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Critical Analysis – Types, Examples and Writing Guide

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Critical Analysis

Definition:

Critical analysis is a process of examining a piece of work or an idea in a systematic, objective, and analytical way. It involves breaking down complex ideas, concepts, or arguments into smaller, more manageable parts to understand them better.

Types of Critical Analysis

Types of Critical Analysis are as follows:

Literary Analysis

This type of analysis focuses on analyzing and interpreting works of literature , such as novels, poetry, plays, etc. The analysis involves examining the literary devices used in the work, such as symbolism, imagery, and metaphor, and how they contribute to the overall meaning of the work.

Film Analysis

This type of analysis involves examining and interpreting films, including their themes, cinematography, editing, and sound. Film analysis can also include evaluating the director’s style and how it contributes to the overall message of the film.

Art Analysis

This type of analysis involves examining and interpreting works of art , such as paintings, sculptures, and installations. The analysis involves examining the elements of the artwork, such as color, composition, and technique, and how they contribute to the overall meaning of the work.

Cultural Analysis

This type of analysis involves examining and interpreting cultural artifacts , such as advertisements, popular music, and social media posts. The analysis involves examining the cultural context of the artifact and how it reflects and shapes cultural values, beliefs, and norms.

Historical Analysis

This type of analysis involves examining and interpreting historical documents , such as diaries, letters, and government records. The analysis involves examining the historical context of the document and how it reflects the social, political, and cultural attitudes of the time.

Philosophical Analysis

This type of analysis involves examining and interpreting philosophical texts and ideas, such as the works of philosophers and their arguments. The analysis involves evaluating the logical consistency of the arguments and assessing the validity and soundness of the conclusions.

Scientific Analysis

This type of analysis involves examining and interpreting scientific research studies and their findings. The analysis involves evaluating the methods used in the study, the data collected, and the conclusions drawn, and assessing their reliability and validity.

Critical Discourse Analysis

This type of analysis involves examining and interpreting language use in social and political contexts. The analysis involves evaluating the power dynamics and social relationships conveyed through language use and how they shape discourse and social reality.

Comparative Analysis

This type of analysis involves examining and interpreting multiple texts or works of art and comparing them to each other. The analysis involves evaluating the similarities and differences between the texts and how they contribute to understanding the themes and meanings conveyed.

Critical Analysis Format

Critical Analysis Format is as follows:

I. Introduction

• Provide a brief overview of the text, object, or event being analyzed
• Explain the purpose of the analysis and its significance
• Provide background information on the context and relevant historical or cultural factors

II. Description

• Provide a detailed description of the text, object, or event being analyzed
• Identify key themes, ideas, and arguments presented
• Describe the author or creator’s style, tone, and use of language or visual elements

III. Analysis

• Analyze the text, object, or event using critical thinking skills
• Identify the main strengths and weaknesses of the argument or presentation
• Evaluate the reliability and validity of the evidence presented
• Assess any assumptions or biases that may be present in the text, object, or event
• Consider the implications of the argument or presentation for different audiences and contexts

IV. Evaluation

• Provide an overall evaluation of the text, object, or event based on the analysis
• Assess the effectiveness of the argument or presentation in achieving its intended purpose
• Identify any limitations or gaps in the argument or presentation
• Consider any alternative viewpoints or interpretations that could be presented
• Summarize the main points of the analysis and evaluation
• Reiterate the significance of the text, object, or event and its relevance to broader issues or debates
• Provide any recommendations for further research or future developments in the field.

VI. Example

• Provide an example or two to support your analysis and evaluation
• Use quotes or specific details from the text, object, or event to support your claims
• Analyze the example(s) using critical thinking skills and explain how they relate to your overall argument

VII. Conclusion

• Reiterate your thesis statement and summarize your main points
• Provide a final evaluation of the text, object, or event based on your analysis
• Offer recommendations for future research or further developments in the field
• End with a thought-provoking statement or question that encourages the reader to think more deeply about the topic

How to Write Critical Analysis

Writing a critical analysis involves evaluating and interpreting a text, such as a book, article, or film, and expressing your opinion about its quality and significance. Here are some steps you can follow to write a critical analysis:

• Read and re-read the text: Before you begin writing, make sure you have a good understanding of the text. Read it several times and take notes on the key points, themes, and arguments.
• Identify the author’s purpose and audience: Consider why the author wrote the text and who the intended audience is. This can help you evaluate whether the author achieved their goals and whether the text is effective in reaching its audience.
• Analyze the structure and style: Look at the organization of the text and the author’s writing style. Consider how these elements contribute to the overall meaning of the text.
• Evaluate the content : Analyze the author’s arguments, evidence, and conclusions. Consider whether they are logical, convincing, and supported by the evidence presented in the text.
• Consider the context: Think about the historical, cultural, and social context in which the text was written. This can help you understand the author’s perspective and the significance of the text.
• Develop your thesis statement : Based on your analysis, develop a clear and concise thesis statement that summarizes your overall evaluation of the text.
• Support your thesis: Use evidence from the text to support your thesis statement. This can include direct quotes, paraphrases, and examples from the text.
• Write the introduction, body, and conclusion : Organize your analysis into an introduction that provides context and presents your thesis, a body that presents your evidence and analysis, and a conclusion that summarizes your main points and restates your thesis.
• Revise and edit: After you have written your analysis, revise and edit it to ensure that your writing is clear, concise, and well-organized. Check for spelling and grammar errors, and make sure that your analysis is logically sound and supported by evidence.

When to Write Critical Analysis

You may want to write a critical analysis in the following situations:

• Academic Assignments: If you are a student, you may be assigned to write a critical analysis as a part of your coursework. This could include analyzing a piece of literature, a historical event, or a scientific paper.
• Journalism and Media: As a journalist or media person, you may need to write a critical analysis of current events, political speeches, or media coverage.
• Personal Interest: If you are interested in a particular topic, you may want to write a critical analysis to gain a deeper understanding of it. For example, you may want to analyze the themes and motifs in a novel or film that you enjoyed.
• Professional Development : Professionals such as writers, scholars, and researchers often write critical analyses to gain insights into their field of study or work.

Critical Analysis Example

An Example of Critical Analysis Could be as follow:

Research Topic:

The Impact of Online Learning on Student Performance

Introduction:

The introduction of the research topic is clear and provides an overview of the issue. However, it could benefit from providing more background information on the prevalence of online learning and its potential impact on student performance.

Literature Review:

The literature review is comprehensive and well-structured. It covers a broad range of studies that have examined the relationship between online learning and student performance. However, it could benefit from including more recent studies and providing a more critical analysis of the existing literature.

Research Methods:

The research methods are clearly described and appropriate for the research question. The study uses a quasi-experimental design to compare the performance of students who took an online course with those who took the same course in a traditional classroom setting. However, the study may benefit from using a randomized controlled trial design to reduce potential confounding factors.

The results are presented in a clear and concise manner. The study finds that students who took the online course performed similarly to those who took the traditional course. However, the study only measures performance on one course and may not be generalizable to other courses or contexts.

Discussion :

The discussion section provides a thorough analysis of the study’s findings. The authors acknowledge the limitations of the study and provide suggestions for future research. However, they could benefit from discussing potential mechanisms underlying the relationship between online learning and student performance.

Conclusion :

The conclusion summarizes the main findings of the study and provides some implications for future research and practice. However, it could benefit from providing more specific recommendations for implementing online learning programs in educational settings.

Purpose of Critical Analysis

There are several purposes of critical analysis, including:

• To identify and evaluate arguments : Critical analysis helps to identify the main arguments in a piece of writing or speech and evaluate their strengths and weaknesses. This enables the reader to form their own opinion and make informed decisions.
• To assess evidence : Critical analysis involves examining the evidence presented in a text or speech and evaluating its quality and relevance to the argument. This helps to determine the credibility of the claims being made.
• To recognize biases and assumptions : Critical analysis helps to identify any biases or assumptions that may be present in the argument, and evaluate how these affect the credibility of the argument.
• To develop critical thinking skills: Critical analysis helps to develop the ability to think critically, evaluate information objectively, and make reasoned judgments based on evidence.
• To improve communication skills: Critical analysis involves carefully reading and listening to information, evaluating it, and expressing one’s own opinion in a clear and concise manner. This helps to improve communication skills and the ability to express ideas effectively.

Importance of Critical Analysis

Here are some specific reasons why critical analysis is important:

• Helps to identify biases: Critical analysis helps individuals to recognize their own biases and assumptions, as well as the biases of others. By being aware of biases, individuals can better evaluate the credibility and reliability of information.
• Enhances problem-solving skills : Critical analysis encourages individuals to question assumptions and consider multiple perspectives, which can lead to creative problem-solving and innovation.
• Promotes better decision-making: By carefully evaluating evidence and arguments, critical analysis can help individuals make more informed and effective decisions.
• Facilitates understanding: Critical analysis helps individuals to understand complex issues and ideas by breaking them down into smaller parts and evaluating them separately.
• Fosters intellectual growth : Engaging in critical analysis challenges individuals to think deeply and critically, which can lead to intellectual growth and development.

Advantages of Critical Analysis

Some advantages of critical analysis include:

• Improved decision-making: Critical analysis helps individuals make informed decisions by evaluating all available information and considering various perspectives.
• Enhanced problem-solving skills : Critical analysis requires individuals to identify and analyze the root cause of a problem, which can help develop effective solutions.
• Increased creativity : Critical analysis encourages individuals to think outside the box and consider alternative solutions to problems, which can lead to more creative and innovative ideas.
• Improved communication : Critical analysis helps individuals communicate their ideas and opinions more effectively by providing logical and coherent arguments.
• Reduced bias: Critical analysis requires individuals to evaluate information objectively, which can help reduce personal biases and subjective opinions.
• Better understanding of complex issues : Critical analysis helps individuals to understand complex issues by breaking them down into smaller parts, examining each part and understanding how they fit together.
• Greater self-awareness: Critical analysis helps individuals to recognize their own biases, assumptions, and limitations, which can lead to personal growth and development.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Writing a Critical Analysis

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This guide is meant to help you understand the basics of writing a critical analysis. A critical analysis is an argument about a particular piece of media. There are typically two parts: (1) identify and explain the argument the author is making, and (2), provide your own argument about that argument. Your instructor may have very specific requirements on how you are to write your critical analysis, so make sure you read your assignment carefully.

Critical Analysis

A deep approach to your understanding of a piece of media by relating new knowledge to what you already know.

Part 1: Introduction

• Identify the work being criticized.
• Present thesis - argument about the work.
• Preview your argument - what are the steps you will take to prove your argument.

Part 2: Summarize

• Provide a short summary of the work.
• Present only what is needed to know to understand your argument.

Part 3: Your Argument

• This is the bulk of your paper.
• Provide "sub-arguments" to prove your main argument.
• Use scholarly articles to back up your argument(s).

Part 4: Conclusion

• Reflect on  how  you have proven your argument.
• Point out the  importance  of your argument.
• Comment on the potential for further research or analysis.
• Cornell University Library Tips for writing a critical appraisal and analysis of a scholarly article.
• Queen's University Library How to Critique an Article (Psychology)
• University of Illinois, Springfield An example of a summary and an evaluation of a research article. This extended example shows the different ways a student can critique and write about an article
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Critical analysis is a formal evaluation of someone else’s work. In academia, this work is most often a book, article, poem, play or piece of visual art. However, in business, you might need to carry out a critical analysis of a proposal for a project or grant, a policy or white paper, an industry handbook or even a research study. Broadly speaking, critical analysis involves examining the work to see how well the author has carried out their purpose, or how well the project or policy will or does carry out its purpose.

Critical analysis is therefore an extension of both critical thinking and critical reading . Critical thinking is the ability to engage in reflective and independent thinking about the information that you encounter. Critical reading is engaging with what you read by asking yourself questions about the author’s intention and your reaction to that. Critical analysis is the formalisation of both these processes, coupled with a written analysis for others.

There are therefore two elements to critical analysis. The first is carrying out the analysis itself: deciding what you think. The second is writing up your findings and judgement for others.

Steps in a Critical Analysis

There are several steps that you need to take to carry out a critical analysis. These include:

1. Critical reading of your text or examination of your piece.

This is a matter of carefully reading your text, possibly several times.

As you do so, consider (and note down) what you think is important and relevant. It will also be helpful to note any controversial points, or areas where you disagree.

There is more about this process in our page on Critical Reading .

During this process, you should aim to identify the main thesis, point or purpose, and then sub-themes or issues.

In a piece of business writing or an essay, the purpose or thesis is usually set out early on, often in the introduction. In a piece of fiction writing, it may be necessary to read the text fully to identify themes and then highlight the most important theme.>

It is also worth taking note of any evidence that supports the themes and purpose.

Finally, it is worth writing yourself a one-paragraph summary of the text. This is likely to be a good starting point for your analysis, because your readers may not have read the text themselves.

2. Analysing the text or piece

The purpose of your analysis is to make an overall judgement about how well the text has met its objectives, based on the evidence available to you.

There are five useful aspects to consider in analysing the text or piece:

Your reaction to the text . This has two purposes. First, it affects how you approach the analysis. For example, if the ideas in the text make you angry, you will find it harder to see their benefits. Second, writers often want to evoke certain emotions in their audience. This is part of the purpose of the piece—and therefore assessing this issue is an important part of judging whether it has met its objectives.

The background to the text . It is worth considering the backdrop against which the text was written. For a policy paper, for example, what has gone before? How urgent is the need to address the situation? For a piece of creative writing, when was it written and what was happening in the world at the time? How might this have affected the way that the author was writing, or what they wanted to achieve?

The author’s background and the possible implications of this . The author’s background is likely to have informed their opinions and views—and therefore what they have written. It is worth considering the text in this light. This is part of the background, but specific enough to consider as a separate category.

The definitions and concepts in the text . Consider how well the author has defined concepts and ideas. It is much easier to assess ideas if they are clearly defined and described in simple language. Similarly, poor definitions may mean that the author is not clear about their own meaning, or that your understanding is different from theirs.

The use of evidence . You should consider the evidence presented in the text in two senses. First, examine its general validity and reliability. For example, in a proposal or paper, are the ideas supported by peer reviewed studies published in reputable journals? Second, you should consider how well the evidence supports the author’s points. It is also worth considering what evidence is NOT cited, but which might support or undermine the author’s points. It follows that you should also have evidence to support your own arguments in your analysis.

3. Writing up your analysis

The final stage of a critical analysis is to write up your analysis to present it to others.

The precise form that you use is likely to depend both on your preferences, and on any guidelines provided by your organisation or institution (see box).

TOP TIP! Check your guidelines

Your organisation or institution may have guidelines for carrying out a critical analysis. Check them carefully for the structure that you are expected to use, or any essential sections that must be included. For example, some organisations require a summary paragraph upfront (like an executive summary).

You are likely to need to include:

A brief summary of the text or proposal.

A brief summary of your assessment of the text . This should usually be structured around a main point or thesis against which you will consider various aspects of the text.

• For example, if you are analysing a business proposal, you might be concerned that the concepts are not defined very clearly, and that this may demonstrate that the author has not clearly understood the issues. Your main thesis is therefore this lack of clarity.

A more expanded version of  your analysis, with the evidence for each of your points . Again, this should be structured around your main thesis. It should also set your analysis in the wider context, including what else is known about the subject.

• The example from the previous bullet described concerns about the lack of clarity of definitions and therefore ambiguity. In this example, your expanded analysis would focus on areas that are not clear, and the problems that might arise from the ambiguity.

A conclusion that sums up your argument and reiterates your judgement on the text.

TOP TIP! You don’t have to write it in order—just sort it afterwards

It is often easier to prepare your introduction and conclusion once you have finished your analysis, and you are absolutely clear on the points you want to highlight.

It is also a good idea to use headings to show divisions between sections.

Summing Up Critical Analysis

Ultimately, critical analysis is about asking questions—and then setting the answers into context.

The most important questions are What, How, Why and So what? The answers will provide a clear and succinct critique of a text, project or idea, and allow you to form a judgement about the text.

Continue to: Critical Thinking and Fake News Analytical Skills

See also: Assessing Internet Information Styles of Writing Understanding and Addressing Conspiracy Theories

Critically Analyzing Information Sources: Critical Appraisal and Analysis

• Critical Appraisal and Analysis

Initial Appraisal : Reviewing the source

• What are the author's credentials--institutional affiliation (where he or she works), educational background, past writings, or experience? Is the book or article written on a topic in the author's area of expertise? You can use the various Who's Who publications for the U.S. and other countries and for specific subjects and the biographical information located in the publication itself to help determine the author's affiliation and credentials.
• Has your instructor mentioned this author? Have you seen the author's name cited in other sources or bibliographies? Respected authors are cited frequently by other scholars. For this reason, always note those names that appear in many different sources.
• Is the author associated with a reputable institution or organization? What are the basic values or goals of the organization or institution?

B. Date of Publication

• When was the source published? This date is often located on the face of the title page below the name of the publisher. If it is not there, look for the copyright date on the reverse of the title page. On Web pages, the date of the last revision is usually at the bottom of the home page, sometimes every page.
• Is the source current or out-of-date for your topic? Topic areas of continuing and rapid development, such as the sciences, demand more current information. On the other hand, topics in the humanities often require material that was written many years ago. At the other extreme, some news sources on the Web now note the hour and minute that articles are posted on their site.

C. Edition or Revision

Is this a first edition of this publication or not? Further editions indicate a source has been revised and updated to reflect changes in knowledge, include omissions, and harmonize with its intended reader's needs. Also, many printings or editions may indicate that the work has become a standard source in the area and is reliable. If you are using a Web source, do the pages indicate revision dates?

D. Publisher

Note the publisher. If the source is published by a university press, it is likely to be scholarly. Although the fact that the publisher is reputable does not necessarily guarantee quality, it does show that the publisher may have high regard for the source being published.

E. Title of Journal

Is this a scholarly or a popular journal? This distinction is important because it indicates different levels of complexity in conveying ideas. If you need help in determining the type of journal, see Distinguishing Scholarly from Non-Scholarly Periodicals . Or you may wish to check your journal title in the latest edition of Katz's Magazines for Libraries (Olin Reference Z 6941 .K21, shelved at the reference desk) for a brief evaluative description.

Critical Analysis of the Content

Having made an initial appraisal, you should now examine the body of the source. Read the preface to determine the author's intentions for the book. Scan the table of contents and the index to get a broad overview of the material it covers. Note whether bibliographies are included. Read the chapters that specifically address your topic. Reading the article abstract and scanning the table of contents of a journal or magazine issue is also useful. As with books, the presence and quality of a bibliography at the end of the article may reflect the care with which the authors have prepared their work.

A. Intended Audience

What type of audience is the author addressing? Is the publication aimed at a specialized or a general audience? Is this source too elementary, too technical, too advanced, or just right for your needs?

B. Objective Reasoning

• Is the information covered fact, opinion, or propaganda? It is not always easy to separate fact from opinion. Facts can usually be verified; opinions, though they may be based on factual information, evolve from the interpretation of facts. Skilled writers can make you think their interpretations are facts.
• Does the information appear to be valid and well-researched, or is it questionable and unsupported by evidence? Assumptions should be reasonable. Note errors or omissions.
• Are the ideas and arguments advanced more or less in line with other works you have read on the same topic? The more radically an author departs from the views of others in the same field, the more carefully and critically you should scrutinize his or her ideas.
• Is the author's point of view objective and impartial? Is the language free of emotion-arousing words and bias?

C. Coverage

• Does the work update other sources, substantiate other materials you have read, or add new information? Does it extensively or marginally cover your topic? You should explore enough sources to obtain a variety of viewpoints.
• Is the material primary or secondary in nature? Primary sources are the raw material of the research process. Secondary sources are based on primary sources. For example, if you were researching Konrad Adenauer's role in rebuilding West Germany after World War II, Adenauer's own writings would be one of many primary sources available on this topic. Others might include relevant government documents and contemporary German newspaper articles. Scholars use this primary material to help generate historical interpretations--a secondary source. Books, encyclopedia articles, and scholarly journal articles about Adenauer's role are considered secondary sources. In the sciences, journal articles and conference proceedings written by experimenters reporting the results of their research are primary documents. Choose both primary and secondary sources when you have the opportunity.

D. Writing Style

Is the publication organized logically? Are the main points clearly presented? Do you find the text easy to read, or is it stilted or choppy? Is the author's argument repetitive?

E. Evaluative Reviews

• Locate critical reviews of books in a reviewing source , such as the Articles & Full Text , Book Review Index , Book Review Digest, and ProQuest Research Library . Is the review positive? Is the book under review considered a valuable contribution to the field? Does the reviewer mention other books that might be better? If so, locate these sources for more information on your topic.
• Do the various reviewers agree on the value or attributes of the book or has it aroused controversy among the critics?
• For Web sites, consider consulting this evaluation source from UC Berkeley .

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How to write a successful critical analysis

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For further queries or assistance in writing a critical analysis email Bill Wrigley .

What do you critically analyse?

In a critical analysis you do not express your own opinion or views on the topic. You need to develop your thesis, position or stance on the topic from the views and research of others . In academic writing you critically analyse other researchers’:

• concepts, terms
• viewpoints, arguments, positions
• methodologies, approaches
• research results and conclusions

This means weighing up the strength of the arguments or research support on the topic, and deciding who or what has the more or stronger weight of evidence or support.

Therefore, your thesis argues, with evidence, why a particular theory, concept, viewpoint, methodology, or research result(s) is/are stronger, more sound, or more advantageous than others.

What does ‘analysis’ mean?

A critical analysis means analysing or breaking down the parts of the literature and grouping these into themes, patterns or trends.

In an analysis you need to:

1. Identify and separate out the parts of the topic by grouping the various key theories, main concepts, the main arguments or ideas, and the key research results and conclusions on the topic into themes, patterns or trends of agreement , dispute and omission .

2. Discuss each of these parts by explaining:

i. the areas of agreement/consensus, or similarity

ii. the issues or controversies: in dispute or debate, areas of difference

ii. the omissions, gaps, or areas that are under-researched

3. Discuss the relationship between these parts

4. Examine how each contributes to the whole topic

5. Make conclusions about their significance or importance in the topic

What does ‘critical’ mean?

A critical analysis does not mean writing angry, rude or disrespectful comments, or  expressing your views in judgmental terms of black and white, good and bad, or right and wrong.

To be critical, or to critique, means to evaluate . Therefore, to write critically in an academic analysis means to:

• judge the quality, significance or worth of the theories, concepts, viewpoints, methodologies, and research results
• evaluate in a fair and balanced manner
• avoid extreme or emotional language

• strengths, advantages, benefits, gains, or improvements
• disadvantages, weaknesses, shortcomings, limitations, or drawbacks

How to critically analyse a theory, model or framework

The evaluative words used most often to refer to theory, model or framework are a sound theory or a strong theory.

The table below summarizes the criteria for judging the strengths and weaknesses of a theory:

• comprehensive
• empirically supported
• parsimonious

Evaluating a Theory, Model or Framework

The table below lists the criteria for the strengths and their corresponding weaknesses that are usually considered in a theory.

Critical analysis examples of theories

The following sentences are examples of the phrases used to explain strengths and weaknesses.

Smith’s (2005) theory appears up to date, practical and applicable across many divergent settings.

Brown’s (2010) theory, although parsimonious and logical, lacks a sufficient body of evidence to support its propositions and predictions

Little scientific evidence has been presented to support the premises of this theory.

One of the limitations with this theory is that it does not explain why…

A significant strength of this model is that it takes into account …

The propositions of this model appear unambiguous and logical.

A key problem with this framework is the conceptual inconsistency between ….

How to critically analyse a concept

The table below summarizes the criteria for judging the strengths and weaknesses of a concept:

• key variables identified
• clear and well-defined

Evaluating Concepts

Critical analysis examples of concepts

Many researchers have used the concept of control in different ways.

There is little consensus about what constitutes automaticity.

Putting forth a very general definition of motivation means that it is possible that any behaviour could be included.

The concept of global education lacks clarity, is imprecisely defined and is overly complex.

Some have questioned the usefulness of resilience as a concept because it has been used so often and in so many contexts.

Research suggests that the concept of preoperative fasting is an outdated clinical approach.

How to critically analyse arguments, viewpoints or ideas

The table below summarizes the criteria for judging the strengths and weaknesses of an argument, viewpoint or idea:

• reasons support the argument
• argument is substantiated by evidence
• evidence for the argument is relevant
• evidence for the argument is unbiased, sufficient and important
• evidence is reputable

Evaluating Arguments, Views or Ideas

Critical analysis examples of arguments, viewpoints or ideas

The validity of this argument is questionable as there is insufficient evidence to support it.

Many writers have challenged Jones’ claim on the grounds that …….

This argument fails to draw on the evidence of others in the field.

This explanation is incomplete because it does not explain why…

The key problem with this explanation is that ……


The existing accounts fail to resolve the contradiction between …

However, there is an inconsistency with this argument. The inconsistency lies in…

Although this argument has been proposed by some, it lacks justification.

However, the body of evidence showing that… contradicts this argument.

How to critically analyse a methodology

The table below provides the criteria for judging the strengths and weaknesses of methodology.

An evaluation of a methodology usually involves a critical analysis of its main sections:

design; sampling (participants); measurement tools and materials; procedure

• design tests the hypotheses or research questions
• method valid and reliable
• potential bias or measurement error, and confounding variables addressed
• method allows results to be generalized
• representative sampling of cohort and phenomena; sufficient response rate
• valid and reliable measurement tools
• valid and reliable procedure
• method clear and detailed to allow replication

Evaluating a Methodology

Critical analysis examples of a methodology

The unrepresentativeness of the sample makes these results misleading.

The presence of unmeasured variables in this study limits the interpretation of the results.

Other, unmeasured confounding variables may be influencing this association.

The interpretation of the data requires caution because the effect of confounding variables was not taken into account.

The insufficient control of several response biases in this study means the results are likely to be unreliable.

Although this correlational study shows association between the variables, it does not establish a causal relationship.

Taken together, the methodological shortcomings of this study suggest the need for serious caution in the meaningful interpretation of the study’s results.

How to critically analyse research results and conclusions

The table below provides the criteria for judging the strengths and weaknesses of research results and conclusions:

• appropriate choice and use of statistics
• correct interpretation of results
• all results explained
• alternative explanations considered
• significance of all results discussed
• consistency of results with previous research discussed
• results add to existing understanding or knowledge
• limitations discussed
• results clearly explained
• conclusions consistent with results

Evaluating the Results and Conclusions

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What is Critical Analysis?

Analysis is a word that is also often used when taking a critical approach to something. It could be that you look at some evidence and if you think it is good quality, you may choose to include that in your essay or writing to help support your argument. When you have analysed different sets of evidence you may  synthesize all the ideas gathered from multiple sources bringing together the relevant information into a different argument or idea. 

To evaluate something or someone, you think and consider it or them in order to make a judgment about it/them; this could be as simple as how good or bad they are. When you critically evaluate something or someone you consider how judgments vary from different perspectives and how some judgments are stronger than others. This often means creating an objective, reasoned argument for your overall case, based on the evaluation from different perspectives.

Taking a critical approach when you are studying involves constantly asking questions and keeping an open mind.

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How to write a critical analysis

Unlike the name implies a critical analysis does not necessarily mean that you are only exploring what is wrong with a piece of work. Instead, the purpose of this type of essay is to interact with and understand a text. Here’s what you need to know to create a well-written critical analysis essay.

What is a critical analysis?

A critical analysis examines and evaluates someone else’s work, such as a book, an essay, or an article. It requires two steps: a careful reading of the work and thoughtful analysis of the information presented in the work.

Although this may sound complicated, all you are doing in a critical essay is closely reading an author’s work and providing your opinion on how well the author accomplished their purpose.

Critical analyses are most frequently done in academic settings (such as a class assignment). Writing a critical analysis demonstrates that you are able to read a text and think deeply about it. However, critical thinking skills are vital outside of an educational context as well. You just don’t always have to demonstrate them in essay form.

How to outline and write a critical analysis essay

Writing a critical analysis essay involves two main chunks of work: reading the text you are going to write about and writing an analysis of that text. Both are equally important when writing a critical analysis essay.

Step one: Reading critically

The first step in writing a critical analysis is to carefully study the source you plan to analyze.

If you are writing for a class assignment, your professor may have already given you the topic to analyze in an article, short story, book, or other work. If so, you can focus your note-taking on that topic while reading.

Other times, you may have to develop your own topic to analyze within a piece of work. In this case, you should focus on a few key areas as you read:

• What is the author’s intended purpose for the work?
• What techniques and language does the author use to achieve this purpose?
• How does the author support the thesis?
• Who is the author writing for?
• Is the author effective at achieving the intended purpose?

Once you have carefully examined the source material, then you are ready to begin planning your critical analysis essay.

Step two: Writing the critical analysis essay

Taking time to organize your ideas before you begin writing can shorten the amount of time that you spend working on your critical analysis essay. As an added bonus, the quality of your essay will likely be higher if you have a plan before writing.

Here’s a rough outline of what should be in your essay. Of course, if your instructor gives you a sample essay or outline, refer to the sample first.

• Background Information

Critical Analysis

Here is some additional information on what needs to go into each section:

Background information

In the first paragraph of your essay, include background information on the material that you are critiquing. Include context that helps the reader understand the piece you are analyzing. Be sure to include the title of the piece, the author’s name, and information about when and where it was published.

“Success is counted sweetest” is a poem by Emily Dickinson published in 1864. Dickinson was not widely known as a poet during her lifetime, and this poem is one of the first published while she was alive.

After you have provided background information, state your thesis. The thesis should be your reaction to the work. It also lets your reader know what to expect from the rest of your essay. The points you make in the critical analysis should support the thesis.

Dickinson’s use of metaphor in the poem is unexpected but works well to convey the paradoxical theme that success is most valued by those who never experience success.

The next section should include a summary of the work that you are analyzing. Do not assume that the reader is familiar with the source material. Your summary should show that you understood the text, but it should not include the arguments that you will discuss later in the essay.

Dickinson introduces the theme of success in the first line of the poem. She begins by comparing success to nectar. Then, she uses the extended metaphor of a battle in order to demonstrate that the winner has less understanding of success than the loser.

The next paragraphs will contain your critical analysis. Use as many paragraphs as necessary to support your thesis.

Discuss the areas that you took notes on as you were reading. While a critical analysis should include your opinion, it needs to have evidence from the source material in order to be credible to readers. Be sure to use textual evidence to support your claims, and remember to explain your reasoning.

Dickinson’s comparison of success to nectar seems strange at first. However the first line “success is counted sweetest” brings to mind that this nectar could be bees searching for nectar to make honey. In this first stanza, Dickinson seems to imply that success requires work because bees are usually considered to be hard-working and industrious.

In the next two stanzas, Dickinson expands on the meaning of success. This time she uses the image of a victorious army and a dying man on the vanquished side. Now the idea of success is more than something you value because you have worked hard for it. Dickinson states that the dying man values success even more than the victors because he has given everything and still has not achieved success.

This last section is where you remind the readers of your thesis and make closing remarks to wrap up your essay. Avoid summarizing the main points of your critical analysis unless your essay is so long that readers might have forgotten parts of it.

In “Success is counted sweetest” Dickinson cleverly upends the reader’s usual thoughts about success through her unexpected use of metaphors. The poem may be short, but Dickinson conveys a serious theme in just a few carefully chosen words.

What type of language should be used in a critical analysis essay?

Because critical analysis papers are written in an academic setting, you should use formal language, which means:

• No contractions
• Avoid first-person pronouns (I, we, me)

Do not include phrases such as “in my opinion” or “I think”. In a critical analysis, the reader already assumes that the claims are your opinions.

Your instructor may have specific guidelines for the writing style to use. If the instructor assigns a style guide for the class, be sure to use the guidelines in the style manual in your writing.

Additional t ips for writing a critical analysis essay

To conclude this article, here are some additional tips for writing a critical analysis essay:

• Give yourself plenty of time to read the source material. If you have time, read through the text once to get the gist and a second time to take notes.
• Outlining your essay can help you save time. You don’t have to stick exactly to the outline though. You can change it as needed once you start writing.
• Spend the bulk of your writing time working on your thesis and critical analysis. The introduction and conclusion are important, but these sections cannot make up for a weak thesis or critical analysis.
• Give yourself time between your first draft and your second draft. A day or two away from your essay can make it easier to see what you need to improve.

Frequently Asked Questions about critical analyses

In the introduction of a critical analysis essay, you should give background information on the source that you are analyzing. Be sure to include the author’s name and the title of the work. Your thesis normally goes in the introduction as well.

A critical analysis has four main parts.

• Introduction

The focus of a critical analysis should be on the work being analyzed rather than on you. This means that you should avoid using first person unless your instructor tells you to do otherwise. Most formal academic writing is written in third person.

How many paragraphs your critical analysis should have depends on the assignment and will most likely be determined by your instructor. However, in general, your critical analysis paper should have three to six paragraphs, unless otherwise stated.

Your critical analysis ends with your conclusion. You should restate the thesis and make closing remarks, but avoid summarizing the main points of your critical analysis unless your essay is so long that readers might have forgotten parts of it.

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A. Introduction - The introduction moves from general to specific. This is where you are:

open with a short orientation (introduce the topic area(s) with a general, broad opening sentence (or two);

answer the question with a thesis statement; and 

provide a summary or 'road map' of your essay (keep it brief, but mention all the main ideas).

B. Body - The body of the essay consists of paragraphs. Each is a building block in the construction of your argument. The body is where you:

• answer the question by developing a discussion.
• show your knowledge and grasp of material you have read.
• offer exposition and evidence to develop your argument.
• use relevant examples and authoritative quotes.

If your question has more than one part, structure the body into section that deal with each part of the question.

3. Conclusion - The conclusion moves from specific to general. It should:

• restate your answer to the question;
• re-summarize the main points and;
• include a final, broad statement (about possible implication, future directions for research, to qualify the conclusion, etc.)

However, NEVER introduce new information or idea in the conclusion - its purpose is to round off your essay by summing up.

Because each section of a critical analysis builds on the section before it and supports the section to follow, the structure of this genre is usually fairly standard.  The introduction and summary set the stage and the analysis communicates the critic's views which are then summarized and restated in the conclusion. 

-- Text taken from The University of New South Wales. "Essay Writing: the Basics." Retrieved 17 August, 2012 from http://www.lc.unsw.edu.au/onlib/essay3.html.

Writing critically requires an author to engage on an analytical level with a written work, whether it is an article, a book, or a portion of a book.  In other words, to write critically is to present and explain an idea that one has had about someone else’s written work.  A critical analysis may  include supportive references like you would find in a research paper, but will generally have a much stronger emphasis on its author’s interpretation than you would find in an objective research paper. 

Introduction – will include general information about the work being analyzed and a statement of the critical writer’s viewpoint or evaluation of the larger work. 

Summarization – the thematic/background information that a reader will need to understand the critic’s analysis and the key point from the original work that is being addressed. 

Critical Analysis – a review of the original author’s argument within the critical context of the analysis, with supporting evidence from the original text.

Conclusion – a restatement of the critic’s thesis and the key points of the analysis.

Although the page linked below focuses on writing critically, it also features information on reading critically, an invaluable skill in identfying different types of academic writing. 

• Writing a Critical Analysis (Critique) A guide to reading and writing critically. Document prepared by the Academic Skills Center of the Shoreline Community College.
• << Previous: Understanding Scholarly Text
• Next: Literature Review >>
• Last Updated: Jul 10, 2024 1:37 PM
• URL: https://bowiestate.libguides.com/academicwriting

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How to Write a Critical Analysis

Last Updated: August 3, 2024 Fact Checked

This article was co-authored by Jake Adams . Jake Adams is an academic tutor and the owner of Simplifi EDU, a Santa Monica, California based online tutoring business offering learning resources and online tutors for academic subjects K-College, SAT & ACT prep, and college admissions applications. With over 14 years of professional tutoring experience, Jake is dedicated to providing his clients the very best online tutoring experience and access to a network of excellent undergraduate and graduate-level tutors from top colleges all over the nation. Jake holds a BS in International Business and Marketing from Pepperdine University. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 1,467,847 times.

How to Write a Critical Analysis Essay

When writing a critical analysis, take a moment to reflect on the source material and the author's main ideas to come up with your thesis statement . Be sure to write down your own responses to the points the author was making, and respond to each in a paragraph.

Reading Critically

• You may need to read the text more than once, especially if it is dense or complicated.

• It might be easier to find the thesis in an academic article than in a creative work, movie, or painting. If you’re critiquing a work of fiction or creative nonfiction, in either written form or film form, identify one of the main themes of the story instead. For a painting, identify what the painter may be trying to get across with their work of art.

• In an academic article, identify the topic sentences of each paragraph or section.
• For works of fiction or paintings, look for scenes and imagery that seem to support the thesis.

• If the text was a film or work of art, write a brief 1 to 2 paragraph synopsis of the film or description of the painting.

Analyzing the Text

• For example, if the text made you angry, what was it about the text that made you angry?
• If you found yourself laughing at the text, what about it was laughable?

• For example, if the author is an outspoken proponent of healthcare reform, then this would likely explain any bias in an argumentative essay on universal healthcare.
• The author’s background may also include credentials, such as a doctorate or medical degree. This is part of the ethos of the text since having credentials may help to bolster an author’s credibility.

• For example, if the author’s explanation of greenhouse gasses is long, full of jargon, and confusing, then you might focus on this as part of your critique.

Tip : Keep in mind that you can also have a positive critique of the text if you think it was effective. For example, if the author’s description of greenhouse gasses was written in simple, easy to understand language, you might note this as part of your analysis.

• For example, if the author has used a website that is known for being biased in favor of their argument, then this would weaken their position. However, if the author used sources that were fair and unbiased, then this would strengthen their position.
• Not all texts will incorporate evidence. For example, if you’re doing a critical analysis of a film or work of art, it probably won’t include secondary sources.

Drafting the Analysis

• For example, in the first sentence of your essay, provide the basic information on the text. Then, describe text’s argument in about 1 to 2 sentences.

• For example, you might write, “Darcy Gibbons’ essay on the environmental impact of consumerism provides a thorough and valuable overview of the problem.”
• Or, you might write, “Shannon Duperty’s mixed media painting, “Dove on Heroin,” falls short of its attempt at edgy political commentary.”

• Keep in mind that the summary paragraph is the only place in your essay where you may include summary. The rest of the essay should provide analysis of the essay.

• Organization. How did the author organize their argument? Was this a good strategy or not? Why?
• Style. What style did the author use to get their point across? How did the style hurt or help their argument?
• Effectiveness. In general, was the text effective at getting its point across? Why or why not?
• Fairness or bias. Did the author demonstrate a fair or biased perspective on their topic? How could you tell?
• Appeal to a specific audience. Did the author seem to have a specific audience in mind? If so, who were they and how well did the author meet their needs?

Tip : Check with your teacher for details on how to cite sources. They may want you to use a specific citation style, such as MLA, Chicago, or APA.

• For example, you might conclude by talking about how the author made a good effort in some regards, but ultimately their argument was ineffective, and then explain why in 2 to 3 sentences.

Sample Analyses

Expert Q&A

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• ↑ Jake Adams. Academic Tutor & Test Prep Specialist. Expert Interview. 20 May 2020.
• ↑ https://www.tru.ca/__shared/assets/Critical_Analysis_Template30565.pdf
• ↑ https://depts.washington.edu/pswrite/Handouts/CriticalAnalysisPapers.pdf
• ↑ https://content.nroc.org/DevelopmentalEnglish/unit09/Foundations/creating-a-thesis-and-an-outline-for-a-critical-analysis-essay.html
• ↑ https://writingcenter.fas.harvard.edu/pages/ending-essay-conclusions

About This Article

To write a critical analysis, first introduce the work you’re analyzing, including information about the work’s author and their purpose in writing it. As part of the introduction, briefly state your overall evaluation of the work. Then, summarize the author’s key points before you use the bulk of your paper to provide your full critique of the work. Try to put each point you want to make in a separate paragraph for clarity. Finally, write a concluding paragraph that restates your opinion of the work and offers any suggestions for improvement. To learn how to balance positive and negative comments in your critical analysis, keep reading! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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Finding and Evaluating Sources (Critical Analysis)

• Traditional Sources
• Electronic Library Resources
• Internet Sources
• Synthesizing Information from Sources
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Related Pages

• The Writing Process
• Proving the Thesis - General Principles
• Proving the Thesis - Logic
• Proving the Thesis - Logical Fallacies and Appeals

Fi nding Sources

Identify the research question.

Before you can start your research, you must first identify the research question. Your instructor will either assign a specific research question or a research topic.

If you are assigned a question or can select from a list of questions, it is easy to identify your question. You can start with  focused  research looking for sources that would help to answer the question. Don’t select a source by the title. It is critical that you read through possible sources to see if they will help with the question. For example, if your question asks whether pesticides in foods are harmful, don’t just select any source that has to do with pesticides. There are pesticide issues with the environment, for example, that have nothing to do with this question.

If you are assigned a topic, you will start with exploratory research. Exploratory research is where you explore various aspects of the topic and after learning about it, you can focus on a particular question of your choice. This is called narrowing the topic. Then, your research becomes focused research on that question.

Either way, before doing research for a research paper, you must identify a research question. The research question is critical since all of the content of the research essay follows from the question.

Primary and Secondary Sources

A primary source is where the author is presenting his or her own information either based on professional knowledge or research. This is the best type of source to use when conducting research.

A secondary source is where the author is reporting information presented from other people. This means that there could be a misunderstanding or misinterpretation of the information, and it is not considered as reliable as primary sources.

Traditional Sources, Electronic Library Resources, and Internet Sources

Traditional sources are tangible sources as existed before the Internet: books, newspapers, magazines, film, interviews,  works of art, and so on. Then with the Internet, a new source of information has become available in the website. In addition, many traditional sources have been collected and made available online. Electronic Library Resources (available to PHSC students through a link in Canvas) provides many originally hard-print sources electronically.

Evaluating Sources

General considerations.

First, it's important to make sure you understand your assignment as to how many sources are required and any restrictions on where they may be from. There might be a requirement to use at least one type of specific source such as a book, article from a journal, magazine, newspaper, or page from a website.

Don't simply select a source by the title. You must review to be sure the content will help answer the question. For example, if your research question or topic is about how the moon affects earth's tides, the source must have information on that specific area. Some articles on the moon might talk about space exploration or its geography or its climate, none of which will help with a paper about tides.

Once you have screened for appropriateness, the content should be reviewed for reading level. If the paper is too technical, it may not be understandable enough to work with. You should be able to understand it and make notes on the main points.

Then, a closer look is needed.  

Critical Analysis

The term critical doesn't always mean finding the problems or being judgmental.  A movie critic, for example, reviews a movie for strengths and weaknesses. We have to be critics ourselves when we review our own writing and when we review information for our papers. We shouldn't just believe everything we see, hear, or read. We have to be particularly careful when that information comes from a purportedly legitimate source. We generally think that documentaries have true and accurate information, but sometimes they don't present all viewpoints or are biased towards one.

Here are a number of considerations:

Credibility

Is the source believable? Is the source created by a person or organization that knows about the subject matter? Determining the credibility of online sources can be a challenge since it is not always clear who created or published what we are looking at. If a person is named as the author, is that person truly a professional in the field?

Ask yourself "does the source include the truth?" Is the information based on the evidence provided?

Is the content a personal evaluation of the author and not necessarily based on specific, accurate, or credible evidence?

Is there support such as examples, statistics, descriptions, comparisons, and illustrations? Evidence is also called proof, support, or supporting evidence. 

Bias and Slanted Language

Is there a preference for one side over the other? Is there slanted language, which is language shows a bias or preference for one position, over another?

What is the tone? Words can be used to create a feeling such as a happy, sarcastic or angry tone. Tone can be used to persuade.

The generalization that a person or situation in a certain category has certain attributes, such as because a person is old, he or she is a bad driver. Stereotyping is faulty logic.

Preconceived Ideas

Ideas that we already have; in doing research, it is very important to look for sources that present all perspectives on a question, not just those that prove what we think we know.

Evidence should be evaluated for logic; does the evidence have any logical fallacies?

Valid Argument

Is the argument valid? A valid argument is based on logical analysis of information, but if the information is not accurate, the conclusion is not necessarily true.

Sound Argument

An argument based on a syllogism that has accurate major and minor premises. An argument can be sound, but it is not necessarily true since the information on which it is based may not be accurate.

Toulmin Logic

A form of logic that uses claim, grounds, and warrant for analyzing the logic of an argument.

Logical Fallacies (flawed logic)

Faculty logic; includes sweeping generalization, argument to the person (ad hominem), non sequitur, either/or fallacy, begging the question, and bandwagon argument.

Use of language to sway the reader by appealing to emotions, logic, or ethics.

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Critical Analysis in Composition

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In composition , critical analysis is a careful examination and evaluation of a text , image, or other work or performance.

Performing a critical analysis does not necessarily involve finding fault with a work. On the contrary, a thoughtful critical analysis may help us understand the interaction of the particular elements that contribute to a work's power and effectiveness. For this reason, critical analysis is a central component of academic training; the skill of critical analysis is most often thought of in the context of analyzing a work of art or literature, but the same techniques are useful to build an understanding of texts and resources in any discipline.

In this context, the word "critical" carries a different connotation than in vernacular, everyday speech. "Critical" here does not simply mean pointing out a work's flaws or arguing why it is objectionable by some standard. Instead, it points towards a close reading of that work to gather meaning, as well as to evaluate its merits. The evaluation is not the sole point of critical analysis, which is where it differs from the colloquial meaning of "criticize."

Examples of Critical Essays

• "Jack and Gill: A Mock Criticism" by Joseph Dennie
• "Miss Brill's Fragile Fantasy": A Critical Essay About Katherine Mansfield's Short Story "Miss Brill" and "Poor, Pitiful Miss Brill"
• "On the Knocking at the Gate in Macbeth " by Thomas De Quincey
• A Rhetorical Analysis of Claude McKay's "Africa"
• A Rhetorical Analysis of E B. White's Essay "The Ring of Time"
• A Rhetorical Analysis of U2's "Sunday Bloody Sunday"
• "Saloonio: A Study in Shakespearean Criticism" by Stephen Leacock
• Writing About Fiction: A Critical Essay on Hemingway's Novel The Sun Also Rises

Quotes About Critical Analysis

• " [C]ritical analysis involves breaking down an idea or a statement, such as a claim , and subjecting it to critical thinking in order to test its validity." (Eric Henderson, The Active Reader: Strategies for Academic Reading and Writing . Oxford University Press, 2007)​
• "To write an effective critical analysis, you need to understand the difference between analysis and summary . . . . [A] critical analysis looks beyond the surface of a text—it does far more than summarize a work. A critical analysis isn't simply dashing off a few words about the work in general." ( Why Write?: A Guide to BYU Honors Intensive Writing . Brigham Young University, 2006)
• "Although the main purpose of a critical analysis is not to persuade , you do have the responsibility of organizing a discussion that convinces readers that your analysis is astute." (Robert Frew et al., Survival: A Sequential Program for College Writing . Peek, 1985)

Critical Thinking and Research

"[I]n response to the challenge that a lack of time precludes good, critical analysis , we say that good, critical analysis saves time. How? By helping you be more efficient in terms of the information you gather. Starting from the premise that no practitioner can claim to collect all the available information, there must always be a degree of selection that takes place. By thinking analytically from the outset, you will be in a better position to 'know' which information to collect, which information is likely to be more or less significant and to be clearer about what questions you are seeking to answer." (David Wilkins and Godfred Boahen, Critical Analysis Skills For Social Workers . McGraw-Hill, 2013)

How to Read Text Critically

 "Being critical in academic enquiry means: - adopting an attitude of skepticism or reasoned doubt towards your own and others' knowledge in the field of enquiry . . . - habitually questioning the quality of your own and others' specific claims to knowledge about the field and the means by which these claims were generated; - scrutinizing claims to see how far they are convincing . . .; - respecting others as people at all times. Challenging others' work is acceptable, but challenging their worth as people is not; - being open-minded , willing to be convinced if scrutiny removes your doubts, or to remain unconvinced if it does not; - being constructive by putting your attitude of skepticism and your open-mindedness to work in attempting to achieve a worthwhile goal." (Mike Wallace and Louise Poulson, "Becoming a Critical Consumer of the Literature." Learning to Read Critically in Teaching and Learning , ed. by Louise Poulson and Mike Wallace. SAGE, 2004)

Critically Analyzing Persuasive Ads

"[I]n my first-year composition class, I teach a four-week advertisement analysis project as a way to not only heighten students' awareness of the advertisements they encounter and create on a daily basis but also to encourage students to actively engage in a discussion about critical analysis by examining rhetorical appeals in persuasive contexts. In other words, I ask students to pay closer attention to a part of the pop culture in which they live. " . . . Taken as a whole, my ad analysis project calls for several writing opportunities in which students write essays , responses, reflections, and peer assessments . In the four weeks, we spend a great deal of time discussing the images and texts that make up advertisements, and through writing about them, students are able to heighten their awareness of the cultural 'norms' and stereotypes which are represented and reproduced in this type of communication ." (Allison Smith, Trixie Smith, and Rebecca Bobbitt, Teaching in the Pop Culture Zone: Using Popular Culture in the Composition Classroom . Wadsworth Cengage, 2009)

Critically Analyzing Video Games

 "When dealing with a game's significance, one could analyze the themes of the game be they social, cultural, or even political messages. Most current reviews seem to focus on a game's success: why it is successful, how successful it will be, etc. Although this is an important aspect of what defines the game, it is not critical analysis . Furthermore, the reviewer should dedicate some to time to speaking about what the game has to contribute to its genre (Is it doing something new? Does it present the player with unusual choices? Can it set a new standard for what games of this type should include?)." (Mark Mullen, "On Second Thought . . ." Rhetoric/Composition/Play Through Video Games: Reshaping Theory and Practice , ed. by Richard Colby, Matthew S.S. Johnson, and Rebekah Shultz Colby. Palgrave Macmillan, 2013)

Critical Thinking and Visuals

 "The current critical turn in rhetoric and composition studies underscores the role of the visual, especially the image artifact, in agency. For instance, in Just Advocacy? a collection of essays focusing on the representation of women and children in international advocacy efforts, coeditors Wendy S. Hesford and Wendy Kozol open their introduction with a critical analysis of a documentary based on a picture: the photograph of an unknown Afghan girl taken by Steve McCurry and gracing the cover of National Geographic in 1985. Through an examination of the ideology of the photo's appeal as well as the 'politics of pity' circulating through the documentary, Hesford and Kozol emphasize the power of individual images to shape perceptions, beliefs, actions, and agency." (Kristie S. Fleckenstein, Vision, Rhetoric, and Social Action in the Composition Classroom . Southern Illinois University Press, 2010)

Related Concepts

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• Evaluation Essay
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• Definition and Examples of Explication (Analysis)
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What is Critical Research? | Definition, Examples & Methods

Introduction

What does critical research mean, what is an example of critical qualitative research, approaches to critical theory.

Critical research was created out of a need to examine power , inequities, and the resulting societal implications on the status quo in society. It is a necessary departure from traditional scientific research in that it looks beyond what is directly observable to analyze the social world and develop social theory from novel perspectives to address previous injustices. In this article, we'll look at what critical theory entails for qualitative research , as well as the different strands that make up critical research.

In specific terms, critical research examines the nature of power dynamics influencing the social world. More broadly, this has implications for understanding inequality and disparity across cleavages of race, gender, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and economic class, among other differences in identity.

While there are many different strands to critical research, there are a number of common characteristics that are shared by scholars of critical theory:

• Contextualization : Traditional research assumes a singular, almost absolutist approach to knowledge. In contrast, critical theory challenges the positivist outlook on scientific research and assumes a more sociocultural outlook to the social world. In adopting a more contextualized approach to any particular social phenomenon, scholars look to making propositions specific to different contexts rather than defining grand, unifying theories that explain socially constructed concepts regardless of individual or cultural circumstances.
• Subjectivity : Unlike more positivist approaches to research, critical research presupposes a lack of an ability to directly observe physical reality. Moreover, a researcher's perception is often confounded by culturally-reinforced presumptions such as stereotypes and other biases that privilege those in power. The possibility that the social world can be subjectively construed directly challenges assumptions of a positivist understanding of social phenomena. Instead, critical research encourages scholars and laypeople alike to consider the world from different points of view in order to identify problems and inequities that are otherwise invisible within traditional worldviews.
• Social change : Critical research is seldom interested in generating insights purely out of intellectual curiosity. Critical scholars tend to adopt a philosophy of social justice where research is aimed at benefiting marginalized or oppressed populations who lack the same opportunities and benefits that are otherwise granted to those in mainstream society. In this respect, research and analysis within a critical paradigm are merely preliminary steps in a process that appeals to institutions, stakeholders, and social activists to draw on actionable insights from the research and make tangible proposals for enacting change.
• Transformation : Similar to the imperative of social change, transformation deals with fundamentally altering contemporary paradigms. However, this aspect to critical research is more concerned with problematizing traditional perspectives of the social world and the phenomena within it, both from a layperson's point of view and from the view of traditional academic institutions that perpetuate mainstream scientific inquiry. Rather than simply acknowledge the subjective nature of the social world, critical research calls for fundamentally transforming perceptions and attitudes in a manner that views marginalized populations more equitably.

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One of the more famous studies to produce a critical analysis is the doll test first devised by Mamie Clark, then conducted with husband Kenneth Clark starting in the 1940s and replicated in later years. In the doll test, children were asked how they felt about dolls that were put in front of them. The children preferred to play with the dolls that looked white rather than the dolls that looked black, and had more positive views about the white-looking dolls. Children who were black also tended to share the same perception of black-looking dolls, which suggested that their surrounding environment - particularly the school system but more broadly the culture around them - profoundly impacted them by reinforcing negative stereotypes about racial minorities.

Critical theorists argue that such stereotypes, especially when perpetuated by institutions like education and mass media, further contribute to economic and social disparities when children of color experience exposure to negative attitudes about race and ethnicity. This novel research provided fundamental insights that led to the following real-world changes:

• Desegregation of schools : This research took place in the era where public schools in the United States were separated by race. The findings from the doll test helped make the case that institutionalized discrimination had effects on the educational and emotional development of children of color, ultimately leading to judicial rulings that contributed to school desegregation.
• Educational reforms : Subsequent discussions of racial stereotypes have helped to further promote initiatives for racial equity and equality in public education. While still undoubtedly controversial to this day, efforts to promote diversity training for teachers, multicultural curriculum development, and other policies to address racial disparities can be partly attributed to the findings of the doll test.
• Anti-discrimination policies : The findings from the doll test form a scientific basis for anti-discrimination frameworks for public policy, workplace organization, and other formal institutions. Where racism and equality might otherwise be abstract, potentially vague concepts, a scientific framework regarding discriminatory attitudes provides a language for discussing practical implications addressing racism.

Here are some of the various forms of critical research. Keep in mind that these approaches are not exclusive to each other, though they have their own distinct focus to shed light on specific issues relevant to the social sciences, nor are they exhaustive of the entire array of critical theory.

• Critical discourse analysis : Researchers who critically analyze communication look at how people exercise power through speech to manipulate or control others. This analytical method connects theories from linguistics, sociology, and anthropology to look at the power of language in constructing social reality.
• Critical ethnography : Ethnography is an all-encompassing approach to research aimed at capturing relationships, practices, and behaviors within any given context. Beyond a comprehensive examination of cultures, critical ethnographers use the resulting findings to advocate for social change.
• Critical methodology : Critical scholars may also look at how methods are used to construct scholars' epistemology about scientific knowledge and question approaches to science that emphasize objectivity to a fault. Critical methodology advocates for reflexivity and participatory research as a departure from traditional research methods.
• Critical race theory : Scholars engaged in critical race theory look at longstanding racial disparities to examine how institutions and power structures perpetuate racism and how people of color can challenge those structures from legal and advocacy standpoints in order to foster equity and equality.
• Decolonizing research : Focusing on the critique that most established research comes from a Western-based perspective, research on decolonization seeks to deconstruct established philosophical paradigms that disadvantage perspectives of indigenous populations, cultures from the Global South, and other communities that have long been ignored by mainstream scholarship.

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GEOG 410 - Research Methodology

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Introduction

Critical analysis may or may not be a component of this particular course's evaluation, but it is an important component of any research process. 

Inquiry-based learning

Critical thinking is at the heart of scientific inquiry. A good scientist is one who never stops asking why things happen, or how things happen. Science makes progress when we find data that contradicts our current scientific ideas.

Scientific inquiry includes three key areas:

         1.  Identifying a problem and asking questions about that problem          2.  Selecting information to respond to the problem and evaluating it          3.  Drawing conclusions from the evidence

Hart, T. (2018, 18 October) Teaching critical thinking in science - the key to students' future success.  Brighter Thinking Blog . https://www.cambridge.org/us/education/blog/2018/10/18/teaching-critical-thinking-science-key-students-future-success/

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Links and tips on how to conduct a critical analysis

• Critical Thinking & the Scientific Method "Critical thinking involves constantly asking questions, examining information and evidence, and figuring out conclusions. All of these actions are the basis for the scientific method, which then gives good evidence on which to base conclusions."
• How to Write a Critical Analysis (with examples and tips) "Critical analysis is the detailed examination and evaluation of another person's ideas or work. It is subjective writing as it expresses your interpretation and analysis of the work by breaking down and studying its parts... Good critical analysis evaluates the ideas or work in a balanced way that highlights its positive and negative qualities."
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33 Critical Analysis Examples

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Critical analysis refers to the ability to examine something in detail in preparation to make an evaluation or judgment.

It will involve exploring underlying assumptions, theories, arguments, evidence, logic, biases, contextual factors, and so forth, that could help shed more light on the topic.

In essay writing, a critical analysis essay will involve using a range of analytical skills to explore a topic, such as:

• Evaluating sources
• Exploring strengths and weaknesses
• Exploring pros and cons
• Questioning and challenging ideas
• Comparing and contrasting ideas

If you’re writing an essay, you could also watch my guide on how to write a critical analysis essay below, and don’t forget to grab your worksheets and critical analysis essay plan to save yourself a ton of time:

Grab your Critical Analysis Worksheets and Essay Plan Here

Critical Analysis Examples

1. exploring strengths and weaknesses.

Perhaps the first and most straightforward method of critical analysis is to create a simple strengths-vs-weaknesses comparison.

Most things have both strengths and weaknesses – you could even do this for yourself! What are your strengths? Maybe you’re kind or good at sports or good with children. What are your weaknesses? Maybe you struggle with essay writing or concentration.

If you can analyze your own strengths and weaknesses, then you understand the concept. What might be the strengths and weaknesses of the idea you’re hoping to critically analyze?

Strengths and weaknesses could include:

• Does it seem highly ethical (strength) or could it be more ethical (weakness)?
• Is it clearly explained (strength) or complex and lacking logical structure (weakness)?
• Does it seem balanced (strength) or biased (weakness)?

You may consider using a SWOT analysis for this step. I’ve provided a SWOT analysis guide here .

2. Evaluating Sources

Evaluation of sources refers to looking at whether a source is reliable or unreliable.

This is a fundamental media literacy skill .

Steps involved in evaluating sources include asking questions like:

• Who is the author and are they trustworthy?
• Is this written by an expert?
• Is this sufficiently reviewed by an expert?
• Is this published in a trustworthy publication?
• Are the arguments sound or common sense?

For more on this topic, I’d recommend my detailed guide on digital literacy .

3. Identifying Similarities

Identifying similarities encompasses the act of drawing parallels between elements, concepts, or issues.

In critical analysis, it’s common to compare a given article, idea, or theory to another one. In this way, you can identify areas in which they are alike.

Determining similarities can be a challenge, but it’s an intellectual exercise that fosters a greater understanding of the aspects you’re studying. This step often calls for a careful reading and note-taking to highlight matching information, points of view, arguments or even suggested solutions.

Similarities might be found in:

• The key themes or topics discussed
• The theories or principles used
• The demographic the work is written for or about
• The solutions or recommendations proposed

Remember, the intention of identifying similarities is not to prove one right or wrong. Rather, it sets the foundation for understanding the larger context of your analysis, anchoring your arguments in a broader spectrum of ideas.

Your critical analysis strengthens when you can see the patterns and connections across different works or topics. It fosters a more comprehensive, insightful perspective. And importantly, it is a stepping stone in your analysis journey towards evaluating differences, which is equally imperative and insightful in any analysis.

4. Identifying Differences

Identifying differences involves pinpointing the unique aspects, viewpoints or solutions introduced by the text you’re analyzing. How does it stand out as different from other texts?

To do this, you’ll need to compare this text to another text.

Differences can be revealed in:

• The potential applications of each idea
• The time, context, or place in which the elements were conceived or implemented
• The available evidence each element uses to support its ideas
• The perspectives of authors
• The conclusions reached

Identifying differences helps to reveal the multiplicity of perspectives and approaches on a given topic. Doing so provides a more in-depth, nuanced understanding of the field or issue you’re exploring.

This deeper understanding can greatly enhance your overall critique of the text you’re looking at. As such, learning to identify both similarities and differences is an essential skill for effective critical analysis.

My favorite tool for identifying similarities and differences is a Venn Diagram:

To use a venn diagram, title each circle for two different texts. Then, place similarities in the overlapping area of the circles, while unique characteristics (differences) of each text in the non-overlapping parts.

6. Identifying Oversights

Identifying oversights entails pointing out what the author missed, overlooked, or neglected in their work.

Almost every written work, no matter the expertise or meticulousness of the author, contains oversights. These omissions can be absent-minded mistakes or gaps in the argument, stemming from a lack of knowledge, foresight, or attentiveness.

Such gaps can be found in:

• Missed opportunities to counter or address opposing views
• Failure to consider certain relevant aspects or perspectives
• Incomplete or insufficient data that leaves the argument weak
• Failing to address potential criticism or counter-arguments

By shining a light on these weaknesses, you increase the depth and breadth of your critical analysis. It helps you to estimate the full worth of the text, understand its limitations, and contextualize it within the broader landscape of related work. Ultimately, noticing these oversights helps to make your analysis more balanced and considerate of the full complexity of the topic at hand.

You may notice here that identifying oversights requires you to already have a broad understanding and knowledge of the topic in the first place – so, study up!

7. Fact Checking

Fact-checking refers to the process of meticulously verifying the truth and accuracy of the data, statements, or claims put forward in a text.

Fact-checking serves as the bulwark against misinformation, bias, and unsubstantiated claims. It demands thorough research, resourcefulness, and a keen eye for detail.

Fact-checking goes beyond surface-level assertions:

• Examining the validity of the data given
• Cross-referencing information with other reliable sources
• Scrutinizing references, citations, and sources utilized in the article
• Distinguishing between opinion and objectively verifiable truths
• Checking for outdated, biased, or unbalanced information

If you identify factual errors, it’s vital to highlight them when critically analyzing the text. But remember, you could also (after careful scrutiny) also highlight that the text appears to be factually correct – that, too, is critical analysis.

8. Exploring Counterexamples

Exploring counterexamples involves searching and presenting instances or cases which contradict the arguments or conclusions presented in a text.

Counterexamples are an effective way to challenge the generalizations, assumptions or conclusions made in an article or theory. They can reveal weaknesses or oversights in the logic or validity of the author’s perspective.

Considerations in counterexample analysis are:

• Identifying generalizations made in the text
• Seeking examples in academic literature or real-world instances that contradict these generalizations
• Assessing the impact of these counterexamples on the validity of the text’s argument or conclusion

Exploring counterexamples enriches your critical analysis by injecting an extra layer of scrutiny, and even doubt, in the text.

By presenting counterexamples, you not only test the resilience and validity of the text but also open up new avenues of discussion and investigation that can further your understanding of the topic.

See Also: Counterargument Examples

9. Assessing Methodologies

Assessing methodologies entails examining the techniques, tools, or procedures employed by the author to collect, analyze and present their information.

The accuracy and validity of a text’s conclusions often depend on the credibility and appropriateness of the methodologies used.

Aspects to inspect include:

• The appropriateness of the research method for the research question
• The adequacy of the sample size
• The validity and reliability of data collection instruments
• The application of statistical tests and evaluations
• The implementation of controls to prevent bias or mitigate its impact

One strategy you could implement here is to consider a range of other methodologies the author could have used. If the author conducted interviews, consider questioning why they didn’t use broad surveys that could have presented more quantitative findings. If they only interviewed people with one perspective, consider questioning why they didn’t interview a wider variety of people, etc.

See Also: A List of Research Methodologies

10. Exploring Alternative Explanations

Exploring alternative explanations refers to the practice of proposing differing or opposing ideas to those put forward in the text.

An underlying assumption in any analysis is that there may be multiple valid perspectives on a single topic. The text you’re analyzing might provide one perspective, but your job is to bring into the light other reasonable explanations or interpretations.

Cultivating alternative explanations often involves:

• Formulating hypotheses or theories that differ from those presented in the text
• Referring to other established ideas or models that offer a differing viewpoint
• Suggesting a new or unique angle to interpret the data or phenomenon discussed in the text

Searching for alternative explanations challenges the authority of a singular narrative or perspective, fostering an environment ripe for intellectual discourse and critical thinking . It nudges you to examine the topic from multiple angles, enhancing your understanding and appreciation of the complexity inherent in the field.

A Full List of Critical Analysis Skills

• Exploring Strengths and Weaknesses
• Evaluating Sources
• Identifying Similarities
• Identifying Differences
• Identifying Biases
• Hypothesis Testing
• Fact-Checking
• Exploring Counterexamples
• Assessing Methodologies
• Exploring Alternative Explanations
• Pointing Out Contradictions
• Challenging the Significance
• Cause-And-Effect Analysis
• Assessing Generalizability
• Highlighting Inconsistencies
• Reductio ad Absurdum
• Comparing to Expert Testimony
• Comparing to Precedent
• Reframing the Argument
• Pointing Out Fallacies
• Questioning the Ethics
• Clarifying Definitions
• Challenging Assumptions
• Exposing Oversimplifications
• Highlighting Missing Information
• Demonstrating Irrelevance
• Assessing Effectiveness
• Assessing Trustworthiness
• Recognizing Patterns
• Differentiating Facts from Opinions
• Analyzing Perspectives
• Prioritization
• Making Predictions
• Conducting a SWOT Analysis
• PESTLE Analysis
• Asking the Five Whys
• Correlating Data Points
• Finding Anomalies Or Outliers
• Comparing to Expert Literature
• Drawing Inferences
• Assessing Validity & Reliability

Analysis and Bloom’s Taxonomy

Benjamin Bloom placed analysis as the third-highest form of thinking on his ladder of cognitive skills called Bloom’s Taxonomy .

This taxonomy starts with the lowest levels of thinking – remembering and understanding. The further we go up the ladder, the more we reach higher-order thinking skills that demonstrate depth of understanding and knowledge, as outlined below:

Here’s a full outline of the taxonomy in a table format:

• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 25 Number Games for Kids (Free and Easy)
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 25 Word Games for Kids (Free and Easy)
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• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 50 Incentives to Give to Students

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THANK YOU, THANK YOU, THANK YOU! – I cannot even being to explain how hard it has been to find a simple but in-depth understanding of what ‘Critical Analysis’ is. I have looked at over 10 different pages and went down so many rabbit holes but this is brilliant! I only skimmed through the article but it was already promising, I then went back and read it more in-depth, it just all clicked into place. So thank you again!

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How to Critically Analyse

When given assignments, students often panic when they read the words ‘critically analyse’, because they are unsure what this means. Our aim is to clarify this and give you some tips on how to critically analyse to achieve the best grades.

Defining critical analysis

The term critical analysis refers to the detailed examination and evaluation of other people’s ideas, theories, and studies. The aim is to highlight both positive and negative facets of the work, using a critical thinking approach. In other words, being sufficiently intellectually disciplined to actively conceptualise, apply, analyse, synthesise, and evaluate information to arrive at a reasoned conclusion. It is an important skill in both academia and in professional working environments, so it is vital that students learn how to undertake critical analysis effectively.

How to critically analyse

There are some key skills that need to be developed to ensure that you are able to critically analyse in your essays, reports, and dissertations. These include:

Observation : Being able to identify and predict opportunities, problems, solutions, and themes.

Analysis :  The ability to gather, refine, understand, and interpret data, both qualitative and quantitative.

Inference: The ability to draw accurate conclusions from datasets using both analysis and personal experience and understanding.

Communication :  The ability to share ideas gathered from analysis and inference with others so that they understand your perspective.

Problem Solving: The ability to identify an issue and come up with solutions through analysis and communication.

Developing these skills and applying them to critical analysis work will ensure that your works are well-structured, your arguments are well-informed, and your analysis is beyond reproach, making you an effective critical thinker.  The next stage, once you have developed these skills is to understand how to bring all of this together to effectively write a critical analysis essay or assignment.

The foundation of a good piece of critical analysis is having a good understanding of the work to be evaluated. For example, critical analysis of a film or book means watching or reading it several times. In the case of journal articles or other academic research, the work should be read through once for an overview before reading it objectively to identify key ideas and themes and how effective their presentation has been. Once you have these key ideas and themes, producing a critical analysis should start with the writing of a plan or outline.

Planning the analysis should commence with bullet points of the key points you want to make about the work. This ensures you stay focused and on topic and also ensures your analysis has a clear and logical flow of ideas and a defined structure. Once your plan is defined, you can progress to writing the final critical analysis piece.

Introduction

The introduction to a critical analysis work should first of all tell the audience which work you are analysing and your initial opinions and perspectives of the piece. There should also be a definition of the author’s main aims or theories so that the reader is clear what your work is about. A good introduction is one which engages audience interest and makes them curious to read more. It should not be overly long as the main focus of your analysis will be covered in the main section. The introduction is just that – an opening statement on what you will be discussing.

Main analysis

Based on your outline or bullet points, the main body should be separated into multiple paragraphs. Each paragraph should address one point only, with the structure being to state the idea being discussed, followed by supporting or refuting statements about the work. Quotes from the original work can be used, but only to emphasise your own thinking, which should be backed up by references or proven counter-arguments as much as possible. In other words, the main body of the work is the meat of your critical analysis where you clearly state the outcomes of your evaluation and analysis, backed up by proof and concrete, referenced arguments that either support or debate the ideas put forward by the work(s) being analysed.

Conclude and make closing remarks

The conclusion of a piece of critical analysis should be, like the introduction, clear, focused, and concise. By drawing together the statements and observations made in the body of the work, the conclusion will restate your perspectives, and confirm that you have said what you intended to say. Conclusions should not bring in new ideas but sum up what has already been said.

Following these stages of a critical analysis will ensure your work is well-presented, logical, and coherent.

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Methodology

• Critical Discourse Analysis | Definition, Guide & Examples

Critical Discourse Analysis | Definition, Guide & Examples

Published on August 23, 2019 by Amy Luo . Revised on June 22, 2023.

Critical discourse analysis (or discourse analysis) is a research method for studying written or spoken language in relation to its social context. It aims to understand how language is used in real life situations.

When you conduct discourse analysis, you might focus on:

• The purposes and effects of different types of language
• Cultural rules and conventions in communication
• How values, beliefs and assumptions are communicated
• How language use relates to its social, political and historical context

Discourse analysis is a common qualitative research method in many humanities and social science disciplines, including linguistics, sociology, anthropology, psychology and cultural studies.  

Table of contents

What is discourse analysis used for, how is discourse analysis different from other methods, how to conduct discourse analysis, other interesting articles.

Conducting discourse analysis means examining how language functions and how meaning is created in different social contexts. It can be applied to any instance of written or oral language, as well as non-verbal aspects of communication such as tone and gestures.

Materials that are suitable for discourse analysis include:

• Books, newspapers and periodicals
• Marketing material, such as brochures and advertisements
• Business and government documents
• Websites, forums, social media posts and comments
• Interviews and conversations

By analyzing these types of discourse, researchers aim to gain an understanding of social groups and how they communicate.

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Unlike linguistic approaches that focus only on the rules of language use, discourse analysis emphasizes the contextual meaning of language.

It focuses on the social aspects of communication and the ways people use language to achieve specific effects (e.g. to build trust, to create doubt, to evoke emotions, or to manage conflict).

Instead of focusing on smaller units of language, such as sounds, words or phrases, discourse analysis is used to study larger chunks of language, such as entire conversations, texts, or collections of texts. The selected sources can be analyzed on multiple levels.

Discourse analysis is a qualitative and interpretive method of analyzing texts (in contrast to more systematic methods like content analysis ). You make interpretations based on both the details of the material itself and on contextual knowledge.

There are many different approaches and techniques you can use to conduct discourse analysis, but the steps below outline the basic structure you need to follow. Following these steps can help you avoid pitfalls of confirmation bias that can cloud your analysis.

Step 1: Define the research question and select the content of analysis

To do discourse analysis, you begin with a clearly defined research question . Once you have developed your question, select a range of material that is appropriate to answer it.

Discourse analysis is a method that can be applied both to large volumes of material and to smaller samples, depending on the aims and timescale of your research.

Step 2: Gather information and theory on the context

Next, you must establish the social and historical context in which the material was produced and intended to be received. Gather factual details of when and where the content was created, who the author is, who published it, and whom it was disseminated to.

As well as understanding the real-life context of the discourse, you can also conduct a literature review on the topic and construct a theoretical framework to guide your analysis.

Step 3: Analyze the content for themes and patterns

This step involves closely examining various elements of the material – such as words, sentences, paragraphs, and overall structure – and relating them to attributes, themes, and patterns relevant to your research question.

Step 4: Review your results and draw conclusions

Once you have assigned particular attributes to elements of the material, reflect on your results to examine the function and meaning of the language used. Here, you will consider your analysis in relation to the broader context that you established earlier to draw conclusions that answer your research question.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Measures of central tendency
• Chi square tests
• Confidence interval
• Quartiles & Quantiles
• Cluster sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Thematic analysis
• Cohort study
• Peer review
• Ethnography

Research bias

• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Conformity bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Availability heuristic
• Attrition bias
• Social desirability bias

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1 Important points to consider when critically evaluating published research papers

Simple review articles (also referred to as ‘narrative’ or ‘selective’ reviews), systematic reviews and meta-analyses provide rapid overviews and ‘snapshots’ of progress made within a field, summarising a given topic or research area. They can serve as useful guides, or as current and comprehensive ‘sources’ of information, and can act as a point of reference to relevant primary research studies within a given scientific area. Narrative or systematic reviews are often used as a first step towards a more detailed investigation of a topic or a specific enquiry (a hypothesis or research question), or to establish critical awareness of a rapidly-moving field (you will be required to demonstrate this as part of an assignment, an essay or a dissertation at postgraduate level).

The majority of primary ‘empirical’ research papers essentially follow the same structure (abbreviated here as IMRAD). There is a section on Introduction, followed by the Methods, then the Results, which includes figures and tables showing data described in the paper, and a Discussion. The paper typically ends with a Conclusion, and References and Acknowledgements sections.

The Title of the paper provides a concise first impression. The Abstract follows the basic structure of the extended article. It provides an ‘accessible’ and concise summary of the aims, methods, results and conclusions. The Introduction provides useful background information and context, and typically outlines the aims and objectives of the study. The Abstract can serve as a useful summary of the paper, presenting the purpose, scope and major findings. However, simply reading the abstract alone is not a substitute for critically reading the whole article. To really get a good understanding and to be able to critically evaluate a research study, it is necessary to read on.

While most research papers follow the above format, variations do exist. For example, the results and discussion sections may be combined. In some journals the materials and methods may follow the discussion, and in two of the most widely read journals, Science and Nature, the format does vary from the above due to restrictions on the length of articles. In addition, there may be supporting documents that accompany a paper, including supplementary materials such as supporting data, tables, figures, videos and so on. There may also be commentaries or editorials associated with a topical research paper, which provide an overview or critique of the study being presented.

Box 1 Key questions to ask when appraising a research paper

• Is the study’s research question relevant?
• Does the study add anything new to current knowledge and understanding?
• Does the study test a stated hypothesis?
• Is the design of the study appropriate to the research question?
• Do the study methods address key potential sources of bias?
• Were suitable ‘controls’ included in the study?
• Were the statistical analyses appropriate and applied correctly?
• Is there a clear statement of findings?
• Does the data support the authors’ conclusions?
• Are there any conflicts of interest or ethical concerns?

There are various strategies used in reading a scientific research paper, and one of these is to start with the title and the abstract, then look at the figures and tables, and move on to the introduction, before turning to the results and discussion, and finally, interrogating the methods.

Another strategy (outlined below) is to begin with the abstract and then the discussion, take a look at the methods, and then the results section (including any relevant tables and figures), before moving on to look more closely at the discussion and, finally, the conclusion. You should choose a strategy that works best for you. However, asking the ‘right’ questions is a central feature of critical appraisal, as with any enquiry, so where should you begin? Here are some critical questions to consider when evaluating a research paper.

Look at the Abstract and then the Discussion : Are these accessible and of general relevance or are they detailed, with far-reaching conclusions? Is it clear why the study was undertaken? Why are the conclusions important? Does the study add anything new to current knowledge and understanding? The reasons why a particular study design or statistical method were chosen should also be clear from reading a research paper. What is the research question being asked? Does the study test a stated hypothesis? Is the design of the study appropriate to the research question? Have the authors considered the limitations of their study and have they discussed these in context?

Take a look at the Methods : Were there any practical difficulties that could have compromised the study or its implementation? Were these considered in the protocol? Were there any missing values and, if so, was the number of missing values too large to permit meaningful analysis? Was the number of samples (cases or participants) too small to establish meaningful significance? Do the study methods address key potential sources of bias? Were suitable ‘controls’ included in the study? If controls are missing or not appropriate to the study design, we cannot be confident that the results really show what is happening in an experiment. Were the statistical analyses appropriate and applied correctly? Do the authors point out the limitations of methods or tests used? Were the methods referenced and described in sufficient detail for others to repeat or extend the study?

Take a look at the Results section and relevant tables and figures : Is there a clear statement of findings? Were the results expected? Do they make sense? What data supports them? Do the tables and figures clearly describe the data (highlighting trends etc.)? Try to distinguish between what the data show and what the authors say they show (i.e. their interpretation).

Moving on to look in greater depth at the Discussion and Conclusion : Are the results discussed in relation to similar (previous) studies? Do the authors indulge in excessive speculation? Are limitations of the study adequately addressed? Were the objectives of the study met and the hypothesis supported or refuted (and is a clear explanation provided)? Does the data support the authors’ conclusions? Maybe there is only one experiment to support a point. More often, several different experiments or approaches combine to support a particular conclusion. A rule of thumb here is that if multiple approaches and multiple lines of evidence from different directions are presented, and all point to the same conclusion, then the conclusions are more credible. But do question all assumptions. Identify any implicit or hidden assumptions that the authors may have used when interpreting their data. Be wary of data that is mixed up with interpretation and speculation! Remember, just because it is published, does not mean that it is right.

O ther points you should consider when evaluating a research paper : Are there any financial, ethical or other conflicts of interest associated with the study, its authors and sponsors? Are there ethical concerns with the study itself? Looking at the references, consider if the authors have preferentially cited their own previous publications (i.e. needlessly), and whether the list of references are recent (ensuring that the analysis is up-to-date). Finally, from a practical perspective, you should move beyond the text of a research paper, talk to your peers about it, consult available commentaries, online links to references and other external sources to help clarify any aspects you don’t understand.

The above can be taken as a general guide to help you begin to critically evaluate a scientific research paper, but only in the broadest sense. Do bear in mind that the way that research evidence is critiqued will also differ slightly according to the type of study being appraised, whether observational or experimental, and each study will have additional aspects that would need to be evaluated separately. For criteria recommended for the evaluation of qualitative research papers, see the article by Mildred Blaxter (1996), available online. Details are in the References.

Activity 1 Critical appraisal of a scientific research paper

A critical appraisal checklist, which you can download via the link below, can act as a useful tool to help you to interrogate research papers. The checklist is divided into four sections, broadly covering:

• some general aspects
• research design and methodology
• the results
• discussion, conclusion and references.

Science perspective – critical appraisal checklist [ Tip: hold Ctrl and click a link to open it in a new tab. ( Hide tip ) ]

• Identify and obtain a research article based on a topic of your own choosing, using a search engine such as Google Scholar or PubMed (for example).
• The selection criteria for your target paper are as follows: the article must be an open access primary research paper (not a review) containing empirical data, published in the last 2–3 years, and preferably no more than 5–6 pages in length.
• Critically evaluate the research paper using the checklist provided, making notes on the key points and your overall impression.

Critical appraisal checklists are useful tools to help assess the quality of a study. Assessment of various factors, including the importance of the research question, the design and methodology of a study, the validity of the results and their usefulness (application or relevance), the legitimacy of the conclusions, and any potential conflicts of interest, are an important part of the critical appraisal process. Limitations and further improvements can then be considered.

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Electronic Theses and Dissertations

The role of care practices, mutual aid, and racial formation in black newcomer practitioners’ lived experience within organizations: a critical qualitative inquiry.

Annie Zean Dunbar , University of Denver Follow

Date of Award

Document type.

Dissertation

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Graduate School of Social Work

First Advisor

Ramona Beltrán

Second Advisor

Marquisha L. Scott

Third Advisor

Michele Hanna

Care practices, Critical discourse analysis, Critical qualitative methods, Mutual aid, Newcomers, Racial formation

Black newcomers, defined as people who have migrated to the United States regardless of legal status, are one of the fastest-growing immigrant groups. (Morgan-Trostle et al., 2016). Within this population, a small percentage work within the social service sector with other migrants. Using critical qualitative methods, a critical phenomenological methodology and semi-structured interviews, a sample of 17 participants were asked about their experiences of living and working in the U.S. social service sector. The study uses racial formation theory (Omi & Winant, 2014) to conceptualize how participants experienced their racial identity formation and how racism shapes their personal and professional roles. The study also employed a Black feminist theoretical lens to understand how participants gave and received care, support, and mutual aid in their personal and professional lives.

Seventeen participants who identified as Black or part of the African diaspora, worked with new arrivals or within the newcomer social service sector as direct service providers, and were at least 18 years old were interviewed. Participants resided in four regions across the continental United States and came from 14 counties across continental Africa and the Caribbean Islands. The research questions were analyzed using two different analytical methods. First, a thematic analysis (Padgett, 2017) and then a critical discourse analysis (Fairclough, 2012) were employed to learn about the lived experience of the sample. Findings included a relational circle of care that reconsidered the giver-receiver binary and centers community and notions of reciprocity, mutuality, and the interconnection between personal and professional. Additional findings highlighted the ways participants accented English led to experiences of racism and xenophobia that shaped their personal and professional roles. Finally, participants shared insights into the ways their relationship with America shaped their claims or rejection of the African American identity distinction. A novel finding from this study suggested that participants did not share anti-Black sentiments but rather rejected U.S. centrism. This study expanded the empirical research that elucidated the experiences of Black newcomers who work within the social service sector.

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Annie Zean Dunbar

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Recommended Citation

Dunbar, Annie Zean, "The Role of Care Practices, Mutual Aid, and Racial Formation in Black Newcomer Practitioners’ Lived Experience Within Organizations: A Critical Qualitative Inquiry" (2024). Electronic Theses and Dissertations . 2425. https://digitalcommons.du.edu/etd/2425

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Americans see many federal agencies favorably, but Republicans grow more critical of Justice Department

Americans continue to express positive views of several departments and agencies of the federal government. But there are partisan differences in many of these attitudes.  

Most of these partisan gaps are similar to those seen last year, but Republicans and Democrats have grown further apart in their opinions of the Department of Justice. Republicans’ evaluations of the department have turned more negative.

Today, a majority of Republicans and Republican-leaning independents (56%) say they have an unfavorable opinion of the Justice Department, up from 50% last year. A third have a favorable opinion of the DOJ, while 11% say they are not sure.

By contrast, 55% of Democrats and Democratic leaners have a favorable impression of the DOJ. About a third of Democrats (32%) say they have an unfavorable opinion and 12% are not sure. Views among Democrats are similar to those measured a year ago.

Republicans’ evaluations of the Department of Homeland Security have also turned more negative over the last year: 41% now have a favorable view, down from 47% in 2023.

Pew Research Center regularly conducts surveys to gauge the public’s attitudes about the federal government, including government agencies and departments. For this analysis, we surveyed 9,424 adults from July 1 to 7, 2024.

Everyone who took part in this survey is a member of the Center’s American Trends Panel (ATP), a group of people recruited through national, random sampling of residential addresses who have agreed to take surveys regularly. This kind of recruitment gives nearly all U.S. adults a chance of selection. Surveys were conducted either online or by telephone with a live interviewer. The survey is weighted to be representative of the U.S. adult population by gender, race, ethnicity, partisan affiliation, education and other factors. Read more about the ATP’s methodology .

Here are the questions used for this analysis , the topline and the survey methodology .

Many federal agencies are viewed positively overall

On balance, Americans view 13 of 16 federal agencies we asked about more favorably than unfavorably, according to our survey of 9,424 adults conducted July 1-7. Of those 13 agencies, 10 have net favorable ratings of 15 percentage points or more.

Topping the list are the National Park Service (76% favorable), the U.S. Postal Service (72%) and NASA (67%).

Smaller majorities have favorable impressions of other agencies, including the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (55% favorable), the Department of Transportation (53%) and the Social Security Administration (53%).

Americans have mixed views of the Department of Education (44% favorable, 45% unfavorable, 11% unsure) and the Department of Justice (43% favorable, 44% unfavorable, 13% unsure).

The least popular federal agency of the 16 asked about is the Internal Revenue Service. Half of Americans have an unfavorable opinion of the IRS, while 38% have a favorable view.

The agencies that are viewed favorably in our recent online surveys were also among the most favorably viewed in past Pew Research Center surveys conducted by telephone. However, because of differences in question wording and survey mode, the specific percentages in recent web surveys and past telephone surveys are not directly comparable. (Refer to the drop-down box below for more.)

This survey is the second time Pew Research Center has measured the public’s attitudes about federal government agencies on our online American Trends Panel . We previously did so in 2023 . Earlier surveys measuring views of federal agencies, including polls fielded in 2020 and in 2019 , were conducted by telephone.

The findings in our 2024 and 2023 web surveys are not directly comparable with those past telephone surveys for two reasons:

• The web surveys use different question wording than past telephone surveys. Online survey respondents receive an explicit “not sure” response option. Telephone respondents, by contrast, had to volunteer that they did not have an opinion about an agency. This change generally results in a larger share of respondents declining to offer an opinion.
• Surveys conducted online and by telephone often produce different results because respondents sometimes answer similar questions differently across modes. This is called a “ mode effect .”

These two factors mean that point estimates (for instance, the share of respondents who express a favorable opinion about a single agency in our new survey and in a prior phone survey) should not be directly compared to measure change over time. Doing so would conflate question wording and mode differences with change over time.

Despite this limitation, some broad comparisons can be made. For example, if a wide partisan gap is evident for one agency that was not apparent in past surveys – whereas the partisan gap has remained relatively stable for other agencies – that change is likely not only a result of the transition to online polling from phone polling.

Republicans have mostly negative views of CDC, Department of Education

There are wide partisan gaps in Americans’ views of several federal agencies.

Democrats and Democratic leaners hold consistently favorable views of all 16 agencies asked about.

Republicans and GOP leaners express more unfavorable than favorable views for 11 of the 16 agencies.

The partisan divisions in favorability are deepest for the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (78% favorable among Democrats vs. 33% among Republicans) and the Environmental Protection Agency (73% vs. 32%).

There are also wide partisan gaps over the Department of Health and Human Services, the Department of Education, the FBI, the Department of Transportation, the IRS and other agencies.

In contrast, clear majorities of both Democrats and Republicans give positive ratings to the National Park Service (80% vs. 75%, respectively), the U.S. Postal Service (76% vs. 68%) and NASA (74% vs. 62%).

Among Democrats, the CDC and EPA receive some of the highest net favorability ratings

A large majority of Democrats (78%) rate the CDC favorably, while just 12% see the agency unfavorably. That amounts to a 66-point net advantage for the CDC.

For the EPA, 73% of Democrats see the agency favorably – 61 points more than the share who see it unfavorably.

Democrats view the IRS least favorably of the 16 federal agencies. They are only 13 points more likely to view it favorably than unfavorably (50% vs. 37%).

Republicans are much less favorable than Democrats toward most agencies

The agencies that Republicans feel most favorably toward are the National Park Service (67-point net favorability), NASA (45 points) and the Postal Service (41 points).

While it is not possible to make direct percentage point comparisons to past surveys due to a shift in survey mode, Republicans are more likely today than in the past to have substantially more negative than positive views of several agencies.

Republicans’ negative opinions of the CDC, in particular, appear to reflect a shift related to the coronavirus pandemic . Past Center surveys showed that Republicans were especially critical of the CDC’s handling of the outbreak.

Note: This is an update of a post originally published March 30, 2023. Here are the questions used for this analysis , the topline and the survey methodology .

• Federal Government
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Andy Cerda is a research analyst focusing on politics at Pew Research Center .

9 facts about Americans and marijuana

Nearly three-quarters of americans say it would be ‘too risky’ to give presidents more power, america’s abortion quandary, biden nears 100-day mark with strong approval, positive rating for vaccine rollout, what makes a good citizen voting, paying taxes, following the law top list, most popular.

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• Published: 07 August 2024

Factors critical for the successful delivery of telehealth to rural populations: a descriptive qualitative study

• Rebecca Barry   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2272-4694 1 ,
• Elyce Green   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7291-6419 1 ,
• Kristy Robson   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8046-7940 1 &
• Melissa Nott   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-7088-5826 1  

BMC Health Services Research volume  24 , Article number:  908 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

97 Accesses

Metrics details

The use of telehealth has proliferated to the point of being a common and accepted method of healthcare service delivery. Due to the rapidity of telehealth implementation, the evidence underpinning this approach to healthcare delivery is lagging, particularly when considering the uniqueness of some service users, such as those in rural areas. This research aimed to address the current gap in knowledge related to the factors critical for the successful delivery of telehealth to rural populations.

This research used a qualitative descriptive design to explore telehealth service provision in rural areas from the perspective of clinicians and describe factors critical to the effective delivery of telehealth in rural contexts. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with clinicians from allied health and nursing backgrounds working in child and family nursing, allied health services, and mental health services. A manifest content analysis was undertaken using the Framework approach.

Sixteen health professionals from nursing, clinical psychology, and social work were interviewed. Participants mostly identified as female (88%) and ranged in age from 26 to 65 years with a mean age of 47 years. Three overarching themes were identified: (1) Navigating the role of telehealth to support rural healthcare; (2) Preparing clinicians to engage in telehealth service delivery; and (3) Appreciating the complexities of telehealth implementation across services and environments.

Conclusions

This research suggests that successful delivery of telehealth to rural populations requires consideration of the context in which telehealth services are being delivered, particularly in rural and remote communities where there are challenges with resourcing and training to support health professionals. Rural populations, like all communities, need choice in healthcare service delivery and models to increase accessibility. Preparation and specific, intentional training for health professionals on how to transition to and maintain telehealth services is a critical factor for delivery of telehealth to rural populations. Future research should further investigate the training and supports required for telehealth service provision, including who, when and what training will equip health professionals with the appropriate skill set to deliver rural telehealth services.

Peer Review reports

Introduction

Telehealth is a commonly utilised application in rural health settings due to its ability to augment service delivery across wide geographical areas. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the use of telehealth became prolific as it was rapidly adopted across many new fields of practice to allow for healthcare to continue despite requirements for physical distancing. In Australia, the Medicare Benefits Scheme (MBS) lists health services that are subsidised by the federal government. Telehealth items were extensively added to these services as part of the response to COVID-19 [ 1 ]. Although there are no longer requirements for physical distancing in Australia, many health providers have continued to offer services via telehealth, particularly in rural areas [ 2 , 3 ]. For the purpose of this research, telehealth was defined as a consultation with a healthcare provider by phone or video call [ 4 ]. Telehealth service provision in rural areas requires consideration of contextual factors such as access to reliable internet, community members’ means to finance this access [ 5 ], and the requirement for health professionals to function across a broad range of specialty skills. These factors present a case for considering the delivery of telehealth in rural areas as a unique approach, rather than one portion of the broader use of telehealth.

Research focused on rural telehealth has proliferated alongside the rapid implementation of this service mode. To date, there has been a focus on the impact of telehealth on areas such as client access and outcomes [ 2 ], client and health professional satisfaction with services and technology [ 6 ], direct and indirect costs to the patient (travel cost and time), healthcare service provider staffing, lower onsite healthcare resource utilisation, improved physician recruitment and retention, and improved client access to care and education [ 7 , 8 ]. In terms of service implementation, these elements are important but do not outline the broader implementation factors critical to the success of telehealth delivery in rural areas. One study by Sutarsa et al. explored the implications of telehealth as a replacement for face-to-face services from the perspectives of general practitioners and clients [ 9 ] and articulated that telehealth services are not a like-for-like service compared to face-to-face modes. Research has also highlighted the importance of understanding the experience of telehealth in rural Australia across different population groups, including Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, and the need to consider culturally appropriate services [ 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 ].

Research is now required to determine what the critical implementation factors are for telehealth delivery in rural areas. This type of research would move towards answering calls for interdisciplinary, qualitative, place-based research [ 12 ] that explores factors required for the sustainability and usability of telehealth in rural areas. It would also contribute to the currently limited understanding of implementation factors required for telehealth delivery to rural populations [ 14 ]. There is a reasonable expectation that there is consistency in the way health services are delivered, particularly across geographical locations. Due to the rapid implementation of telehealth services, there was limited opportunity to proactively identify factors critical for successful telehealth delivery in rural areas and this has created a lag in policy, process, and training. This research aimed to address this gap in the literature by exploring and describing rural health professionals’ experiences providing telehealth services. For the purpose of this research, rural is inclusive of locations classified as rural or remote (MM3-6) using the Modified Monash Model which considers remoteness and population size in its categorisation [ 15 ].

This research study adopted a qualitative descriptive design as described by Sandelowski [ 16 ]. The purpose of a descriptive study is to document and describe a phenomenon of interest [ 17 ] and this method is useful when researchers seek to understand who was involved, what occurred, and the location of the phenomena of interest [ 18 ]. The phenomenon of interest for this research was the provision of telehealth services to rural communities by health professionals. In line with this, a purposive sampling technique was used to identify participants who have experience of this phenomenon [ 19 ]. This research is reported in line with the consolidated criteria for reporting qualitative research [ 20 ] to enhance transparency and trustworthiness of the research process and results [ 21 ].

Research aims

This research aimed to:

Explore telehealth service provision in rural areas from the perspective of clinicians.

Describe factors critical to the successful delivery of telehealth in rural contexts.

Participant recruitment and data collection

People eligible to participate in the research were allied health (using the definition provided by Allied Health Professions Australia [ 22 ]) or nursing staff who delivered telehealth services to people living in the geographical area covered by two rural local health districts in New South Wales, Australia (encompassing rural areas MM3-6). Health organisations providing telehealth service delivery in the southwestern and central western regions of New South Wales were identified through the research teams’ networks and invited to be part of the research.

Telehealth adoption in these organisations was intentionally variable to capture different experiences and ranged from newly established (prompted by COVID-19) to well established (> 10 years of telehealth use). Organisations included government, non-government, and not-for-profit health service providers offering child and family nursing, allied health services, and mental health services. Child and family nursing services were delivered by a government health service and a not-for-profit specialist service, providing health professional advice, education, and guidance to families with a baby or toddler. Child and family nurses were in the same geographical region as the families receiving telehealth. Transition to telehealth services was prompted by the COVID-19 pandemic. The participating allied health service was a large, non-government provider of allied health services to regional New South Wales. Allied health professionals were in the same region as the client receiving telehealth services. Use of telehealth in this organisation had commenced prior to the COVID-19 pandemic. Telehealth mental health services were delivered by an emergency mental health team, located at a large regional hospital to clients in another healthcare facility or location to which the health professional could not be physically present (typically a lower acuity health service in a rural location).

Once organisations agreed to disseminate the research invitation, a key contact person employed at each health organisation invited staff to participate via email. Staff were provided with contact details of the research team in the email invitation. All recruitment and consent processes were managed by the research team to minimise risk of real or perceived coercion between staff and the key contact person, who was often in a supervisory or managerial position within the organisation. Data were collected using semi-structured interviews using an online platform with only the interviewer and participant present. Interviews were conducted by a research team member with training in qualitative data collection during November and December 2021 and were transcribed verbatim by a professional transcribing service. All participants were offered the opportunity to review their transcript and provide feedback, however none opted to do so. Data saturation was not used as guidance for participant numbers, taking the view of Braun and Clarke [ 23 ] that meaning is generated through the analysis rather than reaching a point of saturation.

Data analysis

Researchers undertook a manifest content analysis of the data using the Framework approach developed by Ritchie and Spencer [ 24 ]. All four co-authors were involved in the data analysis process. Framework uses five stages for analysis including (1) familiarisation (2) identifying a thematic framework based on emergent overarching themes, (3) application of the coding framework to the interview transcripts [indexing], (4) reviewing and charting of themes and subthemes, and (5) mapping and interpretation [ 24 , p. 178]. The research team analysed a common interview initially, identified codes and themes, then independently applied these to the remaining interviews. Themes were centrally recorded, reviewed, and discussed by the research team prior to inclusion into the thematic framework. Final themes were confirmed via collaborative discussion and consensus. The iterative process used to review and code data was recorded into an Excel spreadsheet to ensure auditability and credibility, and to enhance the trustworthiness of the analysis process.

This study was approved by the Greater Western NSW Human Research Ethics Committee and Charles Sturt University Human Research Ethics Committee (approval numbers: 2021/ETH00088 and H21215). All participants provided written consent.

Eighteen health professionals consented to be interviewed. Two were lost to follow-up, therefore semi-structured interviews were conducted with 16 of these health professionals, the majority of which were from the discipline of nursing ( n  = 13, 81.3%). Participant demographics and their pseudonyms are shown in Table  1 .

Participants mostly identified as female ( n  = 14, 88%) and ranged in age from 26 to 65 years with a mean age of 47 years. Participants all delivered services to rural communities in the identified local health districts and resided within the geographical area they serviced. The participants resided in areas classified as MM3-6 but were most likely to reside in an area classified MM3 (81%). Average interview time was 38 min, and all interviews were conducted online via Zoom.

Three overarching themes were identified through the analysis of interview transcripts with health professionals. These themes were: (1) Navigating the role of telehealth to support rural healthcare; (2) Preparing clinicians to engage in telehealth service delivery; and (3) Appreciating the complexities of telehealth implementation across services and environments.

Theme 1: navigating the role of telehealth to support rural healthcare

The first theme described clinicians’ experiences of using telehealth to deliver healthcare to rural communities, including perceived benefits and challenges to acceptance, choice, and access. Interview participants identified several factors that impacted on or influenced the way they could deliver telehealth, and these were common across the different organisational structures. Clinicians highlighted the need to consider how to effectively navigate the role of telehealth in supporting their practice, including when it would enhance their practice, and when it might create barriers. The ability to improve rural service provision through greater access was commonly discussed by participants. In terms of factors important for telehealth delivery in rural contexts, the participants demonstrated that knowledge of why and how telehealth was used were important, including the broadened opportunity for healthcare access and an understanding of the benefits and challenges of providing these services.

Access to timely and specialist healthcare for rural communities

Participants described a range of benefits using telehealth to contact small, rural locations and facilitate greater access to services closer to home. This was particularly evident when there was lack of specialist support in these areas. These opportunities meant that rural people could receive timely care that they required, without the burden of travelling significant distances to access health services.

The obvious thing in an area like this, is that years ago, people were being transported three hours just to see us face to face. It’s obviously giving better, more timely access to services. (Patrick)

Staff access to specialist support was seen as an important aspect for rural healthcare by participants, because of the challenges associated with lack of staffing and resources within these areas which potentially increased the risks for staff in these locations, particularly when managing clients with acute mental illnesses.

Within the metro areas they’ve got so many staff and so many hospitals and they can manage mental health patients quite well within those facilities, but with us some of these hospitals will have one RN on overnight and it’s just crappy for them, and so having us able to do video link, it kind of takes the pressure off and we’re happy to make the decisions and the risky decisions for what that person needs. (Tracey)

Participants described how the option to use telehealth to provide specialised knowledge and expertise to support local health staff in rural hospitals likely led to more appropriate outcomes for clients wanting to be able to remain in their community. Conversely, Amber described the implications if telehealth was not available.

If there was some reason why the telehealth wasn’t available… quite often, I suppose the general process be down to putting the pressure on the nursing and the medical staff there to make a decision around that person, which is not a fair or appropriate thing for them to do. (Amber)

Benefits and challenges to providing telehealth in rural communities

Complementing the advantage of reduced travel time to access services, was the ability for clients to access additional support via telehealth, which was perceived as a benefit. For example, one participant described how telehealth was useful for troubleshooting client’s problems rather than waiting for their next scheduled appointment.

If a mum rings you with an issue, you can always say to them “are you happy to jump onto My Virtual Care with me now?” We can do that, do a consult over My Virtual Care. Then I can actually gauge how mum is. (Jade)

While accessibility was a benefit, participants highlighted that rural communities need to be provided with choice, rather than the assumption that telehealth be the preferred option for everyone, as many rural clients want face-to-face services.

They’d all prefer, I think, to be able to see someone in person. I think that’s generally what NSW rural [want] —’cause I’m from country towns as well—there’s no substitute, like I said, for face-to-face assessment. (Adam)

Other, more practical limitations of broad adoption of telehealth raised by the participants included issues with managing technology and variability in internet connectivity.

For many people in the rural areas, it’s still an issue having that regular [internet] connection that works all the time. I think it’s a great option but I still think it’s something that some rural people will always have some challenges with because it’s not—there’s so many black spots and so many issues still with the internet connection in rural areas. Even in town, there’s certain areas that are still having lots of problems. (Chloe)

Participants also identified barriers related to assumptions that all clients will have access to technology and have the necessary data to undertake a telehealth consultation, which wasn’t always the case, particularly with individuals experiencing socioeconomic disadvantage.

A lot of [Aboriginal] families don’t actually have access to telehealth services. Unless they use their phone. If they have the technology on their phones. I found that was a little bit of an issue to try and help those particular clients to get access to the internet, to have enough data on their phone to make that call. There was a lot of issues and a lot of things that we were putting in complaints about as they were going “we’re using up a lot of these peoples’ data and they don’t have internet in their home.” (Evelyn).

Other challenges identified by the participants were related to use of telehealth for clients that required additional support. Many participants talked about the complexities of using an interpreter during a telehealth consultation for culturally and linguistically diverse clients.

Having interpreters, that’s another element that’s really, really difficult because you’re doing video link, but then you’ve also got the phone on speaker and you’re having this three-way conversation. Even that, in itself, that added element on video link is really, really tough. It’s a really long process. (Tracey)

In summary, this theme described some of the benefits and constraints when using telehealth for the delivery of rural health services. The participants demonstrated the importance of understanding the needs and contexts of individual clients, and accounting for this when making decisions to incorporate telehealth into their service provision. Understanding how and why telehealth can be implemented in rural contexts was an important foundation for the delivery of these services.

Theme 2: preparing clinicians to engage in telehealth service delivery

The preparation required for clinicians to engage with telehealth service delivery was highlighted and the participants described the unique set of skills required to effectively build rapport, engage, and carry out assessments with clients. For many participants who had not routinely used telehealth prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, the transition to using telehealth had been rapid. The participants reflected on the implications of rapidly adopting these new practices and the skills they required to effectively deliver care using telehealth. These skills were critical for effective delivery of telehealth to rural communities.

Rapid adoption of new skills and ways of working

The rapid and often unsupported implementation of telehealth in response to the COVID-19 pandemic resulted in clinicians needing to learn and adapt to telehealth, often without being taught or with minimal instruction.

We had to do virtual, virtually overnight we were changed to, “Here you go. Do it this way,” without any real education. It was learned as we went because everybody was in the same boat. Everyone was scrabbling to try and work out how to do it. (Chloe)

In addition to telehealth services starting quickly, telehealth provision requires clinicians to use a unique set of skills. Therapeutic interventions and approaches were identified as being more challenging when seeing a client through a screen, compared to being physically present together in a room.

The body language is hidden a little bit when you’re on teleconference, whereas when you’re standing up face to face with someone, or standing side by side, the person can see the whole picture. When you’re on the video link, the patient actually can’t—you both can’t see each other wholly. That’s one big barrier. (Adam)

There was an emphasis on communication skills such as active listening and body language that were required when engaging with telehealth. These skills were seen as integral to building rapport and connection. The importance of language in an environment with limited visualisation of body language, is further demonstrated by one participant describing how they tuned into the timing and flow of the conversation to avoid interrupting and how these skills were pertinent for using telehealth.

In the beginning especially, we might do this thing where I think they’ve finished or there’s a bit of silence, so I go to speak and then they go to speak at the same time, and that’s different because normally in person you can really gauge that quite well if they’ve got more to say. I think those little things mean that you’ve got to work a bit harder and you’ve got to bring those things to the attention of the client often. (Robyn)

Preparing clinicians to engage in telehealth also required skills in sharing clear and consistent information with clients about the process of interacting via telehealth. This included information to reassure the client that the telehealth appointment was private as well as prepare them for potential interruptions due to connection issues.

I think being really explicitly clear about the fact that with our setups we have here, no one can dial in, no one else is in my room even watching you. We’re not recording, and there’s a lot of extra information, I think around that we could be doing better in terms of delivering to the person. (Amber)

Becoming accustomed to working through the ‘window’

Telehealth was often described as a window and not a view of the whole person which presented limitations for clinicians, such as seeing nuance of expression. Participants described the difficulties of assessing a client using telehealth when you cannot see the whole picture such as facial expressions, movement, behaviour, interactions with others, dress, and hygiene.

I found it was quite difficult because you couldn’t always see the actual child or the baby, especially if they just had their phone. You couldn’t pick up the body language. You couldn’t always see the facial expressions. You couldn’t see the child and how the child was responding. It did inhibit a lot of that side of our assessing. Quite often you’d have to just write, “Unable to view child.” You might be able to hear them but you couldn’t see them. (Chloe)

Due to the window view, the participants described how they needed to pay even greater attention to eye contact and tone of voice when engaging with clients via telehealth.

I think the eye contact is still a really important thing. Getting the flow of what they’re comfortable with a little bit too. It’s being really careful around the tone of voice as well too, because—again, that’s the same for face-to-face, but be particularly careful of it over telehealth. (Amber)

This theme demonstrates that there are unique and nuanced skills required by clinicians to effectively engage in provision of rural healthcare services via telehealth. Many clinicians described how the rapid uptake of telehealth required them to quickly adapt to providing telehealth services, and they had to modify their approach rather than replicate what they would do in face-to-face contexts. Appreciating the different skills sets required for telehealth practice was perceived as an important element in supporting clinicians to deliver quality healthcare.

Theme 3: appreciating the complexities of telehealth implementation across services and environments

It was commonly acknowledged that there needed to be an appreciation by clinicians of the multiple different environments that telehealth was being delivered in, as well as the types of consultations being undertaken. This was particularly important when well-resourced large regional settings were engaging with small rural services or when clinicians were undertaking consultations within a client’s home.

Working from a different location and context

One of the factors identified as important for the successful delivery of services via telehealth was an understanding of the location and context that was being linked into. Participants regularly talked about the challenges when undertaking a telehealth consultation with clients at home, which impacted the quality of the consultation as it was easy to “ lose focus” (Kelsey) and become distracted.

Instead of just coming in with one child, they had all the kids, all wanting their attention. I also found that babies and kids kept pressing the screen and would actually disconnect us regularly. (Chloe)

For participants located in larger regional locations delivering telehealth services to smaller rural hospitals, it was acknowledged that not all services had equivalent resources, skills, and experience with this type of healthcare approach.

They shouldn’t have to do—they’ve gotta double-click here, login there. They’re relying on speakers that don’t work. Sometimes they can’t get the cameras working. I think telehealth works as long as it’s really user friendly. I think nurses—as a nurse, we’re not supposed to be—I know IT’s in our job criteria, but not to the level where you’ve got to have a degree in technology to use it. (Adam)

Participants also recognised that supporting a client through a telehealth consultation adds workload stress as rural clinicians are often having pressures with caseloads and are juggling multiple other tasks while trying to trouble shoot technology issues associated with a telehealth consultation.

Most people are like me, not great with computers. Sometimes the nurse has got other things in the Emergency Department she’s trying to juggle. (Eleanor)

Considerations for safety, privacy, and confidentiality

Participants talked about the challenges that arose due to inconsistencies in where and how the telehealth consultation would be conducted. Concerns about online safety and information privacy were identified by participants.

There’s the privacy issue, particularly when we might see someone and they might be in a bed and they’ve got a laptop there, and they’re not given headphones, and we’re blaring through the speaker at them, and someone’s three meters away in another bed. That’s not good. That’s a bit of a problem. (Patrick)

When telehealth was offered as an option to clients at a remote healthcare site, clinicians noted that some clients were not provided with adequate support and were left to undertake the consultation by themselves which could cause safety risks for the client and an inability for the telehealth clinician to control the situation.

There were some issues with patients’ safety though. Where the telehealth was located was just in a standard consult room and there was actually a situation where somebody self-harmed with a needle that was in a used syringe box in that room. Then it was like, you just can’t see high risk—environment. (Eleanor)

Additionally, participants noted that they were often using their own office space to conduct telehealth consultations rather than a clinical room which meant there were other considerations to think about.

Now I always lock my room so nobody can enter. That’s a nice little lesson learnt. I had a consult with a mum and some other clinicians came into my room and I thought “oh my goodness. I forgot to lock.” I’m very mindful now that I lock. (Jade)

This theme highlights the complexities that exist when implementing telehealth across a range of rural healthcare settings and environments. It was noted by participants that there were variable skills and experience in using telehealth across staff located in smaller rural areas, which could impact on how effective the consultation was. Participants identified the importance of purposely considering the environment in which the telehealth consultation was being held, ensuring that privacy, safety, and distractibility concerns have been adequately addressed before the consultation begins. These factors were considered important for the successful implementation of telehealth in rural areas.

This study explored telehealth service delivery in various rural health contexts, with 16 allied health and nursing clinicians who had provided telehealth services to people living in rural communities prior to, and during the COVID-19 pandemic. Reflections gained from clinicians were analysed and reported thematically. Major themes identified were clinicians navigating the role of telehealth to support rural healthcare, the need to prepare clinicians to engage in telehealth service delivery and appreciating the complexities of telehealth implementation across services and environments.

The utilisation of telehealth for health service delivery has been promoted as a solution to resolve access and equity issues, particularly for rural communities who are often impacted by limited health services due to distance and isolation [ 6 ]. This study identified a range of perceived benefits for both clients and clinicians, such as improved access to services across large geographic distances, including specialist care, and reduced travel time to engage with a range of health services. These findings are largely supported by the broader literature, such as the systematic review undertaken by Tsou et al. [ 25 ] which found that telehealth can improve clinical outcomes and increase the timeliness to access services, including specialist knowledge. Clinicians in our study also noted the benefits of using telehealth for ad hoc clinical support outside of regular appointment times, which to date has not been commonly reported in the literature as a benefit. Further investigation into this aspect may be warranted.

The findings from this study identify a range of challenges that exist when delivering health services within a virtual context. It was common for participants to highlight that personal preference for face-to-face sessions could not always be accommodated when implementing telehealth services in rural areas. The perceived technological possibilities to improve access can have unintended consequences for community members which may contribute to lack of responsiveness to community needs [ 12 ]. It is therefore important to understand the client and their preferences for using telehealth rather than making assumptions on the appropriateness of this type of health service delivery [ 26 ]. As such, telehealth is likely to function best when there is a pre-established relationship between the client and clinician, with clients who have a good knowledge of their personal health and have access to and familiarity with digital technology [ 13 ]. Alternatively, it is appropriate to consider how telehealth can be a supplementary tool rather than a stand-alone service model replacing face-to-face interactions [ 13 ].

As identified in this study, managing technology and internet connectivity are commonly reported issues for rural communities engaging in telehealth services [ 27 , 28 ]. Additionally, it was highlighted that within some rural communities with higher socioeconomic disadvantage, limited access to an appropriate level of technology and the required data to undertake a telehealth consult was a deterrent to engage in these types of services. Mathew et al. [ 13 ] found in their study that bandwidth impacted video consultations, which was further compromised by weather conditions, and clients without smartphones had difficulty accessing relevant virtual consultation software.

The findings presented here indicate that while telehealth can be a useful model, it may not be suitable for all clients or client groups. For example, the use of interpreters in telehealth to support clients was a key challenge identified in this study. This is supported by Mathew et al. [ 13 ] who identified that language barriers affected the quality of telehealth consultations and accessing appropriate interpreters was often difficult. Consideration of health and digital literacy, access and availability of technology and internet, appropriate client selection, and facilitating client choice are all important drivers to enhance telehealth experiences [ 29 ]. Nelson et al. [ 6 ] acknowledged the barriers that exist with telehealth, suggesting that ‘it is not the groups that have difficulty engaging, it is that telehealth and digital services are hard to engage with’ (p. 8). There is a need for telehealth services to be delivered in a way that is inclusive of different groups, and this becomes more pertinent in rural areas where resources are not the same as metropolitan areas.

The findings of this research highlight the unique set of skills required for health professionals to translate their practice across a virtual medium. The participants described these modifications in relation to communication skills, the ability to build rapport, conduct healthcare assessments, and provide treatment while looking at a ‘window view’ of a person. Several other studies have reported similar skillsets that are required to effectively use telehealth. Uscher-Pines et al. [ 30 ] conducted research on the experiences of psychiatrists moving to telemedicine during the COVID-19 pandemic and noted challenges affecting the quality of provider-patient interactions and difficulty conducting assessment through the window of a screen. Henry et al. [ 31 ] documented a list of interpersonal skills considered essential for the use of telehealth encompassing attributes related to set-up, verbal and non-verbal communication, relationship building, and environmental considerations.

Despite the literature uniformly agreeing that telehealth requires a unique skill set there is no agreement on how, when and for whom education related to these skills should be provided. The skills required for health professionals to use telehealth have been treated as an add-on to health practice rather than as a specialty skill set requiring learning and assessment. This is reflected in research such as that by Nelson et al. [ 6 ] who found that 58% of mental health professionals using telehealth in rural areas were not trained to use it. This gap between training and practice is likely to have arisen from the rapid and widespread implementation of telehealth during the COVID-19 pandemic (i.e. the change in MBS item numbers [ 1 ]) but has not been addressed in subsequent years. For practice to remain in step with policy and funding changes, the factors required for successful implementation of telehealth in rural practice must be addressed.

The lack of clarity around who must undertake training in telehealth and how regularly, presents a challenge for rural health professionals whose skill set has been described as a specialist-generalist that covers a significant breadth of knowledge [ 32 ]. Maintaining knowledge currency across this breadth is integral and requires significant resources (time, travel, money) in an environment where access to education can be limited [ 33 ]. There is risk associated with continually adding skills on to the workload of rural health professionals without adequate guidance and provision for time to develop and maintain these skills.

While the education required to equip rural health professionals with the skills needed to effectively use telehealth in their practice is developing, until education requirements are uniformly understood and made accessible this is likely to continue to pose risk for rural health professionals and the community members accessing their services. Major investment in the education of all health professionals in telehealth service delivery, no matter the context, has been identified as critical [ 6 ].

This research highlights that the experience of using telehealth in rural communities is unique and thus a ‘one size fits all’ approach is not helpful and can overlook the individual needs of a community. Participants described experiences of using telehealth that were different between rural communities, particularly for smaller, more remote rural locations where resources and staff support and experience using telehealth were not always equivalent to larger rural locations. Research has indicated the need to invest in resourcing and education to support expansion of telehealth, noting this is particularly important in rural, regional, and remote areas [ 34 ]. Our study recognises that this is an ongoing need as rural communities continue to have diverse experiences of using telehealth services. Careful consideration of the context of individual rural health services, including the community needs, location, and resource availability on both ends of the consultation is required. Use of telehealth cannot have the same outcomes in every area. It is imperative that service providers and clinicians delivering telehealth from metropolitan areas to rural communities appreciate and understand the uniqueness of every community, so their approach is tailored and is helpful rather than hindering the experience for people in rural communities.

Limitations

There are a number of limitations inherent to the design of this study. Participants were recruited via their workplace and thus although steps were taken to ensure they understood the research would not affect their employment, it is possible some employees perceived an association between the research and their employment. Health professionals who had either very positive or very negative experiences with telehealth may have been more likely to participate, as they may be more likely to want to discuss their experiences. In addition to this, only health services that were already connected with the researchers’ networks were invited to participate. Other limitations include purposive sampling, noting that the opinions of the participants are not generalisable. The participant group also represented mostly nursing professionals whose experiences with telehealth may differ from other health disciplines. Finally, it is important to acknowledge that the opinions of the health professionals who participated in the study, may not represent, or align with the experience and opinions of service users.

This study illustrates that while telehealth has provided increased access to services for many rural communities, others have experienced barriers related to variability in connectivity and managing technology. The results demonstrated that telehealth may not be the preferred or appropriate option for some individuals in rural communities and it is important to provide choice. Consideration of the context in which telehealth services are being delivered, particularly in rural and remote communities where there are challenges with resourcing and training to support health professionals, is critical to the success of telehealth service provision. Another critical factor is preparation and specific, intentional training for health professionals on how to transition to manage and maintain telehealth services effectively. Telehealth interventions require a unique skill set and guidance pertaining to who, when and what training will equip health professionals with the appropriate skill set to deliver telehealth services is still to be determined.

Data availability

The qualitative data collected for this study was de-identified before analysis. Consent was not obtained to use or publish individual level identified data from the participants and hence cannot be shared publicly. The de-identified data can be obtained from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to acknowledge Georgina Luscombe, Julian Grant, Claire Seaman, Jennifer Cox, Sarah Redshaw and Jennifer Schwarz who contributed to various elements of the project.

The study authors are employed by Three Rivers Department of Rural Health. Three Rivers Department of Rural Health is funded by the Australian Government under the Rural Health Multidisciplinary Training (RHMT) Program.

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RB & EG contributed to the conceptualisation of the study and methodological design. RB & MN collected the research data. RB, EG, MN, KR contributed to analysis and interpretation of the research data. RB, EG, MN, KR drafted the manuscript. All authors provided feedback on the manuscript and approved the final submitted manuscript.

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Barry, R., Green, E., Robson, K. et al. Factors critical for the successful delivery of telehealth to rural populations: a descriptive qualitative study. BMC Health Serv Res 24 , 908 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-024-11233-3

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-024-11233-3

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Leidos is a Fortune 500 ® innovation company rapidly addressing the world's most vexing challenges in national security and health. The company's global workforce of 48,000 collaborates to create smarter technology solutions for customers in heavily regulated industries. Headquartered in Reston, Virginia , Leidos reported annual revenues of approximately $15.4 billion for the fiscal year ended December 29, 2023 . For more information, visit www.leidos.com .

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Disclaimer: This material is based upon work supported by the DoD Information Analysis Center Program (DoDIAC), sponsored by the Defense Technical Information Center (DTIC) under Contract No. FA807518D0009. Approved for Public Release, Distribution Unlimited. Any opinions, findings and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the DoD.

Melissa Lee Dueñas (571) 526-6850 [email protected]

Alyssa Pettus (571) 526-6743 [email protected]

Brandon Ver Velde (571) 526-6257 [email protected]

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• Data from: Critical biblical studies via word frequency analysis: Unveiling text authorship
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• We address the question of authorship of biblical texts by employing statistical analysis to the frequency of words using a new method that is particularly sensitive to deviations in frequencies associated with few words out of potentially many. The data below consists of the "discriminating words" which have the biggest effect on the value of the Higher Criticism statistic from the analyses of 50 chapters.
• Faigenbaum-Golovin, S., Kipnis, A., Bühler, A., Piasetzky, E., Römer, T., & Finkelstein, I. (2024). Data from: Critical biblical studies via word frequency analysis: Unveiling text authorship. Duke Research Data Repository. https://doi.org/10.7924/r42b97k21
• Römer, Thomas
• Bühler, Axel
• Piasetzky, Eli
• Faigenbaum-Golovin, Shira
• Finkelstein, Israel
• Kipnis, Alon
• 10.7924/r42b97k21
• Natural language processing (Computer science)
• August 12, 2024
• ark:/87924/r42b97k21
• Duke Rhodes Information Initiative
• Mathematics
• Duke Research Data Repository
• Shira Faigenbaum-Golovin, [email protected] , https://orcid.org/XXXXXXXXX/0000-0003-0320-9726
• Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal
• http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/

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Mathematics > Logic

Title: impact analysis of data drift towards the development of safety-critical automotive system.

Abstract: A significant part of contemporary research in autonomous vehicles is dedicated to the development of safety critical systems where state-of-the-art artificial intelligence (AI) algorithms, like computer vision (CV), can play a major role. Vision models have great potential for the real-time detection of numerous traffic signs and obstacles, which is essential to avoid accidents and protect human lives. Despite vast potential, computer vision-based systems have critical safety concerns too if the traffic condition drifts over time. This paper represents an analysis of how data drift can affect the performance of vision models in terms of traffic sign detection. The novelty in this research is provided through a YOLO-based fusion model that is trained with drifted data from the CARLA simulator and delivers a robust and enhanced performance in object detection. The enhanced model showed an average precision of 97.5\% compared to the 58.27\% precision of the original model. A detailed performance review of the original and fusion models is depicted in the paper, which promises to have a significant impact on safety-critical automotive systems.

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