medical education in vernacular language upsc

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Discuss the merits and demerits of offering medical education in vernacular languages in India.

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Back to main page, how to vernacularise medical education in india.

Context: Recently, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh declared their intention to provide the MBBS course in Hindi.  

Arguments in favour of using vernacular language in the medical education 

• This will help counter the hegemony of English in professional education. Few countries such as Germany and China have long been doing so successfully. Therefore, the Indian government can also replicate this in India. 
• One of the intentions of the move is to increase access to medical education beyond the English-knowing elite. 
• The measure would entail significant costs. The implementation would demand regulatory and administrative alterations. For example, translation of educational materials, training of trainers, etc . Further, the costs will depend on the scale of implementation and need not necessarily be a deterrent.  
• An argument advanced by critics is that this measure is fuelled by misplaced nationalistic sentiments. 
• This would erode the competitive advantage which Indian graduates have in the global scientific arena.  

In contrast to Germany and China where local languages are used, English is firmly entrenched in India. Therefore, there will be two-fold challenges. First, the measure could face considerable resistance in assimilating local language into the existing ecosystem. Second, it is unlikely to spur enough demand. For example, this has already been witnessed in the case of engineering courses. 

• If MBBS is taught in the regional language, then postgraduate medical courses and other medical courses would also need to be conceived in regional languages.  

At present, the government wishes to expand the private sector’s scope in medical education. However, the private sector is unlikely to welcome the move in the field of medical education.  

• There is no oblivious correlation between knowledge of English and socioeconomic status in Indian society. 
• Today, a considerable proportion of medical graduates who have studied in English are employed in allied sectors (research, pharmaceuticals, administration etc.). There medium graduates in vernacular language are unlikely to be welcomed in these allied sectors.  
• It would lead to development of an implicit hierarchy between non-English medium and English medium medical graduates. 
• The diversity and multiplicity of languages across and within states thwarts tge vernacularisation of medical education.  
• Medical doctors are highly mobile professionals. English medium medical graduates can find jobs across the country and the world.  
• English is a mutually-intelligible option in technical as well as routine dealings and interactions. Therefore, numerous local languages based medical education can lead to chaos.  
• Going for a select few languages with a large following could be an optimum middle-path. However, this is unlikely to obviate the need for incorporating basic English skills in the curriculum. 
• An incremental approach should be adopted in providing medical education in regional languages. For example, the government can start providing paramedical courses in the regional language. Such paramedical workers are often less mobile and function closer to the patients.  
• Further, vernacularisation is one of many reforms in medical education. Many other measures require political attention. 

Let's Discuss

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Make Your Note

Higher Education and Regional Languages

• 27 Aug 2021
• GS Paper - 1
• Population and Associated Issues
• GS Paper - 2
• Government Policies & Interventions

This article is based upon “Is it practical to conduct higher education in regional languages?” which was published in Livemint on 27/08/2021. It talks about the introduction of India’s regional languages in higher education and the pros and cons associated with it.

In India, teaching and learning have largely been in foreign languages whereas Indian languages have never got the much deserving importance in the field.

However, the National Education Policy, 2020 (NEP, 2020) has emphasized the use of regional languages for instruction at the primary and higher education levels.

With regard to this, the All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) has granted permission to 14 colleges across the country to offer select engineering courses in 11 regional languages including Hindi, Marathi, Bengali, Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Gujarati, Malayalam, Assamese, Punjabi and Oriya.

The unavoidable question here is whether it is practical to precipitate a regional-medium shift in higher education, especially in the face of a largely dysfunctional public education system.

Positive Aspects of Higher Education in Regional Language

• Performance in science and math, in particular, has been found to be better among students studying in their native language compared to English.
• Poor grasp of English has been tied by many educationists to dropout rates at the premier engineering education institutions as well as poor performance of some students.
• Additional Benefits for the Less-Advantaged: This is especially relevant for students who are first-generation learners (the first one in their entire generation to go to school and receive an education) or the ones coming from rural areas, who may feel intimidated by unfamiliar concepts in an alien language.
• Increase in Gross-Enrollment Ratio (GER): This will help provide quality teaching to more students and thus increase Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) in higher education.
• This way, private institutions too will be motivated to use Indian languages as a medium of instruction and/or offer bilingual programmes.
• It would also help prevent language-based discrimination.

Challenges Associated

• They will also have to give up on looking from the global talent pool for teaching.
• Insignificant for Institutions with Pan-India Admissions: A regional language focus is not meaningful in a scenario where the institutes see entrants from across the country such as IITs.
• Also, quality control of these translations will be of utmost importance to keep semantic irregularities at bay.
• Given the already lamentable employability of college-educated individuals, studying in a regional language could further inhibit job opportunities.
• Availability of Faculty: Given the English-medium legacy of higher education in India, attracting and retaining quality teachers who are willing and able to teach in regional languages will be a challenge.
• A lack of opportunities for Indian students at the international level may prove counterproductive to the NEP, 2020’s aim of bridging the gap between elites and the rest.
• It also goes against the vision of promoting the internationalization of education.

Way Forward

• A foundation needs to be built first, for instance, through grants to popularise science and technological education in the regional language, etc.
• In this regard, the Indian Institute of Translation and Interpretation (IITI) will be established which will employ scholars in Indian languages, subject experts and experts in translation and interpretation.
• It must ensure that the personal and social circumstances of students should in no way be obstacles to realising their full academic potential.
• At the same time, ensuring inclusion through the use of the mother tongue/ regional language, it should also set up a basic minimum standard of education which eliminates all disparity.
• Indian languages must be supplemented by English.
• To provide such a facility to all of its students, the institutions prioritise providing electronic devices and internet facilities to school and college students from socially and economically weaker sections.
• Indian languages are a sine qua non for educational and cultural development since they strengthen equity in education and will prepare students to live in a local, national and global society utilising a harmonious blend of Indian languages and English.
• A shift from “mother tongue versus English" towards the “mother tongue plus English" is required.

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Instructions & samples.

• Archaeological Sources: Explorations, Excavation & Monuments
• Literary Sources: Foreign Accounts (Chinese Writers)
• Indus Valley Civilization: Architecture
• Temple Architecture during Early Medieval Period
• 1.1 Sources and approaches of Indian history
• 1.2.1 Archaeological Sources: Explorations, Excavation & Monuments
• 1.2.2 Archaeological Sources: Epigraphy
• 1.2.3 Archaeological Sources: Numismatics
• 1.3.1 Literary Sources: Indigenous – Religious Literature: Buddhist and Jaina Literature as a source
• 1.3.2 Literary Sources: Indigenous – Religious Literature: Puranas
• 1.3.3 Literary Sources: Indigenous – Religious Literature: Shruti literature (VEDAS)
• 1.3.4 Literary Sources: Indigenous – Secular Literature
• 1.3.5 Literary Sources: Foreign Accounts (Greek, Chinese and Arab writers)
• 2.1 Geographical factors
• 2.2 Hunting and gathering (Palaeolithic and Mesolithic)
• 2.3 Beginning of agriculture (Neolithic and Chalcolithic)
• 3.1 Indus Valley Civilization: Origin, Extent and Characteristics
• 3.2 Indus Valley Civilization: Subsistence Base and Script
• 3.3 Indus Valley Civilization: Polity and Society
• 3.4 Indus Valley Civilization: Religion and Funerary Practices
• 3.5 Indus Valley Civilization: Architecture
• 3.6 Indus Valley Civilization: Crafts and Trade
• 3.7 Indus Valley Civilization: Changing Perspectives, Relationship between Early and Mature Phase
• 3.8 Indus Valley Civilization: Decline, Significance, Continuity, and change
• 4.1 Distribution of Megalithic Cultures
• 4.2 Community Life & Settlements of Megalithic Cultures
• 4.3 Agriculture, Craft, Pottery & Iron Industry of Megalithic Cultures
• 5.1 Expansion of Aryans
• 5.2 Transformation from Rig Vedic to Later Vedic: Polity
• 5.3 Transformation from Rig Vedic to Later Vedic: Economy
• 5.4 Transformation from Rig Vedic to Later Vedic: Society (Rig Vedic)
• 5.5 Transformation from Rig Vedic to Later Vedic: Society (Later Vedic)
• 5.6 Transformation from Rig Vedic to Later Vedic: Religion
• 5.7 Vedic Period: Religious and Philosophical Literature
• 5.8 Significance of the Vedic Age
• 6.1 Period of Mahajanapadas: Formation of States - Republics and Monarchies
• 6.2 Period of Mahajanapadas: Rise of Urban Centres
• 6.3 Period of Mahajanapadas: Trade routes; Economic growth; Introduction of coinage
• 6.4 Emergence of Heterodox Sects - Introduction and Causes
• 6.5 Emergence of Heterodox Sects - Buddhism
• 6.6 Emergence of Heterodox Sects - Jainism
• 6.7 Buddhism Vs Jainism and Brahmanism - Similarities and differences
• 6.8 Non-Buddhist Ascetic Orders
• 6.9 Period of Mahajanapadas - Social Changes
• 6.10 Iranian and Macedonian Invasions and their Impact
• 7.1 Mauryan Empire - Foundation
• 7.2 Megasthenes' Indika & Kautilya's Arthashastra
• 7.3 Mauryan Empire - Administration and Economy
• 7.4 Ashoka and his concept of Dhamma
• 7.5 Mauryan Empire - Art & Architecture
• 7.6 Disintegration of Mauryan Empire
• 7.7 Sungas and Kanvas
• 8.1 Contact with outside world (Polity)
• 8.2 Growth of Urban Centres
• 8.3 Economic and Social Conditions
• 8.4 Coinage
• 8.5 Development of Religions, Mahayana Buddhism
• 8.6 Art, Architecture, Science, Literature (Post-Mauryan Period)
• 8.7 Gandhara and Madhura School of Art
• 9.1 Kharavela
• 9.2 The Satavahanas
• 9.3 Tamil States of Sangam Age
• 9.4 Sangam Age-Economic Development
• 9.5 Sangam Age-Social Development
• 9.6 Sangam Literature and Culture
• 9.7 Early State in Deccan and South India - Economy, land grants, trade guilds, urban centres
• 9.8 Amaravati School of Art
• 9.9 Buddhist Centres
• 10.1 Guptas: Polity
• 10.2 Guptas: Administration
• 10.3 Guptas: Coinage
• 10.4 Guptas: Agriculture, Land grants, Village Economy
• 10.5 Guptas: Trade & Urban Centres
• 10.6 Guptas: Indian Feudalism
• 10.7 Guptas: Society - Caste System, Position of Women
• 10.8 Guptas: Education and Educational Institutions
• 10.9 Guptas: Literature
• 10.10 Guptas: Art
• 10.10.1 Ajanta Art
• 10.11 Guptas: Architecture
• 10.12 Vakatakas
• 10.13 Vardhanas
• 11.1 Kadambas
• 11.2 Pallavas
• 11.3 Chalukyas of Badami
• 11.4 Chalukyas of Kalyana
• 11.8 Rashtrakutas
• 11.9 Hoysalas
• 11.10 Cholas
• 11.11 Pandyas
• 11.12 Senas
• 11.13 Paramaras
• 11.14 Arab Conquest of Sind
• 11.15 Alberuni's India
• 11.16 Polity and Administration (Regional States during Gupta Era)
• 11.17 Tamil Bhakti Movement
• 11.18 Shankaracharya and Vedanta; Ramanuja and Vishishtadvaita
• 11.19 Religious Sects
• 11.20 Trade Guilds
• 12.1 Languages and texts
• 12.2 Ideas in Science and Mathematics
• 12.3 Slavery in Ancient India
• 12.4 Money Lending in Ancient India
• 12.5 Major philosophical thinkers and schools: Systems of Indian Philosophy
• 12.6 Major philosophical thinkers and schools: Six Schools of Indian Philosophy
• 12.7 Major philosophical thinkers and schools: Ajivika and Charvaka School
• 12.8 Major philosophical thinkers and schools: Tantricism
• 12.9 Major philosophical thinkers and schools: Shaktism
• 13.1 Major political developments in Northern India and the Peninsula
• 13.2 Origin and the rise of Rajputs
• 13.3 The Cholas: administration, village economy and society
• 13.4 Indian Feudalism
• 13.5 Agrarian Economy
• 13.6 Urban Settlements
• 13.7 Trade and Commerce
• 13.8 Condition of Women
• 13.9 Science and Technology
• 14.1 Philosophy during 750-1200 CE (Shankaracharya, Ramanuja, Madhva, Nimbarka)
• 14.2 Tamil Devotional Cult and Growth of Bhakti
• 14.3 Islam and its Arrival in India
• 14.4 Sufism
• 14.5 Sanskrit Literature
• 14.6 Tamil Literature
• 14.7 Literature in New Languages
• 14.8 Kalhan’s Rajtarangini
• 14.9 Albiruni's India
• 14.10 Temple Architecture
• 14.11 Painting (750-1200 CE)
• 15.1 Establishment of the Delhi Sultanate: The Ghurian invasions – factors behind Ghurian success – Economic, social and cultural consequences
• 15.2 Foundation of Delhi Sultanate and early Turkish Sultans – Consolidation: The rule of Iltutmish and Balban
• 16.1 The Khalji Revolution and Alauddin Khalji: Conquests and territorial expansion, agrarian and economic measures
• 16.2 Muhammad Tughluq: Major projects, agrarian measures, the bureaucracy of Muhammad Tughluq
• 16.3 Firuz Tughluq: Agrarian measures, achievements in civil engineering and public works, a decline of the Sultanate
• 16.4 Shams Siraj Afif Account: Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi
• 16.5 Foreign contacts and Ibn Battuta’s account
• 16.6 The Mongol Menace during the Sultanate Period
• 17.1 Administration under Delhi Sultanate
• 17.2 Delhi Sultanate: Agricultural Production
• 17.3 Delhi Sultanate: Rise of urban economy and non-agricultural production
• 17.4 Delhi Sultanate: Trade and Commerce
• 17.5 Delhi Sultanate: Rural Society Composition
• 17.6 Delhi Sultanate: Ruling Classes
• 17.7 Delhi Sultanate: Town dwellers, Women, Religious Classes, Caste and Slavery
• 17.8 Lekhapaddhati as a source of History
• 17.9 Sultanate Architecture and New Structural Forms
• 17.10 Delhi Sultanate: Persian literature, literature in the regional languages of North India, literature in the languages of South India
• 17.11 Delhi Sultanate: Painting, Music and the evolution of a composite culture
• 17.12 Amir Khusrau's Contributions in Poetry, Literature, Music, & History
• 17.13 Educational development during Sultanate period
• 18.1 Rise of Provincial Dynasties: Bengal
• 18.2 Rise of Provincial Dynasties: Gujarat
• 18.3 Rise of Provincial Dynasties: Malwa
• 18.4 Rise of Provincial Dynasties: Lodis
• 18.5 Rise of Provincial Dynasties: Kashmir (Zainul Abedin)
• 18.6 Vijayanagar Empire - Polity
• 18.7 Vijayanagar Empire - Administration
• 18.8 Vijayanagar Empire - Economy
• 18.9 Vijayanagar Empire - Society
• 18.10 Bahmani Kingdom
• 18.11 Portuguese Colonial Enterprise
• 18.12 Mughal Empire, First phase: Babur
• 18.13 Mughal Empire, First phase: Humayun
• 18.14 Sur Empire and Sher Shah Administration
• 19.1 Regional cultural specificities – Literary traditions
• 19.2 Provincial architecture: Bengal, Gujarat, Deccan
• 19.3 Vijayanagar Empire: Architecture, Culture, literature and arts
• 20.1 Conquest and Consolidation of Mughal Empire (Akbar)
• 20.2 Rajput Policy of Akbar
• 20.3 Mansabdari System
• 20.4 Jagirdari System
• 20.5 Akbar's Land Revenue System
• 20.6 Akbar's Evolution of religious and social outlook, the theory of Sulh-i-kul and religious policy
• 20.7 Akbar: Court patronage of art and technology
• 20.8 Foreign Policy of Akbar
• 21.1 Major administrative & economic policies of Jahangir, Shahjahan and Aurangzeb
• 21.2 The Mughal Empire and the Zamindars
• 21.3 Religious policies of Jahangir, Shahjahan and Aurangzeb
• 21.4 Nature of the Mughal State
• 21.5 Late Seventeenth-century crisis and the revolts
• 21.6 The Ahom Kingdom
• 21.7 Shivaji and the early Maratha Kingdom
• 22.1 Population in Mughal India
• 22.2 Agricultural Production in Mughal India
• 22.3 Craft Production in Mughal India
• 22.4 Towns in Mughal India
• 22.5 Mughal Commerce with Europe through Dutch, English and French companies: A trade revolution
• 22.6 Indian Mercantile Classes, Banking, Insurance, and Credit Systems in Mughal India
• 22.7 Capitalism in Mughal India
• 22.8 Condition of peasants in Mughal India
• 22.9 Condition of Women in Mughal India
• 22.10 Evolution of the Sikh community and the Khalsa Panth
• 22.11 Bernier’s account of India
• 23.1 Persian histories and other literature in Mughal India
• 23.2 Hindi and other religious literature in Mughal India
• 23.3 Mughal Architecture
• 23.4 Mughal Painting
• 23.5 Rajput Painting
• 23.6 Provincial Paintings: Deccan & Patna Kalam
• 23.7 Classical music in Mughal India
• 23.8 Science and Technology in Mughal India
• 24.1 Factors for the decline of the Mughal Empire
• 24.2 Nizam’s Deccan (regional principalities)
• 24.3 Bengal (regional principalities)
• 24.4 Awadh (regional principalities)
• 24.5 Maratha ascendancy under the Peshwas
• 24.6 The Maratha fiscal and financial system
• 24.7 Emergence of Afghan Power & Battle of Panipat:1761
• 1.1 Introduction and Background to European Penetration in India
• 1.2 The Early European Settlements in India
• 1.3 The Portuguese and the Dutch
• 1.4 The English and the French East India Companies
• 1.5 Carnatic Wars (1744-1763): Causes, Events & Consequences
• 1.6 Battle of Plassey: Causes, Events & Consequences
• 2.1 Battle of Buxar: 1764 Causes, Events, Consequences
• 2.2 Anglo-Mysore Wars (1798 – 1799): Causes, Events, Consequences
• 2.3 Anglo-Maratha Wars (1775-1818): Causes, Events, Consequences
• 2.4 Anglo-Sikh Wars (1845-1849): Causes, Events, Aftermath
• 3.1 The early administrative structure of British - Dual System (Diarchy) of Government (1765-1772)
• 3.2 From diarchy to direct control
• 3.3 The Regulating Act (1773): Background, Provisions, Legacy
• 3.4 The Pitt’s India Act (1784): Background, Provisions, Legacy
• 3.5 The Charter Act (1813): Provisions, Significance, Drawbacks
• 3.6 The Charter Act (1833): Provisions, Significance, Drawbacks
• 3.7 Charter Act of 1853 - Background, Provisions, Drawbacks
• 3.7 The voice of free trade and the changing character of British colonial rule
• 3.8 The English utilitarian and India
• 4.1 Land revenue settlements in British India
• 4.2 The Permanent Settlement: Features, Advantages & Disadvantages
• 4.3 Ryotwari Settlement: Features, Advantages & Disadvantages
• 4.4 Mahalwari Settlement: Features, Advantages & Disadvantages
• 4.5 Dislocation of traditional trade and commerce in British India
• 4.6 Deindustrialisation in British India
• 4.7 Decline of traditional crafts under British Rule
• 4.8 Drain of wealth
• 4.9 Economic transformation of India
• 4.10 Railroad and communication network including telegraph and postal services
• 4.11 Famine and poverty in the rural interior during British Rule
• 4.12 European business enterprise and its limitations
• 5.1 The state of indigenous education, its dislocation
• 5.2 Orientalist-Anglicist controversy
• 5.3 The introduction of western education in India
• 5.4 The rise of press, literature and public opinion

5.5 The rise of modern vernacular literature

• 5.6 Progress of science
• 5.7 Christian missionary activities in British India
• 6.1 Ram Mohan Roy and The Brahmo Movement
• 6.2 Debendranath Tagore
• 6.3 Iswarchandra Vidyasagar
• 6.4 The Young Bengal Movement
• 6.5 Dayananda Saraswati
• 6.6 The social reform movements in India including Sati, widow remarriage, child marriage, etc
• 6.7 The contribution of Indian renaissance to the growth of modern India
• 6.8 Islamic revivalism – the Feraizi and Wahabi Movements
• 7.1 Rangpur Dhing (1783)
• 7.2 Kol Rebellion (1832)
• 7.3 Mopla Rebellion in Malabar
• 7.4 The Santal Hul (1855)
• 7.5 Indigo Rebellion (1859-60)
• 7.6 Deccan Riots (1875)
• 7.7 The shift in the character of peasant uprisings in the post-1857 period
• 7.8 Peasant movements of the 1920s and 1930s
• 8.1 Factors leading to the birth of Indian Nationalism
• 8.2 Politics of Association
• 8.3 The Foundation of the Indian National Congress
• 8.4 The Safety-valve thesis relating to the birth of the Congress
• 8.5 Programme and objectives of Early Congress
• 8.6 The social composition of early Congress leadership
• 8.7 The Moderates and Extremists
• 8.8 The Partition of Bengal (1905)
• 8.9 The Swadeshi Movement in Bengal
• 8.10 The economic and political aspects of Swadeshi Movement
• 8.11 The beginning of revolutionary extremism in India
• 9.1 M.K.Gandhi - Biography (taken from Important Personalities in GS)
• 9.2 Rise of Gandhi & Early Activism
• 9.3 Gandhi’s popular appeal
• 9.4 Rowlatt Satyagraha
• 9.5 Khilafat Movement: Genesis, Events, Decline
• 9.6 The Non-cooperation Movement
• 9.10 National politics from the end of the Non-cooperation movement to the beginning of the Civil Disobedience movement
• 9.11 The two phases of the Civil Disobedience Movement
• 9.12 Simon Commission
• 9.13 The Nehru Report
• 9.14 The Round Table Conferences
• 9.15 Women and Indian youth and students in Indian politics (1885-1947)
• 9.16 The election of 1937 and the formation of ministries
• 9.17 Cripps Mission
• 9.18 The Quit India Movement
• 9.19 The Wavell Plan
• 9.20 The Cabinet Mission
• 10. Constitutional Developments in Colonial India between 1858 and 1935
• 11.1 The Revolutionaries: Bengal
• 11.2 The Revolutionaries: the Punjab
• 11.3 The Revolutionaries: Maharashtra
• 11.4 The Revolutionaries: Uttar Pradesh
• 11.5 The Revolutionaries: the Madras Presidency
• 11.6 The Revolutionaries: Outside India
• 11.7 The Left
• 11.8 The Left within the Congress: Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhas Chandra Bose, the Congress Socialist Party
• 12. Politics of Separatism
• 13. Consolidation as a Nation
• 14. Caste and Ethnicity after 1947
• 15. Economic development and political change
• PAPER-II: WORLD HISTORY 16. Enlightenment and Modern ideas
• 17. Origins of Modern Politics
• 18. Industrialization
• 19. Nation-State System
• 20. Imperialism and Colonialism
• 21. Revolution and Counter-Revolution
• 22. World Wars
• 23. The World after World War II
• 24. Liberation from Colonial Rule
• 25. Decolonization and Underdevelopment
• 26. Unification of Europe
• 27. Disintegration of the Soviet Union and the Rise of the Unipolar World

I. Introduction – Setting the Context

Overview of the indian literary landscape before the rise of modern vernacular literature.

• Pre-colonial literary traditions : Richness in classical languages like Sanskrit, Pali, and Prakrit, with seminal texts like Vedas, Upanishads, and the epics Ramayana and Mahabharata.
• Regional literary flourish : Flourishing of regional literature in languages such as Tamil (Sangam literature), Kannada (Vachana Sahitya), Bengali (Charyapada), and others.
• Role of oral traditions : Predominance of oral literature in folk songs, stories, and religious teachings, integral to India’s cultural fabric.
• Literary patronage : Royal patronage by various dynasties like the Mughals, Cholas, and Pandyas, fostering literature in courts.

Impact of Socio-Political Changes Under British Rule on Indian Literature

• Introduction of English : The establishment of English as a dominant language, influencing the literary output and consumption patterns.
• Printing press revolution : Arrival of the printing press in the 16th century, later boosted by British involvement, enabling wider dissemination of literature.
• Cultural and political shifts : British policies leading to socio-political upheaval, influencing themes in literature towards reform, nationalism, and social criticism.
• Educational reforms : Introduction of Western education systems transforming the literary scene, with a focus on English literature and ideas.

Defining ‘Modern Vernacular Literature’ in the Context of British India

• Definition of ‘vernacular’ : Vernacular literature refers to works written in the native languages of India, as opposed to classical or foreign languages.
• Characteristics of ‘modern’ literature : Incorporation of contemporary themes, new literary forms, and a break from traditional styles and subjects.
• Influence of British rule : The colonial backdrop provided both challenges and opportunities, leading to a unique blend of indigenous and Western literary influences.
• Emergence of new genres and themes : Growth of genres like novels, essays, and dramas; exploration of themes like colonialism, social reform, and national identity.
• Key literary figures : Eminent writers like Rabindranath Tagore , Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay , and Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay in Bengal; Premchand in Hindi; and Subramania Bharati in Tamil, among others, played pivotal roles in shaping modern vernacular literature.

II. Historical Foundations of Vernacular Literature – Pre-Colonial Roots

Tracing the origins of vernacular literature in india.

• Ancient Indian literature : Roots traced back to Vedic era, predominantly in Sanskrit, around 1500 BCE.
• Evolution into regional languages : Post-Vedic period saw a shift to local languages, marking the beginning of vernacular literature.
• Influence of Buddhist and Jain texts : Pali and Prakrit languages used extensively in religious texts, contributing to vernacular literature.

Role of Religious and Folk Traditions in Shaping Early Vernacular Literature

• Religious texts as literary sources : Hindu epics like Ramayana and Mahabharata, originally in Sanskrit, adapted into regional languages.
• Buddhist and Jain contributions : Jataka tales in Pali and Jain Agamas in Prakrit influencing vernacular narratives.
• Folk traditions and oral literature : Local folklore, songs, and stories passed down orally, forming the backbone of vernacular literature.
• Role of Bhakti and Sufi movements : 7th to 17th centuries marked by devotional movements, enriching vernacular literature with spiritual and philosophical themes.

Regional Diversity in Pre-Colonial Indian Literature

• Tamil literature : Sangam literature (300 BCE – 300 CE) as the earliest example of Tamil vernacular literature.
• Kannada literary developments : Vachana Sahitya in the 12th century, underlining socio-religious themes.
• Bengali literary heritage : Charyapada, a collection of Buddhist mystic songs from the 8th to 12th centuries, marking early Bengali literature.
• Marathi literary evolution : Saint poets like Dnyaneshwar (1275-1296) and Tukaram (1608-1649) contributing to Marathi vernacular literature.
• Malayalam literature : Development in 12th century with works like Ramacharitam.
• Gujarati literature’s growth : Earliest works from 11th century, with Bhakti movement playing a key role.
• Rajasthani literature : Influenced by folk tales and songs, with earliest writings from 15th century.
• Punjabi literary beginnings : Guru Nanak Dev (1469-1539), the founder of Sikhism, contributed significantly with his hymns.

III. The Impact of British Colonialism on Vernacular Literature – Colonial Influences

Examining the british policies and their impact on indian languages.

• Introduction of English education : English became a prominent language in India due to British policies, notably Lord Macaulay’s Minute on Indian Education (1835).
• Impact on traditional education : Traditional Indian educational systems and gurukuls experienced a decline as English medium schools became prevalent.
• Shift in language preference : A growing elite class began to prefer English for social and economic advancement, influencing literary trends.
• Preservation and standardization efforts : British linguists and scholars, like William Jones, played a role in documenting and standardizing Indian languages.

The Role of Print Culture in Spreading Vernacular Literature

• Introduction of printing press : Brought to India by Portuguese missionaries in the 16th century, later expanded under British rule.
• Proliferation of vernacular print : Newspapers, periodicals, and books in vernacular languages flourished, especially in the 19th century.
• Accessibility and literacy : Print culture made literature accessible to a broader audience and contributed to increasing literacy rates.
• Print as a tool for social reform and nationalism : Vernacular print media became platforms for social reform, religious debates, and nationalist ideas.

Comparing Pre-Colonial and Colonial Vernacular Literary Trends

• Pre-colonial literary trends : Focused on religious, philosophical, and courtly themes; heavily influenced by oral traditions and patronage.
• Colonial-era changes : Introduction of new genres like novels, essays, and dramas; themes shifted to include social reform, nationalism, and critiques of colonialism.
• Influence of Western literature and ideas : Exposure to Western literature through English education brought new literary forms and themes.
• Emerging class of vernacular writers : Educated in both traditional Indian and British systems, these writers blended Indian themes with Western literary styles.
• Regional differences in response : Different regions of India responded uniquely to British influence, leading to diverse literary developments.

V. Genres and Themes in Modern Vernacular Literature – Evolution and Innovation

Rise of new literary genres in vernacular languages.

• Novels and short stories : Emergence in the late 19th and early 20th centuries as prominent genres in languages like Bengali, Hindi, and Tamil.
• Drama and theater : Reinvention in regional languages, influenced by Western styles, addressing contemporary social issues.
• Poetry : Transformation with new themes and forms, blending traditional styles with modern sensibilities.
• Essays and biographies : Gained popularity for exploring socio-political and historical themes.
• Journalism : Vernacular newspapers and periodicals became an important literary medium for expression and dissemination of ideas.

Themes of Nationalism, Reform, and Social Change in Vernacular Writings

• Nationalism : Literature as a tool for fostering national consciousness, particularly during the freedom struggle.
• Social reform : Addressing issues like caste discrimination, women’s rights, and education in literary works.
• Religious and cultural identity : Exploration of religious and cultural themes reflecting the diverse fabric of Indian society.
• Critique of colonialism : Works critiquing British rule and its impact on Indian society.
• Rural life and urbanization : Depiction of the transformation of Indian society with urbanization and industrialization.

The Interplay Between Traditional Forms and New Literary Expressions

• Synthesis of old and new : Integration of classical literary forms with contemporary themes and narratives.
• Influence of oral traditions : Continuation of oral storytelling traditions in modern literature.
• Adaptation of folk tales and myths : Modern reinterpretations of ancient Indian myths and folk stories.
• Cross-cultural influences : Incorporation of Western literary techniques and ideas into traditional Indian narrative structures.
• Regional variations : Each region in India developing its unique blend of traditional and modern literary forms.

VI. Literary Criticism and Comparative Studies – Analyzing Texts

Methods of literary criticism applied to vernacular literature.

• Historical and Contextual Analysis : Examining texts within the context of their historical and cultural settings.
• Structuralist Approaches : Analyzing the underlying structures of narratives, genres, and language in literature.
• Post-colonial Criticism : Focusing on issues of colonialism, national identity, and cultural hegemony.
• Feminist Literary Criticism : Exploring gender representations and challenging patriarchal norms in literature.
• Marxist Criticism : Investigating the themes of class struggle, capitalism, and social hierarchy.
• Psychoanalytic Criticism : Using concepts from psychology to explore the motivations of characters and authors.
• Reader-Response Criticism : Emphasizing the reader’s role in creating the meaning of the text.

Comparative Studies of Themes and Styles Across Different Regions

• Comparing Regional Narratives : Analyzing how different Indian regions represent similar themes in their unique cultural contexts.
• Style Variations : Exploring differences in narrative techniques, language use, and literary devices among regional literatures.
• Thematic Analysis : Comparing themes like nationalism, social reform, and personal identity across different vernacular literatures.
• Cross-Regional Influences : Studying how literary trends and movements in one region influence others.
• Literature and Social Change : Comparing the portrayal of social change and historical events in different regional literatures.

Influence of Western Literary Forms on Vernacular Literature

• Introduction of Western Genres : Adoption and adaptation of genres like the novel, short story, and drama in Indian vernacular literature.
• Literary Modernism : Influence of Western modernist techniques and themes on Indian writers.
• Realism and Naturalism : Incorporation of realist and naturalist approaches, depicting everyday life and social issues.
• Adoption of Western Literary Theories : Utilizing Western critical theories and methodologies in analyzing vernacular texts.
• Hybrid Literary Forms : Creation of hybrid forms combining Western styles with traditional Indian storytelling.

VII. Vernacular Literature and Identity Politics – Language and Identity

Exploring the role of literature in shaping regional and national identities.

• Literature as a Reflection of Culture : How vernacular literature captures and expresses the unique cultural aspects of different Indian regions.
• National Identity Formation : The role of literature in creating a sense of national identity during the independence movement.
• Regional Identity and Pride : Use of local languages and cultural references in literature to foster regional pride and identity.
• Impact of Linguistic Diversity : How India’s linguistic diversity is represented and celebrated through literature.

Debates Over Language Standardization and Its Impact on Literature

• Standardization Versus Dialects : The debate between promoting a standardized form of a language versus preserving regional dialects.
• Impact on Literary Expression : How language standardization has influenced the way writers express themselves in vernacular languages.
• Preservation of Linguistic Heritage : Efforts to preserve regional languages and dialects through literary works.
• Political and Social Dimensions : The political implications of language standardization and its effect on social dynamics.

Literature as a Tool for Caste and Gender Advocacy

• Caste Issues in Literature : Examination of caste dynamics and discrimination through vernacular literary works.
• Dalit Literature : Emergence of Dalit literature as a powerful voice against caste oppression.
• Gender Perspectives in Literature : How literature has been used to address gender issues and advocate for women’s rights.
• Empowerment Through Storytelling : Use of literature as a medium to empower marginalized communities and voices.
• Literary Movements for Social Change : Role of literary movements in driving social change regarding caste and gender issues.

VIII. Vernacular Literature and Its Relationship with the British – Collaboration and Resistance

Writers who collaborated with the british and their contributions.

• Collaborative Writers : Some Indian writers adopted British literary styles and themes, often to gain favor or patronage.
• Contribution to English Literature : These writers contributed significantly to English literature, with works that often reflected Indian themes through a British lens.
• Cultural Mediators : Acted as cultural mediators between British and Indian literary traditions, blending elements from both.
• Recognition and Awards : Many of these writers received recognition and awards from British institutions for their literary contributions.

Literature as a Form of Resistance Against Colonial Rule

• Resistance Writers : Numerous Indian authors used their writings as a form of protest against British rule.
• Themes of Nationalism and Independence : Literature became a powerful tool to inspire nationalist sentiments and a desire for independence.
• Role of Vernacular Press : Vernacular newspapers and journals played a critical role in disseminating resistance literature.
• Depiction of Colonial Exploitation : Literary works often depicted the exploitation and injustices faced under British rule.
• Influence on Freedom Movement : These literary works significantly influenced the Indian freedom movement and its leaders.

The Dual Role of English Education in Promoting and Hindering Vernacular Literature

• Promotion of English Language : English education introduced new literary forms and styles to Indian writers.
• Impact on Vernacular Languages : While it enriched Indian literature, it also led to a decline in the use of vernacular languages in literary works.
• Creation of a New Class of Writers : English education created a class of writers who were proficient in English and often preferred it over vernacular languages.
• Contributions to Vernacular Literature : Some of these English-educated writers contributed significantly to vernacular literature by bringing in new ideas and styles.
• Debate Over Language Preference : The preference for English in education and literature sparked debates about the importance of preserving vernacular languages and traditions.

IX. Educational Reforms and Vernacular Literature – The Role of Schools and Colleges

Changes in the educational system and their impact on vernacular literature.

• Introduction of Western Education : British colonial rule introduced Western education, significantly altering the traditional Indian educational landscape.
• Shift from Gurukul to Formal Schools : Transition from ancient Gurukul system to formal schools and colleges under British influence.
• Impact on Language and Literature : English became a dominant language in education, affecting the development and prominence of vernacular literature.
• New Literary Forms and Genres : Exposure to Western literature through education introduced new forms and genres in Indian vernacular literature.

Vernacular Literature in Curriculum: Debates and Outcomes

• Inclusion of Vernacular Languages : Debate over the inclusion of vernacular languages in the educational curriculum.
• Balancing English and Vernacular Literature : Challenges in balancing the study of English literature with vernacular literary traditions.
• Modernizing the Vernacular Curriculum : Efforts to modernize vernacular literature curriculum to include contemporary themes and styles.
• Outcome on Literary Development : The inclusion of vernacular literature in education contributed to its broader recognition and development.

The Contribution of Educational Institutions in Fostering Literary Movements

• Literary Societies and Clubs : Formation of literary societies and clubs in schools and colleges, promoting vernacular literature and discussions.
• Role of Universities : Universities became hubs for literary and cultural movements, influencing vernacular literary trends.
• Educational Institutions as Meeting Grounds : Facilitated interactions among budding writers, critics, and scholars in vernacular literature.
• Nurturing New Writers and Poets : Educational institutions played a crucial role in nurturing new talents in vernacular literature.

X. Vernacular Press and Literary Societies – Platforms for Dissemination

The role of vernacular newspapers in promoting literature.

• Emergence of Vernacular Press : Rise of newspapers in regional languages during the 19th and early 20th centuries.
• Platform for New Writers : Vernacular newspapers provided a platform for new writers to publish and gain recognition.
• Spread of Ideas and Themes : Played a crucial role in spreading new ideas, themes, and literary trends across regions.
• Nationalism and Social Reform : Newspapers became a vehicle for expressing nationalist sentiments and social reform ideas.
• Censorship and Resistance : Faced censorship from British authorities, yet continued to be an important medium for resistance.

Literary Societies and Their Contributions to Vernacular Literature

• Formation of Literary Societies : Flourishing of literary societies across India, fostering a community of writers and readers.
• Promotion of Literary Discussions : Organized discussions, readings, and critiques of vernacular literature.
• Nurturing Emerging Talents : Provided a nurturing environment for emerging writers, poets, and critics.
• Influence on Literary Trends : These societies significantly influenced literary trends and movements in vernacular languages.
• Preservation of Literary Heritage : Played a role in preserving and promoting the literary heritage of various regions.

The Interplay Between Oral Traditions and Print Media

• Preservation of Oral Traditions : Print media helped in documenting and preserving oral literary traditions.
• Transition from Oral to Written : Facilitated the transition of stories, folklore, and poems from oral to written forms.
• Combining Oral and Written Forms : Innovatively combined the oral storytelling techniques with written literary forms.
• Wider Audience Reach : Print media expanded the reach of oral traditions to a wider, more diverse audience.
• Adaptation of Folk Tales : Many folk tales and stories found new life and interpretations in print.

XI. Women and Vernacular Literature – Female Voices

The role of women in vernacular literature.

• Historical Participation : Tracing the participation of women in Indian vernacular literature historically, from ancient times to the present.
• Women as Writers and Poets : Recognizing the significant contributions of female writers and poets in various Indian vernacular languages.
• Themes and Perspectives : Exploration of themes central to women’s experiences, including gender roles, social norms, and personal identity.
• Women’s Literature Movements : The emergence and impact of women-centered literary movements across different regions of India.

Gender Perspectives in Vernacular Literary Works

• Portrayal of Women : Analysis of how women are depicted in vernacular literary works, reflecting societal attitudes and cultural norms.
• Gender Dynamics : Examination of gender dynamics, including power relations, marriage, family, and societal expectations in literature.
• Feminist Writings : The influence of feminist ideologies in shaping modern vernacular literature, advocating for women’s rights and equality.
• Challenging Stereotypes : How female authors use literature to challenge stereotypes and propose alternative narratives.

Biographies of Prominent Female Writers in Different Regions

• North India : Prominent female writers like Amrita Pritam, who made significant contributions to Punjabi and Hindi literature.
• South India : Celebrated authors like Balamani Amma and Kamala Surayya, who enriched Malayalam literature with their powerful writings.
• West India : Contributions of female writers in Marathi and Gujarati literature, highlighting figures like Kusumagraj and Pannalal Patel.
• East India : The influence of female voices in Bengali literature, with authors like Ashapurna Devi and Mahasweta Devi.
• Contemporary Voices : The role of contemporary female authors in shaping the modern landscape of vernacular literature, addressing current social and cultural issues.

XII. Vernacular Literature in the Late Colonial Period – Transition and Transformation

Changes in vernacular literature during the late colonial era.

• Adoption of New Literary Forms : Introduction and adoption of genres like novels, dramas, and essays influenced by Western literature.
• Shift in Themes : Movement away from traditional themes towards issues of nationalism, modernity, and social reform.
• Influence of Global Literary Trends : Exposure to global literary movements such as Romanticism, Realism, and Modernism.
• Emerging Diverse Writers : Rise of diverse voices in vernacular literature, including women and marginalized communities.

The Impact of Political Movements on Literary Expressions

• Nationalist Movement Influence : The growing nationalist movement profoundly influenced literary themes, focusing on independence and cultural pride.
• Literature as a Tool for Social Change : Writers used literature to advocate for social and political changes, such as caste and gender equality.
• Censorship and Literary Resistance : Increased censorship by colonial authorities led to subtle forms of resistance in literary works.
• Poetry and Patriotism : Emergence of patriotic poetry as a significant form of expression against colonial rule.

Transition to Post-Independence Literature: Continuities and Ruptures

• Post-Independence Literary Scene : Post-independence literature reflected the new realities and challenges of a free India.
• Continuities from Colonial Era : Certain themes and literary styles from the colonial era continued to influence post-independence literature.
• Ruptures and New Directions : Emergence of new themes such as partition, identity crises, and nation-building.
• Evolving Vernacular Narratives : Vernacular literature evolved to include a wider range of experiences, including urbanization and globalization.
• Legacy of the Colonial Era : The lasting impact of the colonial era on vernacular literature, including its contribution to the richness and diversity of Indian literature.
• Analyze how the Bengal Renaissance influenced the development of modern vernacular literature in British India. (250 words)
• Discuss the role of women in shaping vernacular literature during British colonial rule in India. (250 words)
• Evaluate the impact of educational reforms on the growth and dissemination of vernacular literature in British India. (250 words)

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UPSC Mains Daily Answer Writing - 26 July (GS 2)

• Enumerate the issues associated with functioning of the Central Information Commission. How can these issues be addressed? (Answer in 150 words)  (10)
• Instruction in vernacular languages can boost inclusivity in higher education but it is not free from bottlenecks which need to be addressed. Examine (Answer in 250 words) (15)

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Model Solutions

1. Enumerate the issues associated with functioning of the Central Information Commission. How can these issues be addressed? (Answer in 150 words) (10)

Introduction

• Central Information Commission (CIC) was established by the Central Government in 2005, under the provisions of the Right to Information Act (2005).
• It is a non-constitutional body.
• On average, the CIC takes 388 days (more than one year) to dispose of an appeal/complaint from the date it was filed before the commission.
• 2.2 lakh+ RTI cases pending at the Central and State Information Commissions (ICs).
• Government officials hardly face any punishment for violating the law. (Status report on Functioning of CICs)
• Penalties were imposed in only 2.2% of cases that were disposed of, despite previous analysis showing a rate of about 59% violations which should have triggered the process of penalty imposition
• Despite repeated directions from the court, there are still three vacancies in the CIC.
• The criteria of selection, etc has not been placed on record.
• By vesting powers to determine salaries and service conditions to the Central government Way Forward
• Underlying issues related to RTI Act should be resolved, so that it can serve the information needs of society.
• By its 2019 order, the apex court had passed a slew of directions to the Central and State governments to fill vacancies across Central and State Information Commissions in a transparent and timely manner.
• Urgent digitization of records and proper record management is important
• Section 4 of RTI (Proactive disclosure of information) should be used as a norm.
• The idea to give constitutional status to CICs needs to discussed
• The right to question is the hallmark of a democracy. Any attack on the RTI law, which has empowered citizens to question those in power, is an attack on the foundation of our democratic republic.

2. Instruction in vernacular languages can boost inclusivity in higher education but it is not free from bottlenecks which need to be addressed. Examine. (Answer in 250 words) (15)

Model Structure Introduction

• National Education Policy, 2020 (NEP, 2020) has emphasized the use of regional languages for instruction at the primary and higher education levels.
• Increase in Gross-Enrollment Ratio (GER): This will help provide quality teaching to more students - making higher education more inclusive
• Better understanding of subject due to better comprehension in vernacular language
• Poor grasp of English has been tied by many educationists to dropout rates at the premier engineering education institutions as well as poor performance of some students.
• Additional Benefits for the Less-Advantaged: This is especially relevant for students who are first-generation learners
• Promotes Linguistic Diversity: It will also promote the strength, usage, and vibrancy of all Indian languages.
• It would also help prevent language-based discrimination.
• Also, quality control of these translations will be of utmost importance to keep semantic irregularities at bay.
• Availability of Faculty
• Placement Associated Challenge: Many public sector units accept Graduate Aptitude Test in Engineering (GATE) scores for entry-level positions, which is conducted in English medium.
• Given the already lamentable employability of college-educated individuals, studying in a regional language could further inhibit job opportunities
• Insignificant for Institutions with Pan-India Admissions: A regional language focus is not meaningful in a scenario where the institutes see entrants from across the country such as IITs.
• Delivering technical courses in regional languages may prevent students from competing in global labour and education markets, where fluency in English yields a distinct edge
• Adopting the “Regional Language Plus English” Notion: While it is necessary to strengthen Indian languages as a medium of education, it is equally imperative for students to have a good command over the English language since they are global natives in the 21st century.
• Bridging the Digital Divide: AICTE has recently developed a tool which translates English content online into 11 Indian regional languages.
• While ensuring inclusion through the use of the mother tongue/ regional language, it should also set up a basic minimum standard of education which eliminates all disparity.
• A shift from “mother tongue versus English" towards the “mother tongue plus English" is required.

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Home » Modern Indian History » Social Policies » Education Policies

Education Policies

The Charter Act, 1813 bore the hallmark of thinking of evangelists like CHARLES GRANT( Chairman of EIC) and imperialists like JAMES MILL. Unlike the erstwhile ORIENTALISTS like Warren Hastings and his friend Charles Wilkins (Translator of Geeta), William Jones( founded Asiatic Society of Bengal), these two gentlemen were openly contemptuous of Indian civilization and culture. Grant was an evangelist who “saw Indian society as not only heathen, but also as corrupt and uncivilised. He was appalled by such native customs as exposing the sick, burning lepers, and sati. He believed that Britain’s duty was not simply to expand its rule in India and exploit the subcontinent for its commercial interests, but to civilise and Christianise”. Mill too was out to prove the CIVILIZING MISSION of the British in India.

They lobbied to include many provisions in the Act. Among which, two were to pave the way for westernization of India.

• Company Govt accepted its responsibility towards educating the natives. Education was sanctioned Rs. 1 lakh. In this provision lies the germ of English education in India, which became the conduit for western thoughts to Indians.
• Missionaries were allowed to proselytize in India. The onslaught of Missionaries on Hindu religion gave urgency to the efforts Hindu reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy to reform Hindu religion. Western concepts like humanism and rationalism became the leitmotif of this movement.

The British East India Company officials wanted to maintain neutrality or non-intervention in the sphere of religion and culture of the Indian society, after the acquisition of political power in India in first half of 19 th  Century. The reason behind this policy was partly the fear of adverse reaction and opposition to their role by the indigenous people. However, due to certain constant pressure from different quarters, the Missionaries, the Liberals, the Orientalists, the Utilitarians compelled the company to give up its position of neutrality and to take up the responsibility of promotion of education. But, there was a conflict in the opinions which were divided on the issue that whether the company should promote western or oriental education, giving rise to the Orientalist-Anglicist controversy.

Orientalist-Anglicist controversy:

• During the first quarter of nineteenth century a  great controversy was going on regarding the nature of education and medium of instruction in schools and colleges .
• The  Orientalists led by Dr. H.H.Wilson and H.T. Princep advocated in favour of Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian as the medium of education .
• In the initial stage, the company officials patronised oriental learning.
• In this context, the establishment of the  Calcutta Madrasa by Warren Hastings in 1781, the Benares Sanskrit College by Jonathan Duncan in 1791 and the Asiatic Society of Bengal by William Jones in 1784  are noteworthy.
• Those who were in  favour of continuation of the existing institutions of oriental learning and promotion of Indian classical tradition  were called Orientalists. Orientalists were guided by some practical considerations.
• They wanted to teach the British officials the local language and culture  so that they would be better at their job.
• This was the prime objective behind the foundation of the Port William College at Calcutta in 1800.
• The other motive was to develop friendly relations with the elites of the indigenous society and to understand their culture.
• This was the main reason behind the establishment of the Calcutta Madrassa and the Benaras Sanskrit College.
• The  Anglicists led by Charles Trevelyan, Elphinstone advocated the imparting of western education through the medium of English .
• The Anglicists were supported by most advanced Indians of the time, like Raja Ram Mohan Roy who advocated for the study of western education as the “key to the treasures of scientific and democratic thought of the modern west.”
• They could not compromise the idea of grafting the new Western learning upon the old stock of Oriental learning.
• They argued the idea of diffusing Western sciences and literature amongst the Indians through the medium of English.
• As they were firm in their conviction, so they desired to utilize the entire educational grant for the purpose of diffusing Western Education.
• Countering these Orientalists, there was a strong opposition led by different groups in England, namely, the Evangelicals, the Liberals and the Utilitarians.
• The Evangelicals had a firm conviction in the superiority of Christian ideas and western institutions.
• Two great exponents of the Evangelical view were Charles Grant and William Wilberforce.
• Also, others who did not share Evangelical faith also convinced of the superiority of western knowledge and one of the chief promoter of this idea was Macaulay.

Macaulay’s Minute of 1835:

• Under the circumstances, the controversy between these two schools of thought was referred to the Government by the  General Committee of Public Instruction.
• Lord Macaulay , the Law member to the Supreme Council of Calcutta was appointed  Chairman of the Committee of Public Instruction .
• This famous minute finally settled the debate  in the favour of Anglicists , that is, the limited government resources were to be devoted to teaching of western sciences and literature through the medium of English language alone.
• Lord Macaulay was of the view that ” Indian learning was inferior to European learning”, which was true as far as physical and social sciences in the contemporary stage were concerned.
• The Government soon made English as the medium of instruction in its schools and colleges and opened a few English schools and colleges instead of a large number of elementary schools, thus neglecting mass education.
• The British planned to educate a small section of upper and middle classes, thus creating a class “Indian in blood and colour but English in tastes, in opinions, in morals and in intellect” who would act as interpreters between the government and masses and would enrich the vernaculars by which knowledge of western sciences and literature would reach the masses.

Through the Macaulay’s system the British Government intended to educate the upper and middle classes who were likely to take up the task of educating and spreading modern ideas among them.  Macaulay  had faith in the  “infiltration theory”.

In 1854, Sir Charles Wood, the President of the Board of Control sent his recommendations known as  ‘Wood’s Despatch of 1854 ″ reorganizing the whole structure of education.  Wood’s Despatch  is regarded as the  Magna Carta of English education in India . It recommended for the  establishment of Anglo-Vernacular Schools throughout the districts, Government Colleges in important towns and a University in each of the three Presidencies in India .

Wood’s Dispatch Comprehensive education system and organizational structure :You have seen as to how Macaulay’s Minute influenced educational policy of Lord William Bentinck, which was in force for next 40 years.

In 1853, when renewal of the Company charter again came for the consideration, the British Parliament examined the progress of education in India. The observations and suggested reforms were issued as a Charter of Education, known as Wood’s Dispatch of 1854.

Wood’s Dispatch is considered to be the “Magna Carta of Education” in India. The Dispatch is a comprehensive important educational document and holds a unique place in the history of Indian education. It placed the responsibility of education of the Indian people fully on the company and made it quite clear that it must never be neglected. The Dispatch gave new direction to education in India and which has its impact on today’s education in the country.

The aim of education was stated as diffusion of European Arts, Science, Philosophy and Literature through English. Promotion of Indian languages was also to be encouraged. “Creation of a class of public servants”, was the important objective. For this purpose, expansion of mass education was given priority.

The Wood’s Dispatch, for the first time, recommended the creation of a Department of Public Instruction in each of the five provinces of Bengal, Bombay, Madras, Punjab and the North Western province.

For higher education, a scheme to establish universities was formulated along with total organizational set up. They were to conduct examinations and offer degrees in various subjects and languages. This led to the establishment of the first three universities in 1857, at Calcutta, Bombay and Madras.

The Dispatch made important recommendations on most of the aspects of education like establishing network of graded schools all over the country such as elementary schools, high schools, intermediate, colleges and university, etc., grant in aid system for financial support to schools, provision for women education, training and professional development of teachers, establishment of medical, engineering law and other institutes of professional education to develop vocational efficiency of people.

The importance of wood’s dispatch was in a number of valuable and fundamental recommendations for future educational development in India. It gave new direction to issues like gradation of education, medium of instruction and proposed new schemes for future educational development in India with far reaching consequences.

The main provisions of the document were of great historical importance. It provided a boost to secondary education and to some extent to primary education also.

It was however observed that some of the most important recommendations of the Dispatch were not carried out for a long time and some were given effect in a distorted form.

During the first thirty years after the Dispatch, government institutions gradually increased, but except the Christian Missionaries, other private efforts were not encouraged.

Plans to spread mass education were not realized nor were vernacular high schools established. It did not sincerely promote universal literacy. The Dispatch could not visualize the progress of Indian aspirations even after a century.

As you know soon after 1857 revolt, the East India Company was dissolved and the government came directly under the British Crown. As a consequence, efforts were made to consolidate the empire and education was somewhat neglected.

Hunter Commission Vocationalization of Education:

Hunter Commission was appointed in 1882 to examine the implementation of the Dispatch of 1854, which tried to streamline school education into two streams of high school: one leading to the university education and the other to the commercial, vocational and technical education.

This was the first attempt to diversify school curriculum and introduce vocational education. However, despite the specific recommendations and emphasis of the Hunter Commission on commercial, vocational or non-literary education, neither the public nor the Govt. appreciated the value of this practical suggestion and the recommendations were totally ignored.

Not much was done in this regard in last hundred fifty years, not even in free India

Universities Commission Schools under the control of University: A new Commission was appointed in 1902 to examine the condition and prospects of the universities established in British Raj.

The Commission recommended the reorganization of university administration; strict and systematic supervision of the colleges by the university; and stricter conditions of affiliation and major changes in curricula and examinations.

More relevant and important for school education is, as a result of the recommendations of this Commission, secondary schools were brought under the control of the Universities. Under the Indian Universities Act of 1904, schools had to be recognized by the Universities and rules and regulations were framed for this purpose

• K.Gokhale , the moderate Congress Leader, being aware of the intention of the British Government, made attempts to draw the attention of the people of India as well as in England towards the condition of Education
• Hence, he introduced a Bill to make elementary education free, compulsory, for children aged between 6 and 10 years. Further, Gokhale’s effort had a far-reaching consequences in the subsequent period
• However, the British Government rejected the Gopal Krishna Gokhale’s Bill and refused to recognise the principle of compulsory education for paucity of funds; instead they promised to extend grants for the widest extension of primary education on a voluntary basis and passed the Resolution on Education Policy on February 21, 1913

The Government Resolution on Education Policy, 1913

• The curricula of primary and secondary schools should be made more practical and useful
• Facilities of higher education should be provided in India so that Indian students may not have to go abroad
• Instead of increasing the number of existing institutions their standard should be raised
• Also in the resolution, the government refused to take up the responsibility of compulsory education, but accepted the policy of removal of illiteracy .
• It urged provincial governments to take early steps to provide free elementary education to the poorer and more backward sections.
• The universities were to be relieved of the responsibility of granting recognition to high schools
• The Policy also provided for sufficient expansion of lower primary schools with a simultaneous opening of upper primary schools.
• It proposed to streamline inspection and supervision, appoint trained teachers, subsidize Maktabs and Pathshalas, improve school facilities, and encourage girl’s education
• The subjects of industrial importance were to be included in the curriculum
• However, the First World War delayed the implementation of many recommendations set out in the Resolution

The next important development was realization of the need of improvement of secondary education for the improvement of University education, as observed by the Sadler Commission in 1917. This concern also stemmed from of the need for bifurcation of college courses.

Sadler Commission suggested bifurcation of higher education at the intermediate examination rather than at the matriculation examination, and suggested creation of Intermediate colleges which would provide instruction in Arts, Science, Medicine, Engineering, Teaching, etc; to be run as independent institution or to be attached to selected high schools. It also recommended that a Board of Secondary and Intermediate Education, be established and entrusted with the administration and control of Secondary Education. Perhaps the seed of the concept of +2 stage or Junior Colleges today, are laid by the Sadler Commission.

The Sadler Commission Report was a comprehensive one and many of the universities in India implemented its suggestions. It was also for the first time that a Commission had recommended the attachment of intermediate classes to the high schools and the setting up of a Board of Education to control high school and intermediate education.

In 1929, the Hartog Committee, appointed to review the position of education in the country, maintained that the Matriculation of the University still dominated the whole of the secondary course.

To remove this defect, the Committee recommended that a large number of students intending to follow certain vocation should stop at the middle school stage and there should be “more diversified curricula in the schools”.

The Committee also recommended diversion of more boys to industrial and commercial careers at the end of the middle stage, where they should be prepared for specialized education in technical and industrial schools.

The Committee also reviewed the problems relating to the training of teachers and the service conditions of the secondary teachers”.

In 1937, when the provincial governments were formed in seven provinces with the native representation, they concentrated their attention on educational reforms.

In October 1937, an all-India National Educational Conference was held at Wardha and the conference resolved to accept the proposal made by Mahatma Gandhi that free and compulsory education be provided for seven years through mother tongue on a nation-wide scale and the process of education throughout this period should centre around some form of manual and productive work.

All other abilities to be developed or training to be given should, as far as possible, be integrally related to the central handicraft chosen with due regard to the environment of the child.

The conference expected that this system of education will be self sufficient and gradually, will be able to cover the remuneration of teachers.

Accordingly, a committee under the chairmanship of Dr. Zakir Hussain was appointed. The Committee prepared and submitted the first comprehensive national education scheme in its report on December 2, 1937, which was popularly known as the Wardha Scheme or Basic Education

The main features of the scheme are as follows:

• The entire education is to be imparted through some industry or vocation with a basic craft as the center of instruction. The idea is not to teach some handicraft along with liberal education, but education integrated with a handicraft is to be imparted through samavaaya (Samavay) integration method. It’s a work-centric education.
• Education is to be self-supporting to the extent of covering teachers’ salaries and aims at making pupils self-supporting after the completion of their course;
• Every individual should learn to earn his living through manual work in life. Hence, education through manual labour is insisted. It is also considered non-violent, since an individual does not snatch away the living of others.
• Learning is closely coordinated with home, community and the child’s life activities, as well as, village crafts and occupations. This philosophy had a strong impact on formulation of the educational policies, particularly at the elementary stage and for free primary education to find place in the constitution of free India.

Central Advisory Board of Education prepared a comprehensive report on educational development after the world war, known as the Sargent Report in 1944.

It visualized a system of education with pre-primary education for children between 3 to 6 years of age; universal, compulsory and free primary basic education for all children between the ages 6—11 (junior basic) and 11—14 (senior basic) as suggested in Wardha Scheme; the Senior Basic or the Middle School to be the final stage in the school career of majority of the students. The report also recommended that at the Middle School stage, provision should be made for a variety of courses.

These courses should be designed to prepare the pupils for entry into industrial and commercial occupations, as well as, into the universities. It was recommended that the High School course should cover 6 years.

The normal age of admission should be 11 years. The high schools should be of two main types (a) academic, and (b) technical. Degree course should be for three years for selected students.

The objective of both should be to provide a good all-round education combined with some preparation in the later stages for the careers which pupils will pursue on leaving schools.

The mother tongue is to be used as the medium of instruction in all high schools. Liquidation of adult illiteracy in about 20 years, full provision for the proper training of teachers, provision for the physically and mentally handicapped children, the organization of compulsory physical education, provision for social and recreational activities and creation of department of Education in the centre and in the states were also the recommendations of Sargent Report.

The Sargent Report was the first comprehensive scheme covering all stages and aspects of education – pre-primary, primary, high school and university education, as well as, technical, vocational and professional education.

It provided for equal opportunities to all the students.

Due importance was given to the teaching profession. Improvement of the salary scales and the service conditions of the teachers were also suggested. The report gave importance to productive education

Despite the recommendations of numerous committees and commissions, and the continuous efforts being made to bring about the changes in education, Govt. of India was not very happy with the progress of education in the country.

It was felt necessary to have a comprehensive policy of education covering all the sectors of education. Hence, the Education Commission was set up by the Government of India in 1964 under the chairmanship of Dr. D.S. Kothari, to advise the Government on the national pattern of education and on the general principles and policies for the development of education at all stages and in all aspects.

The Commission set twelve Task Forces for different educational sectors like School Education; Higher Education; Technical Education; Agricultural Education etc. and seven Working Groups to study, in detail, many of specific problems and to report.

The Reports of the Task Forces and the Working Groups enabled the Commission to examine some of the important issues in depth and in detail.

The Commission perceived education as the major tool of social reconstruction and making people aware about their partnership with government in nation building and development. The Commission wanted people to participate in national development. This is the base of the report of Kothari Commission.

Following are some of the major goals for education as visualized by the Commission and the recommendations to achieve them:

• Education for increasing productivity: a) Make science a basic component of education and culture. b) Introducing S.U.P.W. as an integral part of general education. c) Vocationalising education to meet the needs of the industry of agriculture. d) Improving scientific and technological research and education in universities
• Education for accelerating process of modernization: a) Adopting new methods of teaching b) Development of attitudes, values and essential skills like Self study. c) Educating people of all strata of society. d) Emphasizing teaching of vocational subjects and science. e) Establishing universities of excellence in the country.
• Educating for promoting social and national integration: a) Introducing common school system of public education. b) Developing all modern Indian languages. c) Taking steps to enrich Hindi as quickly as possible. d) Encouraging and enabling students to participate in community living.
• Education for inculcation of national values: a) Introducing moral, social and spiritual values. b) Providing syllabus giving information about religions of the world. c) Encouraging students to meet in groups for silent meditation. d) Presenting before students high ideas of social justice and social service.

Kothari Commission Report is a learned critique of Indian education, and even today, after half a century of years, is still regarded as the most in-depth study of primary and secondary education in Indian history

Introduction

• Vernacular language is a local language commonly spoken by a community
• In colonial countries like India, the British used the term to mark the difference between the local languages of everyday use and English – the language of the imperial masters
• But initially, the British decided that the English language and literature and European history, science, etc. were to be taught
• However, in 1853 a committee was built to check the progress of education. Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian knowledge was considered necessary, this brought the focus on vernacular education

Tracing the Development

Other Measures taken

• It was particularly after 1854 that, the Company decided to improve the system of vernacular education
• It felt that this could be done by introducing order within the system, imposing routines, establishing rules, ensuring regular inspections
• It appointed a number of government pandits , each in charge of looking after four to five schools. The task of the pandit was to visit the pathshalas and try and improve the standard of teaching.
• Each guru was asked to submit periodic reports and take classes according to a regular timetable.
• Teaching was now to be based on textbooks and learning was to be tested through a system of annual examination.
• Students were asked to pay a regular fee, attend regular classes, sit on fixed seats, and obey the new rules
• Also, Pathshalas which accepted the new rules were supported through government grants.
• However, this system didn’t work out for poor families as the discipline of the new system demanded regular attendance, even during harvest time when children of poor families had to work in the fields
• If one studies the development process in totality and in historical perspective, it may not be difficult to establish beyond doubt that the roots of modern scientific and technical education can be traced to Vedic period (prior to 1000BC) and the Epic period (1000 BC to 800 BC) which comprised ashrams(hermitages) of acharyas and kulagurus (teacher sages)
• Students came from far off places to study various arts and sciences and medicine, on the Indian Land

Early Developments during British Rule

• If we examine the historical development of technical education, it will be discovered that the foundation of technical education in India was laid almost at the same time as in Europe but its growth in India was very restrictive and slow till India became Independent
• After the Battle of Plassey in 1754 , the status of presence of Britishers was changed from traders to colonizers. Therefore, to rule the country, it was essential that they should have an intimate knowledge of the country’s topography through physical survey of the land
• For achieving this object, the English traders established a survey school in Madras (Chennai) in 1794 to train Indian personnel in land survey to assist British Surveyors
• The necessity to make the local population more efficient, led to the establishment of industrial schools attached to Indian Ordnance Factories and other engineering establishments
• As a result, the first engineering college was established in the Uttar Pradesh in 1847 for the training of Civil Engineers at Roorkee, Thomason College (which later become IIT Roorkee)
• In Bengal Presidency , a College called the Calcutta College of Civil Engineering was opened in 1856
• In Bombay Presidency , the Overseers’ School at Pune eventually became the College of Engineering, Pune in 1858
• In the Madras Presidency , the industrial school attached to the Gun Carriage Factory became ultimately the College of Engineering, Guindy in 1858

Year Wise establishment of various Technical Institutions in India

The Post-War Transition

• A transfer of power to Indian hands became inevitable
• As a result, during the dusk years of its rule, the British Raj decided to release the brakes it had applied for a century to withhold industrial progress
• In the light of this report, an ad-hoc committee under the chairmanship of N.R. Sarkar was constituted in 1945 to advice on the provision of advanced technical education in India
• The Government of India, thus, established the All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) to supervise all technical education above the high school stage, which had its first meeting under Chairmanship of Sarkar in 1946

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[Answered] Do you think, vernacularisation of medical education is feasible in India? Give arguments in support of your answer.

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The medium of instruction forms the basic and vital backbone of any curriculum. Unlike a few other disciplines like Law and Civil Services, which enjoy substitutes for the medium of instruction, Medicine is taught in English alone. In India, the basic medium of instruction until high school being dominated by regional or vernacular languages in majority of Indian States.

Feasibility:

• Promotes linguistic diversity: It will promote the strength, usage, and vibrancy of Indian languages.
• Benefits for the less-advantaged: This is especially relevant for students who come from rural areas and may feel intimidated by unfamiliar concepts in an alien language.
• More participation: It will help to increase access to medical education beyond the English-knowing elites. This could generate talented physicians from neglected rural backgrounds with little reluctance to serve in their villages.
• It will help counter the hegemony of English in professional education.
• It is of the view that countries such as Germany and China have long been doing so successfully, and so India also can efficiently implement this.
• Large investments: This measure would require significant costs related to regulatory and administrative alterations. This would include translation of educational materials, training of trainers, and the like.
• Less demand: It may face considerable resistance in learn into the existing ecosystem and could restrict its scope to a few select institutions. This has already been witnessed in the case of engineering courses.
• Other courses: Medical education includes various medical courses including MBBS. So other courses would also need to be conceived in regional languages.
• Employment issues: A considerable segment of medical graduates today are employed in allied sectors like research, business and administration, pharmaceuticals etc. which are firmly deep-rooted in English and are thus likely to be much less welcoming to these graduates.
• It is argued that this measure may erode the competitive advantage Indian graduates have in the global scientific arena.

Way forward:

• An incremental approach should be adopted to gradually make medical education in regional languages more harmonious with the current ecosystem. E.g., before offering MBBS in an Indian language, it would be far more prudent to start paramedical courses in that language.
• The present selection criteria is based more on aptitude than merit, it should be changed according to present requirements.

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