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Making Learning Relevant With Case Studies

The open-ended problems presented in case studies give students work that feels connected to their lives.

To prepare students for jobs that haven’t been created yet, we need to teach them how to be great problem solvers so that they’ll be ready for anything. One way to do this is by teaching content and skills using real-world case studies, a learning model that’s focused on reflection during the problem-solving process. It’s similar to project-based learning, but PBL is more focused on students creating a product.

Case studies have been used for years by businesses, law and medical schools, physicians on rounds, and artists critiquing work. Like other forms of problem-based learning, case studies can be accessible for every age group, both in one subject and in interdisciplinary work.

You can get started with case studies by tackling relatable questions like these with your students:

• How can we limit food waste in the cafeteria?
• How can we get our school to recycle and compost waste? (Or, if you want to be more complex, how can our school reduce its carbon footprint?)
• How can we improve school attendance?
• How can we reduce the number of people who get sick at school during cold and flu season?

Addressing questions like these leads students to identify topics they need to learn more about. In researching the first question, for example, students may see that they need to research food chains and nutrition. Students often ask, reasonably, why they need to learn something, or when they’ll use their knowledge in the future. Learning is most successful for students when the content and skills they’re studying are relevant, and case studies offer one way to create that sense of relevance.

Teaching With Case Studies

Ultimately, a case study is simply an interesting problem with many correct answers. What does case study work look like in classrooms? Teachers generally start by having students read the case or watch a video that summarizes the case. Students then work in small groups or individually to solve the case study. Teachers set milestones defining what students should accomplish to help them manage their time.

During the case study learning process, student assessment of learning should be focused on reflection. Arthur L. Costa and Bena Kallick’s Learning and Leading With Habits of Mind gives several examples of what this reflection can look like in a classroom: 

Journaling: At the end of each work period, have students write an entry summarizing what they worked on, what worked well, what didn’t, and why. Sentence starters and clear rubrics or guidelines will help students be successful. At the end of a case study project, as Costa and Kallick write, it’s helpful to have students “select significant learnings, envision how they could apply these learnings to future situations, and commit to an action plan to consciously modify their behaviors.”

Interviews: While working on a case study, students can interview each other about their progress and learning. Teachers can interview students individually or in small groups to assess their learning process and their progress.

Student discussion: Discussions can be unstructured—students can talk about what they worked on that day in a think-pair-share or as a full class—or structured, using Socratic seminars or fishbowl discussions. If your class is tackling a case study in small groups, create a second set of small groups with a representative from each of the case study groups so that the groups can share their learning.

4 Tips for Setting Up a Case Study

1. Identify a problem to investigate: This should be something accessible and relevant to students’ lives. The problem should also be challenging and complex enough to yield multiple solutions with many layers.

2. Give context: Think of this step as a movie preview or book summary. Hook the learners to help them understand just enough about the problem to want to learn more.

3. Have a clear rubric: Giving structure to your definition of quality group work and products will lead to stronger end products. You may be able to have your learners help build these definitions.

4. Provide structures for presenting solutions: The amount of scaffolding you build in depends on your students’ skill level and development. A case study product can be something like several pieces of evidence of students collaborating to solve the case study, and ultimately presenting their solution with a detailed slide deck or an essay—you can scaffold this by providing specified headings for the sections of the essay.

Problem-Based Teaching Resources

There are many high-quality, peer-reviewed resources that are open source and easily accessible online.

• The National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science at the University at Buffalo built an online collection of more than 800 cases that cover topics ranging from biochemistry to economics. There are resources for middle and high school students.
• Models of Excellence , a project maintained by EL Education and the Harvard Graduate School of Education, has examples of great problem- and project-based tasks—and corresponding exemplary student work—for grades pre-K to 12.
• The Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning at Purdue University is an open-source journal that publishes examples of problem-based learning in K–12 and post-secondary classrooms.
• The Tech Edvocate has a list of websites and tools related to problem-based learning.

In their book Problems as Possibilities , Linda Torp and Sara Sage write that at the elementary school level, students particularly appreciate how they feel that they are taken seriously when solving case studies. At the middle school level, “researchers stress the importance of relating middle school curriculum to issues of student concern and interest.” And high schoolers, they write, find the case study method “beneficial in preparing them for their future.”

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Article • 10 min read

Case Study-Based Learning

Enhancing learning through immediate application.

By the Mind Tools Content Team

If you've ever tried to learn a new concept, you probably appreciate that "knowing" is different from "doing." When you have an opportunity to apply your knowledge, the lesson typically becomes much more real.

Adults often learn differently from children, and we have different motivations for learning. Typically, we learn new skills because we want to. We recognize the need to learn and grow, and we usually need – or want – to apply our newfound knowledge soon after we've learned it.

A popular theory of adult learning is andragogy (the art and science of leading man, or adults), as opposed to the better-known pedagogy (the art and science of leading children). Malcolm Knowles , a professor of adult education, was considered the father of andragogy, which is based on four key observations of adult learners:

• Adults learn best if they know why they're learning something.
• Adults often learn best through experience.
• Adults tend to view learning as an opportunity to solve problems.
• Adults learn best when the topic is relevant to them and immediately applicable.

This means that you'll get the best results with adults when they're fully involved in the learning experience. Give an adult an opportunity to practice and work with a new skill, and you have a solid foundation for high-quality learning that the person will likely retain over time.

So, how can you best use these adult learning principles in your training and development efforts? Case studies provide an excellent way of practicing and applying new concepts. As such, they're very useful tools in adult learning, and it's important to understand how to get the maximum value from them.

What Is a Case Study?

Case studies are a form of problem-based learning, where you present a situation that needs a resolution. A typical business case study is a detailed account, or story, of what happened in a particular company, industry, or project over a set period of time.

The learner is given details about the situation, often in a historical context. The key players are introduced. Objectives and challenges are outlined. This is followed by specific examples and data, which the learner then uses to analyze the situation, determine what happened, and make recommendations.

The depth of a case depends on the lesson being taught. A case study can be two pages, 20 pages, or more. A good case study makes the reader think critically about the information presented, and then develop a thorough assessment of the situation, leading to a well-thought-out solution or recommendation.

Why Use a Case Study?

Case studies are a great way to improve a learning experience, because they get the learner involved, and encourage immediate use of newly acquired skills.

They differ from lectures or assigned readings because they require participation and deliberate application of a broad range of skills. For example, if you study financial analysis through straightforward learning methods, you may have to calculate and understand a long list of financial ratios (don't worry if you don't know what these are). Likewise, you may be given a set of financial statements to complete a ratio analysis. But until you put the exercise into context, you may not really know why you're doing the analysis.

With a case study, however, you might explore whether a bank should provide financing to a borrower, or whether a company is about to make a good acquisition. Suddenly, the act of calculating ratios becomes secondary – it's more important to understand what the ratios tell you. This is how case studies can make the difference between knowing what to do, and knowing how, when, and why to do it.

Then, what really separates case studies from other practical forms of learning – like scenarios and simulations – is the ability to compare the learner's recommendations with what actually happened. When you know what really happened, it's much easier to evaluate the "correctness" of the answers given.

When to Use a Case Study

As you can see, case studies are powerful and effective training tools. They also work best with practical, applied training, so make sure you use them appropriately.

Remember these tips:

• Case studies tend to focus on why and how to apply a skill or concept, not on remembering facts and details. Use case studies when understanding the concept is more important than memorizing correct responses.
• Case studies are great team-building opportunities. When a team gets together to solve a case, they'll have to work through different opinions, methods, and perspectives.
• Use case studies to build problem-solving skills, particularly those that are valuable when applied, but are likely to be used infrequently. This helps people get practice with these skills that they might not otherwise get.
• Case studies can be used to evaluate past problem solving. People can be asked what they'd do in that situation, and think about what could have been done differently.

Ensuring Maximum Value From Case Studies

The first thing to remember is that you already need to have enough theoretical knowledge to handle the questions and challenges in the case study. Otherwise, it can be like trying to solve a puzzle with some of the pieces missing.

Here are some additional tips for how to approach a case study. Depending on the exact nature of the case, some tips will be more relevant than others.

• Read the case at least three times before you start any analysis. Case studies usually have lots of details, and it's easy to miss something in your first, or even second, reading.
• Once you're thoroughly familiar with the case, note the facts. Identify which are relevant to the tasks you've been assigned. In a good case study, there are often many more facts than you need for your analysis.
• If the case contains large amounts of data, analyze this data for relevant trends. For example, have sales dropped steadily, or was there an unexpected high or low point?
• If the case involves a description of a company's history, find the key events, and consider how they may have impacted the current situation.
• Consider using techniques like SWOT analysis and Porter's Five Forces Analysis to understand the organization's strategic position.
• Stay with the facts when you draw conclusions. These include facts given in the case as well as established facts about the environmental context. Don't rely on personal opinions when you put together your answers.

Writing a Case Study

You may have to write a case study yourself. These are complex documents that take a while to research and compile. The quality of the case study influences the quality of the analysis. Here are some tips if you want to write your own:

• Write your case study as a structured story. The goal is to capture an interesting situation or challenge and then bring it to life with words and information. You want the reader to feel a part of what's happening.
• Present information so that a "right" answer isn't obvious. The goal is to develop the learner's ability to analyze and assess, not necessarily to make the same decision as the people in the actual case.
• Do background research to fully understand what happened and why. You may need to talk to key stakeholders to get their perspectives as well.
• Determine the key challenge. What needs to be resolved? The case study should focus on one main question or issue.
• Define the context. Talk about significant events leading up to the situation. What organizational factors are important for understanding the problem and assessing what should be done? Include cultural factors where possible.
• Identify key decision makers and stakeholders. Describe their roles and perspectives, as well as their motivations and interests.
• Make sure that you provide the right data to allow people to reach appropriate conclusions.
• Make sure that you have permission to use any information you include.

A typical case study structure includes these elements:

• Executive summary. Define the objective, and state the key challenge.
• Opening paragraph. Capture the reader's interest.
• Scope. Describe the background, context, approach, and issues involved.
• Presentation of facts. Develop an objective picture of what's happening.
• Description of key issues. Present viewpoints, decisions, and interests of key parties.

Because case studies have proved to be such effective teaching tools, many are already written. Some excellent sources of free cases are The Times 100 , CasePlace.org , and Schroeder & Schroeder Inc . You can often search for cases by topic or industry. These cases are expertly prepared, based mostly on real situations, and used extensively in business schools to teach management concepts.

Case studies are a great way to improve learning and training. They provide learners with an opportunity to solve a problem by applying what they know.

There are no unpleasant consequences for getting it "wrong," and cases give learners a much better understanding of what they really know and what they need to practice.

Case studies can be used in many ways, as team-building tools, and for skill development. You can write your own case study, but a large number are already prepared. Given the enormous benefits of practical learning applications like this, case studies are definitely something to consider adding to your next training session.

Knowles, M. (1973). 'The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species [online].' Available here .

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Case-based learning.

Case-based learning (CBL) is an established approach used across disciplines where students apply their knowledge to real-world scenarios, promoting higher levels of cognition (see Bloom’s Taxonomy ). In CBL classrooms, students typically work in groups on case studies, stories involving one or more characters and/or scenarios.  The cases present a disciplinary problem or problems for which students devise solutions under the guidance of the instructor. CBL has a strong history of successful implementation in medical, law, and business schools, and is increasingly used within undergraduate education, particularly within pre-professional majors and the sciences (Herreid, 1994). This method involves guided inquiry and is grounded in constructivism whereby students form new meanings by interacting with their knowledge and the environment (Lee, 2012).

There are a number of benefits to using CBL in the classroom. In a review of the literature, Williams (2005) describes how CBL: utilizes collaborative learning, facilitates the integration of learning, develops students’ intrinsic and extrinsic motivation to learn, encourages learner self-reflection and critical reflection, allows for scientific inquiry, integrates knowledge and practice, and supports the development of a variety of learning skills.

CBL has several defining characteristics, including versatility, storytelling power, and efficient self-guided learning.  In a systematic analysis of 104 articles in health professions education, CBL was found to be utilized in courses with less than 50 to over 1000 students (Thistlethwaite et al., 2012). In these classrooms, group sizes ranged from 1 to 30, with most consisting of 2 to 15 students.  Instructors varied in the proportion of time they implemented CBL in the classroom, ranging from one case spanning two hours of classroom time, to year-long case-based courses. These findings demonstrate that instructors use CBL in a variety of ways in their classrooms.

The stories that comprise the framework of case studies are also a key component to CBL’s effectiveness. Jonassen and Hernandez-Serrano (2002, p.66) describe how storytelling:

Is a method of negotiating and renegotiating meanings that allows us to enter into other’s realms of meaning through messages they utter in their stories,

Helps us find our place in a culture,

Allows us to explicate and to interpret, and

Facilitates the attainment of vicarious experience by helping us to distinguish the positive models to emulate from the negative model.

Neurochemically, listening to stories can activate oxytocin, a hormone that increases one’s sensitivity to social cues, resulting in more empathy, generosity, compassion and trustworthiness (Zak, 2013; Kosfeld et al., 2005). The stories within case studies serve as a means by which learners form new understandings through characters and/or scenarios.

CBL is often described in conjunction or in comparison with problem-based learning (PBL). While the lines are often confusingly blurred within the literature, in the most conservative of definitions, the features distinguishing the two approaches include that PBL involves open rather than guided inquiry, is less structured, and the instructor plays a more passive role. In PBL multiple solutions to the problem may exit, but the problem is often initially not well-defined. PBL also has a stronger emphasis on developing self-directed learning. The choice between implementing CBL versus PBL is highly dependent on the goals and context of the instruction.  For example, in a comparison of PBL and CBL approaches during a curricular shift at two medical schools, students and faculty preferred CBL to PBL (Srinivasan et al., 2007). Students perceived CBL to be a more efficient process and more clinically applicable. However, in another context, PBL might be the favored approach.

In a review of the effectiveness of CBL in health profession education, Thistlethwaite et al. (2012), found several benefits:

Students enjoyed the method and thought it enhanced their learning,

Instructors liked how CBL engaged students in learning,

CBL seemed to facilitate small group learning, but the authors could not distinguish between whether it was the case itself or the small group learning that occurred as facilitated by the case.

Other studies have also reported on the effectiveness of CBL in achieving learning outcomes (Bonney, 2015; Breslin, 2008; Herreid, 2013; Krain, 2016). These findings suggest that CBL is a vehicle of engagement for instruction, and facilitates an environment whereby students can construct knowledge.

Science – Students are given a scenario to which they apply their basic science knowledge and problem-solving skills to help them solve the case. One example within the biological sciences is two brothers who have a family history of a genetic illness. They each have mutations within a particular sequence in their DNA. Students work through the case and draw conclusions about the biological impacts of these mutations using basic science. Sample cases: You are Not the Mother of Your Children ; Organic Chemisty and Your Cellphone: Organic Light-Emitting Diodes ;   A Light on Physics: F-Number and Exposure Time

Medicine – Medical or pre-health students read about a patient presenting with specific symptoms. Students decide which questions are important to ask the patient in their medical history, how long they have experienced such symptoms, etc. The case unfolds and students use clinical reasoning, propose relevant tests, develop a differential diagnoses and a plan of treatment. Sample cases: The Case of the Crying Baby: Surgical vs. Medical Management ; The Plan: Ethics and Physician Assisted Suicide ; The Haemophilus Vaccine: A Victory for Immunologic Engineering

Public Health – A case study describes a pandemic of a deadly infectious disease. Students work through the case to identify Patient Zero, the person who was the first to spread the disease, and how that individual became infected.  Sample cases: The Protective Parent ; The Elusive Tuberculosis Case: The CDC and Andrew Speaker ; Credible Voice: WHO-Beijing and the SARS Crisis

Law – A case study presents a legal dilemma for which students use problem solving to decide the best way to advise and defend a client. Students are presented information that changes during the case.  Sample cases: Mortgage Crisis Call (abstract) ; The Case of the Unpaid Interns (abstract) ; Police-Community Dialogue (abstract)

Business – Students work on a case study that presents the history of a business success or failure. They apply business principles learned in the classroom and assess why the venture was successful or not. Sample cases: SELCO-Determining a path forward ; Project Masiluleke: Texting and Testing to Fight HIV/AIDS in South Africa ; Mayo Clinic: Design Thinking in Healthcare

Humanities - Students consider a case that presents a theater facing financial and management difficulties. They apply business and theater principles learned in the classroom to the case, working together to create solutions for the theater. Sample cases: David Geffen School of Drama

Recommendations

Finding and Writing Cases

Consider utilizing or adapting open access cases - The availability of open resources and databases containing cases that instructors can download makes this approach even more accessible in the classroom. Two examples of open databases are the Case Center on Public Leadership and Harvard Kennedy School (HKS) Case Program , which focus on government, leadership and public policy case studies.

• Consider writing original cases - In the event that an instructor is unable to find open access cases relevant to their course learning objectives, they may choose to write their own. See the following resources on case writing: Cooking with Betty Crocker: A Recipe for Case Writing ; The Way of Flesch: The Art of Writing Readable Cases ;   Twixt Fact and Fiction: A Case Writer’s Dilemma ; And All That Jazz: An Essay Extolling the Virtues of Writing Case Teaching Notes .

Implementing Cases

Take baby steps if new to CBL - While entire courses and curricula may involve case-based learning, instructors who desire to implement on a smaller-scale can integrate a single case into their class, and increase the number of cases utilized over time as desired.

Use cases in classes that are small, medium or large - Cases can be scaled to any course size. In large classes with stadium seating, students can work with peers nearby, while in small classes with more flexible seating arrangements, teams can move their chairs closer together. CBL can introduce more noise (and energy) in the classroom to which an instructor often quickly becomes accustomed. Further, students can be asked to work on cases outside of class, and wrap up discussion during the next class meeting.

Encourage collaborative work - Cases present an opportunity for students to work together to solve cases which the historical literature supports as beneficial to student learning (Bruffee, 1993). Allow students to work in groups to answer case questions.

Form diverse teams as feasible - When students work within diverse teams they can be exposed to a variety of perspectives that can help them solve the case. Depending on the context of the course, priorities, and the background information gathered about the students enrolled in the class, instructors may choose to organize student groups to allow for diversity in factors such as current course grades, gender, race/ethnicity, personality, among other items.  

Use stable teams as appropriate - If CBL is a large component of the course, a research-supported practice is to keep teams together long enough to go through the stages of group development: forming, storming, norming, performing and adjourning (Tuckman, 1965).

Walk around to guide groups - In CBL instructors serve as facilitators of student learning. Walking around allows the instructor to monitor student progress as well as identify and support any groups that may be struggling. Teaching assistants can also play a valuable role in supporting groups.

Interrupt strategically - Only every so often, for conversation in large group discussion of the case, especially when students appear confused on key concepts. An effective practice to help students meet case learning goals is to guide them as a whole group when the class is ready. This may include selecting a few student groups to present answers to discussion questions to the entire class, asking the class a question relevant to the case using polling software, and/or performing a mini-lesson on an area that appears to be confusing among students.  

Assess student learning in multiple ways - Students can be assessed informally by asking groups to report back answers to various case questions. This practice also helps students stay on task, and keeps them accountable. Cases can also be included on exams using related scenarios where students are asked to apply their knowledge.

Barrows HS. (1996). Problem-based learning in medicine and beyond: a brief overview. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 68, 3-12.  

Bonney KM. (2015). Case Study Teaching Method Improves Student Performance and Perceptions of Learning Gains. Journal of Microbiology and Biology Education, 16(1): 21-28.

Breslin M, Buchanan, R. (2008) On the Case Study Method of Research and Teaching in Design.  Design Issues, 24(1), 36-40.

Bruffee KS. (1993). Collaborative learning: Higher education, interdependence, and authority of knowledge. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD.

Herreid CF. (2013). Start with a Story: The Case Study Method of Teaching College Science, edited by Clyde Freeman Herreid. Originally published in 2006 by the National Science Teachers Association (NSTA); reprinted by the National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science (NCCSTS) in 2013.

Herreid CH. (1994). Case studies in science: A novel method of science education. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 23(4), 221–229.

Jonassen DH and Hernandez-Serrano J. (2002). Case-based reasoning and instructional design: Using stories to support problem solving. Educational Technology, Research and Development, 50(2), 65-77.  

Kosfeld M, Heinrichs M, Zak PJ, Fischbacher U, Fehr E. (2005). Oxytocin increases trust in humans. Nature, 435, 673-676.

Krain M. (2016) Putting the learning in case learning? The effects of case-based approaches on student knowledge, attitudes, and engagement. Journal on Excellence in College Teaching, 27(2), 131-153.

Lee V. (2012). What is Inquiry-Guided Learning?  New Directions for Learning, 129:5-14.

Nkhoma M, Sriratanaviriyakul N. (2017). Using case method to enrich students’ learning outcomes. Active Learning in Higher Education, 18(1):37-50.

Srinivasan et al. (2007). Comparing problem-based learning with case-based learning: Effects of a major curricular shift at two institutions. Academic Medicine, 82(1): 74-82.

Thistlethwaite JE et al. (2012). The effectiveness of case-based learning in health professional education. A BEME systematic review: BEME Guide No. 23.  Medical Teacher, 34, e421-e444.

Tuckman B. (1965). Development sequence in small groups. Psychological Bulletin, 63(6), 384-99.

Williams B. (2005). Case-based learning - a review of the literature: is there scope for this educational paradigm in prehospital education? Emerg Med, 22, 577-581.

Zak, PJ (2013). How Stories Change the Brain. Retrieved from: https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/how_stories_change_brain

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• Creating Effective Scenarios, Case Studies and Role Plays

Creating effective scenarios, case studies and role plays

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Scenarios, case studies and role plays are examples of active and collaborative teaching techniques that research confirms are effective for the deep learning needed for students to be able to remember and apply concepts once they have finished your course. See  Research Findings on University Teaching Methods .

Typically you would use case studies, scenarios and role plays for higher-level learning outcomes that require application, synthesis, and evaluation (see  Writing Outcomes or Learning Objectives ; scroll down to the table).

The point is to increase student interest and involvement, and have them practice application by making choices and receive feedback on them, and refine their understanding of concepts and practice in your discipline.

These types of activities provide the following research-based benefits: (Shaw, 3-5)

• They provide concrete examples of abstract concepts, facilitate the development through practice of analytical skills, procedural experience, and decision making skills through application of course concepts in real life situations. This can result in deep learning and the appreciation of differing perspectives.
• They can result in changed perspectives, increased empathy for others, greater insights into challenges faced by others, and increased civic engagement.
• They tend to increase student motivation and interest, as evidenced by increased rates of attendance, completion of assigned readings, and time spent on course work outside of class time.
• Studies show greater/longer retention of learned materials.
• The result is often better teacher/student relations and a more relaxed environment in which the natural exchange of ideas can take place. Students come to see the instructor in a more positive light.
• They often result in better understanding of complexity of situations. They provide a good forum for a large volume of orderly written analysis and discussion.

There are benefits for instructors as well, such as keeping things fresh and interesting in courses they teach repeatedly; providing good feedback on what students are getting and not getting; and helping in standing and promotion in institutions that value teaching and learning.

Outcomes and learning activity alignment

The learning activity should have a clear, specific skills and/or knowledge development purpose that is evident to both instructor and students. Students benefit from knowing the purpose of the exercise, learning outcomes it strives to achieve, and evaluation methods. The example shown in the table below is for a case study, but the focus on demonstration of what students will know and can do, and the alignment with appropriate learning activities to achieve those abilities applies to other learning activities.

(Smith, 18)

What’s the difference?

Scenarios are typically short and used to illustrate or apply one main concept. The point is to reinforce concepts and skills as they are taught by providing opportunity to apply them. Scenarios can also be more elaborate, with decision points and further scenario elaboration (multiple storylines), depending on responses. CETL has experience developing scenarios with multiple decision points and branching storylines with UNB faculty using PowerPoint and online educational software.

Case studies

Case studies are typically used to apply several problem-solving concepts and skills to a detailed situation with lots of supporting documentation and data. A case study is usually more complex and detailed than a scenario. It often involves a real-life, well documented situation and the students’ solutions are compared to what was done in the actual case. It generally includes dialogue, creates identification or empathy with the main characters, depending on the discipline. They are best if the situations are recent, relevant to students, have a problem or dilemma to solve, and involve principles that apply broadly.

Role plays can be short like scenarios or longer and more complex, like case studies, but without a lot of the documentation. The idea is to enable students to experience what it may be like to see a problem or issue from many different perspectives as they assume a role they may not typically take, and see others do the same.

Foundational considerations

Typically, scenarios, case studies and role plays should focus on real problems, appropriate to the discipline and course level.

They can be “well-structured” or “ill-structured”:

• Well-structured  case studies, problems and scenarios can be simple or complex or anything in-between, but they have an optimal solution and only relevant information is given, and it is usually labelled or otherwise easily identified.
• Ill-structured  case studies, problems and scenarios can also be simple or complex, although they tend to be complex. They have relevant and irrelevant information in them, and part of the student’s job is to decide what is relevant, how it is relevant, and to devise an evidence-based solution to the problem that is appropriate to the context and that can be defended by argumentation that draws upon the student’s knowledge of concepts in the discipline.

Well-structured problems would be used to demonstrate understanding and application. Higher learning levels of analysis, synthesis and evaluation are better demonstrated by ill-structured problems.

Scenarios, case studies and role plays can be  authentic  or  realistic :

• Authentic  scenarios are actual events that occurred, usually with personal details altered to maintain anonymity. Since the events actually happened, we know that solutions are grounded in reality, not a fictionalized or idealized or simplified situation. This makes them “low transference” in that, since we are dealing with the real world (although in a low-stakes, training situation, often with much more time to resolve the situation than in real life, and just the one thing to work on at a time), not much after-training adjustment to the real world is necessary.
• By contrast,  realistic  scenarios are often hypothetical situations that may combine aspects of several real-world events, but are artificial in that they are fictionalized and often contain ideal or simplified elements that exist differently in the real world, and some complications are missing. This often means they are easier to solve than real-life issues, and thus are “high transference” in that some after-training adjustment is necessary to deal with the vagaries and complexities of the real world.

Scenarios, case studies and role plays can be  high  or  low fidelity :

High vs. low fidelity:  Fidelity has to do with how much a scenario, case study or role play is like its corresponding real world situation. Simplified, well-structured scenarios or problems are most appropriate for beginners. These are low-fidelity, lacking a lot of the detail that must be struggled with in actual practice. As students gain experience and deeper knowledge, the level of complexity and correspondence to real-world situations can be increased until they can solve high fidelity, ill-structured problems and scenarios.

Further details for each

Scenarios can be used in a very wide range of learning and assessment activities. Use in class exercises, seminars, as a content presentation method, exam (e.g., tell students the exam will have four case studies and they have to choose two—this encourages deep studying). Scenarios help instructors reflect on what they are trying to achieve, and modify teaching practice.

For detailed working examples of all types, see pages 7 – 25 of the  Psychology Applied Learning Scenarios (PALS) pdf .

The contents of case studies should: (Norton, 6)

• Connect with students’ prior knowledge and help build on it.
• Be presented in a real world context that could plausibly be something they would do in the discipline as a practitioner (e.g., be “authentic”).
• Provide some structure and direction but not too much, since self-directed learning is the goal. They should contain sufficient detail to make the issues clear, but with enough things left not detailed that students have to make assumptions before proceeding (or explore assumptions to determine which are the best to make). “Be ambiguous enough to force them to provide additional factors that influence their approach” (Norton, 6).
• Should have sufficient cues to encourage students to search for explanations but not so many that a lot of time is spent separating relevant and irrelevant cues. Also, too many storyline changes create unnecessary complexity that makes it unnecessarily difficult to deal with.
• Be interesting and engaging and relevant but focus on the mundane, not the bizarre or exceptional (we want to develop skills that will typically be of use in the discipline, not for exceptional circumstances only). Students will relate to case studies more if the depicted situation connects to personal experiences they’ve had.
• Help students fill in knowledge gaps.

Role plays generally have three types of participants: players, observers, and facilitator(s). They also have three phases, as indicated below:

Briefing phase:  This stage provides the warm-up, explanations, and asks participants for input on role play scenario. The role play should be somewhat flexible and customizable to the audience. Good role descriptions are sufficiently detailed to let the average person assume the role but not so detailed that there are so many things to remember that it becomes cumbersome. After role assignments, let participants chat a bit about the scenarios and their roles and ask questions. In assigning roles, consider avoiding having visible minorities playing “bad guy” roles. Ensure everyone is comfortable in their role; encourage students to play it up and even overact their role in order to make the point.

Play phase:  The facilitator makes seating arrangements (for players and observers), sets up props, arranges any tech support necessary, and does a short introduction. Players play roles, and the facilitator keeps things running smoothly by interjecting directions, descriptions, comments, and encouraging the participation of all roles until players keep things moving without intervention, then withdraws. The facilitator provides a conclusion if one does not arise naturally from the interaction.

Debriefing phase:  Role players talk about their experience to the class, facilitated by the instructor or appointee who draws out the main points. All players should describe how they felt and receive feedback from students and the instructor. If the role play involved heated interaction, the debriefing must reconcile any harsh feelings that may otherwise persist due to the exercise.

Five Cs of role playing  (AOM, 3)

Control:  Role plays often take on a life of their own that moves them in directions other than those intended. Rehearse in your mind a few possible ways this could happen and prepare possible intervention strategies. Perhaps for the first role play you can play a minor role to give you and “in” to exert some control if needed. Once the class has done a few role plays, getting off track becomes less likely. Be sensitive to the possibility that students from different cultures may respond in unforeseen ways to role plays. Perhaps ask students from diverse backgrounds privately in advance for advice on such matters. Perhaps some of these students can assist you as co-moderators or observers.

Controversy:  Explain to students that they need to prepare for situations that may provoke them or upset them, and they need to keep their cool and think. Reiterate the learning goals and explain that using this method is worth using because it draws in students more deeply and helps them to feel, not just think, which makes the learning more memorable and more likely to be accessible later. Set up a “safety code word” that students may use at any time to stop the role play and take a break.

Command of details:  Students who are more deeply involved may have many more detailed and persistent questions which will require that you have a lot of additional detail about the situation and characters. They may also question the value of role plays as a teaching method, so be prepared with pithy explanations.

Can you help?  Students may be concerned about how their acting will affect their grade, and want assistance in determining how to play their assigned character and need time to get into their role. Tell them they will not be marked on their acting. Say there is no single correct way to play a character. Prepare for slow starts, gaps in the action, and awkward moments. If someone really doesn’t want to take a role, let them participate by other means—as a recorder, moderator, technical support, observer, props…

Considered reflection:  Reflection and discussion are the main ways of learning from role plays. Players should reflect on what they felt, perceived, and learned from the session. Review the key events of the role play and consider what people would do differently and why. Include reflections of observers. Facilitate the discussion, but don’t impose your opinions, and play a neutral, background role. Be prepared to start with some of your own feedback if discussion is slow to start.

An engineering role play adaptation

Boundary objects (e.g., storyboards) have been used in engineering and computer science design projects to facilitate collaboration between specialists from different disciplines (Diaz, 6-80). In one instance, role play was used in a collaborative design workshop as a way of making computer scientist or engineering students play project roles they are not accustomed to thinking about, such as project manager, designer, user design specialist, etc. (Diaz 6-81).

References:

Academy of Management. (Undated).  Developing a Role playing Case Study as a Teaching Tool. 

Diaz, L., Reunanen, M., & Salimi, A. (2009, August).  Role Playing and Collaborative Scenario Design Development. Paper presented at the International Conference of Engineering Design, Stanford University, California.

Norton, L. (2004).  Psychology Applied Learning Scenarios (PALS): A practical introduction to problem-based learning using vignettes for psychology lecturers .  Liverpool Hope University College. 

Shaw, C. M. (2010). Designing and Using Simulations and Role-Play Exercises in  The International Studies Encyclopedia,  eISBN: 9781444336597

Smith, A. R. & Evanstone, A. (Undated).  Writing Effective Case Studies in the Sciences: Backward Design and Global Learning Outcomes.  Institute for Biological Education, University of Wisconsin-Madison. 

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Case Study At-A-Glance

A case study is a way to let students interact with material in an open-ended manner. the goal is not to find solutions, but to explore possibilities and options of a real-life scenario..

Want examples of a Case-Study?  Check out the ABLConnect Activity Database Want to read research supporting the Case-Study method? Click here

Why should you facilitate a Case Study?

Want to facilitate a case-study in your class .

How-To Run a Case-Study

• Before class pick the case study topic/scenario. You can either generate a fictional situation or can use a real-world example.
• Clearly let students know how they should prepare. Will the information be given to them in class or do they need to do readings/research before coming to class?
• Have a list of questions prepared to help guide discussion (see below)
• Sessions work best when the group size is between 5-20 people so that everyone has an opportunity to participate. You may choose to have one large whole-class discussion or break into sub-groups and have smaller discussions. If you break into groups, make sure to leave extra time at the end to bring the whole class back together to discuss the key points from each group and to highlight any differences.
• What is the problem?
• What is the cause of the problem?
• Who are the key players in the situation? What is their position?
• What are the relevant data?
• What are possible solutions – both short-term and long-term?
• What are alternate solutions? – Play (or have the students play) Devil’s Advocate and consider alternate view points
• What are potential outcomes of each solution?
• What other information do you want to see?
• What can we learn from the scenario?
• Be flexible. While you may have a set of questions prepared, don’t be afraid to go where the discussion naturally takes you. However, be conscious of time and re-focus the group if key points are being missed
• Role-playing can be an effective strategy to showcase alternate viewpoints and resolve any conflicts
• Involve as many students as possible. Teamwork and communication are key aspects of this exercise. If needed, call on students who haven’t spoken yet or instigate another rule to encourage participation.
• Write out key facts on the board for reference. It is also helpful to write out possible solutions and list the pros/cons discussed.
• Having the information written out makes it easier for students to reference during the discussion and helps maintain everyone on the same page.
• Keep an eye on the clock and make sure students are moving through the scenario at a reasonable pace. If needed, prompt students with guided questions to help them move faster.  
• Either give or have the students give a concluding statement that highlights the goals and key points from the discussion. Make sure to compare and contrast alternate viewpoints that came up during the discussion and emphasize the take-home messages that can be applied to future situations.
• Inform students (either individually or the group) how they did during the case study. What worked? What didn’t work? Did everyone participate equally?
• Taking time to reflect on the process is just as important to emphasize and help students learn the importance of teamwork and communication.

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Harvard Business School: Teaching By the Case-Study Method

Written by Catherine Weiner

Center for Teaching

Case studies.

Print Version

Case studies are stories that are used as a teaching tool to show the application of a theory or concept to real situations. Dependent on the goal they are meant to fulfill, cases can be fact-driven and deductive where there is a correct answer, or they can be context driven where multiple solutions are possible. Various disciplines have employed case studies, including humanities, social sciences, sciences, engineering, law, business, and medicine. Good cases generally have the following features: they tell a good story, are recent, include dialogue, create empathy with the main characters, are relevant to the reader, serve a teaching function, require a dilemma to be solved, and have generality.

Instructors can create their own cases or can find cases that already exist. The following are some things to keep in mind when creating a case:

• What do you want students to learn from the discussion of the case?
• What do they already know that applies to the case?
• What are the issues that may be raised in discussion?
• How will the case and discussion be introduced?
• What preparation is expected of students? (Do they need to read the case ahead of time? Do research? Write anything?)
• What directions do you need to provide students regarding what they are supposed to do and accomplish?
• Do you need to divide students into groups or will they discuss as the whole class?
• Are you going to use role-playing or facilitators or record keepers? If so, how?
• What are the opening questions?
• How much time is needed for students to discuss the case?
• What concepts are to be applied/extracted during the discussion?
• How will you evaluate students?

To find other cases that already exist, try the following websites:

• The National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science , University of Buffalo. SUNY-Buffalo maintains this set of links to other case studies on the web in disciplines ranging from engineering and ethics to sociology and business
• A Journal of Teaching Cases in Public Administration and Public Policy , University of Washington

For more information:

• World Association for Case Method Research and Application

Book Review :  Teaching and the Case Method , 3rd ed., vols. 1 and 2, by Louis Barnes, C. Roland (Chris) Christensen, and Abby Hansen. Harvard Business School Press, 1994; 333 pp. (vol 1), 412 pp. (vol 2).

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What the Case Study Method Really Teaches

• Nitin Nohria

Seven meta-skills that stick even if the cases fade from memory.

It’s been 100 years since Harvard Business School began using the case study method. Beyond teaching specific subject matter, the case study method excels in instilling meta-skills in students. This article explains the importance of seven such skills: preparation, discernment, bias recognition, judgement, collaboration, curiosity, and self-confidence.

During my decade as dean of Harvard Business School, I spent hundreds of hours talking with our alumni. To enliven these conversations, I relied on a favorite question: “What was the most important thing you learned from your time in our MBA program?”

• Nitin Nohria is the George F. Baker Jr. and Distinguished Service University Professor. He served as the 10th dean of Harvard Business School, from 2010 to 2020.

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Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Assignments

• Annotated Bibliography
• Analyzing a Scholarly Journal Article
• Group Presentations
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• Types of Structured Group Activities
• Group Project Survival Skills
• Leading a Class Discussion
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Works
• Writing a Case Analysis Paper
• Writing a Case Study
• About Informed Consent
• Writing Field Notes
• Writing a Policy Memo
• Writing a Reflective Paper
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Generative AI and Writing
• Acknowledgments

A case study research paper examines a person, place, event, condition, phenomenon, or other type of subject of analysis in order to extrapolate  key themes and results that help predict future trends, illuminate previously hidden issues that can be applied to practice, and/or provide a means for understanding an important research problem with greater clarity. A case study research paper usually examines a single subject of analysis, but case study papers can also be designed as a comparative investigation that shows relationships between two or more subjects. The methods used to study a case can rest within a quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-method investigative paradigm.

Case Studies. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010 ; “What is a Case Study?” In Swanborn, Peter G. Case Study Research: What, Why and How? London: SAGE, 2010.

How to Approach Writing a Case Study Research Paper

General information about how to choose a topic to investigate can be found under the " Choosing a Research Problem " tab in the Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper writing guide. Review this page because it may help you identify a subject of analysis that can be investigated using a case study design.

However, identifying a case to investigate involves more than choosing the research problem . A case study encompasses a problem contextualized around the application of in-depth analysis, interpretation, and discussion, often resulting in specific recommendations for action or for improving existing conditions. As Seawright and Gerring note, practical considerations such as time and access to information can influence case selection, but these issues should not be the sole factors used in describing the methodological justification for identifying a particular case to study. Given this, selecting a case includes considering the following:

• The case represents an unusual or atypical example of a research problem that requires more in-depth analysis? Cases often represent a topic that rests on the fringes of prior investigations because the case may provide new ways of understanding the research problem. For example, if the research problem is to identify strategies to improve policies that support girl's access to secondary education in predominantly Muslim nations, you could consider using Azerbaijan as a case study rather than selecting a more obvious nation in the Middle East. Doing so may reveal important new insights into recommending how governments in other predominantly Muslim nations can formulate policies that support improved access to education for girls.
• The case provides important insight or illuminate a previously hidden problem? In-depth analysis of a case can be based on the hypothesis that the case study will reveal trends or issues that have not been exposed in prior research or will reveal new and important implications for practice. For example, anecdotal evidence may suggest drug use among homeless veterans is related to their patterns of travel throughout the day. Assuming prior studies have not looked at individual travel choices as a way to study access to illicit drug use, a case study that observes a homeless veteran could reveal how issues of personal mobility choices facilitate regular access to illicit drugs. Note that it is important to conduct a thorough literature review to ensure that your assumption about the need to reveal new insights or previously hidden problems is valid and evidence-based.
• The case challenges and offers a counter-point to prevailing assumptions? Over time, research on any given topic can fall into a trap of developing assumptions based on outdated studies that are still applied to new or changing conditions or the idea that something should simply be accepted as "common sense," even though the issue has not been thoroughly tested in current practice. A case study analysis may offer an opportunity to gather evidence that challenges prevailing assumptions about a research problem and provide a new set of recommendations applied to practice that have not been tested previously. For example, perhaps there has been a long practice among scholars to apply a particular theory in explaining the relationship between two subjects of analysis. Your case could challenge this assumption by applying an innovative theoretical framework [perhaps borrowed from another discipline] to explore whether this approach offers new ways of understanding the research problem. Taking a contrarian stance is one of the most important ways that new knowledge and understanding develops from existing literature.
• The case provides an opportunity to pursue action leading to the resolution of a problem? Another way to think about choosing a case to study is to consider how the results from investigating a particular case may result in findings that reveal ways in which to resolve an existing or emerging problem. For example, studying the case of an unforeseen incident, such as a fatal accident at a railroad crossing, can reveal hidden issues that could be applied to preventative measures that contribute to reducing the chance of accidents in the future. In this example, a case study investigating the accident could lead to a better understanding of where to strategically locate additional signals at other railroad crossings so as to better warn drivers of an approaching train, particularly when visibility is hindered by heavy rain, fog, or at night.
• The case offers a new direction in future research? A case study can be used as a tool for an exploratory investigation that highlights the need for further research about the problem. A case can be used when there are few studies that help predict an outcome or that establish a clear understanding about how best to proceed in addressing a problem. For example, after conducting a thorough literature review [very important!], you discover that little research exists showing the ways in which women contribute to promoting water conservation in rural communities of east central Africa. A case study of how women contribute to saving water in a rural village of Uganda can lay the foundation for understanding the need for more thorough research that documents how women in their roles as cooks and family caregivers think about water as a valuable resource within their community. This example of a case study could also point to the need for scholars to build new theoretical frameworks around the topic [e.g., applying feminist theories of work and family to the issue of water conservation].

Eisenhardt, Kathleen M. “Building Theories from Case Study Research.” Academy of Management Review 14 (October 1989): 532-550; Emmel, Nick. Sampling and Choosing Cases in Qualitative Research: A Realist Approach . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2013; Gerring, John. “What Is a Case Study and What Is It Good for?” American Political Science Review 98 (May 2004): 341-354; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Seawright, Jason and John Gerring. "Case Selection Techniques in Case Study Research." Political Research Quarterly 61 (June 2008): 294-308.

Structure and Writing Style

The purpose of a paper in the social sciences designed around a case study is to thoroughly investigate a subject of analysis in order to reveal a new understanding about the research problem and, in so doing, contributing new knowledge to what is already known from previous studies. In applied social sciences disciplines [e.g., education, social work, public administration, etc.], case studies may also be used to reveal best practices, highlight key programs, or investigate interesting aspects of professional work.

In general, the structure of a case study research paper is not all that different from a standard college-level research paper. However, there are subtle differences you should be aware of. Here are the key elements to organizing and writing a case study research paper.

I.  Introduction

As with any research paper, your introduction should serve as a roadmap for your readers to ascertain the scope and purpose of your study . The introduction to a case study research paper, however, should not only describe the research problem and its significance, but you should also succinctly describe why the case is being used and how it relates to addressing the problem. The two elements should be linked. With this in mind, a good introduction answers these four questions:

• What is being studied? Describe the research problem and describe the subject of analysis [the case] you have chosen to address the problem. Explain how they are linked and what elements of the case will help to expand knowledge and understanding about the problem.
• Why is this topic important to investigate? Describe the significance of the research problem and state why a case study design and the subject of analysis that the paper is designed around is appropriate in addressing the problem.
• What did we know about this topic before I did this study? Provide background that helps lead the reader into the more in-depth literature review to follow. If applicable, summarize prior case study research applied to the research problem and why it fails to adequately address the problem. Describe why your case will be useful. If no prior case studies have been used to address the research problem, explain why you have selected this subject of analysis.
• How will this study advance new knowledge or new ways of understanding? Explain why your case study will be suitable in helping to expand knowledge and understanding about the research problem.

Each of these questions should be addressed in no more than a few paragraphs. Exceptions to this can be when you are addressing a complex research problem or subject of analysis that requires more in-depth background information.

II.  Literature Review

The literature review for a case study research paper is generally structured the same as it is for any college-level research paper. The difference, however, is that the literature review is focused on providing background information and  enabling historical interpretation of the subject of analysis in relation to the research problem the case is intended to address . This includes synthesizing studies that help to:

• Place relevant works in the context of their contribution to understanding the case study being investigated . This would involve summarizing studies that have used a similar subject of analysis to investigate the research problem. If there is literature using the same or a very similar case to study, you need to explain why duplicating past research is important [e.g., conditions have changed; prior studies were conducted long ago, etc.].
• Describe the relationship each work has to the others under consideration that informs the reader why this case is applicable . Your literature review should include a description of any works that support using the case to investigate the research problem and the underlying research questions.
• Identify new ways to interpret prior research using the case study . If applicable, review any research that has examined the research problem using a different research design. Explain how your use of a case study design may reveal new knowledge or a new perspective or that can redirect research in an important new direction.
• Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies . This refers to synthesizing any literature that points to unresolved issues of concern about the research problem and describing how the subject of analysis that forms the case study can help resolve these existing contradictions.
• Point the way in fulfilling a need for additional research . Your review should examine any literature that lays a foundation for understanding why your case study design and the subject of analysis around which you have designed your study may reveal a new way of approaching the research problem or offer a perspective that points to the need for additional research.
• Expose any gaps that exist in the literature that the case study could help to fill . Summarize any literature that not only shows how your subject of analysis contributes to understanding the research problem, but how your case contributes to a new way of understanding the problem that prior research has failed to do.
• Locate your own research within the context of existing literature [very important!] . Collectively, your literature review should always place your case study within the larger domain of prior research about the problem. The overarching purpose of reviewing pertinent literature in a case study paper is to demonstrate that you have thoroughly identified and synthesized prior studies in relation to explaining the relevance of the case in addressing the research problem.

III.  Method

In this section, you explain why you selected a particular case [i.e., subject of analysis] and the strategy you used to identify and ultimately decide that your case was appropriate in addressing the research problem. The way you describe the methods used varies depending on the type of subject of analysis that constitutes your case study.

If your subject of analysis is an incident or event . In the social and behavioral sciences, the event or incident that represents the case to be studied is usually bounded by time and place, with a clear beginning and end and with an identifiable location or position relative to its surroundings. The subject of analysis can be a rare or critical event or it can focus on a typical or regular event. The purpose of studying a rare event is to illuminate new ways of thinking about the broader research problem or to test a hypothesis. Critical incident case studies must describe the method by which you identified the event and explain the process by which you determined the validity of this case to inform broader perspectives about the research problem or to reveal new findings. However, the event does not have to be a rare or uniquely significant to support new thinking about the research problem or to challenge an existing hypothesis. For example, Walo, Bull, and Breen conducted a case study to identify and evaluate the direct and indirect economic benefits and costs of a local sports event in the City of Lismore, New South Wales, Australia. The purpose of their study was to provide new insights from measuring the impact of a typical local sports event that prior studies could not measure well because they focused on large "mega-events." Whether the event is rare or not, the methods section should include an explanation of the following characteristics of the event: a) when did it take place; b) what were the underlying circumstances leading to the event; and, c) what were the consequences of the event in relation to the research problem.

If your subject of analysis is a person. Explain why you selected this particular individual to be studied and describe what experiences they have had that provide an opportunity to advance new understandings about the research problem. Mention any background about this person which might help the reader understand the significance of their experiences that make them worthy of study. This includes describing the relationships this person has had with other people, institutions, and/or events that support using them as the subject for a case study research paper. It is particularly important to differentiate the person as the subject of analysis from others and to succinctly explain how the person relates to examining the research problem [e.g., why is one politician in a particular local election used to show an increase in voter turnout from any other candidate running in the election]. Note that these issues apply to a specific group of people used as a case study unit of analysis [e.g., a classroom of students].

If your subject of analysis is a place. In general, a case study that investigates a place suggests a subject of analysis that is unique or special in some way and that this uniqueness can be used to build new understanding or knowledge about the research problem. A case study of a place must not only describe its various attributes relevant to the research problem [e.g., physical, social, historical, cultural, economic, political], but you must state the method by which you determined that this place will illuminate new understandings about the research problem. It is also important to articulate why a particular place as the case for study is being used if similar places also exist [i.e., if you are studying patterns of homeless encampments of veterans in open spaces, explain why you are studying Echo Park in Los Angeles rather than Griffith Park?]. If applicable, describe what type of human activity involving this place makes it a good choice to study [e.g., prior research suggests Echo Park has more homeless veterans].

If your subject of analysis is a phenomenon. A phenomenon refers to a fact, occurrence, or circumstance that can be studied or observed but with the cause or explanation to be in question. In this sense, a phenomenon that forms your subject of analysis can encompass anything that can be observed or presumed to exist but is not fully understood. In the social and behavioral sciences, the case usually focuses on human interaction within a complex physical, social, economic, cultural, or political system. For example, the phenomenon could be the observation that many vehicles used by ISIS fighters are small trucks with English language advertisements on them. The research problem could be that ISIS fighters are difficult to combat because they are highly mobile. The research questions could be how and by what means are these vehicles used by ISIS being supplied to the militants and how might supply lines to these vehicles be cut off? How might knowing the suppliers of these trucks reveal larger networks of collaborators and financial support? A case study of a phenomenon most often encompasses an in-depth analysis of a cause and effect that is grounded in an interactive relationship between people and their environment in some way.

NOTE:   The choice of the case or set of cases to study cannot appear random. Evidence that supports the method by which you identified and chose your subject of analysis should clearly support investigation of the research problem and linked to key findings from your literature review. Be sure to cite any studies that helped you determine that the case you chose was appropriate for examining the problem.

IV.  Discussion

The main elements of your discussion section are generally the same as any research paper, but centered around interpreting and drawing conclusions about the key findings from your analysis of the case study. Note that a general social sciences research paper may contain a separate section to report findings. However, in a paper designed around a case study, it is common to combine a description of the results with the discussion about their implications. The objectives of your discussion section should include the following:

Reiterate the Research Problem/State the Major Findings Briefly reiterate the research problem you are investigating and explain why the subject of analysis around which you designed the case study were used. You should then describe the findings revealed from your study of the case using direct, declarative, and succinct proclamation of the study results. Highlight any findings that were unexpected or especially profound.

Explain the Meaning of the Findings and Why They are Important Systematically explain the meaning of your case study findings and why you believe they are important. Begin this part of the section by repeating what you consider to be your most important or surprising finding first, then systematically review each finding. Be sure to thoroughly extrapolate what your analysis of the case can tell the reader about situations or conditions beyond the actual case that was studied while, at the same time, being careful not to misconstrue or conflate a finding that undermines the external validity of your conclusions.

Relate the Findings to Similar Studies No study in the social sciences is so novel or possesses such a restricted focus that it has absolutely no relation to previously published research. The discussion section should relate your case study results to those found in other studies, particularly if questions raised from prior studies served as the motivation for choosing your subject of analysis. This is important because comparing and contrasting the findings of other studies helps support the overall importance of your results and it highlights how and in what ways your case study design and the subject of analysis differs from prior research about the topic.

Consider Alternative Explanations of the Findings Remember that the purpose of social science research is to discover and not to prove. When writing the discussion section, you should carefully consider all possible explanations revealed by the case study results, rather than just those that fit your hypothesis or prior assumptions and biases. Be alert to what the in-depth analysis of the case may reveal about the research problem, including offering a contrarian perspective to what scholars have stated in prior research if that is how the findings can be interpreted from your case.

Acknowledge the Study's Limitations You can state the study's limitations in the conclusion section of your paper but describing the limitations of your subject of analysis in the discussion section provides an opportunity to identify the limitations and explain why they are not significant. This part of the discussion section should also note any unanswered questions or issues your case study could not address. More detailed information about how to document any limitations to your research can be found here .

Suggest Areas for Further Research Although your case study may offer important insights about the research problem, there are likely additional questions related to the problem that remain unanswered or findings that unexpectedly revealed themselves as a result of your in-depth analysis of the case. Be sure that the recommendations for further research are linked to the research problem and that you explain why your recommendations are valid in other contexts and based on the original assumptions of your study.

V.  Conclusion

As with any research paper, you should summarize your conclusion in clear, simple language; emphasize how the findings from your case study differs from or supports prior research and why. Do not simply reiterate the discussion section. Provide a synthesis of key findings presented in the paper to show how these converge to address the research problem. If you haven't already done so in the discussion section, be sure to document the limitations of your case study and any need for further research.

The function of your paper's conclusion is to: 1) reiterate the main argument supported by the findings from your case study; 2) state clearly the context, background, and necessity of pursuing the research problem using a case study design in relation to an issue, controversy, or a gap found from reviewing the literature; and, 3) provide a place to persuasively and succinctly restate the significance of your research problem, given that the reader has now been presented with in-depth information about the topic.

Consider the following points to help ensure your conclusion is appropriate:

• If the argument or purpose of your paper is complex, you may need to summarize these points for your reader.
• If prior to your conclusion, you have not yet explained the significance of your findings or if you are proceeding inductively, use the conclusion of your paper to describe your main points and explain their significance.
• Move from a detailed to a general level of consideration of the case study's findings that returns the topic to the context provided by the introduction or within a new context that emerges from your case study findings.

Note that, depending on the discipline you are writing in or the preferences of your professor, the concluding paragraph may contain your final reflections on the evidence presented as it applies to practice or on the essay's central research problem. However, the nature of being introspective about the subject of analysis you have investigated will depend on whether you are explicitly asked to express your observations in this way.

Problems to Avoid

Overgeneralization One of the goals of a case study is to lay a foundation for understanding broader trends and issues applied to similar circumstances. However, be careful when drawing conclusions from your case study. They must be evidence-based and grounded in the results of the study; otherwise, it is merely speculation. Looking at a prior example, it would be incorrect to state that a factor in improving girls access to education in Azerbaijan and the policy implications this may have for improving access in other Muslim nations is due to girls access to social media if there is no documentary evidence from your case study to indicate this. There may be anecdotal evidence that retention rates were better for girls who were engaged with social media, but this observation would only point to the need for further research and would not be a definitive finding if this was not a part of your original research agenda.

Failure to Document Limitations No case is going to reveal all that needs to be understood about a research problem. Therefore, just as you have to clearly state the limitations of a general research study , you must describe the specific limitations inherent in the subject of analysis. For example, the case of studying how women conceptualize the need for water conservation in a village in Uganda could have limited application in other cultural contexts or in areas where fresh water from rivers or lakes is plentiful and, therefore, conservation is understood more in terms of managing access rather than preserving access to a scarce resource.

Failure to Extrapolate All Possible Implications Just as you don't want to over-generalize from your case study findings, you also have to be thorough in the consideration of all possible outcomes or recommendations derived from your findings. If you do not, your reader may question the validity of your analysis, particularly if you failed to document an obvious outcome from your case study research. For example, in the case of studying the accident at the railroad crossing to evaluate where and what types of warning signals should be located, you failed to take into consideration speed limit signage as well as warning signals. When designing your case study, be sure you have thoroughly addressed all aspects of the problem and do not leave gaps in your analysis that leave the reader questioning the results.

Case Studies. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Gerring, John. Case Study Research: Principles and Practices . New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007; Merriam, Sharan B. Qualitative Research and Case Study Applications in Education . Rev. ed. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1998; Miller, Lisa L. “The Use of Case Studies in Law and Social Science Research.” Annual Review of Law and Social Science 14 (2018): TBD; Mills, Albert J., Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Putney, LeAnn Grogan. "Case Study." In Encyclopedia of Research Design , Neil J. Salkind, editor. (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010), pp. 116-120; Simons, Helen. Case Study Research in Practice . London: SAGE Publications, 2009;  Kratochwill,  Thomas R. and Joel R. Levin, editors. Single-Case Research Design and Analysis: New Development for Psychology and Education .  Hilldsale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1992; Swanborn, Peter G. Case Study Research: What, Why and How? London : SAGE, 2010; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research: Design and Methods . 6th edition. Los Angeles, CA, SAGE Publications, 2014; Walo, Maree, Adrian Bull, and Helen Breen. “Achieving Economic Benefits at Local Events: A Case Study of a Local Sports Event.” Festival Management and Event Tourism 4 (1996): 95-106.

Writing Tip

At Least Five Misconceptions about Case Study Research

Social science case studies are often perceived as limited in their ability to create new knowledge because they are not randomly selected and findings cannot be generalized to larger populations. Flyvbjerg examines five misunderstandings about case study research and systematically "corrects" each one. To quote, these are:

Misunderstanding 1 :  General, theoretical [context-independent] knowledge is more valuable than concrete, practical [context-dependent] knowledge. Misunderstanding 2 :  One cannot generalize on the basis of an individual case; therefore, the case study cannot contribute to scientific development. Misunderstanding 3 :  The case study is most useful for generating hypotheses; that is, in the first stage of a total research process, whereas other methods are more suitable for hypotheses testing and theory building. Misunderstanding 4 :  The case study contains a bias toward verification, that is, a tendency to confirm the researcher’s preconceived notions. Misunderstanding 5 :  It is often difficult to summarize and develop general propositions and theories on the basis of specific case studies [p. 221].

While writing your paper, think introspectively about how you addressed these misconceptions because to do so can help you strengthen the validity and reliability of your research by clarifying issues of case selection, the testing and challenging of existing assumptions, the interpretation of key findings, and the summation of case outcomes. Think of a case study research paper as a complete, in-depth narrative about the specific properties and key characteristics of your subject of analysis applied to the research problem.

Flyvbjerg, Bent. “Five Misunderstandings About Case-Study Research.” Qualitative Inquiry 12 (April 2006): 219-245.

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7 Favorite Business Case Studies to Teach—and Why

Explore more.

• Case Teaching
• Course Materials

FEATURED CASE STUDIES

The Army Crew Team . Emily Michelle David of CEIBS

ATH Technologies . Devin Shanthikumar of Paul Merage School of Business

Fabritek 1992 . Rob Austin of Ivey Business School

Lincoln Electric Co . Karin Schnarr of Wilfrid Laurier University

Pal’s Sudden Service—Scaling an Organizational Model to Drive Growth . Gary Pisano of Harvard Business School

The United States Air Force: ‘Chaos’ in the 99th Reconnaissance Squadron . Francesca Gino of Harvard Business School

Warren E. Buffett, 2015 . Robert F. Bruner of Darden School of Business

To dig into what makes a compelling case study, we asked seven experienced educators who teach with—and many who write—business case studies: “What is your favorite case to teach and why?”

The resulting list of case study favorites ranges in topics from operations management and organizational structure to rebel leaders and whodunnit dramas.

1. The Army Crew Team

Emily Michelle David, Assistant Professor of Management, China Europe International Business School (CEIBS)

“I love teaching  The Army Crew Team  case because it beautifully demonstrates how a team can be so much less than the sum of its parts.

I deliver the case to executives in a nearby state-of-the-art rowing facility that features rowing machines, professional coaches, and shiny red eight-person shells.

After going through the case, they hear testimonies from former members of Chinese national crew teams before carrying their own boat to the river for a test race.

The rich learning environment helps to vividly underscore one of the case’s core messages: competition can be a double-edged sword if not properly managed.

Executives in Emily Michelle David’s organizational behavior class participate in rowing activities at a nearby facility as part of her case delivery.

Despite working for an elite headhunting firm, the executives in my most recent class were surprised to realize how much they’ve allowed their own team-building responsibilities to lapse. In the MBA pre-course, this case often leads to a rich discussion about common traps that newcomers fall into (for example, trying to do too much, too soon), which helps to poise them to both stand out in the MBA as well as prepare them for the lateral team building they will soon engage in.

Finally, I love that the post-script always gets a good laugh and serves as an early lesson that organizational behavior courses will seldom give you foolproof solutions for specific problems but will, instead, arm you with the ability to think through issues more critically.”

2. ATH Technologies

Devin Shanthikumar, Associate Professor of Accounting, Paul Merage School of Business

“As a professor at UC Irvine’s Paul Merage School of Business, and before that at Harvard Business School, I have probably taught over 100 cases. I would like to say that my favorite case is my own,   Compass Box Whisky Company . But as fun as that case is, one case beats it:  ATH Technologies  by Robert Simons and Jennifer Packard.

ATH presents a young entrepreneurial company that is bought by a much larger company. As part of the merger, ATH gets an ‘earn-out’ deal—common among high-tech industries. The company, and the class, must decide what to do to achieve the stretch earn-out goals.

ATH captures a scenario we all want to be in at some point in our careers—being part of a young, exciting, growing organization. And a scenario we all will likely face—having stretch goals that seem almost unreachable.

It forces us, as a class, to really struggle with what to do at each stage.

After we read and discuss the A case, we find out what happens next, and discuss the B case, then the C, then D, and even E. At every stage, we can:

see how our decisions play out,

figure out how to build on our successes, and

address our failures.

The case is exciting, the class discussion is dynamic and energetic, and in the end, we all go home with a memorable ‘ah-ha!’ moment.

I have taught many great cases over my career, but none are quite as fun, memorable, and effective as ATH .”

3. Fabritek 1992

Rob Austin, Professor of Information Systems, Ivey Business School

“This might seem like an odd choice, but my favorite case to teach is an old operations case called  Fabritek 1992 .

The latest version of Fabritek 1992 is dated 2009, but it is my understanding that this is a rewrite of a case that is older (probably much older). There is a Fabritek 1969 in the HBP catalog—same basic case, older dates, and numbers. That 1969 version lists no authors, so I suspect the case goes even further back; the 1969 version is, I’m guessing, a rewrite of an even older version.

There are many things I appreciate about the case. Here are a few:

It operates as a learning opportunity at many levels. At first it looks like a not-very-glamorous production job scheduling case. By the end of the case discussion, though, we’re into (operations) strategy and more. It starts out technical, then explodes into much broader relevance. As I tell participants when I’m teaching HBP's Teaching with Cases seminars —where I often use Fabritek as an example—when people first encounter this case, they almost always underestimate it.

It has great characters—especially Arthur Moreno, who looks like a troublemaker, but who, discussion reveals, might just be the smartest guy in the factory. Alums of the Harvard MBA program have told me that they remember Arthur Moreno many years later.

Almost every word in the case is important. It’s only four and a half pages of text and three pages of exhibits. This economy of words and sparsity of style have always seemed like poetry to me. I should note that this super concise, every-word-matters approach is not the ideal we usually aspire to when we write cases. Often, we include extra or superfluous information because part of our teaching objective is to provide practice in separating what matters from what doesn’t in a case. Fabritek takes a different approach, though, which fits it well.

It has a dramatic structure. It unfolds like a detective story, a sort of whodunnit. Something is wrong. There is a quality problem, and we’re not sure who or what is responsible. One person, Arthur Moreno, looks very guilty (probably too obviously guilty), but as we dig into the situation, there are many more possibilities. We spend in-class time analyzing the data (there’s a bit of math, so it covers that base, too) to determine which hypotheses are best supported by the data. And, realistically, the data doesn’t support any of the hypotheses perfectly, just some of them more than others. Also, there’s a plot twist at the end (I won’t reveal it, but here’s a hint: Arthur Moreno isn’t nearly the biggest problem in the final analysis). I have had students tell me the surprising realization at the end of the discussion gives them ‘goosebumps.’

Finally, through the unexpected plot twist, it imparts what I call a ‘wisdom lesson’ to young managers: not to be too sure of themselves and to regard the experiences of others, especially experts out on the factory floor, with great seriousness.”

4. Lincoln Electric Co.

Karin Schnarr, Assistant Professor of Policy, Wilfrid Laurier University

“As a strategy professor, my favorite case to teach is the classic 1975 Harvard case  Lincoln Electric Co.  by Norman Berg.

I use it to demonstrate to students the theory linkage between strategy and organizational structure, management processes, and leadership behavior.

This case may be an odd choice for a favorite. It occurs decades before my students were born. It is pages longer than we are told students are now willing to read. It is about manufacturing arc welding equipment in Cleveland, Ohio—a hard sell for a Canadian business classroom.

Yet, I have never come across a case that so perfectly illustrates what I want students to learn about how a company can be designed from an organizational perspective to successfully implement its strategy.

And in a time where so much focus continues to be on how to maximize shareholder value, it is refreshing to be able to discuss a publicly-traded company that is successfully pursuing a strategy that provides a fair value to shareholders while distributing value to employees through a large bonus pool, as well as value to customers by continually lowering prices.

However, to make the case resonate with today’s students, I work to make it relevant to the contemporary business environment. I link the case to multimedia clips about Lincoln Electric’s current manufacturing practices, processes, and leadership practices. My students can then see that a model that has been in place for generations is still viable and highly successful, even in our very different competitive situation.”

5. Pal’s Sudden Service—Scaling an Organizational Model to Drive Growth

Gary Pisano, Professor of Business Administration, Harvard Business School

“My favorite case to teach these days is  Pal’s Sudden Service—Scaling an Organizational Model to Drive Growth .

I love teaching this case for three reasons:

1. It demonstrates how a company in a super-tough, highly competitive business can do very well by focusing on creating unique operating capabilities. In theory, Pal’s should have no chance against behemoths like McDonalds or Wendy’s—but it thrives because it has built a unique operating system. It’s a great example of a strategic approach to operations in action.

2. The case shows how a strategic approach to human resource and talent development at all levels really matters. This company competes in an industry not known for engaging its front-line workers. The case shows how engaging these workers can really pay off.

3. Finally, Pal’s is really unusual in its approach to growth. Most companies set growth goals (usually arbitrary ones) and then try to figure out how to ‘backfill’ the human resource and talent management gaps. They trust you can always find someone to do the job. Pal’s tackles the growth problem completely the other way around. They rigorously select and train their future managers. Only when they have a manager ready to take on their own store do they open a new one. They pace their growth off their capacity to develop talent. I find this really fascinating and so do the students I teach this case to.”

6. The United States Air Force: ‘Chaos’ in the 99th Reconnaissance Squadron

Francesca Gino, Professor of Business Administration, Harvard Business School

“My favorite case to teach is  The United States Air Force: ‘Chaos’ in the 99th Reconnaissance Squadron .

The case surprises students because it is about a leader, known in the unit by the nickname Chaos , who inspired his squadron to be innovative and to change in a culture that is all about not rocking the boat, and where there is a deep sense that rules should simply be followed.

For years, I studied ‘rebels,’ people who do not accept the status quo; rather, they approach work with curiosity and produce positive change in their organizations. Chaos is a rebel leader who got the level of cultural change right. Many of the leaders I’ve met over the years complain about the ‘corporate culture,’ or at least point to clear weaknesses of it; but then they throw their hands up in the air and forget about changing what they can.

Chaos is different—he didn’t go after the ‘Air Force’ culture. That would be like boiling the ocean.

Instead, he focused on his unit of control and command: The 99th squadron. He focused on enabling that group to do what it needed to do within the confines of the bigger Air Force culture. In the process, he inspired everyone on his team to be the best they can be at work.

The case leaves the classroom buzzing and inspired to take action.”

7. Warren E. Buffett, 2015

Robert F. Bruner, Professor of Business Administration, Darden School of Business

“I love teaching   Warren E. Buffett, 2015  because it energizes, exercises, and surprises students.

Buffett looms large in the business firmament and therefore attracts anyone who is eager to learn his secrets for successful investing. This generates the kind of energy that helps to break the ice among students and instructors early in a course and to lay the groundwork for good case discussion practices.

Studying Buffett’s approach to investing helps to introduce and exercise important themes that will resonate throughout a course. The case challenges students to define for themselves what it means to create value. The case discussion can easily be tailored for novices or for more advanced students.

Either way, this is not hero worship: The case affords a critical examination of the financial performance of Buffett’s firm, Berkshire Hathaway, and reveals both triumphs and stumbles. Most importantly, students can critique the purported benefits of Buffett’s conglomeration strategy and the sustainability of his investment record as the size of the firm grows very large.

By the end of the class session, students seem surprised with what they have discovered. They buzz over the paradoxes in Buffett’s philosophy and performance record. And they come away with sober respect for Buffett’s acumen and for the challenges of creating value for investors.

Surely, such sobriety is a meta-message for any mastery of finance.”

More Educator Favorites

Emily Michelle David is an assistant professor of management at China Europe International Business School (CEIBS). Her current research focuses on discovering how to make workplaces more welcoming for people of all backgrounds and personality profiles to maximize performance and avoid employee burnout. David’s work has been published in a number of scholarly journals, and she has worked as an in-house researcher at both NASA and the M.D. Anderson Cancer Center.

Devin Shanthikumar  is an associate professor and the accounting area coordinator at UCI Paul Merage School of Business. She teaches undergraduate, MBA, and executive-level courses in managerial accounting. Shanthikumar previously served on the faculty at Harvard Business School, where she taught both financial accounting and managerial accounting for MBAs, and wrote cases that are used in accounting courses across the country.

Robert D. Austin is a professor of information systems at Ivey Business School and an affiliated faculty member at Harvard Medical School. He has published widely, authoring nine books, more than 50 cases and notes, three Harvard online products, and two popular massive open online courses (MOOCs) running on the Coursera platform.

Karin Schnarr is an assistant professor of policy and the director of the Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA) program at the Lazaridis School of Business & Economics at Wilfrid Laurier University in Waterloo, Ontario, Canada where she teaches strategic management at the undergraduate, graduate, and executive levels. Schnarr has published several award-winning and best-selling cases and regularly presents at international conferences on case writing and scholarship.

Gary P. Pisano is the Harry E. Figgie, Jr. Professor of Business Administration and senior associate dean of faculty development at Harvard Business School, where he has been on the faculty since 1988. Pisano is an expert in the fields of technology and operations strategy, the management of innovation, and competitive strategy. His research and consulting experience span a range of industries including aerospace, biotechnology, pharmaceuticals, specialty chemicals, health care, nutrition, computers, software, telecommunications, and semiconductors.

Francesca Gino studies how people can have more productive, creative, and fulfilling lives. She is a professor at Harvard Business School and the author, most recently, of  Rebel Talent: Why It Pays to Break the Rules at Work and in Life . Gino regularly gives keynote speeches, delivers corporate training programs, and serves in advisory roles for firms and not-for-profit organizations across the globe.

Robert F. Bruner is a university professor at the University of Virginia, distinguished professor of business administration, and dean emeritus of the Darden School of Business. He has also held visiting appointments at Harvard and Columbia universities in the United States, at INSEAD in France, and at IESE in Spain. He is the author, co-author, or editor of more than 20 books on finance, management, and teaching. Currently, he teaches and writes in finance and management.

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Teaching Online Pedagogical Repository

Create a Case Method Group Activity to Engage Students in Critical Thinking

Tags: Adult Learning , Assessment , Assignments , Blog , Case method , Cognitive Theory , Collaborative Learning , Community of Inquiry , Critical Thinking , Discussions , Experiential Learning , Google , Learning Activities , LMS , Problem-Based Learning , Scaffolding , Social Media , Video , Wiki

Description

The case method group activity is an instructional design strategy that involves faculty members providing one or more case studies to which groups of students respond. The case(s) could be a real-life case or simulation. It could be description of key concept(s) applied, a story or scenario, an actual case study, a problem or mystery, a performance, a visual, or an example.

The case method in online learning as an intervention presents students with ill-structured, real-world derived problems with multiple solutions (Choi & Lee, 2009). In a group activity this case method has the potential to harnesses the effectiveness of collaborative learning (Kolb, 1984) and group activities provide a space for collaborative problem solving, fostering a constructivist learning environment with potential to build a community of learning (Jonassen, 1997). The teaching facilitator can influence learners’ engagement in and adoption of the activity by communicating the relative advantage of key features of the online environment (Karamanos & Gibbs, 2012), as well as mapping and intervening in the group interactions to keep students focused on the problem (Etmer & Koehler, 2014). This mapping creates a plan for instructors to scaffold (or build in techniques to progressively support students to greater levels of learning independence and effective group interactions). Introduction of scaffolds and learning resources, perhaps additional readings and activities, presented at later stages of problem solving were associated with deep meaningful learning and critical thinking (Choi & Lee, 2009).

Because the case reflects a real-life situation, as the group members interact with each other, they should uncover multiple solutions, perspectives, or methods of analyzing the situation, with no single right answer. This divergence is important to encourage for fostering deeper levels of learning and critical thinking (Choi & Lee, 2009). A guiding question for the lesson can offer some parameters for faculty to map and scaffold activities, guiding students’ interactions as they engage with others in their groups about the case. This guiding question should depend on the purpose of the instruction (University of Illinois, 2015). The process of a faculty member scaffolding activities should result in more than one individual or group deliverable associated with it and a corresponding timeline for each. Consider, too, whether each component will have a group or individual grade (Carnegie Mellon University, 2015).

Link to example artifact(s)

As an example of the case method group activity, a faculty member teaching an industrial/organizational psychology course divided the students into groups based on time zones and created a discussion forum for each group. They completed a learning team charter to establish their group covenant. The parameters for the group activity were well-defined: students completed a group charter to agree on expectations for each member’s contribution to the group, the faculty provided an explanation of the purpose of the group activity for learning the material and succeeding in the course. The faculty explicitly stated how the quality of interactions and ideas derived from the group conversation and supported with evidence could contribute to the success of individual assignments.

The faculty provided the same case scenario across each group discussion forum. The case described in writing a company whose strict hierarchy and “us” (management) versus “them” (workers) mentality had led to a dysfunctional workplace environment with punitive acts from management and passive aggressive behaviors from employees. The faculty prompted students to analyze the situation using management and leadership approaches and theories from the course as a group by midway through the course, brainstorm as a group solutions to remedy the situation by applying key course concepts from middle to the end of the course, and submit an individual solution to the problem the case presented as the final assignment.

The faculty member interacted with each group several times throughout the course in their discussion forums, guiding them to consider important motivational and management theories (like Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and McGregor’s theory x and y) to analyze the behavioral dynamics of management and the employees in the case. Additionally, a rubric was associated with each component presented prior to the assignment to set expectations and utilized by the faculty member for grading. To assess critical thinking, elements from the AASU Value rubric were incorporated into the individual solution activity rubric (2017). Students were graded individually even though they were interacting as a group for their mid-course analysis of the scenario, as a group on the solution brainstorming activity for a group grade, and individually on their submissions of their individual solution to the case.

Students’ critical thinking improvements and favorable reaction provided good evidence for the success of the case scenario activities in this course. During the discussion, students often related the scenario to their own real-life experiences in workplace settings. As the discussions progressed, students began identifying these experiences with key concepts, referring and citing course content, and this habit transferred to their individual solutions to the case presented in their papers. Some students developed a clear thesis for their perspectives, recounting nuances of the situation in the scenario (such as the organizational structure and emerging management styles) to substantiate their position. Even fewer students gave multiple solutions and explained why one is better than another. Students generally responded positively to the course and case scenario format. They indicated that they appreciated the real-life examples from other students and expressed that the group discussion contributed development of their individual submissions. Satisfaction with the course, as indicated on students’ end-of-course reviews, was high to very high.

Applying this case method group activity strategy to other disciplines should result in similar success, strengthening students’ critical thinking skills. This strategy is definitely generalizable, as the aim is for students’ collaboration for achieving the course or module objective(s) associated with the activity/assignment (University of Illinois, 2015), guiding students to:

• Identify key concepts reflected by a case, • Situate a case within a given system, • Summarize or recapitulate a case, • Generalize patterns or symbolic representations within a case, • Generate plausible causes that result in a case, • Analyze the components of a case, • Assess or judge the appropriate application presented in a case scenario, • Solve a problem that the case presents or that the faculty presents about the case Any discipline where students would benefit cognitively from collaboration to achieve one of the above objectives could apply this strategy: create a case method group activity to engage students in critical thinking.

Individual Paper Case Study Rubric

Case Study Rubric for Group Collaboration Discussion

Instructor: Revathi Viswanathan Course: Biotechnology

Students were asked to discuss case studies relating to their subject, and Edmodo was used as a learning platform for handling them. The purpose of integrating the technological tool was to encourage students to actively participate in the teaching and learning process even beyond their classroom. Besides this, Edmodo, as an application could be accessed both in a computer and a mobile, which in turn helps teachers to post resources, initiate discussions, create small groups, and enroll students to do collaborative tasks.

As part of the classroom based research, the students were put in small groups, and inputs for case study was posted as video files and reading texts to each group in the Edmodo page. Each group was given guidance on holding case study discussions. The preliminary discussion was initiated through brainstorming questions, which encouraged students to get to the important issue or aspect of the case study. For example, the following questions were posted related to the case study on ‘ Regenerative medicine- Current therapies and future directions’:

• What do you know about regenerative medicine?
• How does it help common man?

Similarly, one of the groups discussed ‘Genetic Engineering of Animals: ethical issues, including welfare concerns’ and the following questions were asked:

• Discuss how ‘deletion of genes, or the manipulation of genes already present’ affects the animals.
• What do you think about this as a biotechnology student?

After a few dialogues online, it was felt that most of the students could not identify the main aspect of the case study and the teacher researcher had to intervene by posting guidelines for discussing a case study (Source: https://plato.acadiau.ca/courses/Busi/IntroBus/CASEMETHOD.html#CASEMETHOD ). They were told about the process by which a case study has to be analysed. They were asked to look for issues that are stated in the case study, critically read and see how the issue is handled in depth. Then, they had to look for opening paragraph, background information, specific area of interest covered, specific problem stated, alternatives given and the conclusion drawn from the discussion, in the case study.

Besides posting these tips for handling case studies, the teacher explained the components of a case study (stated above) in the class. It was felt that this online collaborative activity had to be handled by following the online collaborative theory advocated by Harasim (2012). According to her, a teacher plays an important role (in an online collaborative learning scenario) in the process of knowledge construction among students, by providing inputs and integrating the core concept along with the subject domain. In this context, it must be stated that the teacher researcher had already brought in the integration of biotechnology related case studies for discussion. However, considering the extent to which they could use the subject knowledge for discussing the given case study, it was evident that the students expected teacher’s intervention. In other words, the teacher had to draw their attention to the main issue of the case study by posting a few specific (case study related) questions.

For example, the group which was working on the case study, ‘Genetic engineering of animals’, were asked to focus on the specific concepts. The following question was posted in Edmodo group page:

• How does it affect an animal when it is genetically modified or genetically altered or genetically manipulated or transgenic, and biotechnology-derived
• How will the animal cope with when it is modified?

The extent to which the students of respective groups (group A & B) could discuss the case study by using their subject knowledge was evaluated by comparing two groups (both before-the-intervention and after-the-intervention of the teacher) using Causal-Comparative method. The analysis of performance of the group members was done with the help of the rubrics, ‘Undergraduate Case Analysis Rubrics’ (Source https://www.onlineethics.org/File.aspx?id=31203&v=859a7ffb ). The frequency polygon drawn for both groups (Figures 1 and 2) and the ANOVA test scores evaluated showed variation, particularly in group A’s performance (ie before and after teacher’s intervention).

It was evident that students’ application of subject knowledge in their discussion had promoted communicative ability. Further, it proved the application of online collaborative theory in encouraging students to contribute to online discussions.

Link to scholarly references

Association of American Colleges & Universities (2017). Critical thinking VALUE rubric. Retrieved from  https://www.aacu.org/value/rubrics/critical-thinking

Carnegie Mellon University Eberly Center (2015). How can I assess group work? Retrieved from  https://www.cmu.edu/teaching/designteach/design/instructionalstrategies/groupprojects/assess.html

Choi, I., & Lee, K. (2009). Designing and implementing a case-based learning environment for enhancing ill-structured problem solving: Classroom management problems for prospective teachers. Educational Technology Research and Development , 57( 1 ), 99-129.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-008-9089-2

David, H. J. (1997). Instructional design models for well-structured and ill-structured problem-solving learning outcomes. Educational Technology Research and Development , 45( 1 ). Retrieved from  http://www.webkelley.com/HBS/ID%20Models%20for%20Well-Structured.pdf

Ertmer, P. A., & Koehler, A. A. (2014). Online case-based discussions: Examining coverage of the afforded problem space. Educational Technology Research and Development , 62( 5 ), 617-636.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-014-9350-9

Jonassen, D. H. (1999). Designing constructivist learning environments. In C. M. Reigeluth I nstructional-design theories and models: Volume II (pp. 215-239). Mahwah, N.J: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Retrieved from  https://www.savoiabenincasa.gov.it/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/1999-Jonassen.pdf

Karamanos, N., & Gibbs, P. (2012). A model for student adoption of online interactivity. Research in Post-Compulsory Education , 17( 3 ), 321-334.  https://doi.org/10.1080/13596748.2012.700108

Kolb, D. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development . Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Retrieved from  https://www.pearson.com/us/higher-education/program/Kolb-Experiential-Learning-Experience-as-the-Source-of-Learning-and-Development-2nd-Edition/PGM183903.html

University of Illinois. (2015). Online teaching activity index: Case study or case based index. Retrieved from  www.ion.uillinois.edu%2Fresources%2Fotai%2Fcasestudies.asp&token=yz%2BG1QALcwhrBLaVIIOV1qkwVJCS27mZAH624RoGdAc%3D

Post Revisions:

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FINE Newsletter , Volume V, Issue 4 Issue Topic: Innovative Approaches to Preparing and Training Educators for Family Engagement

Voices From the Field

A POWERFUL TOOL FOR PREPARING FUTURE EDUCATORS 1 FOR FAMILY ENGAGEMENT

Family engagement teaching cases can be a compelling means of preparing educators for family engagement and can benefit both instructors and learners. For instructors, the teaching case method provides a foundation around which they can structure interesting and relevant class activities that deviate from the formal lecture. Because teaching cases incorporate the points of view of family members, children, teachers, and others, instructors are able to encourage a vibrant exchange of ideas and responses from class participants as they imagine and discuss the situation of each character. Instructors are able to develop a broad range of creative and persuasive questions to address practical issues that students might face in their work with families and schools. 

As active participants in class discussions, students can gain a deep appreciation for the complexity of the relationships among and between children, parents, school personnel, and community providers. Race, culture, and class divisions provide the context for most of the cases developed by HFRP , so through these readings, students are exposed to the perspectives of parents, children, and other family members that they may not encounter in their day-to-day experiences. 2 Through guided discussions, students can develop the valuable ability to take an open-minded approach to their family engagement work. Teaching case discussions prompt students to reflect on the ways in which their opinions of the role of schools and families may differ from the opinions of others; the discussions also prompt students to change perspectives as alternative viewpoints and varying courses of action are considered throughout the conversation.

In order for teaching cases to be effective at preparing educators to engage families, students need to be invested in the process and to be meaningfully engaged with the cases. However, as we learned through interviews conducted with case users, 3 students sometimes are too detached from the narrative. Instructors have found that some of their students from middle- or upper-class homes and ethnic majority families envision themselves working in school districts like the ones they grew up in and have trouble identifying with the schools and characters described in the cases. Other students have difficulty recognizing and challenging their own biases and assumptions about culture and class. For these reasons, using the teaching case on its own often isn’t enough. Students may need more support, guidance, or information to engage with a case on the most meaningful level possible and to appreciate the strengths that all families possess.

WHEN DISCUSSION IS NOT ENOUGH: A MENU OF ACTIVITIES TO COMPLEMENT THE TEACHING CASE DIALOGUE

From our interviews we learned of the following six types of activities that can be paired with teaching cases to increase discussion and help students better manage the predicaments presented in the cases.  

In a different example, before introducing a case discussion on how low-income families might balance employment obligations and engagement in children’s learning at home and school, an instructor might ask students to think about building an ideal budget for a family with young children. The instructor could then introduce poverty income thresholds and force students to make hard decisions about which budget lines to keep and which to cut. Having to think about such issues so carefully primes students to approach the case with a more concrete sense of what the life of a low-income family might be like. The students are then better able to brainstorm innovative ways that the school and community can support working families and their engagement in children’s learning. 4

Another approach would be for instructors to ask students to take the perspective of one of the case characters. Assuming the perspective of a case character, students complete checklists or questionnaires about beliefs and values about family engagement in children’s learning. Thinking through these questions from the point of view of a character allows learners to explore how teachers, families, or other education staff members might fundamentally agree or disagree on certain issues. Doing so can also force learners to rethink the roles of the family and school in different situations. 5

Working with families directly . To reinforce or explore issues that arise in a teaching case, faculty can use activities that provide students hands-on experience working directly with families. For example, students may be required to interview families about their experiences with schools and about ways in which they are engaged in their children’s learning. By developing interview questions based on topics that emerge from cases, and through hearing stories that dovetail with particular issues from different cases, students gain further insight into the intricacies of the family engagement process. Students might also interview staff members from the family’s school about the school’s family engagement policies or write a case study that examines the strengths of a particular child and family.          

Taken together, these different types of activities present a menu of options for instructors to facilitate teaching cases beyond the case discussion, particularly when students are in need of additional guidance for the takeaway lessons of the case to become clear and concrete. Do you have activities that you use with teaching cases that you find particularly helpful? If so, HFRP would love to hear about them! Please contact us at [email protected] .

1 This article is primarily about the use of teaching cases with pre-service teachers and future educators. However, teaching cases and the menu of activities that complement them can and should be used at different points throughout a teacher’s career. 

2 Weiss, H. B., Kreider, H., Lopez, M. E., & Chatman-Nelson, C. (2010). Preparing educators to engage families: Case studies using an ecological systems framework (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.

3 In spring 2013, we interviewed university faculty members, early childhood and school personnel, and family and teacher trainers from nonprofit organizations about their use of these cases. The respondents were varied in the types of courses taught (e.g., graduate and undergraduate courses and professional development workshops) and represented diverse geographic regions. We would especially like to thank the following colleagues for their participation in these interviews: Michelle Abrego, Peg Bradley, Beth Day-Hariston, Anita Ede, Wanda Grant, Jon Lasser, Dana McDermott, Tina Moorehouse, Jesus Paz-Albo, and Rebecca Ward.

4 Thanks to Rebecca Ward for these activity ideas.

5 For these checklists and questionnaires and other organizing tools developed by Dana McDermott, please visit: http://www.sagepub.com/booksProdDesc.nav?prodId=Book228935#tabview=samples .

This resource is part of the December 2013 FINE Newsletter . The FINE Newsletter shares the newest and best family engagement research and resources from Harvard Family Research Project and other field leaders. To access the archives of past issues, please visit www.hfrp.org/FINENewsletter . 

© 2016 Presidents and Fellows of Harvard College Published by Harvard Family Research Project

How to write a case study — examples, templates, and tools

It’s a marketer’s job to communicate the effectiveness of a product or service to potential and current customers to convince them to buy and keep business moving. One of the best methods for doing this is to share success stories that are relatable to prospects and customers based on their pain points, experiences, and overall needs.

That’s where case studies come in. Case studies are an essential part of a content marketing plan. These in-depth stories of customer experiences are some of the most effective at demonstrating the value of a product or service. Yet many marketers don’t use them, whether because of their regimented formats or the process of customer involvement and approval.

A case study is a powerful tool for showcasing your hard work and the success your customer achieved. But writing a great case study can be difficult if you’ve never done it before or if it’s been a while. This guide will show you how to write an effective case study and provide real-world examples and templates that will keep readers engaged and support your business.

In this article, you’ll learn:

What is a case study?

How to write a case study, case study templates, case study examples, case study tools.

A case study is the detailed story of a customer’s experience with a product or service that demonstrates their success and often includes measurable outcomes. Case studies are used in a range of fields and for various reasons, from business to academic research. They’re especially impactful in marketing as brands work to convince and convert consumers with relatable, real-world stories of actual customer experiences.

The best case studies tell the story of a customer’s success, including the steps they took, the results they achieved, and the support they received from a brand along the way. To write a great case study, you need to:

• Celebrate the customer and make them — not a product or service — the star of the story.
• Craft the story with specific audiences or target segments in mind so that the story of one customer will be viewed as relatable and actionable for another customer.
• Write copy that is easy to read and engaging so that readers will gain the insights and messages intended.
• Follow a standardized format that includes all of the essentials a potential customer would find interesting and useful.
• Support all of the claims for success made in the story with data in the forms of hard numbers and customer statements.

Case studies are a type of review but more in depth, aiming to show — rather than just tell — the positive experiences that customers have with a brand. Notably, 89% of consumers read reviews before deciding to buy, and 79% view case study content as part of their purchasing process. When it comes to B2B sales, 52% of buyers rank case studies as an important part of their evaluation process.

Telling a brand story through the experience of a tried-and-true customer matters. The story is relatable to potential new customers as they imagine themselves in the shoes of the company or individual featured in the case study. Showcasing previous customers can help new ones see themselves engaging with your brand in the ways that are most meaningful to them.

Besides sharing the perspective of another customer, case studies stand out from other content marketing forms because they are based on evidence. Whether pulling from client testimonials or data-driven results, case studies tend to have more impact on new business because the story contains information that is both objective (data) and subjective (customer experience) — and the brand doesn’t sound too self-promotional.

Case studies are unique in that there’s a fairly standardized format for telling a customer’s story. But that doesn’t mean there isn’t room for creativity. It’s all about making sure that teams are clear on the goals for the case study — along with strategies for supporting content and channels — and understanding how the story fits within the framework of the company’s overall marketing goals.

Here are the basic steps to writing a good case study.

1. Identify your goal

Start by defining exactly who your case study will be designed to help. Case studies are about specific instances where a company works with a customer to achieve a goal. Identify which customers are likely to have these goals, as well as other needs the story should cover to appeal to them.

The answer is often found in one of the buyer personas that have been constructed as part of your larger marketing strategy. This can include anything from new leads generated by the marketing team to long-term customers that are being pressed for cross-sell opportunities. In all of these cases, demonstrating value through a relatable customer success story can be part of the solution to conversion.

2. Choose your client or subject

Who you highlight matters. Case studies tie brands together that might otherwise not cross paths. A writer will want to ensure that the highlighted customer aligns with their own company’s brand identity and offerings. Look for a customer with positive name recognition who has had great success with a product or service and is willing to be an advocate.

The client should also match up with the identified target audience. Whichever company or individual is selected should be a reflection of other potential customers who can see themselves in similar circumstances, having the same problems and possible solutions.

Some of the most compelling case studies feature customers who:

• Switch from one product or service to another while naming competitors that missed the mark.
• Experience measurable results that are relatable to others in a specific industry.
• Represent well-known brands and recognizable names that are likely to compel action.
• Advocate for a product or service as a champion and are well-versed in its advantages.

Whoever or whatever customer is selected, marketers must ensure they have the permission of the company involved before getting started. Some brands have strict review and approval procedures for any official marketing or promotional materials that include their name. Acquiring those approvals in advance will prevent any miscommunication or wasted effort if there is an issue with their legal or compliance teams.

3. Conduct research and compile data

Substantiating the claims made in a case study — either by the marketing team or customers themselves — adds validity to the story. To do this, include data and feedback from the client that defines what success looks like. This can be anything from demonstrating return on investment (ROI) to a specific metric the customer was striving to improve. Case studies should prove how an outcome was achieved and show tangible results that indicate to the customer that your solution is the right one.

This step could also include customer interviews. Make sure that the people being interviewed are key stakeholders in the purchase decision or deployment and use of the product or service that is being highlighted. Content writers should work off a set list of questions prepared in advance. It can be helpful to share these with the interviewees beforehand so they have time to consider and craft their responses. One of the best interview tactics to keep in mind is to ask questions where yes and no are not natural answers. This way, your subject will provide more open-ended responses that produce more meaningful content.

4. Choose the right format

There are a number of different ways to format a case study. Depending on what you hope to achieve, one style will be better than another. However, there are some common elements to include, such as:

• An engaging headline
• A subject and customer introduction
• The unique challenge or challenges the customer faced
• The solution the customer used to solve the problem
• The results achieved
• Data and statistics to back up claims of success
• A strong call to action (CTA) to engage with the vendor

It’s also important to note that while case studies are traditionally written as stories, they don’t have to be in a written format. Some companies choose to get more creative with their case studies and produce multimedia content, depending on their audience and objectives. Case study formats can include traditional print stories, interactive web or social content, data-heavy infographics, professionally shot videos, podcasts, and more.

5. Write your case study

We’ll go into more detail later about how exactly to write a case study, including templates and examples. Generally speaking, though, there are a few things to keep in mind when writing your case study.

• Be clear and concise. Readers want to get to the point of the story quickly and easily, and they’ll be looking to see themselves reflected in the story right from the start.
• Provide a big picture. Always make sure to explain who the client is, their goals, and how they achieved success in a short introduction to engage the reader.
• Construct a clear narrative. Stick to the story from the perspective of the customer and what they needed to solve instead of just listing product features or benefits.
• Leverage graphics. Incorporating infographics, charts, and sidebars can be a more engaging and eye-catching way to share key statistics and data in readable ways.
• Offer the right amount of detail. Most case studies are one or two pages with clear sections that a reader can skim to find the information most important to them.
• Include data to support claims. Show real results — both facts and figures and customer quotes — to demonstrate credibility and prove the solution works.

6. Promote your story

Marketers have a number of options for distribution of a freshly minted case study. Many brands choose to publish case studies on their website and post them on social media. This can help support SEO and organic content strategies while also boosting company credibility and trust as visitors see that other businesses have used the product or service.

Marketers are always looking for quality content they can use for lead generation. Consider offering a case study as gated content behind a form on a landing page or as an offer in an email message. One great way to do this is to summarize the content and tease the full story available for download after the user takes an action.

Sales teams can also leverage case studies, so be sure they are aware that the assets exist once they’re published. Especially when it comes to larger B2B sales, companies often ask for examples of similar customer challenges that have been solved.

Now that you’ve learned a bit about case studies and what they should include, you may be wondering how to start creating great customer story content. Here are a couple of templates you can use to structure your case study.

Template 1 — Challenge-solution-result format

• Start with an engaging title. This should be fewer than 70 characters long for SEO best practices. One of the best ways to approach the title is to include the customer’s name and a hint at the challenge they overcame in the end.
• Create an introduction. Lead with an explanation as to who the customer is, the need they had, and the opportunity they found with a specific product or solution. Writers can also suggest the success the customer experienced with the solution they chose.
• Present the challenge. This should be several paragraphs long and explain the problem the customer faced and the issues they were trying to solve. Details should tie into the company’s products and services naturally. This section needs to be the most relatable to the reader so they can picture themselves in a similar situation.
• Share the solution. Explain which product or service offered was the ideal fit for the customer and why. Feel free to delve into their experience setting up, purchasing, and onboarding the solution.
• Explain the results. Demonstrate the impact of the solution they chose by backing up their positive experience with data. Fill in with customer quotes and tangible, measurable results that show the effect of their choice.
• Ask for action. Include a CTA at the end of the case study that invites readers to reach out for more information, try a demo, or learn more — to nurture them further in the marketing pipeline. What you ask of the reader should tie directly into the goals that were established for the case study in the first place.

Template 2 — Data-driven format

• Start with an engaging title. Be sure to include a statistic or data point in the first 70 characters. Again, it’s best to include the customer’s name as part of the title.
• Create an overview. Share the customer’s background and a short version of the challenge they faced. Present the reason a particular product or service was chosen, and feel free to include quotes from the customer about their selection process.
• Present data point 1. Isolate the first metric that the customer used to define success and explain how the product or solution helped to achieve this goal. Provide data points and quotes to substantiate the claim that success was achieved.
• Present data point 2. Isolate the second metric that the customer used to define success and explain what the product or solution did to achieve this goal. Provide data points and quotes to substantiate the claim that success was achieved.
• Present data point 3. Isolate the final metric that the customer used to define success and explain what the product or solution did to achieve this goal. Provide data points and quotes to substantiate the claim that success was achieved.
• Summarize the results. Reiterate the fact that the customer was able to achieve success thanks to a specific product or service. Include quotes and statements that reflect customer satisfaction and suggest they plan to continue using the solution.
• Ask for action. Include a CTA at the end of the case study that asks readers to reach out for more information, try a demo, or learn more — to further nurture them in the marketing pipeline. Again, remember that this is where marketers can look to convert their content into action with the customer.

While templates are helpful, seeing a case study in action can also be a great way to learn. Here are some examples of how Adobe customers have experienced success.

Juniper Networks

One example is the Adobe and Juniper Networks case study , which puts the reader in the customer’s shoes. The beginning of the story quickly orients the reader so that they know exactly who the article is about and what they were trying to achieve. Solutions are outlined in a way that shows Adobe Experience Manager is the best choice and a natural fit for the customer. Along the way, quotes from the client are incorporated to help add validity to the statements. The results in the case study are conveyed with clear evidence of scale and volume using tangible data.

The story of Lenovo’s journey with Adobe is one that spans years of planning, implementation, and rollout. The Lenovo case study does a great job of consolidating all of this into a relatable journey that other enterprise organizations can see themselves taking, despite the project size. This case study also features descriptive headers and compelling visual elements that engage the reader and strengthen the content.

Tata Consulting

When it comes to using data to show customer results, this case study does an excellent job of conveying details and numbers in an easy-to-digest manner. Bullet points at the start break up the content while also helping the reader understand exactly what the case study will be about. Tata Consulting used Adobe to deliver elevated, engaging content experiences for a large telecommunications client of its own — an objective that’s relatable for a lot of companies.

Case studies are a vital tool for any marketing team as they enable you to demonstrate the value of your company’s products and services to others. They help marketers do their job and add credibility to a brand trying to promote its solutions by using the experiences and stories of real customers.

When you’re ready to get started with a case study:

• Think about a few goals you’d like to accomplish with your content.
• Make a list of successful clients that would be strong candidates for a case study.
• Reach out to the client to get their approval and conduct an interview.
• Gather the data to present an engaging and effective customer story.

Adobe can help

There are several Adobe products that can help you craft compelling case studies. Adobe Experience Platform helps you collect data and deliver great customer experiences across every channel. Once you’ve created your case studies, Experience Platform will help you deliver the right information to the right customer at the right time for maximum impact.

To learn more, watch the Adobe Experience Platform story .

Keep in mind that the best case studies are backed by data. That’s where Adobe Real-Time Customer Data Platform and Adobe Analytics come into play. With Real-Time CDP, you can gather the data you need to build a great case study and target specific customers to deliver the content to the right audience at the perfect moment.

Watch the Real-Time CDP overview video to learn more.

Finally, Adobe Analytics turns real-time data into real-time insights. It helps your business collect and synthesize data from multiple platforms to make more informed decisions and create the best case study possible.

Request a demo to learn more about Adobe Analytics.

https://business.adobe.com/blog/perspectives/b2b-ecommerce-10-case-studies-inspire-you

https://business.adobe.com/blog/basics/business-case

https://business.adobe.com/blog/basics/what-is-real-time-analytics

Activity 2: Case studies

Students will analyse cases in order to explore and combat gender stereotypes and homophobia

Case studies in a powerpoint presentation

Instructions:

• Explain to the students that you would like to explore some incidents and you would like their opinion.
• Present each case study to the students in a powerpoint and encourage discussion.
• After reading each case, ask students to answer and discuss the relevant questions.
• Each case should be analysed for 15 minutes.

Case Study 1

John has recently moved to a different town with his parents, because they found better jobs. As he hadn’t had the chance to meet people and make friends yet, he decided to find an extracurricular activity to do after school. He searched for lessons or activities available and he found an incredible offer about some ballet classes. On Wednesday, after school, he went to enrol to the lessons. When he entered the class, the girls that were already there were really surprised and staring at him. After he explained that he wanted to attend the lessons, the girls started pointing at him, laughing. The teacher did not react at all and looked really surprised. John ran out of the class, crying.

• Do you think there are stereotypes in the case of John? Could you mention some?
• How do you think John feels about this situation?
• Do you think that something like that could happen in real life?
• How do you think you would react if something like that happened in your school?

Case Study 2

Laura is running for president of the class. She is really happy that she will have a chance to contribute to the exercise of students’ rights and she has made a plan on what she wants to change. One day, five of her male classmates approached her and said ‘You can’t be the president of our class! You’re a girl! Girls cannot be the leaders!’ . Laura was devastated, since she has been trying really hard to find ways in order for all students to be represented by her plan.

• Do you think there are stereotypes in the case of Laura? Could you mention some?
• How do you think Laura feels about this situation?

Case Study 3

Paul is a 17year old boy who has been struggling in order to accept himself for the past few years. He understood that he was into boys two years back, but he has been trying to ‘fix himself’ as he was told. He dated girls, hung out with male classmates and did what other boys his age did. One day, his girlfriend, Sarah, wanted their relationship to go further, but Paul was not into it. Sarah started mocking him and told everyone in their class that he was gay. After one day, the whole school started calling Paul names, telling him that he was a ‘weirdo’ and that this was not normal.

• Do you think there are stereotypes in the case of Paul? Could you mention some?
• How do you think Paul feels about this situation?

• Open access
• Published: 30 May 2024

Social-emotional and behavioural problems in young children of healthcare worker mothers during the COVID-19 outbreak: a case-control study

• Mahmut Caner Us   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-1120-3498 1 ,
• Perran Boran   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9885-7656 2 ,
• Sıddika Songül Yalçın   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9061-4281 3 ,
• Refia Gözdenur Savcı   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6239-3442 4 ,
• Bahar Kural   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-9528-1009 5 &
• Dilşad Foto Özdemir   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-9077-8419 6  

BMC Psychiatry volume  24 , Article number:  407 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

133 Accesses

Metrics details

The pandemic has had a significant impact on the daily lives of children and their families, particularly the children of health care workers, due to changes in family routines as a result of their parents’ work schedules. We aimed to explore the socioemotional and behavioural (SEB) problems of children of healthcare worker mothers (HCWM) during the COVID-19 pandemic and compare them with age-matched children and their mothers from other occupations.

A case-control study design was applied, and a snowball approach was used to enrol volunteered participants aged between 6 and 36 months of age, through a Google survey. We used the Brief Infant-Toddler Social and Emotional Assessment (BITSEA) questionnaire to assess children’s SEB problems and a Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI) to evaluate the psychological distress of mothers. Differences in BITSEA, BSI and MSPSS scores were examined using chi-square and Mann-Whitney U tests, as appropriate. A logistic regression model was used to identify independent predictors of children’s behavioural and emotional problems.

In total, 600 questionnaires were analysed. It was observed that children in the HCWM group were separated from their mothers more often and for longer periods of time than their counterparts ( p  < 0.010, p  = 0.002). Changes in the child’s structured outdoor activities during the pandemic period were more likely to be observed in the HCWM group ( p  < 0.05). The percentage of children with the BITSEA problem subscale above the subclinical cut-off, externalizing and dysregulation scores were significantly higher in the HCWM group ( p  = 0.044, p  = 0.031, and p  = 0.016). Moreover, each point increase in BSI global index scores ( p  < 0.001, RR:3.34, 95%CI:1.91–5.82) was found as a risk factor for clinically significant SEB problems.

Overall, the current study suggests HCWM’s have experienced occupational inequality, and young children of HCWM’s were at increased risk for externalizing and dysregulation problems during the pandemic. Maternal psychological stress had a significant impact on their children’s socio-emotional well-being.

Peer Review reports

Introduction

The COVID-19 epidemic began in China, spread quickly to other countries, and has been declared a public health emergency of international concern on January 30th 2020 by the World Health Organization (WHO) [ 1 ]. Figures from around the world show that approximately 7 to 11% of healthcare workers (HCWs) have been diagnosed with COVID-19 [ 2 ]. Political measures adopted to control the disease such as closure of childcare services, and disrupted socialization exacerbated existing inequities and posed additional challenges for HCW mothers (HCWM) with young children [ 3 ]. They had to balance work responsibilities such as providing patient care against their responsibilities to protect their own well-being from the effects of chronic stress and their children’s mental health [ 4 ]. HCWMs with young children raised their concerns about access to childcare, parenting, and household duties [ 5 ]. Inability to find caregivers and elderly parents for childcare support was a significant contributor to this inequity. While there is limited research on this specific topic, these challenges may have contributed to increased child behaviour problems particularly at a young age. In addition, as noted in the United Nations report on Turkey’s gender equality performance from 2000 to 2019, Türkiye still maintains a strong traditional division of labour. Although it is improving day by day, women still spend four times more time than men on unpaid domestic work (the double burden of housework and childcare), which is not sufficiently shared by family members, especially men, increasing women’s workload [ 6 ].

Children of HCWMs were disadvantaged relative to their peers due to deprivation of maternal care for an extended duration, the risk of their parents contracting the virus, the fear of losing their parents, and changes in family routines due to their parents’ work schedules [ 7 ]. Trauma faced at a young age may have long-term adverse developmental consequences across their lifespan [ 8 ].

Studies have shown that HCWs have experienced higher levels of stress, anxiety, and depression compared to the general population during the pandemic [ 9 , 10 , 11 ]. Notably, parental distress can be a significant contributor to child behavioural problems. Distressed parents tend to demonstrate emotional unavailability thus leading to the occurrence of child behaviour problems [ 9 , 12 ]. On the other hand, parental distress has been shown to be associated with lack of social support. It has been shown that social support provided by family and friends can help reduce parental distress and have a positive effect on parenting behaviours. Due to social distancing measures these protective close relationships of families were cut off [ 10 ]. Social support plays an important role in a person’s mental health, and even more in disasters acts as a buffer against the negative effects of trauma-related events, minimizing the potential of developing negative consequences [ 11 , 13 ]. Therefore, measuring the social support of HCWs would be of critical importance in planning interventions for this vulnerable population [ 7 ].

Overall, the pandemic has had a significant impact on the daily lives of children such as changes in daily routines, increased stress and anxiety, reduced physical activity, reduced peer interactions, increased screen time and changes in sleep environment which can contribute to sleep disturbances in young children [ 12 , 14 ]. On the other hand, other studies have found that improved parent-child interactions due to home confinement could allow for better sleep [ 12 , 14 , 15 , 16 ].

The study was planned based on the hypothesis that children of HCWMs experienced more socioemotional and behavioural (SEB) problems than children of mothers from other occupations during the COVID-19 pandemic. We aimed to explore SEB problems and sleep patterns in children of HCWMs; assess the psychological distress of mothers and their perceived social support during the COVID-19 pandemic, and compare them with age-matched peers and their mothers from other occupations.

Materials and methods

A case-control study was applied and a snowball approach was used to enrol volunteered participants. All women having children aged between 6 and 36 months of age were invited to participate via websites, social media and e-mail between August 18th 2020 - October 17th 2020. All surveys were conducted in Türkiye. Personal identifying information was not collected or recorded.

An online survey was developed on the Google platform securing data collection by a confidential login system which can be filled out through smartphones, tablets or computers. The questionnaire took approximately 15 min to complete. It was pilot tested on 15 mothers and found acceptable. Due to pandemic restrictions, the study has been promoted via social media (such as Whatsapp, Telegram doctor and parent groups, Instagram, websites) and they are being asked to send links to volunteers in their area. Volunteers were sent an invitation email or message with a link to an anonymous online questionnaire, depending on their contact preferences. To access the questionnaire, respondents were asked to read the informed consent form and tick the mandatory box. Questionnaire responses were converted to excel spreadsheets.

Children aged 6–36 months and working mothers aged 20–45 years with at least some college/university education were eligible to participate in the study. Children whose parents didn’t approve the consent form or who had a known chronic health problem were excluded from the study. Children of HCWMs were grouped as Group 1 (HCWM group), and children of mothers from other occupations were grouped as Group 2 (non-HCWM group). Doctors, nurses, and paramedics are considered as HCWMs. For two groups, the difference between the groups was predicted to be statistically significant at the medium effect size (according to the percentage of SEB and sleep problems in that age group), and the total sample size was calculated as 600 for 95% power and 0.05 alpha significance level, taking into account dropouts and other possible problems (Fig.  1 ).

Flow chart of the study

Brief Infant Sleep Questionnaire (BISQ) [ 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 ] and Brief Infant-Toddler Social and Emotional Assessment (BITSEA) questionnaires [ 21 , 22 , 23 ] were used to assess children’s sleep, and social-emotional development, respectively. Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS) [ 24 , 25 ], and Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI) [ 26 , 27 ] questionnaires were used to evaluate maternal social support and psychological distress.

Questionnaires

The BISQ functions as a tool designed to assess the early childhood sleep environment, covering aspects such as parental practices, daytime and night-time routines, and sleep issues, relying on responses from parents [ 17 ]. Through validation, BISQ demonstrated significant correlations with sleep measures obtained from actigraphy and sleep diaries. The Turkish translation of BISQ has been deemed acceptable, comprehensible, and reliable for evaluating sleep-related factors in infants [ 18 ]. In this study, maternal perception of sleep problems was categorized based on the expanded BISQ version. A parent-reported sleep problem was defined as moderate or severe while no problem was designated for those with no problem or a very small problem, as indicated in previous studies [ 17 , 19 ]. Parents were asked a single question to assess the pandemic’s impact on their children’s sleep. The question of whether there was a change in their children’s sleep during the pandemic period and if the answer is “yes”, what has changed was added to the beginning of the BISQ survey. If the child woke up > 3 times/night and woke up after sleep onset (WASO) for > 1 h or spent < 1 SD of the study population’s sleep duration (10 h), the child was considered a poor sleeper [ 17 , 20 ].

The BITSEA is a tool for screening social, emotional and behavioural development in early childhood which consists of 42 items [ 21 ]. The BITSEA encompasses two scales: the Problem scale (BITSEAp) with 31 items and the Competence scale (BITSEAc) with 11 items. Each item utilizes a response format with three choices: “not true/rarely” (0), “sometimes true/sometimes” (1), and “very true/often (2).” Problematic behavior is addressed in the externalizing (6 items, e.g., impulsivity, defiance, peer aggression), internalizing (8 items, e.g., fearfulness, worry, anxiety, sadness), and dysregulation (8 items, e.g., sleep and eating problems, negative emotionality, sensory sensitivities) domains [ 22 ]. Higher total scores on BITSEAp indicate a greater level of behavioral and emotional problems, while lower total scores on BITSEAc indicate a lower level of competence. The Turkish version of BITSEA has demonstrated reliability, validity, and simplicity, making it an effective instrument for screening social, emotional, and behavioral problems in toddlers [ 23 ]. Identified cut-offs of BITSEAp in gender groups for subclinical scores were ≥ 18 for males, and ≥ 21 for females. It was ≥ 24 for clinical scores in both genders [ 21 , 23 ].

The MSPSS is a concise self-administered tool comprising 12 items, divided into three subscales [ 24 ]. Respondents rate each item on a seven-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (very strongly disagree) to 7 (very strongly agree). A higher score on the Likert scale indicates a greater perception of social support. The total score, ranging from 12 to 84, can be calculated by adding the items within each subscale and then dividing by 4. The instrument assesses the level of social support and identifies its sources from family, friends, or significant others. Elevated scores are indicative of higher levels of perceived social support. The Turkish adaptation of MSPSS has demonstrated reliability, validity, and ease of application, establishing it as an effective tool for screening perceived social support [ 25 ].

The BSI comprises a self-report symptom inventory with 53 items, encompassing nine symptom dimensions: Somatization, Obsession-Compulsion, Interpersonal Sensitivity, Depression, Anxiety, Hostility, Phobic Anxiety, Paranoid Ideation, and Psychoticism; along with three global distress indices: Global Severity Index, Positive Symptom Distress Index, and Positive Symptom Total [ 26 ]. This instrument facilitates the evaluation of psychological distress and psychiatric disorders. Respondents rate items on a five-point Likert scale, ranging from 0 (not at all) to 4 (extremely), indicating the degree of distress experienced in the past week. Scores are generated for nine primary symptom dimensions and three global distress indices. The Turkish adaptation of BSI has demonstrated reliability, validity, and simplicity, making it a valuable tool for assessing maternal psychological distress, including depression, anxiety, hostility, negative self-perception, somatization, and global distress indices [ 27 ].

Statistical analyses

IBM SPSS Statistics software (version 28.0, IBM Inc., United States) was employed for all analyses. Descriptive statistics, including mean and standard deviations (SD) for normally distributed continuous variables, and median and quartiles for non-normally distributed data, were presented. Normal distribution conformity was assessed using Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Shapiro-Wilk tests. Categorical variables were summarized using frequencies and percentages. Differences in family characteristics, sleep parameters, BITSEA, BSI, and MSPSS scores were examined using the chi-square and Mann-Whitney U test, as appropriate. Given the non-normal distribution of all parameters, Spearman’s Rho Correlation analysis test was utilized to calculate correlation coefficients and assess significance.

Adjusted odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were reported. To compare study group data with nationally representative data, a one-sample T-test and chi-square test were applied for sleep parameters, and the chi-square test was used for SEB problem frequency. In multivariate analysis, factors identified in univariate analysis, without collinearity, were entered into logistic regression to determine independent predictors of children’s behavioral and emotional problems. The Hosmer–Lemeshow test assessed the goodness-of-fit of the model. A 5% type-I error level was set for determining statistical significance.

In total, 600 questionnaires were analysed, 313 children were included in the HCWM group and 287 were included in the non-HCWM group (Fig.  1 ). There were no statistically significant differences in maternal and paternal occupation between the groups. Although the mothers who had a college/university education and above were included in the study, there was a statistically significant difference between the groups according to the level of parental education. Although the median age of children was significantly higher in the HCWM group ( p  = 0.005), age groups (< 24 months vs. 24–36 months) and gender distribution was similar in both groups ( p  = 0.133, p  = 0.416).The sociodemographic and parental data of groups are summarized in Table  1 .

Changes in the daily routines and family members’ COVID-19 exposure status were presented in Table  2 . A significantly higher proportion of mothers in the HCWM group were separated from their children during the pandemic (HCWM vs. non-HCWM: 27.8% vs. 10.8%). Moreover, the duration of separation was significantly longer (20 vs. 3 days, p  = 0.002) in the HCWM group. Childcare support by nannies and grandparents and changes in the child’s structured outdoor activities during the pandemic period were more likely observed in the HCWM group ( p  < 0.05).

Total and subscale scores of the BITSEA, BSI and MSPSS are presented in Fig.  2 ; Table  1 . Although there were no significant differences in children’s BITSEAp median scores between groups, the externalizing and dysregulation scores were significantly higher in the HCWM group ( p  = 0.031, p  = 0.016). There were no significant differences in the BITSEAp and BITSEAc scores between boys and girls (boys vs. girls median BITSEAp 15 vs. 14, p  = 0.461; median BITSEAc 17 vs. 17, p  = 0.093). The median BITSEAc and total score were significantly higher in the HCWM group ( p  = 0.030, p  = 0.031). Although children above BITSEAp subclinical cut-off were found significantly higher in the HCWM group (30.7% vs. 23.3%, p  = 0.044), there was no significant difference between clinical cut-off points. There were no significant differences in mothers’ BSI and MSPSS total and subscale median scores between the groups (Fig.  3 ; Table  1 ).

BITSEA, BSI and MSPSS scores for each subscale [* p  < 0.05 (Mann-Whitney u test); For each scale first column indicates Group 1 and second column indicates Group 2; BITSEA: brief infant–toddler social and emotional assessment, BITSEAp: The brief infant–toddler social and emotional assessment problem scale, BITSEAc: brief infant–toddler social and emotional assessment competence scale, BSI: Brief Symptom Inventory, MSPSS: Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support]

Distribution of BITSEAp scores above the cut-off [* p  < 0.05 at Chi-square test, BITSEAp: The brief infant–toddler social and emotional assessment problem scale, identified cut-offs of BITSEA/P in gender groups for subclinical scores were ≥ 18 for males and ≥ 21 for females. It was ≥ 24 for clinical scores in both genders]

While other BSI subscales and BITSEAp had a mild positive correlation, BSI global index and BITSEAp had a positive moderate correlation ( r  = 0.412, p  < 0.001). All BSI subscales (anxiety, depression, hostility, somatization, negative-self and global index) and BITSEAp subscales (externalizing, internalizing and dysregulation) had a mild positive correlation ( p  < 0.001). Additionally, the MSPSS total and BSI global index had a negative moderate correlation ( r =-0.430, p  < 0.001). It was shown that almost all MSPSS and BSI subscales had negative mild to moderate correlations. Bivariate correlation of BITSEA, BSI, MSPSS subscales, sleep parameters and associated sociodemographic variables are summarized in Supplemental File Table  1 .

Although there were no significant differences between study groups, it was shown that the percentage of SEB problems in HCWM’s children was significantly higher than national representative data (13.5% vs. 11.9%, with a chi-square test p  < 0.001) [ 28 ].

In the logistic analysis, male gender ( p  < 0.001, RR: 3.68, 95% CI: 1.99–6.80), each point increases in BSI global index scores ( p  < 0.001, RR: 2.56, 95% CI: 1.61–4.09), and having HCWM ( p  = 0.018, RR: 2.27, 95% CI: 1.15–4.48) were found as the risk factors for BITSEAp scores above the subclinical cut-off. Besides, each point increases in BSI global index scores ( p  < 0.001, RR: 3.34, 95% CI: 1.91–5.82) was found as a risk factor for clinically significant SEB problems (Table  3 ).

Table  4 provides a summary of maternal perceptions regarding sleep problems and sleep variables based on BISQ. It reveals that both total and night-time sleep durations were significantly shorter in the HCWM group. Furthermore, the HCWM group demonstrated a significantly higher prevalence of perceiving their child’s sleep as a moderate to severe problem.

Changes in sleep patterns and sleep disturbances in children pre- versus post-pandemic were analysed. Changes in sleep pattern were 1.38 times and night wakening’s were 1.8 times higher as compared to the pre-pandemic period in the HCWM group (HCWM vs. non-HCWM group: 41.5% vs. 30% p  = 0.004, OR: 1.38; 23.3% vs. 12.9% p  = 0.001, OR: 1.80). HCWMs were more likely to perceive their children’s sleep as a moderate to severe problem compared to the non-HCWM group (25.9% vs. 17.1%, p  = 0.01, OR: 1.51). Wake-up time was significantly earlier, and night-time and total sleep duration were significantly shorter in the HCWM group ( p  = 0.004, p  = 0.003, p  = 0.003). Overall, 22.8% of the study population were classified as poor sleepers and there was no significant difference between the groups ( p  = 0.097).

Compared with the recent study that represents Türkiye’s nationwide sleep characteristics of the same age group, whole study groups differed significantly from the normative distribution in almost all sleep parameters (Night waking’s increased by 2.63 vs. 2.3, p  < 0.001; decreased night-time sleep duration 9.3 vs. 9.6 h, p  < 0.001; shorter total sleep duration 11.2 vs. 11.5 h, p  = 0.002; increased WASO 59.1 vs. 48.1 min, p  = 0.01; decreasing nap number 1.4 vs. 1.6, p  < 0.001) [ 29 ].

There is limited research available on whether children of HCWMs exhibit more SEB problems compared to their peers during the pandemic. Overall, the current study suggests HCWMs have experienced occupational inequality, and young children of HCWMs were at increased risk for externalizing and dysregulation problems during the pandemic. Our findings showed a significantly higher proportion of HCWMs were separated from their children for longer periods. Disrupted childcare support and changes in daily routines have disproportionally impacted HCWMs. Children of HCWMs had higher scores on the externalizing and dysregulation domains of SEB problems than children of non-HCWMs. On the other hand, psychological distress and perceived social support were not different in HCWMs compared to non-HCWMs. Moreover, competence scores were significantly higher in children of HCWMs, suggesting young children of HCWMs may have experienced positive outcomes as well. Maternal psychological distress was found as a potentially modifiable factor affecting the child’s SEB problems. Our findings also showed that these children of HCWMs had higher parent-reported sleep problems, shorter total and night-time sleep, and earlier wake time compared to their peers of non-HCW parents. Moreover, they had an increase in their night wakening and changes in sleep patterns compared to the pre-pandemic period.

Parent-reported SEB problems in infancy and throughout toddlerhood have been reported between 5 and 24% in different studies before the pandemic period [ 30 , 31 ]. Children of HCWs faced unique stressors, including the risk of their parents contracting the virus, changes in family routines due to their parents’ work schedules, and separation from their parents due to long working hours or quarantine measures. While there is limited research suggesting that children of HCWs may be at increased risk of experiencing SEB problems during the pandemic, the available evidence shows that these stressors can contribute to SEB problems in young children. It is known that externalizing problems are mainly encountered in early childhood because they have limited abilities to communicate about their emotions and use externalizing behaviours to express their emotions [ 32 ]. The findings of our study showed young children of HCWMs faced additional stressors such as separation from their parents and disruption of their daily routines due to their parent’s occupations. We also found that children of HCWMs had higher externalizing and dysregulation behaviours compared to their peers. Overall, clinically significant SEB problem was found in 13.5% of the children. The study from Türkiye has shown that parent-reported clinically significant SEB problem was observed in 11.9% of Turkish children aged between 2 and 3 years [ 28 ]. In the validation and reliability study of the BITSEA Turkish version, clinically significant SEB problem was found at 13.1% for males and 17.6% for females [ 23 ]. In this current study, although there were no significant differences between groups, it was shown that the percentage of SEB problems in HCWM’s children was significantly higher than the nationally representative data [ 28 ]. Further, the number of children above BITSEAp subclinical cut-off was found significantly higher in the HCWM group suggesting subclinical difficulties at younger ages may also increase the risk for later psychopathology [ 32 , 33 ].

Research findings have been mixed and some studies have suggested that children of HCWs may experience positive outcomes as well [ 34 ]. Similarly, the current study found that competence scores were significantly higher in children of HCWMs, suggesting young children of HCWMs may have experienced positive outcomes as well. It is important to note that the impact may vary depending on the type of healthcare work their parents are engaged in, the family’s overall social and economic circumstances, and the child’s level of resilience and coping strategies. The current study has not shown a significant difference in perceived social support between HCWMs and non-HCWMs. Social support can take many forms including emotional support, and practical support. It can be particularly important for parents who are experiencing additional challenges. Further research is needed to fully understand the issue.

SEB problems have been linked with high maternal depression and parenting stress [ 33 ]. Stress and anxiety levels of parents are associated with children’s SEB [ 35 ] and psychological development [ 36 ]. During stressful events, children’s emotional adjustment develops and changes mostly depending on the emotional state of their parents [ 37 ]. It has been suggested that mothers with depressive symptoms have difficulty responding appropriately in interactions with their children, show less sensitivity to cues from their children, participates less in positive interactions with their children, and cannot use the right strategies to manage their children’s behaviour [ 38 ]. Higher total BSI scores of the primary caregiver and being separated from the mother for more than a month were considered clinically significant risk factors for SEB problems in children [ 39 ]. Similarly, the study findings showed that higher maternal psychological distress levels were significantly associated with clinically significant SEB problems.

The COVID-19 pandemic has had a significant impact on the daily lives of young children which can contribute to sleep disturbances. In a recent study, it was shown that altered daily routines due to COVID-19 confinement, caused worsened sleep quality in children aged 0–36 months and the caregiver’s stress level was identified as a significant risk factor for this impairment [ 40 ]. Similarly, when the parents were asked about the reason for the altered sleep habits, they reported their children slept later than usual, sleep routines were disrupted, did not nap during the day, and had changes in feeding routines [ 41 ]. Our study showed that young children of HCWMs faced increased night wakening, earlier wake-up times and shorter night-time and total sleep times than peers. Compared with the recent study that represents Türkiye’s nationwide sleep characteristics of the same age group, almost all the sleep parameters were significantly worse than the normative distribution [ 29 ]. Additionally, HCWMs reported that their children’s sleep patterns changed compared to the pre-pandemic period. Sleep problems were found to be associated with SEB problems in the first 3 years of life [ 42 ]. Changes in daily routines, and sleep patterns might have contributed to SEB problems in young children who are particularly at a critical stage of social and emotional development. Parents need to establish consistent routines and support healthy sleep habits for young children to address these challenges.

It is important to note that this study only included young children living in Türkiye, and may not be representative of all children of HCWMs. The case-control design of our study did not let us provide information about the causality of SEB and sleep problems. Due to the snowball sampling approach, the generalizability of these findings is limited. To avoid this limitation, we calculated and reached the minimum sampling size to represent our population. The measures used for this study were self-reported. Reliable and valid questionnaires for our country had been used to overcome this limitation. Because the number of children above the clinical cut-off is limited, the significant difference shown in the subclinical cut-off may have not been demonstrated at the clinical cut-off. More research is needed to fully understand the impact of the pandemic on the SEB problems and the well-being of children of HCWMs. The differences between the groups in terms of parental education and family type were notable, although having at least a university/college education was an inclusion criterion. Our aim was to assess mothers’ perceptions but the lack of data on fathers is also a limitation of this study.

The findings of this study suggest that young children of HCWMs were disproportionally affected due to their mothers’ occupations during the COVID-19 pandemic. Addressing psychological distress in HCWMs, improving social support and implementing structured daily routines may serve as potential protective factors for behavioural functioning in these children and thus reduce occupation-related inequalities during the crisis. There is a need for further research into occupational inequality and its potential impact on social and emotional factors particularly for children and parents.

Data availability

The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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We would like to thank the children and their families who participated in this study.

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Institute of Health Sciences, Social Pediatrics PhD Program, Marmara University, Istanbul, Turkey

Mahmut Caner Us

School of Medicine, Department of Social Paediatrics, Marmara University, Istanbul, Turkey

Perran Boran

Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Hacettepe University, Samanpazari, Ankara, 06100, Turkey

Sıddika Songül Yalçın

Department of Pediatrics, Alaçam State Hospital, Samsun, Turkey

Refia Gözdenur Savcı

School of Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, Istanbul Haliç University, Istanbul, Turkey

Bahar Kural

School of Medicine, Department of Child Psychiatry, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey

Dilşad Foto Özdemir

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All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by Mahmut Caner Us, Perran Boran, Sıddika Songül Yalçın. Mahmut Caner Us, Perran Boran, Sıddika Songül Yalçın, Refia Gözdenur Savcı, Bahar Kural collected data. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Mahmut Caner Us, Perran Boran, Songül Yalçın, Bahar Kural, Dilşad Foto Özdemir and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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This study was performed in line with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. Approval was granted by the Marmara University Faculty of Medicine Clinical Research Ethics Committee; date of approval: 17/08/2020 and protocol number: 09.2020.942.

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This paper was presented as oral presentation at the Social Pediatric Society of Turkey’s in the selected abstracts of the 2nd International Eurasian Social Pediatric congress organized in Istanbul (Turkey) between October 26th-29th 2022. “SS-66”.

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Us, M.C., Boran, P., Yalçın, S.S. et al. Social-emotional and behavioural problems in young children of healthcare worker mothers during the COVID-19 outbreak: a case-control study. BMC Psychiatry 24 , 407 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-024-05801-4

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Influence of tectonic effects on the formation and characteristics of landslide dams on the NE Tibetan Plateau: a case study in the Bailong River Basin, China

• Original Paper
• Published: 04 June 2024

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• Guan Chen 1 , 2 , 4 ,
• Jiacheng Jin 1 , 2 , 4 ,
• Xingmin Meng 1 , 2 , 4 ,
• Tianjun Qi 1 , 2 , 4 ,
• Wei Shi 2 , 3 , 4 ,
• Yan Chong 2 , 3 , 4 ,
• Yunpeng Yang 1 , 3 , 4 &
• Shiqiang Bian 2 , 3 , 4  

Hazards created by the landslide damming of rivers have become common in tectonically active mountainous areas. However, it remains unclear how tectonic effects may influence the formation and characteristics of landslide dams. The purpose of this paper is to explore how tectonic effects impact the drivers, geomorphic features, and activity characteristics of landslide dams along a fault zone. We investigated 83 landslide dams clustered along a fault zone in the Bailong River Basin. Most of the dams are located in areas of high tectonic stress, resulting from the rapid river incision and destruction of slope structure caused by intense tectonic activities in these areas. Statistical analysis, InSAR monitoring, and field investigation revealed that different tectonic effects were associated with significant differences in the geomorphic features, activity characteristics, and controlling factors of the landslide dams. Thus, we identified three distinct patterns of landslide dams in tectonically active mountainous areas: (1) Topography-driven landslide dams are caused by rapid rock uplift and river incision. Here, the steep terrain enhances the development of small landslides, the narrowness of the channels favors river damming, and the residual deposits on the hillslope remain active. (2) Tectonic activities promote the development of structural planes in the rock mass and reduce its strength, ultimately forming structural plane-controlled landslide dams. Although their volumes are not very large, the strong erosion resistance of rockslides can cause river damming and maintain the stability of deposits. (3) Fractured rock mass-controlled landslide dams are composed of broken rock and fault gouge. The extremely low strength of these materials allows them to form very large landslides that can easily dam the river, and maintain a slow-moving state. Through a geomorphological and geological model, our study offers new insights and enhances the understanding of the formation and characteristics of landslide dams induced by tectonic activity in mountainous regions.

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This study was supported by the Second Tibetan Plateau Scientific Expedition and Research Program (STEP) (Grant No. 2021QZKK0201), National Key Research and Development Program of China (Grant No. 2017YFC1501005), Key Research and Development Program of Gansu Province (Grant No. 20YF8FA074), National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 42377193 and 42130709), Science and Technology Major Project of Gansu Province (Grant No. 22ZD6FA051), Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (lzujbky-2021-6), and Geohazard prevention project of Gansu Province (Grant No. CNPC-B-FS2021012). We would like to acknowledge Wangcai Liu, Linxin Lin, Weiwei Guo, and Xiaojun Su for their help with the field investigation.

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Chen, G., Jin, J., Meng, X. et al. Influence of tectonic effects on the formation and characteristics of landslide dams on the NE Tibetan Plateau: a case study in the Bailong River Basin, China. Landslides (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-024-02273-1

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Appendix 1: Case study

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Gonorrhoea in a region of England

UKHSA was alerted to a reported increase in cases of gonorrhoea by a sexual health service ( SHS ) in a region of England. An outbreak control team ( OCT ) was convened to assess the risk to public health and instigate control measures. The OCT was chaired by the UKHSA Health Protection Team ( HPT ) and had representation from other UKHSA teams (Field Service, regional facilitator, BSHSH and the STI reference laboratory) and from partner organisations (sexual health commissioners, local authority public health colleagues and clinicians from commissioned SHS ).

Investigation

Data from GUMCAD STI Surveillance System was only available from three months prior to the investigation and other data sources needed to be used to investigate the reported increase in cases. The following data sources were used by the UKHSA Field Service:

• routine UKHSA laboratory surveillance data for Neisseria gonorrhoeae to examine trends over time by age group, sex and local authority
• aggregate data submitted by SHS in the region to obtain more detailed demographic information and positivity rates
• local public health laboratory data to analyse trends in positivity over time
• raw GUMCAD STI Surveillance System data for the most recent time period

The analysis confirmed there was an increase in gonorrhoea infections in the region, affecting both men and women. There was a particular increase in infections among young people and notably among the 19-to-23-years age group.

All the data sources had limitations and the OCT decided that an enhanced questionnaire was needed to further understand the demographics and risk behaviours of cases within the region. Field Service colleagues developed an anonymous, online questionnaire, and OCT members advised on the format and appropriate terminology of the content. The questionnaire was only available in English.

SHS were asked to send a link to the questionnaire to all those aged over 15 years-old, newly diagnosed with gonorrhoea in a 3-month period. Individuals could also scan a QR code in the SHS to access the questionnaire. The data collected through the enhanced surveillance questionnaire was analysed by the Field Service and presented to the OCT . It provided valuable local intelligence indicating that the epidemiology differed across the region and that predominately younger heterosexual people (aged 23 years and under) and older (aged 24 years and over) GBMSM were affected.

Clinics also had a QR code for individuals to scan on their phones to access the survey. 108 responses were received. Enhanced surveillance provided valuable information on the groups affected and geographical variation. Risk factors and opportunities for interventions were also identified.

Control measures

Control measures were implemented by commissioners and SHS across the region, tailored to the population affected in their area. Examples included increased condom promotion and texts to raise awareness among student populations.

Communication

Local press releases were disseminated in the region, including information on the expansion of a condom scheme and urging the target group to get tested for gonorrhoea.

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• Kellerman RD, et al. Myalgic encephalomyelitis/Chronic fatigue syndrome. In: Conn's Current Therapy 2022. Elsevier; 2022. https://www.clinicalkey.com. Accessed Nov. 23, 2022.
• Gluckman SJ. Clinical features and diagnosis of myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome. https://www.uptodate.com/contents/search. Accessed Nov. 23, 2022.
• Ferri FF. Chronic fatigue syndrome. In: Ferri's Clinical Advisor 2023. Elsevier; 2023. https://www.clinicalkey.com. Accessed Nov. 23, 2022.
• Myalgic encephalomyelitis/Chronic fatigue syndrome: Information for healthcare providers. U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/me-cfs/healthcare-providers/index.html. Accessed Nov. 23, 2022.
• Chronic fatigue syndrome. Merck Manual Professional Version. https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/special-subjects/chronic-fatigue-syndrome/chronic-fatigue-syndrome?query=chronic%20fatigue%20syndrome. Accessed Nov. 23, 2022.
• Goldman L, et al., eds. Fibromyalgia, chronic fatigue syndrome and myofascial pain. In: Goldman-Cecil Medicine. 26th ed. Elsevier; 2020. https://www.clinicalkey.com. Accessed Feb. 4, 2020.
• Gluckman SJ. Treatment of myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome. https://www.uptodate.com/contents/search. Accessed Nov. 23, 2022.
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Minimizing IP issues associated with gene constructs encoding the Bt toxin - a case study

• Md Mahmudul Hassan 1 , 2 ,
• Francis Tenazas 1 ,
• Adam Williams 1 ,
• Jing-wen Chiu 3 ,
• Charles Robin 1 ,
• Derek A. Russell 4 &
• John F. Golz 1  

BMC Biotechnology volume  24 , Article number:  37 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Metrics details

As part of a publicly funded initiative to develop genetically engineered Brassicas (cabbage, cauliflower, and canola) expressing Bacillus thuringiensis Crystal ( Cry )-encoded insecticidal (Bt) toxin for Indian and Australian farmers, we designed several constructs that drive high-level expression of modified Cry1B and Cry1C genes (referred to as Cry1B M and Cry1C M ; with M indicating modified). The two main motivations for modifying the DNA sequences of these genes were to minimise any licensing cost associated with the commercial cultivation of transgenic crop plants expressing Cry M genes, and to remove or alter sequences that might adversely affect their activity in plants.

To assess the insecticidal efficacy of the Cry1B M / Cry1C M genes, constructs were introduced into the model Brassica Arabidopsis thaliana in which Cry1B M / Cry1C M expression was directed from either single ( S4 / S7 ) or double ( S4S4 / S7S7 ) subterranean clover stunt virus (SCSV) promoters. The resulting transgenic plants displayed a high-level of Cry1B M / Cry1C M expression. Protein accumulation for Cry1C M ranged from 5.18 to 176.88 µg Cry1C M /g dry weight of leaves. Contrary to previous work on stunt promoters, we found no correlation between the use of either single or double stunt promoters and the expression levels of Cry1B M / Cry1C M genes, with a similar range of Cry1C M transcript abundance and protein content observed from both constructs. First instar Diamondback moth ( Plutella xylostella ) larvae fed on transgenic Arabidopsis leaves expressing the Cry1B M / Cry1C M genes showed 100% mortality, with a mean leaf damage score on a scale of zero to five of 0.125 for transgenic leaves and 4.2 for wild-type leaves.

Conclusions

Our work indicates that the modified Cry1 genes are suitable for the development of insect resistant GM crops. Except for the PAT gene in the USA, our assessment of the intellectual property landscape of components presents within the constructs described here suggest that they can be used without the need for further licensing. This has the capacity to significantly reduce the cost of developing and using these Cry1 M genes in GM crop plants in the future.

Peer Review reports

Introducing Crystal ( Cry ) genes from the soil bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis into commercially grown crop plants is a highly effective strategy to control insect pests, as insects across broad taxonomic groupings are susceptible to the encoded Bt toxins [ 1 ]. However, a common problem associated with this control strategy is the development of insect resistance to the Bt toxin present in the transgenic plants [ 2 , 3 ]. Several approaches have been used to reduce or prevent the development of insect resistance including the use of refuge crops (providing sufficiently high populations of susceptible insects to prevent resistance genes from becoming homozygous), high expression of Cry genes in plants, deploying different Cry genes in individual plants in a crop (seed mixtures), and combining multiple Cry genes (i.e., stacking) in the same plant [ 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 ]. Of these, high expression and stacking of Cry genes in the same plant are considered the most practical effective strategies [ 1 , 5 , 9 , 10 ]. For example, plants expressing both Cry1Ac and Cry1C genes greatly delayed the emergence of resistance to the encoded toxins by Diamondback moth (DBM) ( Plutella xylostella ) [ 11 ]. Plants with stacked Cry genes are also protected from insects that are less susceptible to Bt toxins such as Helicoverpa armigera [ 12 ]. For this reason, plants harbouring stacked Cry genes are favoured by companies developing Bt crops as exemplified by the replacement of GM cotton containing a single Cry ( Cry1Ac ) gene with a gene stack ( Cry1Ac / Cry2Ab ) [ 7 ]. Although plants with stacked Cry genes have been successful in controlling insect pests in the field, there is still the potential for resistance to develop. The most common form of insect resistance to a Bt toxin is associated with a mutation in the receptor that binds to the toxin in the insect mid-gut [ 13 , 14 , 15 ]. Therefore, selection of Cry genes used for stacking is an important factor determining durability of the Bt toxin in the field, as different Bt toxins may bind to different receptors with different strengths. As these binding patterns are becoming increasingly well understood, it is now possible to optimize stacking by selecting Bt genes that are not susceptible to known resistance mechanisms in particular insect targets.

High-level accumulation of Bt toxin within plant tissues is generally lethal to insects that are either fully susceptible or have a single copy of a recessive gene for resistance [ 2 , 9 , 16 , 17 ]. Cry gene expression in plants depends on many factors including their nucleotide structure, the promoter used to drive their expression, and the location and copy number of the Cry gene within a plant genome [ 18 ]. A suboptimal nucleotide structure is among the main factors contributing to low Cry gene expression in plants as, due to their bacterial origin, Cry genes contain many sequences that negatively impact on protein production in eukaryotic cells. The presence of signal sequences required for polyadenylation, mRNA decay and splicing, also affects mRNA structure and accumulation in plants [ 19 , 20 , 21 ]. For example, the presence of three AATAAA repeats within the coding region of Cry3A is associated with premature polyadenylation of the gene when expressed in plants, as these sequences match the polyadenylation signal usually found in the 3’-untranslated region of many eukaryotic genes [ 22 , 23 , 24 ]. In addition, Cry gene expression in plants is impacted by differences in nucleotide content between bacterial and eukaryotic genomes. For instance, Cry genes have a higher AT content (65%) compared to typical dicot (55%) or monocot (45%) plant genes [ 18 ]. These differences mean that the Cry genes utilize codons that are less common in plants, which reduces the rate of protein production due to the limited size of tRNA pools for these codons [ 25 ]. Furthermore, if a ribosome fails to incorporate the corresponding tRNA for a rare codon, translation may be aborted, resulting in the ribosome becoming disassociated from the mRNA. Poorly translated mRNAs are prone to degradation in the host cell by nonsense mediated RNA decay [ 20 ]. Rectifying these issues, together with the removal of spurious polyadenylation signal sequences and sequences that might be responsible for mRNA instability, such as the ATTTA motif, from plant-expressed Cry genes can significantly improve production of the encoded Bt toxin in plants [ 21 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 ]. By changing the composition of codons so that they better reflect the distribution of those seen in typical plant genes, significant increases in Bt protein have been observed in transgenic tobacco, tomato and potato plants [ 21 ].

Commercialization of GM crops requires the developer to manage multiple patent right hurdles, due to the complex patent landscape associated with the technologies used in the creation of GM crops. Almost all the significant components of the constructs used in plant transformation are patented. These include the ‘effect gene’ and associated regulatory sequences, as well as the selectable marker [ 30 ]. For example, use of an antibiotic resistance gene as selectable marker in plant transformation is restricted by a patent owned by Monsanto, however, this IP right only applies in the USA. Another example of a patent that has a considerable impact on construct design is the use of the cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) 35 S promoter to drive selectable marker gene activity in plants [ 30 ]. Patent holders frequently do not allow access to a patented technology if they are themselves using it commercially or have sole licensing agreements with other entities, and where they do allow it, licensing costs can be considerable. Therefore, at early stages of GM crop development, Freedom to Operate (FTO) needs to be established for technologies used in introducing new traits to crops of interest. Without securing all the necessary legal rights, GM crop developers may be exposed to legal liabilities, which ultimately prevent the use of the developed crop. A notable example of the complexity associated with IP issue was the development of golden rice, a transgenic rice line rich in ß-carotene (a precursor of vitamin A). Delivery of the golden rice for public use has been delayed, in part due to extensive patenting issues, associated with 72 patents owned by 40 organization [ 30 , 31 ].

As a part of Australian-Indian government strategic initiative, our aim was to develop Bt-expressing Brassica crops for commercial use in both countries where the licensing costs associated with the use of this technology was minimized. Here, we describe the generation of a Cry1B M / Cry1C M gene stack that may be used as an effective insecticide when introduced into plants. Nucleotide modification of the Cry1B / Cry1C genes, together with careful selection of components used in the design of the constructs, ensured both high-level expression in plants and minimal licensing costs associated with the use of these constructs. We demonstrate under laboratory conditions that Arabidopsis plants expressing the modified Cry genes display high-level resistance to diamondback moth (DBM) larvae, consistent with our modifications not adversely affecting the lethality of the Cry genes. The results of this study provide an example of how new Bt-expressing constructs that are relatively free of third-party IP may be generated, particularly for deployment in developing nations where farmers may have limited capacity to pay costs associated with Bt crops developed by multinational seed companies.

Plant materials and growth condition

The Columbia-0 ecotype of Arabidopsis thaliana was used as wildtype in this study. Seeds were either grown on a soil/perlite mix or plated on half-strength Murashige and Skoog (½ MS) media containing Phytagel. Seeds were stratified at 4°C for 2–3 days prior to placement in a growth room under continuous light at 18–20°C or a growth cabinet under continuous light at 20–22 °C.

Modification of Cry1B/Cry1C sequences

The DNA sequences of the original Cry1B / Cry1C genes were modified using the DNA strider software [ 32 ]. Initially, codon use frequency of the Cry gene was determined using the Sequence Manipulation Suite ( www.bioinformatics.org/sms2/codon_usage.html ) and then systematically replaced with synonymous codons to better reflect the codon usage of endogenous Brassica genes [ 33 ] (Supplementary Figs.  1 and 2 , Supplementary Tables 1 and 2 ). ORFfinder ( https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/orffinder/ ) was then used to determine the position of ORFs in the six reading frames of the Cry1B M /Cry1C M genes. ORFs that were 75 amino acids or longer were disrupted through the introduction of a stop codon (Supplementary Table 3 ). In addition, sequences that may function as splice sites (AGGT) [ 34 ] and the ATTTA instability motif [ 18 ] were altered by changing nucleotides within these motifs (Supplementary Figs.  1 and 2 ).

Selection of components for Cry1B M /Cry1C M constructs

The Cry1B M construct was designed to have either one or two S4 subterranean clover stunt virus (SCSV) promoters [ 35 ] upstream and the pea RUBISCO E9 terminator [ 36 ] downstream of the Cry coding sequence. In contrast, either one or two SCSV S7 promoters [ 35 ] were placed upstream and the Flaveria bidentis MALIC ENZYME ( ME ) terminator [ 35 ] downstream of the Cry1C M gene (Fig.  1 ). Our previous work with Cry1B/Cry1C genes identified leaky expression of Cry1C in E. coli . To prevent this, an intron from potato ST-LS1 gene [ 37 ] was placed within the Cry1C M coding sequence. A DNA fragment containing these elements ( ME ter : Cry1C M -intron::S7S7-S4S4::Cry1B M :: E9 ter ) was then synthesized to our specifications by Biomatik ( www.biomatik.com ) and cloned in the Eco RI/ Hin dIII sites of the pUC19 vector. This vector was subsequently digested with Bgl II enzyme to remove one copy of the S4 and S7 promoters resulting in single stunt promoter constructs ( ME ter Cry1C M -intron::S7-S4::Cry1B M :: E9 ter ) . Cry1 M genes under single or double stunt promoters were then isolated as Pac I fragments from their respective vectors, and cloned into binary vector PIPRA560 [ 36 ].

A NPTII expression cassette comprising a figwort mosaic virus 34 S promoter [ 38 ], the coding sequence of the NEOMYCIN PHOSPHOTRANSFERASE II ( NPTII ) gene [ 39 ] and the terminator of Agrobacterium MANNOPINE SYNTHASE ( MAS ) gene ( MAS ter ) [ 36 ] was synthesized and cloned into the Eco RI/ Hin dIII sites of the pUC19 vector. Included in this synthetic cassette were flanking tandemly arranged Lox sites to enable removal of the selectable marker cassette from the T-DNA as part of a strategy to generate marker-free plant transgenic plants (e.g [ 40 ]). . A glufosinate-ammonium resistant selectable marker was generated by replacing NPTII with the PHOSPHINOTHRICIN ACETYLTRANSFERASE ( PAT ) gene [ 41 ]. The PAT selection cassette was then isolated from this plasmid and cloned into the Sac II site of the binary vectors containing the modified Cry genes under the control of either S7-S4 or S7S7-S4S4 stunt promoters. These constructs, pJG1024 (single stunt (SS) construct) and pJG1027 (double stunt (DS) construct) (Fig.  1 ) were then introduced into Agrobacterium (C58) via electroporation.

Schematic diagram of T-DNA region of constructs used to test the insecticidal activity of Cry1B M and Cry1C M genes in plants; 34S pro : Promoter of Figwort mosaic virus (FMV) 34S RNA gene [ 38 ]; MAS ter : Agrobacterium tumefaciens MANNOPINE SYNTHASE ( MAS ) gene terminator [ 36 ]; Cry1B M / Cry1C M : Modified Cry1B / Cry1C genes; S4 / S7 : Subterranean clover stunt virus S4 and S7 promoters [ 35 ]; E9 ter : Terminator region of the pea Rubisco E9 gene [ 36 ]; ME ter : Terminator region of Flaveria bidentis MALIC ENZYME ( ME ) gene [ 35 ]; Intron: second intron ( IV2 ) of the potato gene ST-LS1 [ 37 ], E1 leader: 5’ leader sequence of the tapetum specific E1 gene of Oryza sativa, Lox sites: tandemly arranged Lox P sites; LB: Left border of the PIPRA560 plant binary vector; RB: Right border of the PIPRA560 plant binary vector

Plant transformation

pJG1024 and pJG1027 were inserted into wild-type Arabidopsis thaliana using floral dipping [ 42 ]. Transgenic plants were identified using glufosinate-ammonium (100 µg/ml) selection on soil and further confirmed by amplifying the herbicide resistance gene PAT using primers BaR-F (5’-GTTGGTTGCTGAGGTTGAG-3’) and BaR-3′R (5’-TGGGTAACTGGCCTAACTGG-3’). For each construct, ten independently transformed T 1 lines were randomly selected, and their progeny exposed to glufosinate-ammonium selection. Based on segregation ratios, lines judged to have a single T-DNA insertion (1:3, Glufosinate ammonium sensitive: Glufosinate ammonium resistant) were selected for further analysis. Homozygous T 2 plants derived from T 1 lines identified as having a single segregating T-DNA insertion were used in all subsequent assays.

Insect bioassay

A colony of diamondback moth (DBM) susceptible to the Bt toxins encoded by Cry1 M genes were maintained in an insect growth chamber at 25 °C. Arabidopsis plants homozygous for the T-DNA insertion were grown for ~ four weeks and their mature leaves collected for insect bioassay, RNA extractions, and protein quantification. For insect bioassay, two leaves were placed on a moist filter paper in a plastic cup (size 40 × 50 mm). On each leaf, ten DBM larvae (1st instar) were deposited. Larval mortality and leaf damage were scored after 48 h and again at 72 h if the larvae had survived after 48 h. Insect bioassays were performed at 25 °C. Leaf damage was scored on scale from 0 (no visible damage) to 5 (leaf skeletonised).

Quantification of Cry1C M protein

The abundance of Cry1C M protein in leaves of transgenic plants was quantified using a Cry1C-specific enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) assay (Cry1C-specific Quantiplate Kit; Envirologix, USA). Briefly, leaves collected from transgenic lines were weighed and put into a 1.5 ml tube. The tubes were then placed in Ziplock plastic bags containing silica beads and dried over a period of two weeks. Protein was extracted from 1 mg dried tissue using the extraction buffer supplied with the kit. The ELISA was performed according to the manufacture’s instruction. The amount of expressed Cry1C M protein in the leaf sample was calculated from a standard curve generated using the pure Cry1C protein supplied with the Quantiplate ELISA kit. The amount of Cry1C M protein content in the samples was determined using the standard curve and given as µg per gram dry weight (DW) of leaves.

RNA extraction and reverse transcription quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR)

RNA was extracted from leaf tissue using a Spectrum Plant Total RNA kit (Sigma, USA) according to the manufacturer’s protocol. Extracted RNA was treated using Turbo DNA-free kit (Ambion, USA) to remove contaminating genomic DNA before first strand cDNA was generated using Oligo (dT) primers and Superscript III reverse transcriptase (Thermo Fisher). RT-qPCR was performed using a SensiMix SYBR No-ROX Kit (Meridian, Australia). Briefly, 10 µl qPCR reactions containing 1 µl diluted (1:10) cDNA, 2.5 µM forward and reverse primer, with 1x SYBR Green Master Mix were set up in triplicate and run on a Bio-Rad CFX96 real time PCR machine. Cycle threshold (Ct) values were calculated using the Bio-Rad CFX manager version 3.1. The relative Cry1B M /Cry1C M mRNA expression level were determined using the comparative Ct method and normalized to ACTIN2 ( AT3G18780 ). The sequences of RT-qPCR primer used in this study were, Actin2-F (5’-TCTTCCGCTCTTTCTTTCCA-3’), Actin2-R (5’-TCTTCCGCTCTTTCTTTCCA-3’), Cry1B-F (5’-TAGAGGGACCGCTAACTATT C-3’)/Cry1B-R (5’-CGACAACCGATGTGAGTAAG-3’), and Cry1C-F (5’-GAAAGAATGCCGCAA TGTC-3’)/ Cry1C-R (5’-CTTACAACCGTGGGCTTAAC-3’).

IP landscape analysis

IP searches were performed using keywords and sequence-based approaches to identify relevant patent filings in national databases in the US ( https://ppubs.uspto.gov/pubwebapp/static/pages/ppu bsbasic.html), Australia ( https://www.ipaustralia.gov.au/ ), EPO ( https://www.epo.org/en/searching-for-patents/technical/espacenet ), WIPO ( https://patentscope.wipo.int/search/en/search.jsf ), and India ( https://iprsearch.ipindia.gov.in/publicsearch ). This provided information about the legal status of patents as well as their file histories. Results from these searches are provided in Table  2 and Supplementary Table 4 .

Modification of Cry 1B and Cry1C genes used in this study

To maximize activity of Cry1B / Cry1C genes in plants, we synthesized modified Cry1 sequences ( Cry1 M ) to eliminated features that are known to reduce the expression of these genes in eukaryotic cells. This included extensive codon-optimization, which involved the selection of codons used at high frequently in Brassica genes and are GC-rich (Supplementary Tables 1  and 2 ) [ 33 ]. Following this, the GC-content of the modified Cry genes Cry1B M and Cry1C M was 47.7% and 45%, respectively, which is higher than in their unmodified versions (Table  1 ).

Alternative open reading frames greater than 75 amino acids in the modified Cry genes were disrupt through the placement of a stop codon within the ORF (Supplementary Table 3 ), a key requirement for GM plants needing regulatory approval before commercialisation. Sequences known to affect transcript stability, such as ATTTA [ 18 ] and potential splice site AGGT [ 34 ], were removed from the modified Cry gene sequences along with any internal polyadenylation signal sequences that might cause premature termination of transcription (Supplementary Figs.  1 and 2 ). Following these modifications, the degree of identify between known Cry1B genes (e.g., Cry1B1 and Cry1B2) and Cry1B M was 79% at DNA level (Table  1 ) and the identity between Cry1C M and four other Cry1C genes ranged from 75 to 81% (Table  1 ). To the best of our knowledge this reduced DNA sequence identity means that Cry1B M and Cry1C M do not infringe IP associated with the original Cry1B and Cry1C sequences (Supplementary Table 4 ).

Design of Cry1B M / Cry1C M constructs

Where possible components and methodologies that are free of third-party IP were used in the development of the Cry1 M constructs to minimize IP obstacles, including any licensing costs associated with eventual commercial cultivation of plants expressing the Cry1 M genes. We performed a detailed online database search of the patents surrounding the binary vector, promoters, terminators, selectable markers, Cry genes and methodologies used in the generation of the Bt constructs and list their current IP status in Australia, USA, and India in Table  2 and Supplementary Table 4 .

The Cry1B M / Cry1C M gene construct was designed so that physical linkage between the genes ensured that they integrate into the same chromosomal site following transformation (Fig.  1 ). This design eliminated the need for crossing to combine transgenes following their separate introduction into plants. Binary vector PIPRA560 was selected for use in these experiments as the tangible property right was available under licence-free terms for commercial cultivation in developing countries and under modest fee-based terms for developed countries [ 36 ]. The herbicide resistance gene PAT was chosen as a plant selectable marker for transgenic plant selection as it had FTO in both Australia and India. The FMV 34 S promoter [ 38 ] and the terminator region of the MAS [ 36 ] gene were placed upstream and downstream of the PAT gene, respectively. These components are present within the PIPRA560 plasmid and were obtained under a UC Davis licensing agreement. Subterranean clover stunt virus (SCSV) promoters S4 and S7 were selected because previous work had shown that their use with other Cry genes led to high-level expression and subsequent insecticidal activity [ 35 ]. These are now available free of third-party IP (see Table  2 ). Two different configurations of these promoters were tested; the first being single S4 / S7 promoters (Fig.  1 A; hereafter referred to as SS) and the second being a double promoter configuration (Fig.  1 B; hereafter referred to as DS). By analysing expression of the Cry1 M genes arising from SS and DS constructs, we addressed whether these promoters arranged in tandem conferred a significantly higher level of expression than a single promoter configuration, as suggested in previous studies of these promoters [ 35 ].

Generation of transgenic lines and insect bioassay

More than 40 independent T 1 plants transformed with a T-DNA containing either the SS cassette or a DS cassette were generated. Of these, ten SS and DS primary transformants were randomly selected for initial insect bioassays and Cry1C protein content analysis (data not shown). First instar DBM larvae were placed on leaves collected from these primary transgenic Arabidopsis lines hemizygous for the T-DNA, along with those from wild-type plants. Larvae fed on the wild-type leaves developed normally, resulting in severe leaf damage associated with unconstrained feeding (Fig.  2 A). In contrast, transgenic leaves remained undamaged from larval feeding (Fig.  2 A). The number of live and dead larvae were assessed (Table  3 ).

Insect bioassay on Arabidopsis leaves derived from transgenic plants homozygous for Cry1B M / Cry1C M transgene. ( A ) Transgenic leaves expressing Cry1B M / Cry1C M genes under a single stunt (SS) and double stunt (DS) S4 and S7 promoters. ( B ) Image showing insect larval guts (indicated with blue arrowhead) after feeding on wild-type leaves. ( C ) Insect mortality found in individual transgenic lines having Cry1B M / Cry1C M expression under a single stunt ( S4 / S7 ) promoter. ( D ) Insect mortality associated with in individual transgenic lines with Cry1B M / Cry1C M expression under the control of double stunt ( S4S4 / S7S7 ) promoters

After 24 h, approx. 99% larvae placed on the T 1 leaves were dead, whereas all larvae placed on the wild-type leaves were alive and actively feeding (Table  3 ). After 48 h, all remaining larvae feeding on the transgenic leaves were dead, while almost all the larvae feeding on the wildtype leaves were alive (Table  3 ). Significant larval death (31.5%) was seen on the wildtype leaves, but only after day 6. Moreover, ~ 40% larvae placed on the wild-type leaves were found to have moulted beyond 1st instar, which was not observed for larvae placed on transgenic leaves. During the insect bioassay, the health of the larvae was examined. Healthy larvae were present on the wild-type leaves, whereas those feeding on the transgenic leaves appeared shrivelled and small, including some displaying gut bursting (Fig.  2 B). Segregation analysis performed on each of these ten primary transformants identified six SS transformants and six DS transformants with a single segregating T-DNA insertion. Homozygous T 3 progeny derived from these lines were subsequently used for insect feeding assays, which revealed close to 100% mortality within 48 h of feeding on transgenic leaves (Fig.  2 C, D). Interestingly, there was no discernible difference in insect mortality between transgenic leaves expressing Cry1 M genes under a single stunt promoter from those under a double stunt promoter (Fig.  2 C, D).

Cry1B M and Cry1C M expression level in the plants

Expression of Cry1B M and Cry1C M in vegetative tissue of seedlings homozygous for the SS and DS constructs was measured by RT-qPCR. While this revealed expression of both transgenes in all plants (Fig.  3 A, B), considerable variation was observed. For instance, lines SS-08 and DS-08, displayed high levels of both Cry1B M and Cry1C M expression, whereas low expression of both genes was detected in lines DS-13 and DS-14 (Fig.  3 A, B). Except for SS-08, SS-09, DS-08 and DS-17, most transgenic lines ( n  = 12) displayed significant differences between the Cry1B M and Cry1C M expression with the majority having higher Cry1B M expression compared to Cry1C M (Fig.  3 A, B).

Expression of Cry1B M and Cry1C M transgenes in the transgenic Arabidopsis plants. ( A ) Cry1B M / Cry1C M expression seen in transgenic lines with a single stunt ( S4 / S7 ) promoter (six independent transgenic events with single copy T-DNA with 5 plants per event). ( B ) Cry1B M / Cry1C M expression in transgenic lines with double stunt ( S4S4 / S7S7 ) promoters (six independent transgenic events examined with 5 plants per event). ( C ) Comparison of Cry1B M and Cry1C M expression (average of six independent single copy T-DNA transgenic events with 5 plants per event) under S4 / S7 single and double stunt promoters. An unpaired t -test found no statistical differences in the range of Cry gene expression values seen in plants with single or double stunt promoters. ( D ) Comparison of Cry1C M protein content in plants with single or double stunt promoters as assessed by enzyme-linked immunoabsorbent assay (ELISA) ( n  = 3 progeny plants derived from each of the six lines). SS: Lines with single stunt promoters, DS: Lines with double stunt promoters. Lines denoted by “*” indicates expression of Cry1B M and Cry1C M is significantly different. Statistical significance was assessed by Mann-Whitney test [ 44 ]

Levels of Cry protein were quantified by ELISA (Table  4 ). This analysis was restricted to Cry1C M due to the unavailability of a Cry1B M -specific ELISA kit. For SS lines, the quantity of Cry1C M protein ranged from 8.18 to 176.88 µg/g leaf dry weight (DW) with significant differences in protein content between transgenic lines (F = 87.20, p  < 0.0001).

Similarly, Cry1C M protein in DD lines ranged from 5.18 to 134.75 µg/g leaf DW with significant differences also detected between lines (F = 97.29, p  < 0.0001). It is worth noting that a previous study using a leaf-dip assay with pure Cry1Ca4 protein found that the lethal concentration (LC 50 ) to be < 1.18 ppm when fed to 26 global DBM populations and an average of only 0.18ppm in Indian DBM populations [ 45 ]. This suggests that most of transgenic lines generated in this study had Cry1C protein levels that would by themselves be effective against DBM (Table  4 ; Fig.  3 D).

Initial observations failed to detect a noticeable difference in the range of insecticidal activity displayed by transgenic lines expressing Cry1B M / Cry1C M under the control of single or double stunt promoters (Fig.  2 C, D). Consistent with this observation, no significant differences were found in the expression of lines transformed with SS as opposed to DS constructs as measured by RT-qPCR of the modified Cry genes ( Cry1B M , p-value = 0.161; Cry1C M , p-value = 0.112). Similarly, the range in Cry1C M protein content in leaves of SS and DS lines did not differ significantly (p-value 0.191).

Correlation between the Cry1C M expression and protein content

To determine the relationship between the amount of Cry1C M mRNA and corresponding protein content, RT-qPCR and ELISA results were compared. In most cases, levels of mRNA corresponded closely to protein content (SS-08, SS-09, DS-14, DS-17; Fig.  4 A). Furthermore, a Spearman rank correlation coefficient test identified a strong statistical correlation between the Cry1C M protein content and Cry1C M transgene expression (R s =0.846, P  = 0.0013). While there was a good correlation between gene expression and protein levels, there were some notable exceptions. For instance, the highest amount of Cry1C M transcript was detected in line DS-08 but this did not correlate with the highest amount of detectable Cry1C protein. Conversely, the high level of Cry1C protein content in line SS-08 arose from transcript levels of Cry1C M that were nearly half of that observed in DS-08 (Fig.  4 A).

Comparison of Cry1C M transgene expression and protein accumulation in transgenic Arabidopsis lines. ( A ) Histogram showing the amount of Cry1C M mRNA and protein content in twelve transgenic lines tested. ( B ) Graph showing the relative transgene expression and Cry1C M protein content in the lines listed in Fig.  2 C and D. Results from a Spearman rank correlation test are shown. SS: Lines with single stunt S4 / S7 promoters; DS: Lines with double stunt S4S4 / S7S7 promoters

The Cry1B / Cry1C combination, whose modification is described here, was previously shown to be effective against DBM [ 43 , 44 ] but has never been used in commercially available GM crops or as the basis for sprayable Bt insecticides [ 46 , 47 ]. For instance, purified Cry1Ba2 and Cry1Ca4 proteins displayed LC 50 values < 0.91 ppm and < 1.18 ppm, respectively, when tested against of DBM populations [ 45 ]. Furthermore, no cross-resistance was found between Cry1Ba2 and Cry1Ca4, or in experiments aimed at generating resistance to the two Bts in DBM laboratory [ 46 ]. The minor resistances that were observed in these studies were unstable and genetically recessive, as well as being associated with a high fitness costs [ 46 ]. Where resistance to Cry1C in DBM has been identified, it manifests as a polygenic trait [ 48 ]. Taking these observation together with the fact that Cry1B and Cry1C bind to different receptors in the insect gut [ 47 ]. This suggests that insect resistance to this combination of Cry genes is unlikely to arise.

While previous work [ 46 , 47 ] found that transgenic Brassica expressing the Cry1B / Cry1C stack displayed robust resistance to a range of lepidopteran pest species in small trials run in India, these lines (developed by a public/private-funded consortium), were not developed further due to the length of time likely to be required to gain regulatory approval for commercial planting. Despite this set-back, the Australian and Indian public partners in the public/private consortium wanted to continue the development of Brassica expressing Bt toxins for their respective markets. To facilitate this, it was necessary to alter the sequence of the Cry genes so that they were unequivocally not that of the private partner. We used this opportunity to both free the new Cry1 M gene constructs of proprietary IP as far as practicable and to optimise the nucleotide structure of the Cry genes for expression in plants. The PIPRA560 plant binary vector was used to deliver the Cry constructs to plants. The tangible property right holder, the University of California, Davis, allowed licence free research use and free commercialisation use for developing countries, including India. The MTA terms of use state that any construct developed using PIPRA560 must also be free to use by others.

As stated previously, one way to overcome the development of resistance to Bt toxin is to express the Cry gene at high level so that insects heterozygous for resistance mutation are eliminated from the population. Given this, we chose to test double stunt SCSV promoters for our Bt toxin gene construct design as plants expressing Cry gene under two stunt promoters would be more effective in killing insect than their single stunt counterpart. The results reported here showed no obvious difference in insect mortality between the plants expressing Cry1 M genes under single or double stunt SCSV promoters (Fig.  2 C, D; Table  3 ). Previous work characterising double stunt promoters had indicated that the S7S7 double promoter was better than S4S4 promoter [ 35 ], whereas our results indicate that S4S4 is slightly more effective than the S7S7 promoter (Fig.  3 C). Differences between our study and earlier work might reflect the assay system used to compare the promoter strength. For instance, the earlier studies of the S4S4 and S7S7 promoters relied upon Cry1Ab protein content assays to measure activity of the promoters, whereas in our study we used a combination of both protein and mRNA assays. As mentioned above protein production from mRNA is affected by multiple factors and hence protein content in GM plants may not be a reliable indicator of promoter strength. As performance of S4S4 and S7S7 double stunt promoters also varied according to the plant species used for transformation (cotton, tobacco and tomato; [ 35 ]), variation in SCSV promoter activity observed in our study might also reflect background differences between Arabidopsis and the plants used in earlier studies.

Despite variation in Cry1B M and Cry1C M expression between and within lines, there was no detectable variation in insecticidal activity, as close to 100% insect mortality was achieved within 48 h even in lines with low Cry1B M / Cry1C M expression (Fig.  1 B, C). Although transcript levels were measured both for Cry1B M and Cry1C M , quantification of Cry1B protein could not be performed due to lack of a Cry1B - specific ELISA commercial kit. Unfortunately, lack of access to the Cry gene constructs used in the preceding public/private partnership programme prevented us from directly testing whether the modified Cry gene sequences represent a significant improvement over the insecticidal activity of the unmodified Cry genes. Despite this, it seems reasonable to conclude that both proteins retained insecticidal activity under lab conditions. This is inferred from the observation that in some lines, one Cry gene was expressed at much higher levels than the other (e.g., SS-05, SS-16 DS-03; Fig.  3 B), yet still conferred 100% DBM larvae mortality. While there was a clear correlation between Cry1C M gene expression and protein abundance (Fig.  4 ), there were a few notable exceptions, e.g., line DS-03 and DS-08. This discrepancy presumably reflects inefficient conversion of mRNA to protein, an observation that has been reported in several other studies of Cry transgene activity [ 49 , 50 ]. However, due to the relatively modest sample size ( n  =–12 lines) in our study, as well as those reported by others [ 49 , 50 ], it is difficult to characterize a clear relationship between Cry gene expression and protein accumulation.

A potential problem arising from gene stacks is that when more than one gene is placed in the same T-DNA, their expression may be compromised due to gene silencing, particularly if they share similar sequences and regulatory elements such as promoters, 5′-UTRs and 3′-UTRs [ 51 ]. Therefore, expression analysis of each gene in plants is important, as silencing or sub-optimal expression of one gene may result in reduced efficacy of the insecticidal protection provided by the Cry gene stack. We found substantial differences in expression levels of Cry1B M and Cry1C M in most of the lines (Fig.  3 A, B). The variation in Cry1B M / Cry1C M expression seen in the same line (e.g., SS-09 & SS-10) might be a consequence of the stunt promoter arrangement. In both constructs these promoters are adjacent to one another in a reverse orientation, which may make their associated transgenes prone to gene silencing [ 52 , 53 ]. Alternatively, differences in Cry gene expression might be influenced by the Cry1B M / Cry1C M sequences, structural properties of promoters and position effects, in which genomic regions adjacent to the T-DNA insertion site influence transcription activity of the transgenes [ 51 , 54 , 55 , 56 ]. Similarly, variation in the extent of T-DNA insertion or its rearrangement prior to or after integration into the genome may influence Cry gene activity. Such variation between lines transformed with the same construct has been previously reported [ 57 ] and thus is not without precedent. Importantly, variations in Cry1B M and Cry1C M expression level observed in the transgenic Arabidopsis lines do not seemingly reflect an issue with their coding sequences. This can be inferred from the fact that in some cases Cry1B M is expressed at higher levels than Cry1C M (e.g., SS-18, DS-11), and vice versa (e.g., SS-09, DS-03).

The results provided here illustrate the types of sequence modification that can be successfully introduced into Cry genes as well as the suitability of components chosen for constructs that have FTO. The components used in the gene constructs reported here are to the best of our knowledge currently free of third-party IP in Australia and India. Confirmation that this applies in other countries would require detailed patent searches to be undertaken and legal advice sort. The use of components that have FTO in both the research and the commercialisation phases in public GM breeding programs is important as it can substantially reduce the complexities and costs faced in the commercialisation phase [ 36 ]. Proprietary elements used in the development phase, even no longer present in the sequence to be commercialised, can derail the success of the projects. While the work here only reports the activity of the Cry1B M / Cry1C M gene stack in the model plant Arabidopsis under laboratory conditions, work was undertaken to introduce these constructs into elite Brassica crop lines, and preliminary analysis suggests that they are as effective in crop plants as they are in Arabidopsis [ 58 ]. Unfortunately, funding constrains prevented these transgenic crop lines from being fully assessed for insect resistance in field trials.

Despite the obvious benefits of transgenic plants expressing Cry genes, which include preventing large scale crop losses from insect attack, this technology has been applied to only a few crops such as cotton, canola and maize which are grown on a large enough scale to make the costs of deregulation and the separation of the product in harvesting, storing and marketing economically attractive [ 59 ]. The timelines, costs, and political opposition to GM crops in a significant proportion of markets has delayed the introduction of Cry transgenes into other crops such as vegetables and major grain crops such as rice or wheat. Uptake of Bt technology in developing nations has been significantly curtailed by the difficulties of access to IP held by entities such as multinational seed companies [ 60 ]. Given this, publicly funded research organizations and academic institutions in developing nations have an incentive to develop their own Bt crops [ 36 ] in which licensing issues associated with the use of genetically modified material is minimised so that farmers can take advantage of the considerable benefits arising from the technology [ 59 ]. Our work here provides an example of an approach that might be taken to achieve this aim.

Data availability

All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article and its supplementary information files. The sequences of gene constructs pJG1024 and pJG1027 has been deposited in NCBI gene bank and can be retrieved using their accession IDs which are PP194761 (pJG1024) and PP194762 (pJG1027).

Abbreviations

Crystal gene

• Bacillus thuringiensis

Arabidopsis thaliana

Subterranean Clover stunt virus

Freedom to operate

Intellectual property

Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay

Untranslated region

Left/right border of T-DNA

Diamond back moth

Quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction

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Acknowledgements

The PIPRA560 vector was obtained from PIPRA, Department of Plant Sciences, University of California, Davis, CA95616.

This work at the University of Melbourne was supported by the Australia/India Strategic Research Fund – Grand Challenge Project GCF010009 – Crop Plants which remove their own major biotic constraints.

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Md Mahmudul Hassan, Francis Tenazas, Adam Williams, Charles Robin & John F. Golz

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Jing-wen Chiu

Melbourne Veterinary School, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia

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MMH, DAR, CR and JG conceived the idea. MMH and AW undertook the molecular biology and plant work; FT and DAR conducted the insect experiments. JC and DAR conducted the IP analysis. MMH led the writing and revision of the manuscript. All authors accepted the final version of the manuscript.

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Hassan, M.M., Tenazas, F., Williams, A. et al. Minimizing IP issues associated with gene constructs encoding the Bt toxin - a case study. BMC Biotechnol 24 , 37 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12896-024-00864-3

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Received : 07 January 2024

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12896-024-00864-3

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