HR-ICP-MS
Research studies presented in Table 1 demonstrated the potential human health risks that metal presence can have in water bodies, being important to highlight that there is still a need to evaluate the impact that inorganic contaminants have on human health. Furthermore, several research groups in different countries have detected the presence of contaminants not only in the supply sources, such as water bodies, but also in aquatic environments, such as flora and fauna being affected and representing economic importance since certain species can be traded, based on great demand to satisfy local and international markets.
On the other hand, organic contaminants can be divided into several groups; nevertheless, the principal groups are the ones denominated as persistent organic pollutants (POPs). These pollutants have an important impact on the environment and human health. Some examples are per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), personal care products, pharmaceutical compounds, pesticides, phenolic compounds, dyes, hormones, sweeteners, surfactants, and others.
Their detection has been primarily necessary to assess the effects that these pollutants have. Most of them are primarily obtained from industrial activities having different uses, such as flame retardants, coolants, cement, and others. Their presence represents an important contribution to water ecotoxicity (Ecuador, Argentina, Mexico) that affects the integrity of the species that inhabit that ecosystem [ 53 , 54 , 55 ].
Important issues have been detected in aquatic environments. The bioaccumulation of several organic compounds, such as polychlorinated biphenyl compounds (PBCs) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), in important water bodies, such as Lake Chapala (Mexico), has been reported, through the analysis of samples recollected from water, fish, and sediments from two local seasonal periods. In this case, the fish analyzed were Cyprinus carpio , Oreochromis aureus , and Chirostoma spp., establishing that these chemical substances can reach the lake via industrial activities and strong winds and enter from the Lerma River (Mexico) [ 55 ].
In the study of Ramos et al. (2021), a water analysis was performed in the river and its treated water throughout a year in Minas-Gerais (Brazil). The detection of seventeen phenolic compounds with a single quadrupole gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer equipment (GCMS-QP2010 SE) coupled with a flame ionization detector (FID) was analyzed. From the samples analyzed, only sixteen were detected, being that 3-methylphenol was the only one not detected. In raw water, the detection of 2,3,4-trichlorophenol, 2,4-dimethylphenol, and 4-nitrophenol was found with the most frequency and for treated water, 4-nitrophenol and bisphenol A, establishing that a health risk to the environment and humans was identified with the contamination of these phenolic compounds [ 56 ]. Another study carried out in the St. Lawrence River, Quebec, (Canada), was performed based on an analysis of surface water for the detection of ultraviolet absorbents (UVAs) and industrial antioxidants (IAs). The detection was carried out via gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) detecting several groups of UVAs, such as organic UV filters (benzophenone (BP), 2-ethylhexyl salicylate (EHS), 2-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzophenone (BP3), 3,3,5-trimethylcyclohexylsalicylate (HMS), 2-ethylhexyl 2-cyano-3,3-diphenylacrylate (OC), and ethylhexyl methoxycinnamate (EHMC)), aromatic secondary amines (diphenylamine (DPA)), benzotriazole UV stabilizers (2-(2H-benzotriazol-2-yl)-4,6-di-tert-pentylphenol (UV238), and synthetic phenolic antioxidants (2,6-di-tert-butyl-4-methylphenol (BHT) and 2,6-di-tert-butyl-1,4-benzoquinone (BHTQ)). The field-based tissue-specific bioaccumulation factors (BAF) were analyzed to assess these contaminants in fish tissues (lake sturgeon and northern pike) in which some of the compounds that accumulated in lake sturgeon were BP3, BHT, and UV238. For northern pike, some were BP, BP3, BHT, and BHTQ, establishing an environmental risk assessment in terms of possible adverse effects on fish [ 57 ].
Finally, in the case of PAHs, several compounds have been detected (fluorene, naphthalene, anthracene, chrysene, and others) in different American countries, such as Canada, United States of America, Ecuador, Peru, Chile, and Brazil [ 58 , 59 , 60 , 61 , 62 , 63 , 64 , 65 , 66 ]. Their presence has been related to anthropogenic activities, such as aluminum smelter or oil production, having a negative impact on health, such as carcinogenic effects.
For this reason, analytical assays must be performed to establish the concentrations of these pollutants using techniques that are capable of studying a complex matrix and if it is possible, in situ. In Table 2 , the description of several studies that were able to detect organic compounds in environmental samples and the technique that was employed are provided.
Detection of organic pollutants in environmental samples.
Analyte | Samples | Region | Environmental Risk Assessment | Analytical Technique | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
PCBs and PDBEs | Sediments, water, and fish | Lake Chapala (Mexico) | Bioaccumulation | GC-MS/SIM | [ ] |
Pesticides (herbicides, fungicides, and insecticides), and its degradates | Groundwater | USA | Carcinogens | LC-MS/MS | [ ] |
Inorganic (As, U, and Pb) and organic (disinfection by-products, per/polyfluoroalkyl substances, pesticides, and others) | Tapwater, untreated lake water, and treated water treatment plants | Lake Michigan (USA) | Potential risk of contamination exposure (carcinogenic) | Not specified | [ ] |
Pharmaceuticals, pesticides, and metals/metalloids | Surface water | Lake Guaiba (Brazil) | High toxicity in algae and aquatic invertebrates | LC-QTOF-MS, GC-MS/MS, and ICP-MS | [ ] |
Pesticides (antifungals, herbicides, and insecticides) | Drinking water treatment plants, public water, and sewage sites | Porto Alegre, (Brazil) | Endocrine disruption and antimicrobial resistance | SPE with LC-MS/MS system (HPLC-ESI-MS) | [ ] |
Antibiotics | Surface water, sediment, and natural river biofilm | Córdoba (Argentina) | Antimicrobial resistance | UPLC-ESI-MS/MS | [ ] |
p-Toluendiamine, p-aminophenol, and Bandrowski’s base derivative | Raw river water, drinking water, and wastewater from beauty salon | Araraquara, São José do Rio Preto in São Paulo State (Brazil) | Mutagenicity | HPLC-DAD and linear voltammetry techniques | [ ] |
Veterinary antibiotics | Water, sediment, and trout tissue | Lake Titicaca (Peru) | Toxic risk for algal species inhibiting protein synthesis | SPE-LC-MS/MS system | [ ] |
Pesticides, antibiotics, pharmaceuticals, personal care products, plasticizers, sweeteners, drug metabolites, stimulants, and illegal drugs | Pacu fillets from supermarkets and fish markets | Argentina | Potential toxicological risk in humans | Four extraction methods, two based on SPE and two on QuEChERS. Ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to a Q-Exactive Orbitrap mass spectrometer | [ ] |
Pharmaceutical, personal care products, PFAs, pesticides, sweeteners, stimulants | Surface water and sediments | Lake Huron to Lake Erie corridor (USA) | Endocrine disruption, cancer, antimicrobial resistance | SPE-LC-MS-MS | [ ] |
482 organic and 19 inorganic elements | Tap water | 11 states of USA | Potential of human health risk | 12 target organic and 1 inorganic methods | [ ] |
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, pesticides, (PCBs), and metals (Hg, Cd, Cu, Pb, Ni, Zn, and Se) | Water, sediment, and biota | Puerto Rico | Potential human health (bioaccumulation) | GC-MS, ICP-AES, CVAA | [ ] |
Pharmaceutical, personal care products, and pesticides | Sediments, surface, and cave water | Northern Colorado Plateau, (USA) | Potential effects in environment | LC-MS/MS with thermospray ionization, SPE-HPLC-MS/MS, GC-MS | [ ] |
Pharmaceutical, herbicides, and disinfectants | Untreated water ponds, wastewater reclamation sites, untreated tidal blackish rivers, non-tidal freshwater creeks, produce processing water plant (wash water) | USA | Potential human health risks | UPLC-MS/MS | [ ] |
Pharmaceuticals | Groundwater | Central Pennsylvania (USA) | Potential minimum human health risk | High-resolution accurate mass (HRAM), Q Exactive Orbitrap mass spectrometer through a heated electrospray injection (HESI) source | [ ] |
Pharmaceuticals | Raw untreated water and drinking water treatment plants | Minas Gerais (Brazil) | Presence after still treatment remains as a potential health risk | HPLC-MS | [ ] |
Antibiotics | Market fish | Argentina | Residues in fish can impact human health, such as antimicrobial resistance | UPLC-MS/MS | [ ] |
Atrazine | Synthetic and real wastewater | USA | Carcinogen | HPLC-DAD | [ ] |
Pharmaceuticals | Surface, wastewater, and drinking water | Canada | Elevated human risk associated with the mixture of these organic compounds | Q-TRAP LC/MS/MS | [ ] |
Microplastics | Wastewater | Montevideo (Uruguay) | Not mentioned | Confocal Raman Microscopy, polarized light optical microscopy, NIR spectroscopy and Scanning electron Microscopy (SEM) | [ ] |
Pharmaceutically active compounds | Surface and treated water (composite samples) from drinking water treatment plants | Brazil | Potential human health risk | HPLC coupled to micrOTOF-QII mass spectrometer with an ESI source | [ ] |
Pesticides | Water sources (rivers, lakes, lagoons, and streams) | Basin of Rio San Francisco in Minas Gerais state and urban lagoons of Belo Horizonte (Brazil) | Association with several disorders and diseases | Passive sampling device with carbon nanomaterial and GC/MS | [ ] |
As it can be appreciated in Table 2 , a variety of organic compounds have been identified as being associated with several disorders and diseases. Nevertheless, most of the studies analyzed correlated its contaminant of interest with previous research that evaluated its potential human health risk effect. For this reason, it is important to detect the contaminant and correlate it with its health impact in the environment (population and biota).
The inorganic contaminants with the greatest presence in water bodies correspond to heavy metals. At the moment, the potential damage to health due to heavy metals has been reported as listed below: As(III) (skin damage, circulatory system issues), Cd(II) (kidney damage, carcinogenic, cardiovascular damage, hematological, and skeletal changes), Cr(III) (allergic dermatitis, diarrhea, nausea, and vomiting), Cu(II) (gastrointestinal, liver or kidney damage), Pb(II) (kidney damage, reduced neural development, behavioral disorders), Hg(II) (kidney damage, nervous system).
According to the scientific reports analyzed, it is concluded that there are two main risk factors in public health: (i) the intake of contaminated water, being the main factor due to direct exposure to the contaminant, which can produce different anomalies as those described in the previous paragraph. However, the studies presented cannot be considered conclusive, since the reports show that the impact on health is directly related to the clinical history of the exposed population [ 20 ]. (ii) The consumption of contaminated food, such as in the case of the report of da-Silva et al. (2019) [ 24 ], which reported Hg migration in water from the Western Amazon Basin (Amazon Triple Frontier: Brazil, Peru, and Colombia) to fish; being that if they are intended for human consumption, this can cause mercury intoxication (mercurialism). While the intake of contaminated food is the most likely action to occur, there are other special factors that particularly attract attention, such as the report presented by Oliveira et al. (2021) [ 87 ] studying a potential health risk in terms of a cognitive deficit due to soil intake by pre-school children aged 1 to 4 years, which presents high levels of Pb and Cd due to contact with contaminated wastewater from industries in the region of São Paulo (Brazil).
On the other hand, for organic contaminants, data analysis and comparison has been performed in different countries evidencing the necessity of establishing strategies to remediate water pollution ( Figure 1 ). These strategies are urgent, based on the potential risk that these contaminants can have on human health [ 88 , 89 , 90 ]. Although there are currently certain reports, guidance values or standards that allow establishing criteria based on the presence of these contaminants and their potential toxic effect are needed [ 43 , 91 ]. Efforts have been performed to establish international regulations since the majority of organic compounds are not quality controls [ 92 ].
For this reason, several research groups have tried to determine the impact a chemical compound has on human health. For example, atrazine, an artificial herbicide that was detected in surface water, has been associated with an impact on human health and aquatic biota [ 93 ], upon evaluating endocrine-disrupting compounds that can affect human health via cell-based assays [ 94 ]. Moreover, per and polyfluoroalkyl substances have been determined, but there are no reference points that establish a water quality criterion for its impact on human health [ 91 ]. Based on this, there is a need to establish scientific studies in a human population and evaluate the impact of water pollution on its health. Some studies have been performed (see Table 3 ) to correlate the exposure of contaminants in people’s life and if possible, establish the impact that water sources and body contamination have.
Scientific studies on the correlation between a water source and the presence of certain pollutants in a human population.
Analyte | Population | Sample | Region | Source | Analytical Technique | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mercury and persistent organic pollutants | 287 urban anglers | Blood and urine | Detroit River (USA) | Consumption of local fish | GC-ECD, ICP-MS, and HRGC/ID-HRMS | [ ] |
Metals and persistent organic pollutants | 409 licensed anglers and 206 Burmese refugees | Blood and urine | Buffalo River, Niagara River, Eighteenmile Creek, and the Rochester Embayment | Locally caught fish, store-bought fish, and consuming fish/shellfish | ICP-MS and GC-HRMS | [ ] |
Al, As, Cd, Co, Cu, Hg, Mn, Ni, Pb, Se, and Zn | 300 volunteers | Blood | Three regions of Brazil | Well and tapwater intake, fish, seafood consumption, and drinking water | ICP-MS | [ ] |
Hg, As, and Cr | 32 children | Water (drinking and cooking), blood, and urine | Yucatan (Mexico) | Water source (drinking and cooking water) | (AAS) and graphite furnace AAS | [ ] |
B | 177 mother–child cohort | Maternal blood and urine (during and after pregnancy), placenta, breast milk, infant (urine and blood), and drinking water | Argentina | Water source | ICP-MS | [ ] |
Fe, Pb, and Zn | 353 early school-aged children | Blood, urine, and drinking water | Montevideo (Uruguay) | Not possible to establish drinking water as a main source of exposure | ICP-MS | [ ] |
Cd | 469 people | Blood | Vila de Beja and Bairro Industrial (Brazil) | Drinking water source (general network) | ICP-MS | [ ] |
Nitrates | 348,250 singleton births | Historical data | Missouri (USA) | Drinking water | Historical data | [ ] |
Pb and Cd | 2433 preschoolers aged between 1 and 4-years-old | Nails | Sao Paulo, (Brazil) | Industrial activity | ICP-MS | [ ] |
As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Mn, and Pb | 6,267,905 adults and children | Statistical data | Joanes River in the northeast of Brazil | Industrial activity | Mathematical calculation | [ ] |
Cd | Not specified | Blood samples | Barcarena and Abaetetuba city (Brazil) | Industry | Seronorm Trace Elements in Whole Blood Lyophilized Level 1 and Level 2 (SERO) | [ ] |
U, As, As, Hg, Pb, Cd, monomethylarsonic acid, dimethylarsinic acid, and Mn | 231 pregnant women between 14 and 45 years of age | Blood and urine | USA | Unregulated water sources | ICP-MS (ICP-DRC-MS) | [ ] |
PFAS | 213 non-smoking adults | Serum | USA | Home water district and bottled water | SPE-HPLC-MS/MS | [ ] |
2.3.1. inorganic contaminants.
Taking into consideration the environmental and public health risk represented by effluents and water bodies contaminated with metals, numerous research groups have focused on proposing remediation alternatives, highlighting the adsorption process [ 104 , 105 ], coagulation/flocculation [ 106 ], chemical precipitation [ 107 ], ion exchange [ 108 ], electrochemical treatments [ 109 , 110 ], membrane use (ultrafiltration, osmosis, and nanofiltration) [ 111 , 112 ], and other alternative treatments based on the use of biopolyelectrolytes and coupled adsorption processes with electrochemical regeneration [ 113 , 114 ]. In all cases, the actual challenge consists of evaluating the scale-up process, for which studies have been performed on a small scale under controlled conditions.
Although, scientific reports have demonstrated great efficiencies in the removal of heavy metals, there has been certain problems documented for each technology, which must be addressed to present advanced remediation technologies. For the ion exchange process, it has been documented that those present with low efficiencies for the removal of high concentrations of metals [ 115 ]. For example, Malik et al. (2019) reported removal efficiencies of 55% for Pb and 30–40% for Hg [ 116 ]. In the case of membrane filtration, good removal efficiencies have been reported (around 90% for Cu and Cd) [ 116 ],;however, it requires high installation costs and maintenance [ 117 ]. Likewise, it has been reported that the electrochemical, catalysis, and coagulation/flocculation processes present high metal removal efficiencies (around 85–99% for Cd, Zn, and Mn) [ 118 ]. On the other hand, the main drawbacks are high installation costs and extra operational costs, as well as the generation of unwanted by-products (sludge) [ 119 ]. These drawbacks significantly reduce the effectiveness of water treatment processes, so a second challenge to deal with is process optimization.
Finally, the third challenge is the design of environmentally and economically sustainable treatment processes. The current paradigm of water treatment of metal contamination must be broken; the importance is not only in water sanitation, but also in recovering the metal in order to obtain valuable products and not only change the pollutant phase [ 120 ]. For all the above, adsorption and chemical precipitation have turned out to be the most used methods. However, the removal results obtained depend on each matrix used, so the materials and experimental conditions must be proposed based on the needs and the type of effluent to be treated [ 121 ].
In the previous sections, the detection of these pollutants is only the first step to evaluate the environmental risk that communities and countries have in their respective water sources. The next step is to determine technologies that can establish an efficiency in the removal of these contaminants in a complex matrix without affecting the environment using novel systems [ 122 , 123 , 124 ]. In this regard, an actual challenge is the development of technologies capable of treating specific organic compounds and if it is possible, to use these treatment technologies with the current systems that governments have implemented. Some technologies that have been investigated are the use of continuous flow supercritical water (SCW) for the removal of hormones from the wastewater of a pharmaceutical industry. In their results, the technology was demonstrated to reduce 88.4% of the initial total organic carbon (TOC) value, and the presence in gas phase of H 2 , CH 4 , CO, CO 2 , C 2 H 6 , and C 2 H 4 , which could be used to produce renewable energy. Moreover, phytotoxicity assays demonstrated that there was no risk of the treated samples with respect to the germination of Cucumis sativus seeds [ 125 ]. Another technology that has been used is direct contact membrane distillation, which can be used to treat raw surface water contaminated with phenolic compounds [ 126 ]. In this case, water samples were spiked with 15 phenolic compounds. An important parameter evaluated was the recovery rate (RR) to demonstrate the stability of the direct membrane distillation, being up to a 30%. Pollutant removal reached 94.3 ± 1.9% and 95.0 ± 2.2% for 30% and 70% RR, respectively. A consideration for this technology is to work at a recovery rate in which flux does not decay (RR < 30%) to avoid performing loss and fouling.
Different approaches have been used for the removal of contaminants, such as the use of a photocatalytic paint based on TiO 2 nanoparticles and acrylate-based photopolymer resin for the removal of dyes in different water matrices [ 127 ]. Another strategy was subsurface horizontal flow-constructed wetlands (planted in polyculture and unplanted) as secondary domestic wastewater treatment to demonstrate the removal of personal care and pharmaceutical products [ 128 ].
Considering the above mentioned content, among all technologies evaluated currently to eliminate organic contaminants present in water, Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs) stand out, since they generate highly reactive and non-selective radicals capable of almost completely mineralizing the contaminant of interest, generating mainly CO 2 and H 2 O as an oxidation product. In this sense, the most widely studied AOPs correspond to catalytic wet peroxide oxidation, catalytic wet air oxidation, homogeneous catalyst, photo-Fenton, Fenton process, photocatalysis, Fenton-like, electro-Fenton, heterogeneous catalyst, ultrasound, and microwave [ 129 ]. Although the results show the potential use of technologies for water treatment, there are still challenges to address. The current challenge of this technology must be aimed at scaling the process, optimizing operational parameters, and designing a sustainable technology to have a low cost and be environmentally friendly, achieving the lowest generation of by-products. In this sense, two recently published research articles stand out in which AOPs have been evaluated for the treatment of contaminated water effluents in the Latin American region. Mejía-Morales et al. (2020) [ 130 ] presented the use of an AOP based on UV/H 2 O 2 /O 3 for the remediation of residual water from a hospital in Puebla (Mexico), showing the feasibility of its use to remediate effluents contaminated with a high organic load. On the other hand, Zárate-Guzmán et al. (2021) [ 131 ] presented the scale-up of a Fenton and Photo-Fenton process for the treatment of piggery wastewater in Guanajuato (Mexico). The results show that these two AOPs have great application potential for the remediation of effluents contaminated with a high organic load due to their high removal percentages (COD, TOC, and Color) and low operating costs.
The presence of contaminants in the water is a severe environmental and public health problem in the American continent. The presence of inorganic (As, Cd, Cr, Pb, Cu, Hg, and U) and organic pollutants (dyes, phenolic compounds, hormones, pesticides, and pharmaceuticals compounds) in effluents and water bodies is due to anthropogenic activities and natural factors in the region. The health risks associated with these contaminants primarily encompass skin damage, carcinogenic effects, nervous system damage, circulatory system issues, kidney damage, gastrointestinal damage, and impacts on the food chain. The critical review of the reports presented in this document identifies the following as the main challenges:
The authors thank the “Secretaria de Innovación, Ciencia y tecnología (SICyT)” and “Consejo Estatal de Ciencia y Tecnología de Jalisco (COECYTJAL)” for the support received through the Convocatoria del fondo de Desarrollo Científico de Jalisco para Atender Retos Sociales “FODECIJAL 2022” (Clave del Proyecto: 10169-2022).
The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/ijerph20054499/s1 , Supplementary Table S1: Comparative table of analytical techniques most used for the detection of inorganic contaminants present in water. Supplementary Table S2: Comparison of detection limits in μg L −1 at 3 sigma [ 132 ].
This research received no external funding.
Conceptualization, A.I.Z.-G. and L.A.R.-C.; Methodology, all authors; Formal analysis, all authors; writing—original draft preparation, all authors; writing—review and editing, all authors. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Conflicts of interest.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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F inding and choosing a strong research topic is the critical first step when it comes to crafting a high-quality dissertation, thesis or research project. Here, we’ll explore a variety research ideas and topic thought-starters related to various environmental science disciplines, including ecology, oceanography, hydrology, geology, soil science, environmental chemistry, environmental economics, and environmental ethics.
NB – This is just the start…
The topic ideation and evaluation process has multiple steps . In this post, we’ll kickstart the process by sharing some research topic ideas within the environmental sciences. This is the starting point though. To develop a well-defined research topic, you’ll need to identify a clear and convincing research gap , along with a well-justified plan of action to fill that gap.
If you’re new to the oftentimes perplexing world of research, or if this is your first time undertaking a formal academic research project, be sure to check out our free dissertation mini-course. Also be sure to also sign up for our free webinar that explores how to develop a high-quality research topic from scratch.
While the ideas we’ve presented above are a decent starting point for finding a research topic, they are fairly generic and non-specific. So, it helps to look at actual dissertations and theses to see how this all comes together.
Below, we’ve included a selection of research projects from various environmental science-related degree programs to help refine your thinking. These are actual dissertations and theses, written as part of Master’s and PhD-level programs, so they can provide some useful insight as to what a research topic looks like in practice.
Looking at these titles, you can probably pick up that the research topics here are quite specific and narrowly-focused , compared to the generic ones presented earlier. To create a top-notch research topic, you will need to be precise and target a specific context with specific variables of interest . In other words, you’ll need to identify a clear, well-justified research gap.
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Looking for a research title about water shortage, conservation, pollution, or treatment? Whatever your area of interest is, you will definitely find a good writing idea in this list of titles for water essays! Topics we’ve collected here are fresh, unique, and current. Go ahead and read them below!
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Essay on Water Pollution: Water pollution occurs when human activities introduce toxic substances into freshwater ecosystems such as lakes, rivers, oceans, and groundwater, leading to the degradation of water quality. The combination of harmful chemicals with water has a negative impact on these ecosystems.
Various human actions, particularly those affecting land, water, and underwater surfaces, contribute to this pollution, disrupting the natural supply of clean water and posing a significant danger to all forms of life, including humans.
Table of Contents
Also Read: Types of Water Pollution
When many pollutants such as garbage, chemicals, bacteria, household waste, industrial waste, etc get mixed in the water resources and make the water unfit for cooking, drinking, cleaning, etc. it is known as water pollution. Water pollution damages the quality of water. lakes, water streams, rivers, etc may become polluted and eventually they will pollute the oceans. All this will directly or indirectly affect the lives of us humans and the animals deteriorating our health.
Water is plentiful on Earth, present both above and beneath its surface. A variety of water bodies, such as rivers, ponds, seas, and oceans, can be found on the planet’s surface. Despite Earth’s ability to naturally replenish its water, we are gradually depleting and mishandling this abundant resource.
Although water covers 71% of the Earth’s surface and land constitutes the remaining 29%, the rapid expansion of water pollution is impacting both marine life and humans.
Water pollution stems significantly from city sewage and industrial waste discharge. Indirect sources of water pollution include contaminants that reach water supplies via soil, groundwater systems, and precipitation.
Chemical pollutants pose a greater challenge in terms of removal compared to visible impurities, which can be filtered out through physical cleaning. The addition of chemicals alters water’s properties, rendering it unsafe and potentially lethal for consumption.
Prioritizing water infrastructure enhancement is vital for sustainable water management, with a focus on water efficiency and conservation.
Furthermore, rainwater harvesting and reuse serve as effective strategies to curb water pollution. Reclaimed wastewater and collected rainwater alleviate stress on groundwater and other natural water sources.
Groundwater recharge, which transfers water from surface sources to groundwater, is a well-known approach to mitigate water scarcity. These measures collectively contribute to safeguarding the planet’s water resources for present and future generations.
Here is a list of Major Landforms of the Earth !
The term “water pollution” is employed when human or natural factors lead to contamination of bodies of water, such as rivers, lakes, and oceans. Responsible management is now imperative to address this significant environmental concern. The primary sources of water contamination are human-related activities like urbanization, industrialization, deforestation, improper waste disposal, and the establishment of landfills.
The availability of freshwater on our planet is limited, and pollution only increases this scarcity. Every year, a substantial amount of fresh water is lost due to industrial and various other types of pollution. Pollutants encompass visible waste items of varying sizes as well as intangible, hazardous, and lethal compounds.
Numerous factories are situated in proximity to water bodies, utilizing freshwater to transport their waste. This industrial waste carries inherent toxicity, jeopardizing the well-being of both plant and animal life. Individuals living close to polluted water sources frequently suffer from skin problems, respiratory ailments, and occasionally even life-threatening health conditions.
Water contamination is also intensified by urban waste and sewage, adding to the problem. Each household generates considerable waste annually, including plastic, chemicals, wood, and other materials. Inadequate waste disposal methods result in this refusal to infiltrate aquatic ecosystems like rivers, lakes, and streams, leading to pollution.
Raising awareness about the causes and consequences of water pollution is crucial in significantly reducing its prevalence. Encouraging community or organizational clean-up initiatives on a weekly or monthly basis plays a pivotal role.
To eradicate water contamination completely, stringent legislation needs to be formulated and diligently enforced. Rigorous oversight would promote accountability, potentially deterring individuals and groups from polluting. Each individual should recognize the impact of their daily actions and take steps to contribute to a better world for generations to come.
My affection for my town has always been heightened by its abundant lakes, rivers, and forests. During one of my walks alongside the river that flowed through my village, I was struck by the unusual hues swirling within the water. The once-familiar crystal-clear blue had been replaced by a murky brown shade, accompanied by a potent, unpleasant odour. Intrigued, I decided to investigate further, descending to the riverbank for a closer look at the source of the peculiar colours and smells. Upon closer inspection, I observed peculiar foam bubbles floating on the water’s surface.
Suddenly, a commotion behind me caught my attention, and I turned to witness a group of people hastening toward the river. Their frantic shouts and vigorous gestures conveyed their panic, prompting me to realize that a grave situation was unfolding. As the group reached the river, they were confronted with the distressing sight of numerous lifeless fish floating on the water’s surface.
Following a comprehensive investigation, it was revealed that a local factory had been releasing toxic chemicals into the river, resulting in extensive pollution and the devastation of the ecosystem. This investigation left me stunned and disheartened, acknowledging the significant effort required to restore the river to its own form.
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A. Water pollution refers to the contamination of water bodies, such as rivers, lakes, oceans, and groundwater, due to the introduction of harmful substances. These substances can include chemicals, industrial waste, sewage, and pollutants that adversely affect the quality of water, making it unsafe for human consumption and harmful to aquatic life.
A. The primary sources of water pollution include city sewage and industrial waste discharge. Chemical contaminants from factories and agricultural runoff, as well as oil spills and plastic waste, contribute significantly to water pollution. Runoff from paved surfaces and improper waste disposal also play a role in introducing pollutants into water bodies.
A. Water pollution has far-reaching consequences. It poses a threat to aquatic ecosystems by harming marine life, disrupting food chains, and damaging habitats. Additionally, contaminated water can lead to the spread of waterborne diseases among humans. Toxic chemicals in polluted water can cause serious health issues, affecting the skin, and respiratory systems, and even leading to long-term illnesses.
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Home — Essay Samples — Environment — Water Pollution — Water Pollution: Causes, Consequences, Solutions
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Water is an indispensable resource that sustains life on Earth, playing a crucial role in both ecological balance and human survival. Despite its significance, water pollution has emerged as a pervasive and alarming issue [...]
Water pollution is a major environmental issue that affects the world. It is defined as the contamination of water bodies, including rivers, lakes, oceans, and groundwater. Various factors contribute to the problem, and it has [...]
Water and ocean pollution are pressing environmental issues with far-reaching consequences. The contamination of water bodies, including rivers, lakes, and oceans, threatens biodiversity, ecosystems, and human well-being. [...]
Water is an essential resource that is vital for all forms of life on Earth. It is crucial for human survival, as it is needed for drinking, cooking, sanitation, agriculture, and industry. However, the availability and access to [...]
The importance of wastewater treatment cannot be overstated in today's world. As populations grow and urbanization continues, the generation of wastewater has surged, posing serious environmental and public health challenges. [...]
Overview of the issue of ocean pollution and its impact on marine ecosystems and the environment Mention of plastic pollution as a particularly destructive form of pollution Statistics on the environmental impact [...]
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Title: | WATER POLLUTION EFFECTS AND LEGAL CONTROLS IN INDIA WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO BATHINDA DISTRICT OF PUNJAB |
Researcher: | Kuljit Singh |
Guide(s): | |
Keywords: | PUNJAB BATHINDA WATER POLLUTION LEGAL CONTROLS INDIA |
University: | Guru Nanak Dev University |
Completed Date: | 27/01/2014 |
Abstract: | newline NO |
Pagination: | 28cm |
URI: | |
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Solid waste, toxic waste, thermal pollution, petroleum (oil) pollution, effects of water pollution on groundwater and oceans, water quality standards.
Is red tide caused by water pollution.
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Water pollution is the release of substances into bodies of water that makes water unsafe for human use and disrupts aquatic ecosystems. Water pollution can be caused by a plethora of different contaminants, including toxic waste , petroleum , and disease-causing microorganisms .
Human activities that generate domestic sewage and toxic waste cause water pollution by contaminating water with disease-causing microorganisms and poisonous substances. Oil spills are another source of water pollution that have devastating impacts on surrounding ecosystems.
Sewage can promote algae growth, which can eventually result in eutrophic “dead zones” where aquatic life cannot survive because of a lack of oxygen. Microplastics are often found in marine wildlife and can become concentrated in humans who consume seafood because of biomagnification . Oil spills, such as the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in 2010, strand and kill many different marine species.
While some studies point to human activity as a catalyst for red tide, scientists are unsure about its cause. Red tide is a common term for harmful algal blooms that often poison or kill wildlife and humans who consume contaminated seafood. Red tides can severely impact ecosystems and local economies.
water pollution , the release of substances into subsurface groundwater or into lakes , streams, rivers , estuaries , and oceans to the point that the substances interfere with beneficial use of the water or with the natural functioning of ecosystems . In addition to the release of substances, such as chemicals , trash, or microorganisms, water pollution may include the release of energy , in the form of radioactivity or heat , into bodies of water.
Water bodies can be polluted by a wide variety of substances, including pathogenic microorganisms, putrescible organic waste, fertilizers and plant nutrients , toxic chemicals, sediments, heat , petroleum (oil), and radioactive substances . Several types of water pollutants are considered below. (For a discussion of the handling of sewage and other forms of waste produced by human activities, see waste disposal and solid-waste management .)
Water pollutants come from either point sources or dispersed sources. A point source is a pipe or channel, such as those used for discharge from an industrial facility or a city sewerage system . A dispersed (or nonpoint) source is a very broad unconfined area from which a variety of pollutants enter the water body, such as the runoff from an agricultural area. Point sources of water pollution are easier to control than dispersed sources, because the contaminated water has been collected and conveyed to one single point where it can be treated. Pollution from dispersed sources is difficult to control, and, despite much progress in the building of modern sewage-treatment plants, dispersed sources continue to cause a large fraction of water pollution problems.
Domestic sewage is the primary source of pathogens ( disease -causing microorganisms) and putrescible organic substances. Because pathogens are excreted in feces , all sewage from cities and towns is likely to contain pathogens of some type, potentially presenting a direct threat to public health . Putrescible organic matter presents a different sort of threat to water quality. As organics are decomposed naturally in the sewage by bacteria and other microorganisms, the dissolved oxygen content of the water is depleted. This endangers the quality of lakes and streams, where high levels of oxygen are required for fish and other aquatic organisms to survive. In addition, domestic sewage commonly contains active pharmaceutical ingredients, which can harm aquatic organisms and may facilitate antibiotic resistance . Sewage-treatment processes reduce the levels of pathogens and organics in wastewater, but they do not eliminate them completely ( see also wastewater treatment ).
Domestic sewage is also a major source of plant nutrients , mainly nitrates and phosphates . Excess nitrates and phosphates in water promote the growth of algae , sometimes causing unusually dense and rapid growths known as algal blooms . When the algae die, oxygen dissolved in the water declines because microorganisms use oxygen to digest algae during the process of decomposition ( see also biochemical oxygen demand ). Anaerobic organisms (organisms that do not require oxygen to live) then metabolize the organic wastes, releasing gases such as methane and hydrogen sulfide , which are harmful to the aerobic (oxygen-requiring) forms of life. The process by which a lake changes from a clean, clear condition—with a relatively low concentration of dissolved nutrients and a balanced aquatic community —to a nutrient-rich, algae-filled state and thence to an oxygen-deficient, waste-filled condition is called eutrophication . Eutrophication is a naturally occurring, slow, and inevitable process. However, when it is accelerated by human activity and water pollution (a phenomenon called cultural eutrophication ), it can lead to the premature aging and death of a body of water.
The improper disposal of solid waste is a major source of water pollution. Solid waste includes garbage, rubbish, electronic waste , trash, and construction and demolition waste, all of which are generated by individual, residential, commercial, institutional, and industrial activities. The problem is especially acute in developing countries that may lack infrastructure to properly dispose of solid waste or that may have inadequate resources or regulation to limit improper disposal. In some places solid waste is intentionally dumped into bodies of water. Land pollution can also become water pollution if the trash or other debris is carried by animals, wind, or rainfall to bodies of water. Significant amounts of solid waste pollution in inland bodies of water can also eventually make their way to the ocean. Solid waste pollution is unsightly and damaging to the health of aquatic ecosystems and can harm wildlife directly. Many solid wastes, such as plastics and electronic waste, break down and leach harmful chemicals into the water, making them a source of toxic or hazardous waste.
Of growing concern for aquatic environments is plastic pollution . Since the ocean is downstream from nearly every terrestrial location, it is the receiving body for much of the plastic waste generated on land. Several million tons of debris end up in the world’s oceans every year, and much of it is improperly discarded plastic litter. Plastic pollution can be broken down by waves and ultraviolet radiation into smaller pieces known as microplastics , which are less than 5 mm (0.2 inch) in length and are not biodegradable. Primary microplastics, such as microbeads in personal care products and plastic fibers in synthetic textiles (e.g., nylon ), also enter the environment directly, through any of various channels—for example, from wastewater treatment systems , from household laundry, or from unintentional spills during manufacturing or transport. Alarmingly, a number of studies of both freshwater and marine locations have found microplastics in every aquatic organism tested. These tiny plastics are suspected of working their way up the marine food chains , from zooplankton and small fish to large marine predators, and have been found in seafood. Microplastics have also been detected in drinking water. Their health effects are unknown.
Waste is considered toxic if it is poisonous , radioactive , explosive , carcinogenic (causing cancer ), mutagenic (causing damage to chromosomes ), teratogenic (causing birth defects), or bioaccumulative (that is, increasing in concentration at the higher ends of food chains). Sources of toxic chemicals include improperly disposed wastewater from industrial plants and chemical process facilities ( lead , mercury , chromium ) as well as surface runoff containing pesticides used on agricultural areas and suburban lawns ( chlordane , dieldrin , heptachlor). (For a more-detailed treatment of toxic chemicals, see poison and toxic waste .)
Sediment (e.g., silt ) resulting from soil erosion or construction activity can be carried into water bodies by surface runoff . Suspended sediment interferes with the penetration of sunlight and upsets the ecological balance of a body of water. Also, it can disrupt the reproductive cycles of fish and other forms of life , and when it settles out of suspension it can smother bottom-dwelling organisms.
Heat is considered to be a water pollutant because it decreases the capacity of water to hold dissolved oxygen in solution, and it increases the rate of metabolism of fish. Valuable species of game fish (e.g., trout ) cannot survive in water with very low levels of dissolved oxygen . A major source of heat is the practice of discharging cooling water from power plants into rivers; the discharged water may be as much as 15 °C (27 °F) warmer than the naturally occurring water. The rise in water temperatures because of global warming can also be considered a form of thermal pollution.
Petroleum ( oil ) pollution occurs when oil from roads and parking lots is carried in surface runoff into water bodies. Accidental oil spills are also a source of oil pollution—as in the devastating spills from the tanker Exxon Valdez (which released more than 260,000 barrels in Alaska’s Prince William Sound in 1989) and from the Deepwater Horizon oil rig (which released more than 4 million barrels of oil into the Gulf of Mexico in 2010). Oil slicks eventually move toward shore, harming aquatic life and damaging recreation areas.
Groundwater —water contained in underground geologic formations called aquifers —is a source of drinking water for many people. For example, about half the people in the United States depend on groundwater for their domestic water supply . Although groundwater may appear crystal clear (due to the natural filtration that occurs as it flows slowly through layers of soil ), it may still be polluted by dissolved chemicals and by bacteria and viruses . Sources of chemical contaminants include poorly designed or poorly maintained subsurface sewage-disposal systems (e.g., septic tanks ), industrial wastes disposed of in improperly lined or unlined landfills or lagoons , leachates from unlined municipal refuse landfills, mining and petroleum production, and leaking underground storage tanks below gasoline service stations. In coastal areas, increasing withdrawal of groundwater (due to urbanization and industrialization) can cause saltwater intrusion: as the water table drops, seawater is drawn into wells.
Although estuaries and oceans contain vast volumes of water, their natural capacity to absorb pollutants is limited. Contamination from sewage outfall pipes, from dumping of sludge or other wastes, and from oil spills can harm marine life, especially microscopic phytoplankton that serve as food for larger aquatic organisms. Sometimes, unsightly and dangerous waste materials can be washed back to shore, littering beaches with hazardous debris. In oceans alone, annual pollution from all types of plastics was estimated to be between 4.8 million and 12.7 million tonnes (between 5.3 million and 14 million tons) in the early 21st century, and floating plastic waste had accumulated in Earth’s five subtropical gyres, which cover 40 percent of the world’s oceans.
Another ocean pollution problem is the seasonal formation of “ dead zones” (i.e., hypoxic areas, where dissolved oxygen levels drop so low that most higher forms of aquatic life vanish) in certain coastal areas. The cause is nutrient enrichment from dispersed agricultural runoff and concomitant algal blooms. Dead zones occur worldwide; one of the largest of these (sometimes as large as 22,730 square km [8,776 square miles]) forms annually in the Gulf of Mexico , beginning at the Mississippi River delta.
Although pure water is rarely found in nature (because of the strong tendency of water to dissolve other substances), the characterization of water quality (i.e., clean or polluted) is a function of the intended use of the water. For example, water that is clean enough for swimming and fishing may not be clean enough for drinking and cooking. Water quality standards (limits on the amount of impurities allowed in water intended for a particular use) provide a legal framework for the prevention of water pollution of all types.
There are several types of water quality standards. Stream standards are those that classify streams, rivers , and lakes on the basis of their maximum beneficial use; they set allowable levels of specific substances or qualities (e.g., dissolved oxygen , turbidity, pH) allowed in those bodies of water, based on their given classification. Effluent (water outflow) standards set specific limits on the levels of contaminants (e.g., biochemical oxygen demand , suspended solids, nitrogen ) allowed in the final discharges from wastewater-treatment plants. Drinking-water standards include limits on the levels of specific contaminants allowed in potable water delivered to homes for domestic use. In the United States , the Clean Water Act and its amendments regulate water quality and set minimum standards for waste discharges for each industry as well as regulations for specific problems such as toxic chemicals and oil spills . In the European Union , water quality is governed by the Water Framework Directive, the Drinking Water Directive, and other laws . ( See also wastewater treatment .)
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