assignment on form of marriage

Marriage – Types, Rules and Changes

MARRIAGE – TYPES, RULES AND CHANGES

Marriage is customary in nearly every known society. The fact that it exists nearly everywhere does not mean marriage takes the same form or is recognized in similar ways. Marriage is a socially legitimate sexual union, begun with a public announcement and undertaken with some idea of permanence; it is assumed with a more or less explicit marriage contract which spells out reciprocal rights and obligations between spouses, and between the spouses and their future children.

Marriage is a socially approved sexual union in that the couple’s sexual relationship is implicitly understood and legitimated. Societies have had a variety of marriage practices. As George Peter Murdock noted, “Sexual relations can occur without economic cooperation, and there can be a division of labour between men and women without sex. But marriage unites the economic and the sexual.”

1. Marriage has been defined as ‘a union between man and a woman such that children born to the woman are recognized legitimate offspring of both parents.’

2. According to Malinowski says that marriage is a “contract for the production and maintenance of children.”

3. According to Robert H. Lowie , “Marriage is a relatively permanent bond between permissible mates.”

TYPES OR FORMS OF MARRIAGE:

As a universal social institution marriage is found to exist in all societies and at all stages of development. Types or forms of marriage vary from society to society but the institution of marriage is very much the same. In some societies, marriage is a religious sacrament whereas in others it is a social contract. However, there are several types of marriage that are classified on a different basis. This can be classified into three types as Monogamy, Polygamy and group marriage .

1. Monogamy: 

Monogamy is an ideal, widespread and rational type of marriage. It is found in all civilized societies. Monogamy refers to a marriage in which one man marries one woman. Monogamy is of two types such as serial Monogamy and non-serial Monogamy .

i. Serial Monogamy: 

In serial Monogamous marriage, the possibility of remarriage exists in case of divorce or death. Inspite of his remarriage, he remains to be monogamous.

ii. Non-serial Monogamy: 

In the case of non-serial monogamy, the question of remarriage does not arise by either of the couples. Here a spouse has the same single-spouse throughout his life.

2. Polygamy: 

Polygamy is a type of marriage in which there is a plurality of partners. It allows a man to marry more than one woman or a woman to marry more than one man at a time. Polygamy is of two types such as polygamy and polyandry .

a. Polygyny: 

Polygyny is a type of marriage in which a man marries more than one wife at a time. It was practiced in most of the ancient civilizations. It prevailed among the ancient Hebrews, Assyrians, Babylonians, Indian and others. At present, it is widespread among primitive tribes but it is often simply confined to the wealthier classes. It is practiced among the Eskimo tribes, Crow Indians, African Negroes, the Naga, Gonds and Baigas of India . However, it is also permitted in Muslim Community . Polygyny is of two types:

i. Sororal Polygyny: 

Sororal polygyny is often called a surrogate. The term surrogate comes from the Latin word ‘sorer’ which means sister. Accordingly, it refers to a marriage practice in which a man marries the sisters of his wife at a time or after the death of his wife.

ii. Non-Sororal Polygyny: 

It is just opposite of the sororal polygyny, when a man marries several women at a time who are not necessarily sister to each other it is known as non-sororal polygyny.

b. Polyandry: 

Polyandry is a very rare type of marriage in the present day. In this type of marriage, a woman marries several men at a time. In the words of K.M. Kapadia , “Polyandry is a form of union in which a woman has more than one husband at a time or in which brothers share a wife or wives in common”. It is practiced among the Tibetans, Marquesas Islanders of Polynesia, the Bahamas of Africa, the tribals of Samoa and others. In India, the tribes such as Tiyan , the Toda , the Kota , the Khasa and Ladakhi Bota also practice polyandry. The Nairs of Kerala were polyandrous previously. Polyandry is divided into two types:

i. Fraternal Polyandry: 

When several brothers share a common wife it is called fraternal or adelphic polyandry . Draupadi’s marriage to Pandavas is a fine example of fraternal polyandry. The determination of the father is associated with some rituals. It is prevalent among the Todas .

ii. Non-fraternal Polyandry:

It is just the opposite of fraternal polyandry. In this type of marriage husbands of a woman is not necessarily brother to each other. This type of marriage is found among the Nairs of Kerala, Wife goes to spend some time with each of her husbands. So long as a woman lives with one of her husbands, the others have no claim on her. This mainly happens due to the scarcity of women.

3. Cenogamy or Group Marriage: 

Group marriage means the marriage of two or more women with two or more men. Every woman is the wife of every man belonging to a particular group. Sociologists, like Dr. Rivers call it a kind of sexual communism. This type of marriage is found among some tribals in Australia, India, Tibet and Ceylon are believed to have practiced group marriage.

RULES OF MARRIAGE RESTRICTIONS

Marriage is not a mere license to live as spouses. It provides the basis of social structure and involves social, mutual and individual obligations. Marriage bonds are, therefore, in every society strictly disciplined by exogamous and endogamous restrictions. Marriage is made possible under the conditions that society deems fit. The restrictions differ from society to society; so also differ from time to time. The conditions have been laid and changed also in the interest of harmony and betterment. Endogamy and exogamy are the two main rules of marriage that condition marital choice.

1. ENDOGAMY OR ENDOGAMOUS MARRIAGE:

Endogamy is the form of marriage in which one must marry within one’s own caste or other group. This rule does not permit marriage of close kin. These endogamous groups specifically refer to tribe, caste, sub-caste, and varna endogamy .

i. Tribal or Divisional Endogamy:   

This is the endogamy in which no individual can marry outside his own tribe or division. Like caste, a tribe is also an endogamous unit.

ii. Caste Endogamy:  

This form of caste endogamy, prohibits the members of a caste to marry outside their own caste.

iii. Sub-caste endogamy: 

This is the type of endogamy in which choice for marriage is restricted to the sub-caste.

iv. Varna Endogamy: 

Varna endogamy prescribes marriages between the members of the same Varna. Marriage between the members of the same varan was regarded as proper and ideal.

2. EXOGAMY OR EXOGAMOUS MARRIAGE:

Exogamy refers to the rule that a man must marry someone outside his own group. It prohibits marrying within groups such as gotra, pravara, sapinda and village .

i. Gotra Exogamy:  

Gotra refers to the clan. Members of a particular gotra or clan are supposed to have close blood relations among themselves. Hence the Hindu practice of one marrying outside one’s own ‘ gotra’ is gotra exogamy.

ii. Pravara Exogamy: 

Pravara means siblings. People originating from a common saint are said to belong to a particular Pravara. According to Pravara exogamy, one has to marry outside one’s own pravara. Marriage within pravara is forbidden.

iii. Sapinda Exogamy:  

Sapinda means-lineage. People belonging to five generations from the father side and three or seven generations from the mother side are known as sapindas . They believed to belong to a particular pinda. Hence according to sapinda exogamy marriage within one’s own sapinda is forbidden. They are supposed to marry outside one’s own sapinda.

iv. Village Exogamy:  

According to this principle marriage within one’s own village is forbidden each and every society prescribes certain rules relating to marriage. Some societies put several restrictions on marriage among kins whereas some other societies allow marriage between a limited number of kins.

There is a greater trend towards exogamous marriage. Since endogamy is said to be conservative, it is widely criticized. Exogamy is appreciated as progressive and more scientific. It also brought peoples of various castes, races, religious groups and tribals together. It can effectively reduce social distance among people and encourage and support social solidarity and communal unity.

CHANGING PATTERNS OR TRENDS IN INDIAN MARRIAGE SOCIETY

Indian society is undergoing a drastic change due to economic prosperity and the Internet revolution that has exposed people to social trends prevalent across the world. Marriage has turned out to be the most revolutionized institution of our conservative Indian society. The way people perceive marriage, organize ceremonies, take vows, and build relationships are changing in tandem leading to a new face of Indian society.

Traditionally, parents found the match for their children and the marriage was formalized strictly as per the rituals. The ceremonies were very formal and the objective was to please the boy’s family as much as possible. Today, many children are choosing their own partners and prefer opting for court marriages to avoid arguments over rituals between the families. In other cases, parents accept their children’s choice and take charge of solemnizing the relationship with utmost pomp and show.

Earlier, the boy and the girl were not allowed to meet before the marriage. They saw each other only on the day of marriage. Eventually, it gave way to phone chats and then a few meetings in the presence of a family member before the marriage. But today in the 21 st century, both the partners try to spend maximum time together. They even buy their marriage trousseau together and spend long hours chatting on phone.

Unlike yesterday, many girls are working before marriage and they put forward their condition to continue working after marriage. As a result, girls are managing both their personal and professional lives smoothly. This, in turn, has dissolved the demarcation between gender roles. Today, boys are equally involved in household chores as girls. On the other hand, girls are also providing financial support in time of need.

As the joint family system is being replaced by nuclear families, the closeness and the level of comfort between the partners is increasing. They have ample space to talk and strengthen their relationships. In a joint system, the partners spent very few hours together because of a lack of space due to a large number of members in the family. This acted as a bottleneck in removing the communication gap between the couple.

An increase in the women employment ratio and the number of women-centric laws has led to the empowerment of women financially and mentally. Now, it is not easy to subject her to any sort of harassment because she is equipped with all the means to live an independent life. Let us put forth some of the changing occurrences in our traditional marriage system in Indian society.

CHANGES OCCURRING IN THE MARRIAGE PATTERNS

1. Changes in the Forms of Marriage: 

Though in the traditional Hindu society, monogamy was the prime form of marriage yet polyandry, polygamy, bigamy and marriage by exchange were quite popular. Now over time polygamy, polyandry and exchange marriages have severely declined and monogamy is being followed by most people of Indian society.

2. Change in the Aim and Purpose of marriage: 

The traditional Hindu marriage considers “dharma” as for the performance of religious duties. Earlier the marriages were to perform the sacred duties and functions. The prime function was to become kins and protectors of the family. With the advent of a variety of factors like mass media, consumerism, globalization the sacred types of relations are turning fade. The aims and purposes have changed their meaning from respect, faithfulness, sincerity to less respect, greed and unfaithfulness etc.

3. Change in Process of Mate Selection: 

In olden times, parents usually selected the spouse and there was hardly any say of the girl. There are numerous stories and stocks which support that parents used to marry their daughters according to their own will. Now due to various factors like increasing education among girls, urbanization, economic independence etc., children are consulted in marriage matters and even girls and boys talk and try to know the views of each other before executing marriage ceremonies. The Indian system therefore crumbled when forced by changing reality in the form of extended education of girls, the effect of this on raising ages at marriages and making the choice of spouse themselves (Cadwell, 1992). The marriages which were earlier held by middlemen are now replaced with matchmaking agencies and the advertisement by newspapers and various social networking sites (Jones, 2010).

4. Change in the Age at Marriage:  

When one goes to age at marriage in India, it comes out that children used to get married at an early age and it was more in case of girls. In some specific cases like Rajasthan, girls were married at a very early age i.e. age of 3-4 years even when they did not know the meaning of marriage. The marriage system was heavily dependent on arranged marriage at an early age in the traditional societies of India. The sexuality of women needs to be carefully controlled to uphold the honour of the family husbands and wives should not be too emotionally attached, as this could threaten the unity of the patriarchal family (Jones, 2010). Early marriage helps to protect young women’s chastity, marks a clear break from their natal families, makes them more likely to accept the structure of authority in their new family and weakens the husband-wife bond (Reddy, 1982). Now due to the arrival of various factors like technology and awareness among girls, there is a big change. Legally, the age for a girl’s marriage is 18 years and boys 21 years. Further due to the arrival of professional education, children are busy in studies for a longer time and hence marriages get delayed in 25-30 years. The trend towards late marriage is associated with the socio-economic changes that enhance the status of women by increasing educational and employment opportunities (Puri,1999). It has played a major role in determining the growth rate of the population through its linkage to marital fertility. The delayed marriage makes a considerable difference in lowering fertility rates. The fertility rate in India in 1970 was 5.6 which has reduced to 2.8 in 2008. (World Bank Report, 2008).

5. Change in the stability of Marriage (Increase in Divorce Rates):  

In the olden times, an institution of marriage was quite stable and hardly any divorce was noted. Fear of kinship system, strong social codes, never allowed married couples to break up marriages even if they want to live together or not. In the past divorce carried a considerable stigma and the pressure for the sake of the children and also for the sake of appearances and family honour, was very strong (Goody, 1973). Now due to legislative, education, technology advancement and more awareness has changed stability in the institution of marriage. Divorce is increasing in society across the globe. In the agro-based states like Punjab and Haryana, there is an increase of 150% since last decade and in Kerala known as most literate state there is an increase of 350% divorce rates since last decade. Love, personal commitment and intrinsic satisfaction are now seen as the cornerstone of marriage (Allen and Grow, 2001).

6. Change in the field of selection (Increasing number of Inter-caste Marriage): 

Until sometime back, marrying a person belonging to some other caste or religion was not permitted by the families. Kapadia (1982) conducted a study on inter-caste marriages in India and the data revealed that more than fifty percent of parents expressed their willingness to allow their children to marry outside their own caste. Only one third were against this departure from custom.

Afzal (2009) found that religion plays important role in inter-caste marriage. Women belonging to Muslim and other religious groups were less likely to have inter-caste marriages than Hindus. Also, working women were more likely to have inter-caste marriages than non-working women in Punjab.

7. Change in Economic Aspects of Marriages: 

Marriage is often held in cities as a social or a civil ceremony than a religious ceremony. The concept of Indian weddings has seen drastic changes, over the last few years. In the past, the ceremony was a family affair, confined to an economic budget, even though the guest list was long. On the contrary, in the present time, the occasion is generally celebrated in an elaborated way, with a number of rituals that are conducted before, during and after it. A long guest list, colourful and extravagant venue, lavish feast and a series of rituals are the key ingredients of the 'big fat Indian wedding' that we see today. In many cases, the wife's family is expected and obliged to provide a substantial dowry at the time of marriage and thereafter to continue to make presentations to the husband's family.  (Miher, 1988). Huge amount is spent on the ceremony to make it a ‘grand gala’. Money is spent lavishly for decorating marriage mantaps, arranging grand dinner, take-home sweets, music orchestra, video-shooting, photography, marriage processions etc.

FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR CHANGING MARRIAGE PATTERNS

1. Economic factors: 

Changes in marriage institutions are clearly related to the remarkable development in education, increasing urbanization and involvement of women in economic activities outside the household. People have started “going out of the family” for work and women also have joined men in process of finding out jobs and earning money. This has boosted the self-respect and self-confidence of women. These developments have affected the institution of marriage (Kapadia, 1982). Another factor is affluence materialism. Through technological improvements, the living standards and real purchasing power of individuals have been enhanced. The primary effect of this increased affluence of marriage breakdown is that people can better afford the expenses of divorce which include not only legal fees but also the cost of maintaining a second home and added cost of recreation for the children (Afzal, 2009). This all is an indication of changes occurring in the institution of marriage.

2. Social factors: 

In the past, there were joint families in which there was the interdependence of family members and there was a closely interacting community. In the transition, today’s highly urban and affluent society, work patterns have become more differentiated reducing the necessity to interact with the community. This pattern has given rise to individualism (Sonawat, 2008). There is a sense of ‘Systemness’ this is the concept of functional theory which describes how society becomes increasingly complex through structural differentiation and specialization. Now, society is characterized by high degree of specialization in terms of employment, education, health care, transportation. Prior to this specialization, the family served the economic, educational, recreational, health care, procreative, protection and affection roles for its members. Gradually, through industrialization, these responsibilities have been taken from family and institutionalized outside the home ( Sinha,1984). The institution of marriage has gone a tremendous change as there is a great change in living conditions, values, norms and traditions in the patriarchal society girls had no say in the family matters especially in marriage affairs. Earlier they could not interfere or raise any question even if their own marriages were fixed. In the past, divorce was seen as ‘Stigma’ but now the time has changed. Girls are openly coming forward with the views starting from the selection of a mate and have full rights for divorce if the marriage is not successful. Other things such as changes in public perception are often referred to in the vernacular as ‘changing times.’ People have now become more self-centred and a sense of individualization is pulling them away from traditional norms of marriage and forming households without legal marriage (Herzberger,1993).

3. Psychological factors : 

In the past, for women the greatest personal achievement and source of reward was to be married, raise children and ensure an optimal home and family life. No other life content could provide the same sense of personal worth. For men self-fulfillment lay in maintaining good employment, marrying the woman of their dreams and providing financial support to their family. Men and women have clear cut ideas of their respective roles. However, increasing urbanization, institutionalization of family roles, technological improvements in home care products and increased affluence reduced the potential of home life to provide stimulation and feelings of worth from satisfactory personal achievements. (Hines,1997). In addition, the ethos of individualism encouraged both men and women to realize their own potentials. The growing economic independence of women led to demands for more egalitarian family norms in the areas of child-rearing, decision making, finances and household tasks. These changes in family norms and role expectations brought increased friction into homes due to the departure of established patterns. Women grapple with the desire to have both careers and children so there is conflict in marital relations and disturbed domestic life.

4. Technological factors: 

The arrival of new technology has also been emerging as a new factor for generating changes in the institution of marriage. Earlier there used to be joint families in which grandparents and other senior members had control over the juniors but now there are nuclear families in which both the parents are working and children are ignored to a great extent. They do not have any surveillance on them and they become isolated and take support of mass media and other technologies such as computers, mobiles, television etc. They make use of networking sites which take them away from family members but closer to outer world (Kolenda, 1987).

5. Legislative factors: 

The legislative measures taken by the government in the last 50 years or more has helped to change the nature of institution of marriage as now legal safeguards are provided in marriage which was not part of traditional Hindu society. Many of the beliefs, values, ideals and rules of marriage laid down by the Hindu S hastrakaras have lost their original meaning and importance and purpose now. During the British rule and also after independence legislations were passed in order to bring about desirable changes in the Hindu Marriage system. The laws were related to (i) age at marriage (ii) field of mate selection (iii) number of spouses in marriage (iv) breakage of marriage (v)dowry to be taken and given (vi)remarriage. Various inhuman practices associated with marriage such as the practice of sati has been removed by law. Legislations have not only abolished child marriages but also fixed the minimum marriageable age for boys and girls as for girls is 18 years and boys 21 years. The legislations have also made clear the selection in a marriage that is, who should marry whom. They have also legalized inter-caste and inter-religious marriages and have made provisions for registered marriages. Legislations have made provisions for divorce. Equal rights are conferred on men and women in this regard. (Rao, 2004) Legislations have also specified the conditions of divorce. Legislations have also been undertaken to give special protection to women preventing the exploitation of their helplessness and weaknesses by others. In order to loosen the tight grip of the patriarchal values over the joint family’s legislations have also been undertaken to provide equal opportunities, privileges, rights and facilities even to women.

EMERGING NEW INSTITUTIONS

Besides Shift in Age, education, caste, dowry and divorces there are some structural changes in the marriage pattern which have a great impact on society. Though limited in number but in metropolitan cities and urban areas there are occurring some other serious problems which are as follows:

Gay relationships/ Lesbians

Though it seems like a shock to Indian society gay/lesbians are emerging in India at a fast rate. According to a report by NGO, there are thousands of gay/ lesbians in metropolitan cities of Indian society. It is a kind of relationship where the same-sex persons marry each other. In 2004, the Civil Partnership Act has given same-sex couples similar legal rights to married couples in respect of pensions, inheritance, tenancies and property. Though this kind of emerging institution is not conducive for the smooth working of the society and thus marriages follow a different pattern than in traditional societies.

Cohabitation

Young people may find marriage less important because premarital sex is becoming increasingly acceptable. Cohabitation is when the couple moves from dating to living together which may or may not lead to marriage (Manning, 2007). Today, it is more socially acceptable for couples to begin a sexual relationship, set up a home and have children outside formal marriage. Since 2002, cohabiting couples have had the same right to adopt as married couples.

One-Person Households

When one person establishes his family is the one-person household. People are now more self-centred. Men, as well as women, want to establish their own identities by independently establishing households. There are almost three in ten households (6.8 million people) who are one person held houses (World Bank Report, 2008).

Living apart together

It is commonly seen in the western countries where the people though being married are living far from each other. As people are getting more isolated and have greater egoistic attitudes, they don’t want their privacy to have interfered so they adopt the path of Living apart together. In 2008, according to a survey by British Social Attitudes it was noted that every 1 in 10 adults is ‘living apart together’ or ‘LATs’.

DINK (Double Income No Kids) Syndrome 

The term was coined in the 1980s at the height of “yuppie" culture. The post-2000 economic crisis has solidified this social trend as more couples wait longer to have kids, with one in five choosing not to have them at all. People don’t want to take responsibility for the kids and want to enjoy their life without any tension. They find the kids as the additional responsibility.

Changes are bound to occur and institution of marriage is also experiencing many changes. Technological, economical, new educational patterns and changes in lifestyles, are major factors playing profound role in this change. With the passage of time the age at marriage, process of mate selection aims and the purposes of marriage, trends of divorce rates and the economic aspects of marriage have undergone a tremendous change. There are definitely serious consequences of the changing marriage patterns as the increasing age at marriage makes a considerable difference in lowering the fertility rates. Various factors such as the social, economic, psychological, technological and legislative play a great role in the change of marriage institutions. As people are becoming more independent in the wake of liberalization, consumerism and its generation of unreal aspirations have increased the gap between desires and their fulfillment. Further, the new values made acceptably, or even desirable by such consumerism are “getting rich quick in any way possible”. In such a setting the existing unequal power relations within the family become a channel for acquiring wealth quickly at any cost. Conflicts in this institution are also emerging due to the interaction of tradition with modernity. New patterns in the marriage like Gay, Cohabitation etc. are also emerging in some places which may have more effects in the coming time. Though these new trends are observed today the importance of marriage has not diminished. It is still universally practiced. Though its sanctity is affected a little, it is not reduced to the level of a mere civil contract. Hindu men and women are still emotionally involved in their marriages.

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9.2: Forms of Marriage

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Monogamy , the union between two individuals, is the most common form of marriage. While monogamy traditionally referred to the union of one man and one woman, there are some countries that recognize same-sex unions. As of early 2015, The Netherlands, Spain, Canada, South Africa, Norway, Sweden, Portugal, Iceland, Argentina, Denmark, Brazil, France, Uruguay, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Luxembourg, and Finland legally allow same-sex marriage . In other countries, the debate continues over whether or not to legalize same-sex marriage or guarantee rights to homosexuals. For instance, certain states in Mexico allow same-sex marriage, but not the entire nation. Serial monogamy , where an individual has multiple spouses over their lifetime, but only one at a time, is quite common in industrial societies.

Polygamy , the union between three or more individuals is the second most common form of marriage. Generally when polygamy is mentioned by the media, a marriage between a man and multiple women is being referenced; however, the term is being misused. Polygyny is the correct term for a marriage between a man and multiple women. Polyandry refers to a marriage between a woman and multiple men. Polyandry mostly occurs between a woman and brothers, a system referred to as fraternal polyandry . One reason that polyandry might be the preferred marriage pattern for a group is if there is a shortage of women or land is scarce. For instance, the Nyinba of Nepal practice fraternal polyandry because there is not enough land to divide between brothers and the high mortality rate of female child and infant mortality. Male children are preferred, therefore are better cared for then female offspring (Bonvillain 2010: 218-219).

Polygyny is more common than polyandry. It is generally found in societies where rapid population growth is beneficial to the survival of the group, such as frontier and warrior societies, or where the ratio of women to men is high. Men with multiple wives and many children usually have higher status within the group because they have demonstrated that they can afford to support a large family. Men may also marry several women to help increase his wealth as he will then have more hands helping to bring in resources to the family. Many groups across the globe have or do practice polygyny, e.g., G/wi, Australian Aborigines, Turkana, Samburu, and the Tswana.

A question that anthropologists asked was what are the benefits of multiple spouses? What they found were several possible benefits:

• increased social status
• a new set of affines (in-laws) gives individuals more people for help w/trade, political alliances, support
• a larger labor force
• lessens the burden of work because it distributed among several women
• better chance children are provided for

Group marriage is a rare form of marriage where several males are married simultaneously to several females. This form of marriage was once practiced by the Toda; however, it is no longer known in any extant society.

There are a few other types of marriage. A symbolic marriage is one that does not establish economic or social ties, e.g., a Catholic nun marrying Jesus Christ. Fixed-term marriages are temporary marriages that are entered into for a fixed period of time. Once the time period is ended, the parties go their separate ways. There may be a financial gain for the woman, however there are no social ties once the marriage has ended. Fixed-term marriages legitimize sexual relationships for individuals whose culture may forbid sexual relationships outside of marriage, e.g., soldiers during times of war or students attending college in a foreign country.

Some cultures have developed special rules for marriage if a married family member dies. The levirate obliges a man to marry his deceased brother’s wife; e.g., Orthodox Judaism (although rarely practiced today, the widow must perform the chalitzah ceremony before she can remarry). The brother is then responsible for his brother’s widow and children. This helps keep the children and other resources the deceased had collected within the family. The sororate is the flip side of the levirate. In this system, a woman must marry the husband of her deceased sister. The Nuer practice a form of the levirate called ghost marriage . If an elder brother dies without fathering children, one of his younger brothers must marry his widow. Children resulting from the ghost marriage are considered the offspring of the deceased brother (Bonvillain 2010).

• Bonvillain, Nancy. 2010. Cultural Anthropology , 2nd edition. Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.
• Crapo, Richley. 2002. Cultural Anthropology: Understanding Ourselves and Others . Boston: McGraw Hill Higher Education.
• Ember, Carol R. and Melvin Ember. 2011. Cultural Anthropology , 13th edition. Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.
• Freedom to Marry. n.d. The Freedom to Marry Internationally. www.freedomtomarry.org/landsc.../international, accessed February 19, 2015.
• Harris, Marvin and Oran Johnson. 2007. Cultural Anthropology , 7th edition. Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.
• Keen, Ian. 2006. Polygyny. In Encyclopedia of Anthropology , Vol. 4, H. James Birx, ed. Thousand Oak, CA: Sage Reference, p. 1882-1884.
• Lavenda Robert H. and Emily A. Schultz. 2010. Core Concepts in Cultural Anthropology , 4th edition. Boston: McGraw Hill Higher Education.
• Velioti-Georgopoulos, Maria. 2006. Marriage. In Encyclopedia of Anthropology , Vol. 4, H. James Birx, ed. Thousand Oak, CA: Sage Reference, p. 1536-1540.
• Walker, Anthrony R. 1996. Toda. In Encyclopedia of World Cultures , Vol. 3, South Asia. New York: Macmillan Refernce USA, p. 294-298.

Marriage and Types: Sociology Notes

Marriage is a social institution that is a lot related to the family. It has been defined by different people in different ways. Some believe it is just for making children and taking care of them. Some others believe it is a socially acceptable phenomenon wherein individuals start their own families. A few others believe it is an everlasting bond between two people.

As the institution of marriage has been evolving over the ages, there are many types of marriages present in the world and are classified based on various basis. Let us know more about them.

Monogamy is the type of marriage wherein one man marries only one woman at a time. It is widely followed all across the world today. It is of two types: Serial monogamy is when a person can get remarried in case of divorce or death of the spouse and Non-serial monogamy is when a person is supposed to have a single spouse all throughout one’s life.

Polygamy is the type of marriage in which one can have multiple spouses. It is of three types:

Polyandry is the type of marriage in which a woman gets married to multiple men at a time. It is further divided into Fraternal polyandry wherein brothers share the same wife (Ex: Toda and Khasi tribes) and Non-fraternal polyandry which is just the opposite of fraternal polyandry.

Endogamy is the kind of marriage in which one marries within one’s own group (caste, sub-caste, varna or tribe). It is further classified as:

Sub-caste endogamy: Castes are divided into sub-castes and in this marriage, one marries within one’s own sub-caste.

Varna endogamy: In Indian society, varna is a very characteristic feature. And in this kind of marriage, one marries within one’s own varna (i.e., Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas or Shudras).

Exogamy is the kind of marriage in which one marries outside one’s Gotra (clan), Village, Pravara or Sapinda (lineage).

Gotra exogamy: It is believed that two individuals with the same gotra are blood relations and hence, one must marry outside one’s gotra.

Village exogamy: In this kind of marriage, one marries outside one’s village since it is believed that everyone in the village is like one’s siblings.

Sapinda exogamy: Sapindas are the people from five generations from the father’s side and three or seven generations from the mother’s side. In this marriage, one is to marry outside one’s pinda.

Pratiloma marriage: In this type of marriage, a man of lower caste (or varna) gets married to a woman from a higher caste. It is also called Hypogamy . This kind of marriage is not approved by Hinduism.

Marriage is a universal institution but while some societies believe marriage to be a contract, others believe it is a religious ritual. It has various implications in various societies and it has been classified by sociologists accordingly.

Uma Sathwika

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• Intimate Partner Violence
• Shaken-baby Syndrome

Challenges Families Face

• Understand the social and interpersonal impact of divorce
• Describe the social and interpersonal impact of family abuse

As the structure of family changes over time, so do the challenges families face. Events like divorce and remarriage present new difficulties for families and individuals. Other long-standing domestic issues such as abuse continue to strain the health and stability of today’s families.

Divorce and Remarriage

Divorce, while fairly common and accepted in modern U.S. society, was once a word that would only be whispered and was accompanied by gestures of disapproval. In 1960, divorce was generally uncommon, affecting only 9.1 out of every 1,000 married persons. That number more than doubled (to 20.3) by 1975 and peaked in 1980 at 22.6 (Popenoe 2007). Over the last quarter century, divorce rates have dropped steadily and are now similar to those in 1970. The dramatic increase in divorce rates after the 1960s has been associated with the liberalization of divorce laws and the shift in societal make up due to women increasingly entering the workforce (Michael 1978). The decrease in divorce rates can be attributed to two probable factors: an increase in the age at which people get married, and an increased level of education among those who marry—both of which have been found to promote greater marital stability.

Divorce does not occur equally among all people in the United States; some segments of the U.S. population are more likely to divorce than others. According the American Community Survey (ACS), men and women in the Northeast have the lowest rates of divorce at 7.2 and 7.5 per 1,000 people. The South has the highest rate of divorce at 10.2 for men and 11.1 for women. Divorce rates are likely higher in the South because marriage rates are higher and marriage occurs at younger-than-average ages in this region. In the Northeast, the marriage rate is lower and first marriages tend to be delayed; therefore, the divorce rate is lower (U.S. Census Bureau 2011).

The rate of divorce also varies by race. In a 2009 ACS study, American Indian and Alaskan Natives reported the highest percentages of currently divorced individuals (12.6 percent) followed by blacks (11.5 percent), whites (10.8 percent), Pacific Islanders (8 percent), Latinos (7.8 percent) and Asians (4.9 percent) (ACS 2011). In general those who marry at a later age, have a college education have lower rates of divorce.

So what causes divorce? While more young people are choosing to postpone or opt out of marriage, those who enter into the union do so with the expectation that it will last. A great deal of marital problems can be related to stress, especially financial stress. According to researchers participating in the University of Virginia’s National Marriage Project, couples who enter marriage without a strong asset base (like a home, savings, and a retirement plan) are 70 percent more likely to be divorced after three years than are couples with at least $10,000 in assets. This is connected to factors such as age and education level that correlate with low incomes.

The addition of children to a marriage creates added financial and emotional stress. Research has established that marriages enter their most stressful phase upon the birth of the first child (Popenoe and Whitehead 2007). This is particularly true for couples who have multiples (twins, triplets, and so on). Married couples with twins or triplets are 17 percent more likely to divorce than those with children from single births (McKay 2010). Another contributor to the likelihood of divorce is a general decline in marital satisfaction over time. As people get older, they may find that their values and life goals no longer match up with those of their spouse (Popenoe and Whitehead 2004).

Divorce is thought to have a cyclical pattern. Children of divorced parents are 40 percent more likely to divorce than children of married parents. And when we consider children whose parents divorced and then remarried, the likelihood of their own divorce rises to 91 percent (Wolfinger 2005). This might result from being socialized to a mindset that a broken marriage can be replaced rather than repaired (Wolfinger 2005). That sentiment is also reflected in the finding that when both partners of a married couple have been previously divorced, their marriage is 90 percent more likely to end in divorce (Wolfinger 2005).

People in a second marriage account for approximately 19.3 percent of all married persons, and those who have been married three or more times account for 5.2 percent (U.S. Census Bureau 2011). The vast majority (91 percent) of remarriages occur after divorce; only 9 percent occur after death of a spouse (Kreider 2006). Most men and women remarry within five years of a divorce, with the median length for men (three years) being lower than for women (4.4 years). This length of time has been fairly consistent since the 1950s. The majority of those who remarry are between the ages of twenty-five and forty-four (Kreider 2006). The general pattern of remarriage also shows that whites are more likely to remarry than black Americans.

Marriage the second time around (or third or fourth) can be a very different process than the first. Remarriage lacks many of the classic courtship rituals of a first marriage. In a second marriage, individuals are less likely to deal with issues like parental approval, premarital sex, or desired family size (Elliot 2010). In a survey of households formed by remarriage, a mere 8 percent included only biological children of the remarried couple. Of the 49 percent of homes that include children, 24 percent included only the woman’s biological children, 3 percent included only the man’s biological children, and 9 percent included a combination of both spouse’s children (U.S. Census Bureau 2006).

Children of Divorce and Remarriage

Divorce and remarriage can been stressful on partners and children alike. Divorce is often justified by the notion that children are better off in a divorced family than in a family with parents who do not get along. However, long-term studies determine that to be generally untrue. Research suggests that while marital conflict does not provide an ideal childrearing environment, going through a divorce can be damaging. Children are often confused and frightened by the threat to their family security. They may feel responsible for the divorce and attempt to bring their parents back together, often by sacrificing their own well-being (Amato 2000). Only in high-conflict homes do children benefit from divorce and the subsequent decrease in conflict. The majority of divorces come out of lower-conflict homes, and children from those homes are more negatively impacted by the stress of the divorce than the stress of unhappiness in the marriage (Amato 2000). Studies also suggest that stress levels for children are not improved when a child acquires a stepfamily through marriage. Although there may be increased economic stability, stepfamilies typically have a high level of interpersonal conflict (McLanahan and Sandefur 1994).

Children’s ability to deal with a divorce may depend on their age. Research has found that divorce may be most difficult for school-aged children, as they are old enough to understand the separation but not old enough to understand the reasoning behind it. Older teenagers are more likely to recognize the conflict that led to the divorce but may still feel fear, loneliness, guilt, and pressure to choose sides. Infants and preschool-age children may suffer the heaviest impact from the loss of routine that the marriage offered (Temke 2006).

Proximity to parents also makes a difference in a child’s well-being after divorce. Boys who live or have joint arrangements with their fathers show less aggression than those who are raised by their mothers only. Similarly, girls who live or have joint arrangements with their mothers tend to be more responsible and mature than those who are raised by their fathers only. Nearly three-fourths of the children of parents who are divorced live in a household headed by their mother, leaving many boys without a father figure residing in the home (U.S. Census Bureau 2011b). Still, researchers suggest that a strong parent-child relationship can greatly improve a child’s adjustment to divorce (Temke 2006).

There is empirical evidence that divorce has not discouraged children in terms of how they view marriage and family. A blended family has additional stress resulting from yours/mine/ours children. The blended family also has a ex-parent that has different discipline techniques. In a survey conducted by researchers from the University of Michigan, about three-quarters of high school seniors said it was “extremely important” to have a strong marriage and family life. And over half believed it was “very likely” that they would be in a lifelong marriage (Popenoe and Whitehead 2007). These numbers have continued to climb over the last twenty-five years.

Violence and Abuse

Violence and abuse are among the most disconcerting of the challenges that today’s families face. Abuse can occur between spouses, between parent and child, as well as between other family members. The frequency of violence among families is a difficult to determine because many cases of spousal abuse and child abuse go unreported. In any case, studies have shown that abuse (reported or not) has a major impact on families and society as a whole.

Domestic Violence

Domestic violence is a significant social problem in the United States. It is often characterized as violence between household or family members, specifically spouses. To include unmarried, cohabitating, and same-sex couples, family sociologists have created the term intimate partner violence (IPV) . Women are the primary victims of intimate partner violence. It is estimated that one in four women has experienced some form of IPV in her lifetime (compared to one in seven men) (Catalano 2007). IPV may include physical violence, such as punching, kicking, or other methods of inflicting physical pain; sexual violence, such as rape or other forced sexual acts; threats and intimidation that imply either physical or sexual abuse; and emotional abuse, such as harming another’s sense of self-worth through words or controlling another’s behavior. IPV often starts as emotional abuse and then escalates to other forms or combinations of abuse (Centers for Disease Control 2012).

In 2010, of IPV acts that involved physical actions against women, 57 percent involved physical violence only; 9 percent involved rape and physical violence; 14 percent involved physical violence and stalking; 12 percent involved rape, physical violence, and stalking; and 4 percent involved rape only (CDC 2011). This is vastly different than IPV abuse patterns for men, which show that nearly all (92 percent) physical acts of IVP take the form of physical violence and fewer than 1 percent involve rape alone or in combination (Catalano 2007). IPV affects women at greater rates than men because women often take the passive role in relationships and may become emotionally dependent on their partners. Perpetrators of IPV work to establish and maintain such dependence in order to hold power and control over their victims, making them feel stupid, crazy, or ugly—in some way worthless.

IPV affects different segments of the population at different rates. The rate of IPV for black women (4.6 per 1,000 persons over the age of twelve) is higher than that for white women (3.1). These numbers have been fairly stable for both racial groups over the last ten years. However, the numbers have steadily increased for Native Americans and Alaskan Natives (up to 11.1 for females) (Catalano 2007).

Those who are separated report higher rates of abuse than those with other marital statuses, as conflict is typically higher in those relationships. Similarly, those who are cohabitating are more likely than those who are married to experience IPV (Stets and Straus 1990). Other researchers have found that the rate of IPV doubles for women in low-income disadvantaged areas when compared to IPV experienced by women who reside in more affluent areas (Benson and Fox 2004). Overall, women ages twenty to twenty-four are at the greatest risk of nonfatal abuse (Catalano 2007).

Accurate statistics on IPV are difficult to determine, as it is estimated that more than half of nonfatal IPV goes unreported. It is not until victims choose to report crimes that patterns of abuse are exposed. Most victims studied stated that abuse had occurred for at least two years prior to their first report (Carlson, Harris, and Holden 1999).

Sometimes abuse is reported to police by a third party, but it still may not be confirmed by victims. A study of domestic violence incident reports found that even when confronted by police about abuse, 29 percent of victims denied that abuse occurred. Surprisingly, 19 percent of their assailants were likely to admit to abuse (Felson, Ackerman, and Gallagher 2005). According to the National Criminal Victims Survey, victims cite varied reason why they are reluctant to report abuse, as shown in the table below.

Two-thirds of nonfatal IPV occurs inside of the home and approximately 10 percent occurs at the home of the victim’s friend or neighbor. The majority of abuse takes place between the hours of 6 p.m. and 6 a.m., and nearly half (42 percent) involves alcohol or drug use (Catalano 2007). Many perpetrators of IVP blame alcohol or drugs for their abuse, though studies have shown that alcohol and drugs do not cause IPV, they may only lower inhibitions (Hanson 2011). IPV has significant long-term effects on individual victims and on society. Studies have shown that IPV damage extends beyond the direct physical or emotional wounds. Extended IPV has been linked to unemployment among victims, as many have difficulty finding or holding employment. Additionally, nearly all women who report serious domestic problems exhibit symptoms of major depression (Goodwin, Chandler, and Meisel 2003).

Female victims of IPV are also more likely to abuse alcohol or drugs, suffer from eating disorders, and attempt suicide (Silverman et al. 2001). IPV is indeed something that impacts more than just intimate partners. In a survey, 34 percent of respondents said they have witnessed IPV, and 59 percent said that they know a victim personally (Roper Starch Worldwide 1995). Many people want to help IPV victims but are hesitant to intervene because they feel that it is a personal matter or they fear retaliation from the abuser—reasons similar to those of victims who do not report IPV.

Child Abuse

Children are among the most helpless victims of abuse. In 2010, there were more than 3.3 million reports of child abuse involving an estimated 5.9 million children (Child Help 2011). Three-fifths of child abuse reports are made by professionals, including teachers, law enforcement personal, and social services staff. The rest are made by anonymous sources, other relatives, parents, friends, and neighbors.

Child abuse may come in several forms, the most common being neglect (78.3 percent), followed by physical abuse (10.8 percent), sexual abuse (7.6 percent), psychological maltreatment (7.6 percent), and medical neglect (2.4 percent) (Child Help 2011). Some children suffer from a combination of these forms of abuse. The majority (81.2 percent) of perpetrators are parents; 6.2 percent are other relatives.

Infants (children less than one year old) were the most victimized population with an incident rate of 20.6 per 1,000 infants. This age group is particularly vulnerable to neglect because they are entirely dependent on parents for care. Some parents do not purposely neglect their children; factors such as cultural values, standard of care in a community, and poverty can lead to hazardous level of neglect. If information or assistance from public or private services are available and a parent fails to use those services, child welfare services may intervene (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services).

Infants are also often victims of physical abuse, particularly in the form of violent shaking. This type of physical abuse is referred to as shaken-baby syndrome , which describes a group of medical symptoms such as brain swelling and retinal hemorrhage resulting from forcefully shaking or causing impact to an infant’s head. A baby’s cry is the number one trigger for shaking. Parents may find themselves unable to soothe a baby’s concerns and may take their frustration out on the child by shaking him or her violently. Other stress factors such as a poor economy, unemployment, and general dissatisfaction with parental life may contribute this type of abuse. While there is no official central registry of shaken-baby syndrome statistics, it is estimated that each year 1,400 babies die or suffer serious injury from being shaken (Barr 2007).

Corporal Punishment

Physical abuse in children may come in the form of beating, kicking, throwing, choking, hitting with objects, burning, or other methods. Injury inflicted by such behavior is considered abuse even if the parent or caregiver did not intend to harm the child. Other types of physical contact that are characterized as discipline (spanking, for example) are not considered abuse as long as no injury results (Child Welfare Information Gateway 2008).

This issue is rather controversial among modern-day people in the United States. While some parents feel that physical discipline, or corporal punishment, is an effective way to respond to bad behavior, others feel that it is a form of abuse. According to a poll conducted by ABC News, 65 percent of respondents approve of spanking and 50 percent said that they sometimes spank their child.

Tendency toward physical punishment may be affected by culture and education. Those who live in the South are more likely than those who live in other regions to spank their child. Those who do not have a college education are also more likely to spank their child (Crandall 2011). Currently, 23 states officially allow spanking in the school system; however, many parents may object and school officials must follow a set of clear guidelines when administering this type of punishment (Crandall 2011). Studies have shown that spanking is not an effective form of punishment and may lead to aggression by the victim, particularly in those who are spanked at a young age (Berlin 2009).

Child abuse occurs at all socioeconomic and education levels and crosses ethnic and cultural lines. Just as child abuse is often associated with stresses felt by parents, including financial stress, parents who demonstrate resilience to these stresses are less likely to abuse (Samuels 2011). Young parents are typically less capable of coping with stresses, particularly the stress of becoming a new parent. Teenage mothers are more likely to abuse their children than their older counterparts. As a parent’s age increases, the risk of abuse decreases. Children born to mothers who are fifteen years old or younger are twice as likely to be abused or neglected by age five than are children born to mothers ages twenty to twenty-one (George and Lee 1997).

Drug and alcohol use is also a known contributor to child abuse. Children raised by substance abusers have a risk of physical abuse three times greater than other kids, and neglect is four times as prevalent in these families (Child Welfare Information Gateway 2011). Other risk factors include social isolation, depression, low parental education, and a history of being mistreated as a child. Approximately 30 percent of abused children will later abuse their own children (Child Welfare Information Gateway 2006).

The long-term effects of child abuse impact the physical, mental, and emotional wellbeing of a child. Injury, poor health, and mental instability occur at a high rate in this group, with 80 percent meeting the criteria of one or more psychiatric disorders, such as depression, anxiety, or suicidal behavior, by age twenty-one. Abused children may also suffer from cognitive and social difficulties. Behavioral consequences will affect most, but not all, of child abuse victims. Children of abuse are 25 percent more likely, as adolescents, to suffer from difficulties like poor academic performance and teen pregnancy, or to engage in behaviors like drug abuse and general delinquency. They are also more likely to participate in risky sexual acts that increase their chances of contracting a sexually transmitted disease (Child Welfare Information Gateway 2006). Other risky behaviors include drug and alcohol abuse. As these consequences can affect the health care, education, and criminal systems, the problems resulting from child abuse do not just belong to the child and family, but to society as a whole.

Amato, Paul. 2000. “What Children Learn From Divorce.” Journal of Family Issues 21(8):1061–1086.

American Community Survey. 2011. “Marital Events of Americans: 2009.” The U.S. Census Bureau. Retrieved January 16, 2012 ( http://www.census.gov/prod/2011pubs/acs-13.pdf ).

Barr, Ronald. 2007. “What Is All That Crying About?” Bulletin of the Centres of Excellence for Children’s Wellbeing 6(2).

Benson, Michael, and Greer Fox. 2004. When Violence Hits Home: How Economics and Neighborhood Play a Role . Washington, DC: National Institutes of Justice.

Berlin, Lisa. 2009. “Correlates and Consequences of Spanking and Verbal Punishment for Low-Income White, African American, and Mexican American Toddlers.” Child Development 80(5):1403–1420.

Carlson, M., S. Harris, and G. Holden. 1999. “Protective Orders and Domestic Violence: Risk Factors for Reabuse.” Journal of Family Violence 14(2):205–226.

Catalano, S. 2007. Intimate Partner Violence in the United States . Washington, DC: US Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics. Retrieved April 30, 2012 ( http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/content/pub/pdf/ipvus.pdf ).

Centers for Disease Control. 2011. “National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey.” Retrieved January 17, 2012 ( http://www.cdc.gov/ViolencePrevention/pdf/NISVS_FactSheet-a.pdf ).

Centers for Disease Control. 2012. “Understanding Intimate Partner Violence.” Retrieved January 16, 2012 ( http://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pdf/ipv_factsheet-a.pdf ).

Child Welfare Information Gateway. 2006. “Long-Term Consequences of Child Abuse and Neglect.” U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved January 16, 2012 ( http://www.childwelfare.gov/pubs/factsheets/long_term_consequences.cfm ).

Child Welfare Information Gateway. 2008. “What Is Child Abuse and Neglect.” U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved January 16, 2012 ( http://www.childwelfare.gov/pubs/factsheets/whatiscan.cfm ).

Child Welfare Information Gateway. 2011. “Parental Substance Abuse.” U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved January 16, 2012 ( http://www.childwelfare.gov/can/factors/parentcaregiver/substance.cfm ).

Crandall, Julie. 2011. “Support for Spanking: Most Americans Think Corporal Punishment is OK.” ABCNews.com , November 8. Retrieved January 16, 2012 ( http://abcnews.go.com/sections/us/dailynews/spanking_poll021108.html ).

Elliot, Diana. 2010. “Embracing the Institution of Marriage: The Characteristics of Remarried Americans.” U.S. Census Bureau.

Felson, R., J. Ackerman, and C. Gallagher. 2005. "Police Intervention and the Repeat of Domestic Assault." Final report for National Institute of Justice. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice. Retrieved January 16, 2012 ( http://www.ncjrs.gov/App/Publications/abstract.aspx?ID=210301 ).

George, R. M., and B. J. Lee. 1997. “Abuse and Neglect of the Children.” Pp. 205–230 in Kids Having Kids , edited by R. Maynard. Washington, DC: The Urban Institute Press.

Goodwin, S.N., S. Chandler, and J. Meisel. 2003. “Violence Against Women: The Role of Welfare Reform." Final Report to the National Institute of Justice.

Hanson, David. 2011. “Alcohol and Domestic Violence.” State University of New York. Retrieved January 16, 2012 ( http://www2.potsdam.edu/hansondj/Controversies/1090863351.html ).

Kreider, Rose. 2006. “Remarriage in the United States.” U.S. Census Bureau.

McKay, Stephen. 2010. “The Effects of Twins and Multiple Births on Families and Their Living Standards.” University of Birmingham. Retrieved February 24, 2012 ( http://www.tamba.org.uk/document.doc?id=268 ).

McLanahan, Sara, and Gary Sandefur. 1997. Growing Up With a Single Parent: What Hurts, What Helps . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Michael, Robert. 1978. “The Rise in Divorce Rates, 1960–1974: Age-Specific Components.” Demography 15(2):177–182.

Popenoe, David. 2007. “The Future of Marriage in America.” University of Virginia/National Marriage Project/The State of Our Unions. Retrieved January 16, 2012.

Popenoe, David and Barbara D. Whitehead. 2001. “Top Ten Myths of Divorce University of Virginia/National Marriage Project/The State of Our Unions.” Retrieved January 16, 2012.

Popenoe, David, and Barbara D. Whitehead. 2004. “Ten Important Research Findings on Marriage and Choosing a Marriage Partner.” University of Virginia/National Marriage Project/The State of Our Unions. Retrieved January 16, 2012.

Roper Starch Worldwide. 1995. Domestic Violence: Views on Campus Survey . New York: Liz Claiborne.

Samuels, Bryan. 2011. “Strengthening Families and Communities.” U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved February 14, 2012 ( http://www.childwelfare.gov/pubs/guide2011/guide.pdf#page=29 ).

Silverman, J.G., A. Raj, L. A. Mucci, and J. E. Hathaway. 2001. “Dating Violence Against Adolescent Girls and Associated Substance Abuse, Unhealthy Weight Control, Sexual Risk Behavior, Pregnancy and Suicide.” Journal of the American Medical Association 286:572–579.

Stets, J. E., and M. A. Straus. 1990. “The Marriage License as a Hitting License: A Comparison of Assaults in Dating, Cohabiting, and Married Couples.” Pp. 227–244 in Physical Violence in American Families: Risk Factors and Adaptations to Violence in 8,145 Families , edited by M. A. Straus and R. J Gelles. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.

Temke, Mary W. 2006. “The Effects of Divorce on Children.” Durham: University of New Hampshire. Retrieved January 16, 2012.

U.S. Census Bureau. 2006. “Remarriage in the United States.” Retrieved January 17, 2012 ( http://www.census.gov/hhes/socdemo/marriage/data/sipp/us-remarriage-poster.pdf ).

U.S. Census Bureau. 2011. “Divorce Rates Highest in the South, Lowest in the Northeast, Census Bureau Reports.” Retrieved January 16, 2012 ( http://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/marital_status_living_arrangements/cb11-144.html ).

U.S. Census Bureau. 2011b. “Living Arrangements of Children: 2009.” Retrieved January 16, 2012 ( http://www.census.gov/prod/2011pubs/p70-126.pdf ).

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Administration on Children, Youth and Families, Children’s Bureau. 2011. Child Maltreatment . Retrieved February 14, 2012 ( http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/cb/stats_research/index.htm#can ).

Wolfinger, Nicholas. 2005. Understanding the Divorce Cycle . New York: Cambridge University Press.

Further Research

To find more information on child abuse, visit the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services web site at http://openstaxcollege.org/l/child_welfare to review documents provided by the Child Welfare Information Gateway.

Short Answer

Explain how financial status impacts marital stability. What other factors are associated with a couple’s financial status?

Explain why more than half of IPV goes unreported? Why are those who are abused unlikely to report the abuse?

Section Quiz

Current divorce rates are:

• at an all-time high
• at an all-time low
• steadily increasing
• steadily declining

Children of divorced parents are _______ to divorce in their own marriage than children of parents who stayed married.

• more likely
• less likely
• equally likely

In general, children in ______ households benefit from divorce.

• multigenerational
• high-conflict
• low-conflict

Which of the following is true of intimate partner violence (IPV)?

• IPV victims are more frequently men than women.
• One in ten women is a victim of IPV.
• Nearly half of instances of IPV involve drugs or alcohol.
• Rape is the most common form of IPV.

Which type of child abuse is most prevalent in the United States?

• Physical abuse
• Shaken-baby syndrome
• Verbal mistreatment

Today’s families face a variety of challenges, specifically to marital stability. While divorce rates have decreased in the last twenty-five years, many family members, especially children, still experience the negative effects of divorce. Children are also negatively impacted by violence and abuse within the home, with nearly 6 million children abused each year.