenship education debate

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Table of contents (15 chapters)

Front matter, introduction, global citizenship education: recognizing diversity in a global world.

• Abdeljalil Akkari, Kathrine Maleq

Latin America

Citizenship, social exclusion and education in latin america: the case of brazil.

• Mylene Santiago, Abdeljalil Akkari

Paraguayan Indigenous Peoples and the Challenge of Citizenship

• Dominique Demelenne

Asia and Pacific

Three educational approaches responding to globalization in japan.

• Aoi Nakayama

The Construction of Citizenship in Kazakhstan Between the Soviet Era and Globalization

• Almash Seidikenova, Abdeljalil Akkari, Aitkali Bakitov

Global Citizenship Through the Lens of Indigenous Pedagogies in Australia and New Zealand. A Comparative Perspective

• Nigel Bagnall, Sarah Jane Moore

Citizenship Education in Niger: Challenges and Perspectives

• Moussa Mohamed Sagayar

Global Citizenship Education in West Africa: A Promising Concept?

• Thibaut Lauwerier

North Africa

Citizenship education in post-conflict contexts: the case of algeria.

• Naouel Abdellatif Mami

Women’s Rights, Democracy and Citizenship in Tunisia

• Halima Ouanada

Europe and North America

Global citizenship education in canada and the u.s.: from nation-centric multiculturalism to youth engagement.

• Sarah Ranco, Alexis Gilmer, Colleen Loomis

Global Citizenship Education in European Multicultural Contexts: Opportunities and Challenges

• Myriam Radhouane, Kathrine Maleq

International Education and Innovation

• Global social justice in education
• Global Citizenship Education GCE
• Preparing youth for a sustainable world
• 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development
• United Nations
• Citizenship education
• Intercultural education
• Multicultural education
• Education for sustainable development
• Education for social justice
• Global competence
• International educational policies

About this book

This open access book takes a critical and international perspective to the mainstreaming of the Global Citizenship Concept and analyses the key issues regarding global citizenship education across the world. In that respect, it addresses a pressing need to provide further conceptual input and to open global citizenship agendas to diversity and indigeneity. Social and political changes brought by globalisation, migration and technological advances of the 21st century have generated a rise in the popularity of the utopian and philosophical idea of global citizenship. In response to the challenges of today’s globalised and interconnected world, such as inequality, human rights violations and poverty, global citizenship education has been invoked as a means of preparing youth for an inclusive and sustainable world.    In recent years, the development of global citizenship education and the building of students’ global citizenship competencies have become a focal pointin global agendas for education, international educational assessments and international organisations. However, the concept of global citizenship education still remains highly contested and subject to multiple interpretations, and its operationalisation in national educational policies proves to be challenging.   This volume aims to contribute to the debate, question the relevancy of global citizenship education’s policy objectives and to enhance understanding of local perspectives, ideologies, conceptions and issues related to citizenship education on a local, national and global level. To this end, the book provides a comprehensive and geographically based overview of the challenges citizenship education faces in a rapidly changing global world through the lens of diversity and inclusiveness.

Editors and Affiliations

Abdeljalil Akkari

Kathrine Maleq

About the editors

Abdeljalil Akkari is a professor and the director of the research group on international education at the University of Geneva, Switzerland. He is also visiting professor at the Al-Farabi Kazakh National University, Kazakhstan. Abdeljalil Akkari is a regular consultant for UNESCO and other international organizations. He was the Dean of research at the Higher Pedagogical Institute HEP-BEJUNE (Bienne, Switzerland) and assistant professor at the University of Maryland Baltimore County (Baltimore, United States). His main experience and major publications include studies on international cooperation, educational planning, multicultural education, teacher training and educational inequalities. His principal research interests are currently centered on teacher education and reforms of educational systems in a comparative and international perspective.    

Kathrine Maleq  is a research and teaching fellow at the Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Geneva, Switzerland. Previously, she was responsible for the design, coordination, implementation and evaluation of nationwide and regional education for peace programs for an NGO. Her research focuses on Global Citizenship Education, multicultural education, preschool-family collaboration from a cross-cultural perspective and early childhood education in the Global South.

Bibliographic Information

Book Title : Global Citizenship Education

Book Subtitle : Critical and International Perspectives

Editors : Abdeljalil Akkari, Kathrine Maleq

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-44617-8

Publisher : Springer Cham

eBook Packages : Education , Education (R0)

Copyright Information : The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2020

Hardcover ISBN : 978-3-030-44616-1 Published: 19 August 2020

Softcover ISBN : 978-3-030-44619-2 Published: 18 September 2020

eBook ISBN : 978-3-030-44617-8 Published: 18 August 2020

Edition Number : 1

Number of Pages : XIV, 217

Number of Illustrations : 4 b/w illustrations

Topics : International and Comparative Education , Social Justice, Equality and Human Rights , Sociology of Education , Environmental and Sustainability Education , Educational Policy and Politics

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Question of the Day Examples

By Med Kharbach, PhD | Last Update: May 25, 2024

The importance of questioning in the classroom cannot be overstated, as it is a fundamental tool for fostering engagement, critical thinking, and deeper understanding. According to Patrícia Albergaria Almeida (2012), effective classroom questioning shifts the focus from teacher-centered to student-centered learning, encouraging higher-order thinking and active participation. Almeida’s research highlights that while teachers ask a high volume of questions—between 300 and 400 daily—students ask significantly fewer, typically only one question per week. This disparity underscores the need for greater awareness and strategies to promote student questioning, as it is vital for uncovering students’ conceptual understanding and reasoning processes.

Similarly, Rodolfo A. Neirotti (2021) emphasizes that questioning is crucial for understanding and exploring the world around us. Questions drive curiosity and foster an analytical mindset, allowing students to connect new information with prior knowledge and make sense of complex concepts. Neirotti argues that questioning helps improve interactions, stimulate creativity, and support scientific inquiry, which are essential for intellectual growth and problem-solving.

In today’s post, I compiled an extensive list of Question of the Day examples that you can use with your students or colleagues to spark engagement, foster critical thinking, and promote a dynamic learning environment. These questions are carefully categorized to cover diverse themes, including Cultural Appreciation, Environmental Awareness, Historical Perspectives, STEM Curiosities, Creative Expression, Global Citizenship, Philosophical Inquiry, Health and Wellness, Innovative Thinking, and Interpersonal Skills.

Question of The Day Examples

Here are some engaging “Question of the Day” prompts to spark curiosity and foster a dynamic learning environment.

1. Cultural Appreciation

Understanding and appreciating diverse cultures is essential in our interconnected world. This category encourages students to explore traditions, customs, and values from various cultures, fostering a sense of global awareness and respect. Through these questions, students will learn about the richness of cultural diversity and the importance of inclusivity.

• What is one tradition from another culture that you find interesting and why?
• How do different cultures celebrate the New Year?
• Can you name a traditional dish from another country and describe it?
• What are some common cultural symbols from around the world?
• How do various cultures honor their ancestors?
• What is a unique holiday celebrated in another country?
• How do different cultures approach education?
• What is one art form unique to a specific culture?
• How do people in different countries greet each other?
• What are some traditional clothing items from different cultures?
• How do various cultures celebrate weddings?
• What are some unique musical instruments from around the world?
• How do different cultures celebrate coming-of-age ceremonies?
• What is a popular sport in another country that is less known here?
• How do various cultures view and use traditional medicine?

2. Environmental Awareness

Our planet faces numerous environmental challenges, and it’s crucial to raise awareness about sustainability and conservation. This category focuses on questions that highlight the significance of protecting our environment. Students will explore topics like climate change, recycling, and renewable energy, inspiring them to take action towards a greener future.

• What is one simple way you can reduce your carbon footprint?
• How does recycling help the environment?
• What are the effects of deforestation on wildlife?
• How does pollution affect marine life?
• What are the benefits of using renewable energy sources?
• How can planting trees help combat climate change?
• What are the consequences of plastic waste in the oceans?
• How can we conserve water in our daily lives?
• What are some endangered species and why are they at risk?
• How does composting benefit the environment?
• What is the importance of biodiversity?
• How do oil spills impact the environment?
• What are some ways to promote sustainable agriculture?
• How does urbanization affect natural habitats?
• What role do bees play in our ecosystem?

Related: 100 Engaging Philosophical Questions for Kids

3. Historical Perspectives

History offers invaluable lessons and insights into our present and future. This category prompts students to delve into significant historical events and figures, encouraging them to think critically about the past. By understanding history, students can better appreciate the complexities of the world and the progress we’ve made.

• What is one historical event you would like to witness and why?
• How did the invention of the printing press change the world?
• What are some lessons we can learn from ancient civilizations?
• How did the Industrial Revolution impact society?
• What is the significance of the Magna Carta?
• How did the discovery of electricity revolutionize life?
• What are the key causes of the World Wars?
• How did the civil rights movement shape modern society?
• What is the impact of the Renaissance on art and culture?
• How did explorers like Christopher Columbus change the world?
• What is the historical significance of the Great Wall of China?
• How did the Cold War influence global politics?
• What can we learn from the fall of the Roman Empire?
• How did the Space Race affect technological advancement?
• What was the impact of the Silk Road on trade and culture?

4. STEM Curiosities

Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math (STEM) are fields that drive innovation and shape our future. This category is designed to spark curiosity and interest in STEM topics. Through these questions, students will explore fascinating concepts and recent advancements, encouraging them to think like scientists and engineers.

• How do vaccines work to protect us from diseases?
• What are black holes and why are they important to study?
• How does coding contribute to creating video games?
• What are some recent breakthroughs in renewable energy?
• How does 3D printing work and what are its uses?
• What is the role of DNA in heredity?
• How do self-driving cars navigate and avoid obstacles?
• What are the benefits and risks of artificial intelligence?
• How does the internet work?
• What are the basic principles of quantum physics?
• How do weather satellites predict storms?
• What are some cutting-edge materials used in construction?
• How do we measure the distance between stars?
• What are the applications of nanotechnology in medicine?
• How does the human brain process information?

5. Creative Expression

Creativity is a vital part of personal and academic growth. This category inspires students to express themselves artistically and imaginatively. Whether through art, music, writing, or design, these questions encourage students to explore their creative potential and understand the value of artistic expression.

• If you could create a new art form, what would it be?
• How does music influence your mood and creativity?
• What story would you tell if you wrote a book?
• How would you design a dream home?
• What inspires you to create art?
• If you could compose a song, what would it be about?
• How would you direct a movie with no dialogue?
• What is your favorite way to express yourself creatively?
• If you could build a sculpture out of any material, what would you use?
• How do colors influence your artwork?
• What role does creativity play in solving everyday problems?
• How would you choreograph a dance to tell a story?
• If you could design a video game, what would its theme be?
• How do different cultures influence artistic styles?
• What would you paint if you had a giant canvas and no restrictions?

6. Global Citizenship

Being a responsible global citizen means understanding and addressing global issues. This category promotes awareness of topics like human rights, global health, and social justice. Through these questions, students will learn about their role in the global community and how they can contribute to a more equitable world.

• How can we support fair trade practices globally?
• What are the impacts of global warming on different regions of the world?
• How can we help refugees in our communities?
• What are the benefits of learning a second language?
• How do international organizations like the UN help maintain peace?
• What are some ways to reduce global poverty?
• How does access to education vary around the world?
• What is the importance of protecting human rights?
• How can we promote gender equality globally?
• What are the effects of global health crises on different countries?
• How does global trade affect local economies?
• What role can individuals play in combating climate change?
• How does cultural exchange benefit global understanding?
• What are the consequences of deforestation in the Amazon rainforest?
• How can we support clean water initiatives worldwide?

7. Philosophical Inquiry

Philosophy encourages deep, critical thinking about life’s fundamental questions. This category challenges students to consider philosophical ideas and ethical dilemmas. By engaging with these questions, students will develop their reasoning skills and explore different perspectives on complex issues.

• What is the meaning of happiness?
• Do humans have free will?
• What is the nature of reality?
• Is there such a thing as absolute truth?
• What is the purpose of life?
• Can we ever truly know another person’s mind?
• What makes an action morally right or wrong?
• Is it possible to achieve true equality?
• What is the value of art in society?
• Can machines possess consciousness?
• What is the role of government in our lives?
• How do we define beauty?
• Is there life after death?
• What are the limits of human knowledge?
• How do we determine what is just?

8. Health and Wellness

Promoting health and wellness is essential for a balanced life. This category focuses on questions that encourage students to think about their physical and mental well-being. Topics include nutrition, exercise, mindfulness, and stress management, helping students develop healthy habits and self-awareness.

• What are the benefits of a balanced diet?
• How does exercise impact mental health?
• What are some effective stress management techniques?
• Why is sleep important for overall health?
• How can mindfulness improve daily life?
• What are the signs of a healthy friendship?
• How does staying hydrated affect your body?
• What are the benefits of spending time in nature?
• How can setting goals improve mental health?
• What role does laughter play in well-being?
• How can you create a personal wellness plan?
• What are the benefits of practicing gratitude?
• How does music influence your mood?
• What is the importance of regular medical check-ups?
• How can volunteering boost your happiness?

9. Innovative Thinking

Innovation drives progress and solves problems. This category encourages students to think creatively and entrepreneurially. Through these questions, students will explore ways to address challenges and create new opportunities, fostering a mindset of innovation and proactive problem-solving.

• What problem in your community would you like to solve with an invention?
• How can we make renewable energy more accessible?
• What new technology could improve education?
• How can design thinking be applied to everyday problems?
• What is an example of an innovative solution to a global issue?
• How can we use technology to reduce food waste?
• What startup idea do you think would succeed today?
• How can we promote entrepreneurship in young people?
• What is the future of transportation?
• How can we make healthcare more affordable and effective?
• What role does creativity play in innovation?
• How can businesses become more environmentally sustainable?
• What is the next big thing in technology?
• How can we encourage more women in STEM fields?
• What innovative approach could solve the housing crisis?

10. Interpersonal Skills

Effective communication and strong interpersonal skills are key to personal and professional success. This category helps students develop social skills, empathy, and leadership qualities. These questions encourage students to reflect on their interactions with others and improve their ability to collaborate and connect.

• How can you show empathy in a conversation?
• What are some effective ways to resolve conflicts?
• How can you improve your active listening skills?
• What are the benefits of giving and receiving constructive feedback?
• How can you build trust in a team?
• What are some ways to practice effective communication?
• How do you handle difficult conversations?
• What are the qualities of a good leader?
• How can you be more assertive without being aggressive?
• What role does body language play in communication?
• How can you improve your public speaking skills?
• How do you build and maintain healthy relationships?
• What are some strategies for networking?
• How can you be a better collaborator?
• What are the benefits of understanding different communication styles?

Related: Attendance Questions for Your Class

Importance of Questions in Learning

For those interested in exploring the significance of questions in educational settings, several key research papers provide valuable insights and practical strategies. For instances, Robin Alexander’s “Towards Dialogic Teaching” (2005) emphasizes the role of dialogue and questioning in fostering a more interactive and engaging classroom environment. Allison and Shrigley (1986) discuss techniques for teaching children to ask operational questions in science, highlighting the importance of inquiry-based learning. On their part, Arzi and White (1986) explore the types and impacts of students’ questions in science education, offering a research-based perspective on promoting student curiosity.

Similarly, Paul Black and colleagues (2002) in “Working Inside the Black Box” focus on how questioning and formative assessment can enhance learning outcomes. Blosser (1995) provides practical advice on asking effective questions, while Browne and Keeley (1998) offer a guide to critical thinking through the art of questioning. Carlsen (1991) analyzes classroom questioning from a sociolinguistic perspective, providing a deeper understanding of its dynamics.

For a problem-based learning approach, Chin and Chia (2004) demonstrate how student questions drive knowledge construction. Penick, Crow, and Bonnsteter (1996) argue that questions are fundamental to effective science teaching while Rop (2002) investigates the meaning and impact of student inquiry questions from the teacher’s viewpoint.

As for Rosenshine, Meister, and Chapman (1996), they provided an extensive review of intervention studies on teaching students to generate questions. Finally, Shodell (1995) advocates for a question-driven classroom to stimulate student engagement and learning.

These resources collectively underscore the transformative power of questioning in education, offering both theoretical insights and practical approaches to enhance teaching and learning.

• Almeida, P. A. (2012). Can I ask a question? the importance of classroom questioning. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences , 31, 634-63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.12.116.
• Alexander, R. (2005). Towards dialogic teaching . York, UK: Dialogos.
• Allison, A.W., & Shrigley, R.L. (1986). Teaching children to ask operational questions in science. Science Education , 70, 73–80.
• Arzi, H.J. & White, R.T. (1986). Questions on students’ questions. Research in Science Education , 16, 82–91.
• Black, P., Harrison, C., Lee, C., Marshall, B., & Wiliam, D. (2002). Working inside the black box: Assessment for learning in the classroom . London: King’s College London
• Blosser, P.E. (1995). How to ask the right questions. Arlington , VA: National Science Teachers Association
• Browne, M.N., & Keeley, S.M. (1998). Asking the right questions: A guide to critical thinking. Englewood Cliffs , NJ: Prentice Hall.
• Carlsen, W.S. (1991). Questioning in classrooms: A sociolinguistic perspective. Review of Educational Research , 61, 157–178.
• Chin, C., & Chia, L.G. (2004). Problem-based learning: Using students’ questions to drive knowledge construction. Science Education , 88, 707–727.
• Chin, C., & Osborne, J. (2008). Students’ questions: a potential resource for teaching and learning science. Studies in Science Education , 44, 1-39.
• Neirotti, R. A. (2021). The importance of asking questions and doing things for a reason. Braz J Cardiovasc Surg , 36(1): I-II. doi: 10.21470/1678-9741-2021-0950 . PMID: 33594859; PMCID: PMC7918389.
• Penick, J.E., Crow, L.W., & Bonnsteter, R.J. (1996). Questions are the answers. Science Teacher , 63, 26–29.
• Rop, C.J. (2002). The meaning of student inquiry questions: A teacher’s beliefs and responses. International Journal of Science Education , 24(7), 717–736.
• Rosenshine, B., Meister, C., & Chapman, S. (1996). Teaching students to generate questions: A review of the intervention studies. Review of Educational Research , 66, 181–221.
• Shodell, M. (1995). The question-driven classroom. American Biology Teacher , 57, 278–281.

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Meet Med Kharbach, PhD

Dr. Med Kharbach is an influential voice in the global educational technology landscape, with an extensive background in educational studies and a decade-long experience as a K-12 teacher. Holding a Ph.D. from Mount Saint Vincent University in Halifax, Canada, he brings a unique perspective to the educational world by integrating his profound academic knowledge with his hands-on teaching experience. Dr. Kharbach's academic pursuits encompass curriculum studies, discourse analysis, language learning/teaching, language and identity, emerging literacies, educational technology, and research methodologies. His work has been presented at numerous national and international conferences and published in various esteemed academic journals.

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Avoiding AI Anxiety in Business Education

• Business schools have a crucial role in teaching future leaders both the benefits and risks of AI, ensuring they can apply the technology responsibly and effectively.
• Students from all backgrounds need a foundational understanding of AI, in addition to critical thinking skills, to ensure they are prepared for AI-related projects in their careers.
• Collaborating with companies and other institutions as well as hiring experts in AI are key ways that business schools can enhance AI education and meet the evolving demands of the job market.

Ana Freire : [0:15] Today, we talk a lot about AI anxiety, and I think that that's just a pole of the whole way that we can explore about AI. We don't need to be AI cheerleaders, but also we don't need to have AI anxiety. We can take a place in the middle in which we are aware of the benefits, but also of the drawbacks or the downside of artificial intelligence.

[0:41] We have to have the tools to decide in which particular moment, in which particular task, or in which environment, we can apply artificial intelligence or not, and be aware of the consequences.

[0:55] Many people are afraid of losing their jobs, or maybe to see their tasks reduced to less workload. I think that the workers and the general population should not be afraid of AI. They should be afraid of the people who know how to use AI, because those are the one that will replace their jobs.

[1:20] Business schools, as higher education institutions, have the responsibility to teach the future leaders in the good side and the bad side of AI. The good side is how AI can make a lot of processes much more efficient, but also we have to teach them the risks of AI, such as bias or ethical issues, and so on.

[1:44] Also, there is a challenge here and it's that most of our students come from many different disciplines, from many different educational backgrounds.

Business schools, as higher education institutions, have the responsibility to teach the future leaders in the good side and the bad side of AI.

[1:53] We have somehow to uniform their background to understand basics of artificial intelligence in order to develop, as well, on them the critical thinking, so when they arrive to the job market, they can make a decision on how to develop a project based on AI, or how to collaborate in a project which is based on this kind of technology.

[2:15] In our school, we want to teach the future leaders how to embrace AI, no matter their background, and we are implementing courses on hands-on exercises based on AI in more than 20 programs in our institutions.

[2:31] These programs are really different. Some of them are more related to data analytics, but also related to sustainability management, to finance, marketing, human resources management, but also public and social policies.

[2:46] We are teaching the students how to code their own algorithms and how they should process the data. This is the best way in which they can understand the mechanisms underlying artificial intelligence, and this is the best way in which they can also see the potential but also the drawbacks of artificial intelligence.

[3:07] I would encourage business schools all around the world to follow this approach as well. Do not be afraid of introducing very technical details into the curriculum, because I think that you would be surprised on how the students receive this new training on AI, and on Python, and coding.

We want to teach the future leaders how to embrace AI, no matter their background.

[3:28] Even in some programs, they ask us to do this. It's not our initiative, but it's the initiative of the students that, in many different programs, they want also to learn the mechanisms underlying artificial intelligence.

[3:42] In order to train our students, the future leaders in artificial intelligence, we follow several approaches. Initially, we hire new lecturers which are experts in artificial intelligence: computer scientists, data scientists, and so on.

[4:02] We also collaborate with companies that are developing products based on artificial intelligence. They have the practical knowledge on how these technologies are changing the job market directly. It's not just that you have to transform your current lecturers, but also hire new ones, which is also challenging.

[4:17] Collaboration. Collaboration with companies, with other business schools, or with academia, with universities that have engineering degrees, for instance. This is a source of lecturer that sometimes we do not consider, and it's something that can help us a lot to implement faster these new changes that are demanded by the job market.

• artificial intelligence
• collaboration
• future of business education