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Methodology
Published on January 2, 2023 by Shona McCombes . Revised on September 11, 2023.
What is a literature review? A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources on a specific topic. It provides an overview of current knowledge, allowing you to identify relevant theories, methods, and gaps in the existing research that you can later apply to your paper, thesis, or dissertation topic .
There are five key steps to writing a literature review:
A good literature review doesn’t just summarize sources—it analyzes, synthesizes , and critically evaluates to give a clear picture of the state of knowledge on the subject.
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What is the purpose of a literature review, examples of literature reviews, step 1 – search for relevant literature, step 2 – evaluate and select sources, step 3 – identify themes, debates, and gaps, step 4 – outline your literature review’s structure, step 5 – write your literature review, free lecture slides, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions, introduction.
When you write a thesis , dissertation , or research paper , you will likely have to conduct a literature review to situate your research within existing knowledge. The literature review gives you a chance to:
Writing literature reviews is a particularly important skill if you want to apply for graduate school or pursue a career in research. We’ve written a step-by-step guide that you can follow below.
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Writing literature reviews can be quite challenging! A good starting point could be to look at some examples, depending on what kind of literature review you’d like to write.
You can also check out our templates with literature review examples and sample outlines at the links below.
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Before you begin searching for literature, you need a clearly defined topic .
If you are writing the literature review section of a dissertation or research paper, you will search for literature related to your research problem and questions .
Start by creating a list of keywords related to your research question. Include each of the key concepts or variables you’re interested in, and list any synonyms and related terms. You can add to this list as you discover new keywords in the process of your literature search.
Use your keywords to begin searching for sources. Some useful databases to search for journals and articles include:
You can also use boolean operators to help narrow down your search.
Make sure to read the abstract to find out whether an article is relevant to your question. When you find a useful book or article, you can check the bibliography to find other relevant sources.
You likely won’t be able to read absolutely everything that has been written on your topic, so it will be necessary to evaluate which sources are most relevant to your research question.
For each publication, ask yourself:
Make sure the sources you use are credible , and make sure you read any landmark studies and major theories in your field of research.
You can use our template to summarize and evaluate sources you’re thinking about using. Click on either button below to download.
As you read, you should also begin the writing process. Take notes that you can later incorporate into the text of your literature review.
It is important to keep track of your sources with citations to avoid plagiarism . It can be helpful to make an annotated bibliography , where you compile full citation information and write a paragraph of summary and analysis for each source. This helps you remember what you read and saves time later in the process.
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To begin organizing your literature review’s argument and structure, be sure you understand the connections and relationships between the sources you’ve read. Based on your reading and notes, you can look for:
This step will help you work out the structure of your literature review and (if applicable) show how your own research will contribute to existing knowledge.
There are various approaches to organizing the body of a literature review. Depending on the length of your literature review, you can combine several of these strategies (for example, your overall structure might be thematic, but each theme is discussed chronologically).
The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time. However, if you choose this strategy, be careful to avoid simply listing and summarizing sources in order.
Try to analyze patterns, turning points and key debates that have shaped the direction of the field. Give your interpretation of how and why certain developments occurred.
If you have found some recurring central themes, you can organize your literature review into subsections that address different aspects of the topic.
For example, if you are reviewing literature about inequalities in migrant health outcomes, key themes might include healthcare policy, language barriers, cultural attitudes, legal status, and economic access.
If you draw your sources from different disciplines or fields that use a variety of research methods , you might want to compare the results and conclusions that emerge from different approaches. For example:
A literature review is often the foundation for a theoretical framework . You can use it to discuss various theories, models, and definitions of key concepts.
You might argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach, or combine various theoretical concepts to create a framework for your research.
Like any other academic text , your literature review should have an introduction , a main body, and a conclusion . What you include in each depends on the objective of your literature review.
The introduction should clearly establish the focus and purpose of the literature review.
Depending on the length of your literature review, you might want to divide the body into subsections. You can use a subheading for each theme, time period, or methodological approach.
As you write, you can follow these tips:
In the conclusion, you should summarize the key findings you have taken from the literature and emphasize their significance.
When you’ve finished writing and revising your literature review, don’t forget to proofread thoroughly before submitting. Not a language expert? Check out Scribbr’s professional proofreading services !
This article has been adapted into lecture slides that you can use to teach your students about writing a literature review.
Scribbr slides are free to use, customize, and distribute for educational purposes.
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If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.
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A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources (such as books, journal articles, and theses) related to a specific topic or research question .
It is often written as part of a thesis, dissertation , or research paper , in order to situate your work in relation to existing knowledge.
There are several reasons to conduct a literature review at the beginning of a research project:
Writing the literature review shows your reader how your work relates to existing research and what new insights it will contribute.
The literature review usually comes near the beginning of your thesis or dissertation . After the introduction , it grounds your research in a scholarly field and leads directly to your theoretical framework or methodology .
A literature review is a survey of credible sources on a topic, often used in dissertations , theses, and research papers . Literature reviews give an overview of knowledge on a subject, helping you identify relevant theories and methods, as well as gaps in existing research. Literature reviews are set up similarly to other academic texts , with an introduction , a main body, and a conclusion .
An annotated bibliography is a list of source references that has a short description (called an annotation ) for each of the sources. It is often assigned as part of the research process for a paper .
If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.
McCombes, S. (2023, September 11). How to Write a Literature Review | Guide, Examples, & Templates. Scribbr. Retrieved September 27, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/dissertation/literature-review/
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Literature reviews, what is a literature review, learning more about how to do a literature review.
A literature review is a review and synthesis of existing research on a topic or research question. A literature review is meant to analyze the scholarly literature, make connections across writings and identify strengths, weaknesses, trends, and missing conversations. A literature review should address different aspects of a topic as it relates to your research question. A literature review goes beyond a description or summary of the literature you have read.
So, what is a literature review? "A literature review is an account of what has been published on a topic by accredited scholars and researchers. In writing the literature review, your purpose is to convey to your reader what knowledge and ideas have been established on a topic, and what their strengths and weaknesses are. As a piece of writing, the literature review must be defined by a guiding concept (e.g., your research objective, the problem or issue you are discussing, or your argumentative thesis). It is not just a descriptive list of the material available, or a set of summaries." Taylor, D. The literature review: A few tips on conducting it . University of Toronto Health Sciences Writing Centre.
What are the goals of creating a Literature Review? A literature could be written to accomplish different aims:
Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1997). Writing narrative literature reviews . Review of General Psychology , 1 (3), 311-320.
What kinds of sources require a Literature Review?
All these instances require you to collect what has been written about your research topic so that you can demonstrate how your own research sheds new light on the topic.
What kinds of literature reviews are written?
Narrative review: The purpose of this type of review is to describe the current state of the research on a specific topic/research and to offer a critical analysis of the literature reviewed. Studies are grouped by research/theoretical categories, and themes and trends, strengths and weakness, and gaps are identified. The review ends with a conclusion section which summarizes the findings regarding the state of the research of the specific study, the gaps identify and if applicable, explains how the author's research will address gaps identify in the review and expand the knowledge on the topic reviewed.
Systematic review : "The authors of a systematic review use a specific procedure to search the research literature, select the studies to include in their review, and critically evaluate the studies they find." (p. 139). Nelson, L. K. (2013). Research in Communication Sciences and Disorders . Plural Publishing.
Meta-analysis : "Meta-analysis is a method of reviewing research findings in a quantitative fashion by transforming the data from individual studies into what is called an effect size and then pooling and analyzing this information. The basic goal in meta-analysis is to explain why different outcomes have occurred in different studies." (p. 197). Roberts, M. C., & Ilardi, S. S. (2003). Handbook of Research Methods in Clinical Psychology . Blackwell Publishing.
Meta-synthesis : "Qualitative meta-synthesis is a type of qualitative study that uses as data the findings from other qualitative studies linked by the same or related topic." (p.312). Zimmer, L. (2006). Qualitative meta-synthesis: A question of dialoguing with texts . Journal of Advanced Nursing , 53 (3), 311-318.
4-minute read
If you’re writing a research paper or dissertation , then you’ll most likely need to include a comprehensive literature review . In this post, we’ll review the purpose of literature reviews, why they are so significant, and the specific elements to include in one. Literature reviews can:
1. Provide a foundation for current research.
2. Define key concepts and theories.
3. Demonstrate critical evaluation.
4. Show how research and methodologies have evolved.
5. Identify gaps in existing research.
6. Support your argument.
Keep reading to enter the exciting world of literature reviews!
A literature review is a critical summary and evaluation of the existing research (e.g., academic journal articles and books) on a specific topic. It is typically included as a separate section or chapter of a research paper or dissertation, serving as a contextual framework for a study. Literature reviews can vary in length depending on the subject and nature of the study, with most being about equal length to other sections or chapters included in the paper. Essentially, the literature review highlights previous studies in the context of your research and summarizes your insights in a structured, organized format. Next, let’s look at the overall purpose of a literature review.
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Literature reviews are considered an integral part of research across most academic subjects and fields. The primary purpose of a literature review in your study is to:
Since the literature review provides a comprehensive evaluation of the existing research, it serves as a solid foundation for your current study. It’s a way to contextualize your work and show how your research fits into the broader landscape of your specific area of study.
The literature review highlights the central theories and concepts that have arisen from previous research on your chosen topic. It gives your readers a more thorough understanding of the background of your study and why your research is particularly significant .
A comprehensive literature review shows your ability to critically analyze and evaluate a broad range of source material. And since you’re considering and acknowledging the contribution of key scholars alongside your own, it establishes your own credibility and knowledge.
Another purpose of literature reviews is to provide a historical perspective and demonstrate how research and methodologies have changed over time, especially as data collection methods and technology have advanced. And studying past methodologies allows you, as the researcher, to understand what did and did not work and apply that knowledge to your own research.
Besides discussing current research and methodologies, the literature review should also address areas that are lacking in the existing literature. This helps further demonstrate the relevance of your own research by explaining why your study is necessary to fill the gaps.
A good literature review should provide evidence that supports your research questions and hypothesis. For example, your study may show that your research supports existing theories or builds on them in some way. Referencing previous related studies shows your work is grounded in established research and will ultimately be a contribution to the field.
Ensure your literature review is polished and ready for submission by having it professionally proofread and edited by our expert team. Our literature review editing services will help your research stand out and make an impact. Not convinced yet? Send in your free sample today and see for yourself!
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A literature or narrative review is a comprehensive review and analysis of the published literature on a specific topic or research question. The literature that is reviewed contains: books, articles, academic articles, conference proceedings, association papers, and dissertations. It contains the most pertinent studies and points to important past and current research and practices. It provides background and context, and shows how your research will contribute to the field.
A literature review should:
From S age Research Methods
A literature review can be written as an introduction to a study to:
Or it can be a separate work (a research article on its own) which:
Some of the limitations of a literature review are:
Source: Grant, Maria J., and Andrew Booth. “A Typology of Reviews: An Analysis of 14 Review Types and Associated Methodologies.” Health Information & Libraries Journal, vol. 26, no. 2, June 2009, pp. 91–108. Wiley Online Library, doi:10.1111/j.1471-1842.2009.00848.x.
For help, please contact the librarian for your subject area. We have a guide to library specialists by subject .
What are literature reviews, goals of literature reviews, types of literature reviews, about this guide/licence.
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What is a literature review? "A literature review is an account of what has been published on a topic by accredited scholars and researchers. In writing the literature review, your purpose is to convey to your reader what knowledge and ideas have been established on a topic, and what their strengths and weaknesses are. As a piece of writing, the literature review must be defined by a guiding concept (e.g., your research objective, the problem or issue you are discussing, or your argumentative thesis). It is not just a descriptive list of the material available, or a set of summaries. " - Quote from Taylor, D. (n.d) "The literature review: A few tips on conducting it"
Source NC State University Libraries. This video is published under a Creative Commons 3.0 BY-NC-SA US license.
What are the goals of creating a Literature Review?
- Baumeister, R.F. & Leary, M.R. (1997). "Writing narrative literature reviews," Review of General Psychology , 1(3), 311-320.
When do you need to write a Literature Review?
In all these cases you need to dedicate a chapter in these works to showcase what have been written about your research topic and to point out how your own research will shed a new light into these body of scholarship.
Literature reviews are also written as standalone articles as a way to survey a particular research topic in-depth. This type of literature reviews look at a topic from a historical perspective to see how the understanding of the topic have change through time.
What kinds of literature reviews are written?
Guide adapted from "Literature Review" , a guide developed by Marisol Ramos used under CC BY 4.0 /modified from original.
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The purpose of a literature review, how to write a literature review, the format of a literature review, general formatting rules, the length of a literature review, literature review examples, frequently asked questions about literature reviews, related articles.
A literature review is an assessment of the sources in a chosen topic of research.
In a literature review, you’re expected to report on the existing scholarly conversation, without adding new contributions.
If you are currently writing one, you've come to the right place. In the following paragraphs, we will explain:
Tip: It’s not always mandatory to add a literature review in a paper. Theses and dissertations often include them, whereas research papers may not. Make sure to consult with your instructor for exact requirements.
The four main objectives of a literature review are:
Ultimately, the main goal of a literature review is to provide the researcher with sufficient knowledge about the topic in question so that they can eventually make an intervention.
The format of a literature review is fairly standard. It includes an:
➡️ Take a look at our guide on how to write a literature review to learn more about how to structure a literature review.
First of all, a literature review should have its own labeled section. You should indicate clearly in the table of contents where the literature can be found, and you should label this section as “Literature Review.”
➡️ For more information on writing a thesis, visit our guide on how to structure a thesis .
There is no set amount of words for a literature review, so the length depends on the research. If you are working with a large amount of sources, it will be long. If your paper does not depend entirely on references, it will be short.
Take a look at these three theses featuring great literature reviews:
Literature reviews are most commonly found in theses and dissertations. However, you find them in research papers as well.
There is no set amount of words for a literature review, so the length depends on the research. If you are working with a large amount of sources, then it will be long. If your paper does not depend entirely on references, then it will be short.
No. A literature review should have its own independent section. You should indicate clearly in the table of contents where the literature review can be found, and label this section as “Literature Review.”
The main goal of a literature review is to provide the researcher with sufficient knowledge about the topic in question so that they can eventually make an intervention.
Introduction.
A literature review is a written work that :
From these analyses, the writer then offers an overview of the current status of a particular area of knowledge from both a practical and theoretical perspective.
Literature reviews are important because they are usually a required step in a thesis proposal (Master's or PhD). The proposal will not be well-supported without a literature review. Also, literature reviews are important because they help you learn important authors and ideas in your field. This is useful for your coursework and your writing. Knowing key authors also helps you become acquainted with other researchers in your field.
Look at this diagram and imagine that your research is the "something new." This shows how your research should relate to major works and other sources.
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Importance of a good literature review.
A literature review is not only a summary of key sources, but has an organizational pattern which combines both summary and synthesis, often within specific conceptual categories . A summary is a recap of the important information of the source, but a synthesis is a re-organization, or a reshuffling, of that information in a way that informs how you are planning to investigate a research problem. The analytical features of a literature review might:
The purpose of a literature review is to:
A literature review is a critical analysis and synthesis of existing research on a particular topic. It provides an overview of the current state of knowledge, identifies gaps, and highlights key findings in the literature. 1 The purpose of a literature review is to situate your own research within the context of existing scholarship, demonstrating your understanding of the topic and showing how your work contributes to the ongoing conversation in the field. Learning how to write a literature review is a critical tool for successful research. Your ability to summarize and synthesize prior research pertaining to a certain topic demonstrates your grasp on the topic of study, and assists in the learning process.
What is the purpose of literature review , a. habitat loss and species extinction: , b. range shifts and phenological changes: , c. ocean acidification and coral reefs: , d. adaptive strategies and conservation efforts: .
What is a literature review .
A well-conducted literature review demonstrates the researcher’s familiarity with the existing literature, establishes the context for their own research, and contributes to scholarly conversations on the topic. One of the purposes of a literature review is also to help researchers avoid duplicating previous work and ensure that their research is informed by and builds upon the existing body of knowledge.
A literature review serves several important purposes within academic and research contexts. Here are some key objectives and functions of a literature review: 2
1. Contextualizing the Research Problem: The literature review provides a background and context for the research problem under investigation. It helps to situate the study within the existing body of knowledge.
2. Identifying Gaps in Knowledge: By identifying gaps, contradictions, or areas requiring further research, the researcher can shape the research question and justify the significance of the study. This is crucial for ensuring that the new research contributes something novel to the field.
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3. Understanding Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks: Literature reviews help researchers gain an understanding of the theoretical and conceptual frameworks used in previous studies. This aids in the development of a theoretical framework for the current research.
4. Providing Methodological Insights: Another purpose of literature reviews is that it allows researchers to learn about the methodologies employed in previous studies. This can help in choosing appropriate research methods for the current study and avoiding pitfalls that others may have encountered.
5. Establishing Credibility: A well-conducted literature review demonstrates the researcher’s familiarity with existing scholarship, establishing their credibility and expertise in the field. It also helps in building a solid foundation for the new research.
6. Informing Hypotheses or Research Questions: The literature review guides the formulation of hypotheses or research questions by highlighting relevant findings and areas of uncertainty in existing literature.
Let’s delve deeper with a literature review example: Let’s say your literature review is about the impact of climate change on biodiversity. You might format your literature review into sections such as the effects of climate change on habitat loss and species extinction, phenological changes, and marine biodiversity. Each section would then summarize and analyze relevant studies in those areas, highlighting key findings and identifying gaps in the research. The review would conclude by emphasizing the need for further research on specific aspects of the relationship between climate change and biodiversity. The following literature review template provides a glimpse into the recommended literature review structure and content, demonstrating how research findings are organized around specific themes within a broader topic.
Climate change is a global phenomenon with far-reaching consequences, including significant impacts on biodiversity. This literature review synthesizes key findings from various studies:
Climate change-induced alterations in temperature and precipitation patterns contribute to habitat loss, affecting numerous species (Thomas et al., 2004). The review discusses how these changes increase the risk of extinction, particularly for species with specific habitat requirements.
Observations of range shifts and changes in the timing of biological events (phenology) are documented in response to changing climatic conditions (Parmesan & Yohe, 2003). These shifts affect ecosystems and may lead to mismatches between species and their resources.
The review explores the impact of climate change on marine biodiversity, emphasizing ocean acidification’s threat to coral reefs (Hoegh-Guldberg et al., 2007). Changes in pH levels negatively affect coral calcification, disrupting the delicate balance of marine ecosystems.
Recognizing the urgency of the situation, the literature review discusses various adaptive strategies adopted by species and conservation efforts aimed at mitigating the impacts of climate change on biodiversity (Hannah et al., 2007). It emphasizes the importance of interdisciplinary approaches for effective conservation planning.
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Writing a literature review involves summarizing and synthesizing existing research on a particular topic. A good literature review format should include the following elements.
Introduction: The introduction sets the stage for your literature review, providing context and introducing the main focus of your review.
Body: The body of the literature review is where you provide a comprehensive analysis of existing literature, grouping studies based on themes, methodologies, or other relevant criteria.
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Conclusion: The conclusion of your literature review should summarize the main findings, highlight the contributions of the review, and suggest avenues for future research.
Conducting a literature review is an essential step in research that involves reviewing and analyzing existing literature on a specific topic. It’s important to know how to do a literature review effectively, so here are the steps to follow: 1
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The literature review sample and detailed advice on writing and conducting a review will help you produce a well-structured report. But remember that a good literature review is an ongoing process, and it may be necessary to revisit and update it as your research progresses. By combining effortless research with an easy citation process, Paperpal Research streamlines the literature review process and empowers you to write faster and with more confidence. Try Paperpal Research now and see for yourself.
A literature review is a critical and comprehensive analysis of existing literature (published and unpublished works) on a specific topic or research question and provides a synthesis of the current state of knowledge in a particular field. A well-conducted literature review is crucial for researchers to build upon existing knowledge, avoid duplication of efforts, and contribute to the advancement of their field. It also helps researchers situate their work within a broader context and facilitates the development of a sound theoretical and conceptual framework for their studies.
Literature review is a crucial component of research writing, providing a solid background for a research paper’s investigation. The aim is to keep professionals up to date by providing an understanding of ongoing developments within a specific field, including research methods, and experimental techniques used in that field, and present that knowledge in the form of a written report. Also, the depth and breadth of the literature review emphasizes the credibility of the scholar in his or her field.
Before writing a literature review, it’s essential to undertake several preparatory steps to ensure that your review is well-researched, organized, and focused. This includes choosing a topic of general interest to you and doing exploratory research on that topic, writing an annotated bibliography, and noting major points, especially those that relate to the position you have taken on the topic.
Literature reviews and academic research papers are essential components of scholarly work but serve different purposes within the academic realm. 3 A literature review aims to provide a foundation for understanding the current state of research on a particular topic, identify gaps or controversies, and lay the groundwork for future research. Therefore, it draws heavily from existing academic sources, including books, journal articles, and other scholarly publications. In contrast, an academic research paper aims to present new knowledge, contribute to the academic discourse, and advance the understanding of a specific research question. Therefore, it involves a mix of existing literature (in the introduction and literature review sections) and original data or findings obtained through research methods.
Literature reviews are essential components of academic and research papers, and various strategies can be employed to conduct them effectively. If you want to know how to write a literature review for a research paper, here are four common approaches that are often used by researchers. Chronological Review: This strategy involves organizing the literature based on the chronological order of publication. It helps to trace the development of a topic over time, showing how ideas, theories, and research have evolved. Thematic Review: Thematic reviews focus on identifying and analyzing themes or topics that cut across different studies. Instead of organizing the literature chronologically, it is grouped by key themes or concepts, allowing for a comprehensive exploration of various aspects of the topic. Methodological Review: This strategy involves organizing the literature based on the research methods employed in different studies. It helps to highlight the strengths and weaknesses of various methodologies and allows the reader to evaluate the reliability and validity of the research findings. Theoretical Review: A theoretical review examines the literature based on the theoretical frameworks used in different studies. This approach helps to identify the key theories that have been applied to the topic and assess their contributions to the understanding of the subject. It’s important to note that these strategies are not mutually exclusive, and a literature review may combine elements of more than one approach. The choice of strategy depends on the research question, the nature of the literature available, and the goals of the review. Additionally, other strategies, such as integrative reviews or systematic reviews, may be employed depending on the specific requirements of the research.
The literature review format can vary depending on the specific publication guidelines. However, there are some common elements and structures that are often followed. Here is a general guideline for the format of a literature review: Introduction: Provide an overview of the topic. Define the scope and purpose of the literature review. State the research question or objective. Body: Organize the literature by themes, concepts, or chronology. Critically analyze and evaluate each source. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the studies. Highlight any methodological limitations or biases. Identify patterns, connections, or contradictions in the existing research. Conclusion: Summarize the key points discussed in the literature review. Highlight the research gap. Address the research question or objective stated in the introduction. Highlight the contributions of the review and suggest directions for future research.
Both annotated bibliographies and literature reviews involve the examination of scholarly sources. While annotated bibliographies focus on individual sources with brief annotations, literature reviews provide a more in-depth, integrated, and comprehensive analysis of existing literature on a specific topic. The key differences are as follows:
Annotated Bibliography | Literature Review | |
Purpose | List of citations of books, articles, and other sources with a brief description (annotation) of each source. | Comprehensive and critical analysis of existing literature on a specific topic. |
Focus | Summary and evaluation of each source, including its relevance, methodology, and key findings. | Provides an overview of the current state of knowledge on a particular subject and identifies gaps, trends, and patterns in existing literature. |
Structure | Each citation is followed by a concise paragraph (annotation) that describes the source’s content, methodology, and its contribution to the topic. | The literature review is organized thematically or chronologically and involves a synthesis of the findings from different sources to build a narrative or argument. |
Length | Typically 100-200 words | Length of literature review ranges from a few pages to several chapters |
Independence | Each source is treated separately, with less emphasis on synthesizing the information across sources. | The writer synthesizes information from multiple sources to present a cohesive overview of the topic. |
References
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A literature review surveys prior research published in books, scholarly articles, and any other sources relevant to a particular issue, area of research, or theory, and by so doing, provides a description, summary, and critical evaluation of these works in relation to the research problem being investigated. Literature reviews are designed to provide an overview of sources you have used in researching a particular topic and to demonstrate to your readers how your research fits within existing scholarship about the topic.
Fink, Arlene. Conducting Research Literature Reviews: From the Internet to Paper . Fourth edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2014.
A literature review may consist of simply a summary of key sources, but in the social sciences, a literature review usually has an organizational pattern and combines both summary and synthesis, often within specific conceptual categories . A summary is a recap of the important information of the source, but a synthesis is a re-organization, or a reshuffling, of that information in a way that informs how you are planning to investigate a research problem. The analytical features of a literature review might:
Given this, the purpose of a literature review is to:
Fink, Arlene. Conducting Research Literature Reviews: From the Internet to Paper. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2005; Hart, Chris. Doing a Literature Review: Releasing the Social Science Research Imagination . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1998; Jesson, Jill. Doing Your Literature Review: Traditional and Systematic Techniques . Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2011; Knopf, Jeffrey W. "Doing a Literature Review." PS: Political Science and Politics 39 (January 2006): 127-132; Ridley, Diana. The Literature Review: A Step-by-Step Guide for Students . 2nd ed. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2012.
Types of Literature Reviews
It is important to think of knowledge in a given field as consisting of three layers. First, there are the primary studies that researchers conduct and publish. Second are the reviews of those studies that summarize and offer new interpretations built from and often extending beyond the primary studies. Third, there are the perceptions, conclusions, opinion, and interpretations that are shared informally among scholars that become part of the body of epistemological traditions within the field.
In composing a literature review, it is important to note that it is often this third layer of knowledge that is cited as "true" even though it often has only a loose relationship to the primary studies and secondary literature reviews. Given this, while literature reviews are designed to provide an overview and synthesis of pertinent sources you have explored, there are a number of approaches you could adopt depending upon the type of analysis underpinning your study.
Argumentative Review This form examines literature selectively in order to support or refute an argument, deeply embedded assumption, or philosophical problem already established in the literature. The purpose is to develop a body of literature that establishes a contrarian viewpoint. Given the value-laden nature of some social science research [e.g., educational reform; immigration control], argumentative approaches to analyzing the literature can be a legitimate and important form of discourse. However, note that they can also introduce problems of bias when they are used to make summary claims of the sort found in systematic reviews [see below].
Integrative Review Considered a form of research that reviews, critiques, and synthesizes representative literature on a topic in an integrated way such that new frameworks and perspectives on the topic are generated. The body of literature includes all studies that address related or identical hypotheses or research problems. A well-done integrative review meets the same standards as primary research in regard to clarity, rigor, and replication. This is the most common form of review in the social sciences.
Historical Review Few things rest in isolation from historical precedent. Historical literature reviews focus on examining research throughout a period of time, often starting with the first time an issue, concept, theory, phenomena emerged in the literature, then tracing its evolution within the scholarship of a discipline. The purpose is to place research in a historical context to show familiarity with state-of-the-art developments and to identify the likely directions for future research.
Methodological Review A review does not always focus on what someone said [findings], but how they came about saying what they say [method of analysis]. Reviewing methods of analysis provides a framework of understanding at different levels [i.e. those of theory, substantive fields, research approaches, and data collection and analysis techniques], how researchers draw upon a wide variety of knowledge ranging from the conceptual level to practical documents for use in fieldwork in the areas of ontological and epistemological consideration, quantitative and qualitative integration, sampling, interviewing, data collection, and data analysis. This approach helps highlight ethical issues which you should be aware of and consider as you go through your own study.
Systematic Review This form consists of an overview of existing evidence pertinent to a clearly formulated research question, which uses pre-specified and standardized methods to identify and critically appraise relevant research, and to collect, report, and analyze data from the studies that are included in the review. The goal is to deliberately document, critically evaluate, and summarize scientifically all of the research about a clearly defined research problem . Typically it focuses on a very specific empirical question, often posed in a cause-and-effect form, such as "To what extent does A contribute to B?" This type of literature review is primarily applied to examining prior research studies in clinical medicine and allied health fields, but it is increasingly being used in the social sciences.
Theoretical Review The purpose of this form is to examine the corpus of theory that has accumulated in regard to an issue, concept, theory, phenomena. The theoretical literature review helps to establish what theories already exist, the relationships between them, to what degree the existing theories have been investigated, and to develop new hypotheses to be tested. Often this form is used to help establish a lack of appropriate theories or reveal that current theories are inadequate for explaining new or emerging research problems. The unit of analysis can focus on a theoretical concept or a whole theory or framework.
NOTE: Most often the literature review will incorporate some combination of types. For example, a review that examines literature supporting or refuting an argument, assumption, or philosophical problem related to the research problem will also need to include writing supported by sources that establish the history of these arguments in the literature.
Baumeister, Roy F. and Mark R. Leary. "Writing Narrative Literature Reviews." Review of General Psychology 1 (September 1997): 311-320; Mark R. Fink, Arlene. Conducting Research Literature Reviews: From the Internet to Paper . 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2005; Hart, Chris. Doing a Literature Review: Releasing the Social Science Research Imagination . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1998; Kennedy, Mary M. "Defining a Literature." Educational Researcher 36 (April 2007): 139-147; Petticrew, Mark and Helen Roberts. Systematic Reviews in the Social Sciences: A Practical Guide . Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 2006; Torracro, Richard. "Writing Integrative Literature Reviews: Guidelines and Examples." Human Resource Development Review 4 (September 2005): 356-367; Rocco, Tonette S. and Maria S. Plakhotnik. "Literature Reviews, Conceptual Frameworks, and Theoretical Frameworks: Terms, Functions, and Distinctions." Human Ressource Development Review 8 (March 2008): 120-130; Sutton, Anthea. Systematic Approaches to a Successful Literature Review . Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications, 2016.
I. Thinking About Your Literature Review
The structure of a literature review should include the following in support of understanding the research problem :
The critical evaluation of each work should consider :
II. Development of the Literature Review
Four Basic Stages of Writing 1. Problem formulation -- which topic or field is being examined and what are its component issues? 2. Literature search -- finding materials relevant to the subject being explored. 3. Data evaluation -- determining which literature makes a significant contribution to the understanding of the topic. 4. Analysis and interpretation -- discussing the findings and conclusions of pertinent literature.
Consider the following issues before writing the literature review: Clarify If your assignment is not specific about what form your literature review should take, seek clarification from your professor by asking these questions: 1. Roughly how many sources would be appropriate to include? 2. What types of sources should I review (books, journal articles, websites; scholarly versus popular sources)? 3. Should I summarize, synthesize, or critique sources by discussing a common theme or issue? 4. Should I evaluate the sources in any way beyond evaluating how they relate to understanding the research problem? 5. Should I provide subheadings and other background information, such as definitions and/or a history? Find Models Use the exercise of reviewing the literature to examine how authors in your discipline or area of interest have composed their literature review sections. Read them to get a sense of the types of themes you might want to look for in your own research or to identify ways to organize your final review. The bibliography or reference section of sources you've already read, such as required readings in the course syllabus, are also excellent entry points into your own research. Narrow the Topic The narrower your topic, the easier it will be to limit the number of sources you need to read in order to obtain a good survey of relevant resources. Your professor will probably not expect you to read everything that's available about the topic, but you'll make the act of reviewing easier if you first limit scope of the research problem. A good strategy is to begin by searching the USC Libraries Catalog for recent books about the topic and review the table of contents for chapters that focuses on specific issues. You can also review the indexes of books to find references to specific issues that can serve as the focus of your research. For example, a book surveying the history of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict may include a chapter on the role Egypt has played in mediating the conflict, or look in the index for the pages where Egypt is mentioned in the text. Consider Whether Your Sources are Current Some disciplines require that you use information that is as current as possible. This is particularly true in disciplines in medicine and the sciences where research conducted becomes obsolete very quickly as new discoveries are made. However, when writing a review in the social sciences, a survey of the history of the literature may be required. In other words, a complete understanding the research problem requires you to deliberately examine how knowledge and perspectives have changed over time. Sort through other current bibliographies or literature reviews in the field to get a sense of what your discipline expects. You can also use this method to explore what is considered by scholars to be a "hot topic" and what is not.
III. Ways to Organize Your Literature Review
Chronology of Events If your review follows the chronological method, you could write about the materials according to when they were published. This approach should only be followed if a clear path of research building on previous research can be identified and that these trends follow a clear chronological order of development. For example, a literature review that focuses on continuing research about the emergence of German economic power after the fall of the Soviet Union. By Publication Order your sources by publication chronology, then, only if the order demonstrates a more important trend. For instance, you could order a review of literature on environmental studies of brown fields if the progression revealed, for example, a change in the soil collection practices of the researchers who wrote and/or conducted the studies. Thematic [“conceptual categories”] A thematic literature review is the most common approach to summarizing prior research in the social and behavioral sciences. Thematic reviews are organized around a topic or issue, rather than the progression of time, although the progression of time may still be incorporated into a thematic review. For example, a review of the Internet’s impact on American presidential politics could focus on the development of online political satire. While the study focuses on one topic, the Internet’s impact on American presidential politics, it would still be organized chronologically reflecting technological developments in media. The difference in this example between a "chronological" and a "thematic" approach is what is emphasized the most: themes related to the role of the Internet in presidential politics. Note that more authentic thematic reviews tend to break away from chronological order. A review organized in this manner would shift between time periods within each section according to the point being made. Methodological A methodological approach focuses on the methods utilized by the researcher. For the Internet in American presidential politics project, one methodological approach would be to look at cultural differences between the portrayal of American presidents on American, British, and French websites. Or the review might focus on the fundraising impact of the Internet on a particular political party. A methodological scope will influence either the types of documents in the review or the way in which these documents are discussed.
Other Sections of Your Literature Review Once you've decided on the organizational method for your literature review, the sections you need to include in the paper should be easy to figure out because they arise from your organizational strategy. In other words, a chronological review would have subsections for each vital time period; a thematic review would have subtopics based upon factors that relate to the theme or issue. However, sometimes you may need to add additional sections that are necessary for your study, but do not fit in the organizational strategy of the body. What other sections you include in the body is up to you. However, only include what is necessary for the reader to locate your study within the larger scholarship about the research problem.
Here are examples of other sections, usually in the form of a single paragraph, you may need to include depending on the type of review you write:
IV. Writing Your Literature Review
Once you've settled on how to organize your literature review, you're ready to write each section. When writing your review, keep in mind these issues.
Use Evidence A literature review section is, in this sense, just like any other academic research paper. Your interpretation of the available sources must be backed up with evidence [citations] that demonstrates that what you are saying is valid. Be Selective Select only the most important points in each source to highlight in the review. The type of information you choose to mention should relate directly to the research problem, whether it is thematic, methodological, or chronological. Related items that provide additional information, but that are not key to understanding the research problem, can be included in a list of further readings . Use Quotes Sparingly Some short quotes are appropriate if you want to emphasize a point, or if what an author stated cannot be easily paraphrased. Sometimes you may need to quote certain terminology that was coined by the author, is not common knowledge, or taken directly from the study. Do not use extensive quotes as a substitute for using your own words in reviewing the literature. Summarize and Synthesize Remember to summarize and synthesize your sources within each thematic paragraph as well as throughout the review. Recapitulate important features of a research study, but then synthesize it by rephrasing the study's significance and relating it to your own work and the work of others. Keep Your Own Voice While the literature review presents others' ideas, your voice [the writer's] should remain front and center. For example, weave references to other sources into what you are writing but maintain your own voice by starting and ending the paragraph with your own ideas and wording. Use Caution When Paraphrasing When paraphrasing a source that is not your own, be sure to represent the author's information or opinions accurately and in your own words. Even when paraphrasing an author’s work, you still must provide a citation to that work.
V. Common Mistakes to Avoid
These are the most common mistakes made in reviewing social science research literature.
Cook, Kathleen E. and Elise Murowchick. “Do Literature Review Skills Transfer from One Course to Another?” Psychology Learning and Teaching 13 (March 2014): 3-11; Fink, Arlene. Conducting Research Literature Reviews: From the Internet to Paper . 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2005; Hart, Chris. Doing a Literature Review: Releasing the Social Science Research Imagination . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1998; Jesson, Jill. Doing Your Literature Review: Traditional and Systematic Techniques . London: SAGE, 2011; Literature Review Handout. Online Writing Center. Liberty University; Literature Reviews. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Onwuegbuzie, Anthony J. and Rebecca Frels. Seven Steps to a Comprehensive Literature Review: A Multimodal and Cultural Approach . Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2016; Ridley, Diana. The Literature Review: A Step-by-Step Guide for Students . 2nd ed. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE, 2012; Randolph, Justus J. “A Guide to Writing the Dissertation Literature Review." Practical Assessment, Research, and Evaluation. vol. 14, June 2009; Sutton, Anthea. Systematic Approaches to a Successful Literature Review . Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications, 2016; Taylor, Dena. The Literature Review: A Few Tips On Conducting It. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Writing a Literature Review. Academic Skills Centre. University of Canberra.
Break Out of Your Disciplinary Box!
Thinking interdisciplinarily about a research problem can be a rewarding exercise in applying new ideas, theories, or concepts to an old problem. For example, what might cultural anthropologists say about the continuing conflict in the Middle East? In what ways might geographers view the need for better distribution of social service agencies in large cities than how social workers might study the issue? You don’t want to substitute a thorough review of core research literature in your discipline for studies conducted in other fields of study. However, particularly in the social sciences, thinking about research problems from multiple vectors is a key strategy for finding new solutions to a problem or gaining a new perspective. Consult with a librarian about identifying research databases in other disciplines; almost every field of study has at least one comprehensive database devoted to indexing its research literature.
Frodeman, Robert. The Oxford Handbook of Interdisciplinarity . New York: Oxford University Press, 2010.
Don't Just Review for Content!
While conducting a review of the literature, maximize the time you devote to writing this part of your paper by thinking broadly about what you should be looking for and evaluating. Review not just what scholars are saying, but how are they saying it. Some questions to ask:
When you begin to write your literature review section, you'll be glad you dug deeper into how the research was designed and constructed because it establishes a means for developing more substantial analysis and interpretation of the research problem.
Hart, Chris. Doing a Literature Review: Releasing the Social Science Research Imagination . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1 998.
When Do I Know I Can Stop Looking and Move On?
Here are several strategies you can utilize to assess whether you've thoroughly reviewed the literature:
Onwuegbuzie, Anthony J. and Rebecca Frels. Seven Steps to a Comprehensive Literature Review: A Multimodal and Cultural Approach . Los Angeles, CA: Sage, 2016; Sutton, Anthea. Systematic Approaches to a Successful Literature Review . Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications, 2016.
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Debora f.b. leite.
I Departamento de Ginecologia e Obstetricia, Faculdade de Ciencias Medicas, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, SP, BR
II Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Pernambuco, PE, BR
III Hospital das Clinicas, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Pernambuco, PE, BR
Jose g. cecatti.
A sophisticated literature review (LR) can result in a robust dissertation/thesis by scrutinizing the main problem examined by the academic study; anticipating research hypotheses, methods and results; and maintaining the interest of the audience in how the dissertation/thesis will provide solutions for the current gaps in a particular field. Unfortunately, little guidance is available on elaborating LRs, and writing an LR chapter is not a linear process. An LR translates students’ abilities in information literacy, the language domain, and critical writing. Students in postgraduate programs should be systematically trained in these skills. Therefore, this paper discusses the purposes of LRs in dissertations and theses. Second, the paper considers five steps for developing a review: defining the main topic, searching the literature, analyzing the results, writing the review and reflecting on the writing. Ultimately, this study proposes a twelve-item LR checklist. By clearly stating the desired achievements, this checklist allows Masters and Ph.D. students to continuously assess their own progress in elaborating an LR. Institutions aiming to strengthen students’ necessary skills in critical academic writing should also use this tool.
Writing the literature review (LR) is often viewed as a difficult task that can be a point of writer’s block and procrastination ( 1 ) in postgraduate life. Disagreements on the definitions or classifications of LRs ( 2 ) may confuse students about their purpose and scope, as well as how to perform an LR. Interestingly, at many universities, the LR is still an important element in any academic work, despite the more recent trend of producing scientific articles rather than classical theses.
The LR is not an isolated section of the thesis/dissertation or a copy of the background section of a research proposal. It identifies the state-of-the-art knowledge in a particular field, clarifies information that is already known, elucidates implications of the problem being analyzed, links theory and practice ( 3 - 5 ), highlights gaps in the current literature, and places the dissertation/thesis within the research agenda of that field. Additionally, by writing the LR, postgraduate students will comprehend the structure of the subject and elaborate on their cognitive connections ( 3 ) while analyzing and synthesizing data with increasing maturity.
At the same time, the LR transforms the student and hints at the contents of other chapters for the reader. First, the LR explains the research question; second, it supports the hypothesis, objectives, and methods of the research project; and finally, it facilitates a description of the student’s interpretation of the results and his/her conclusions. For scholars, the LR is an introductory chapter ( 6 ). If it is well written, it demonstrates the student’s understanding of and maturity in a particular topic. A sound and sophisticated LR can indicate a robust dissertation/thesis.
A consensus on the best method to elaborate a dissertation/thesis has not been achieved. The LR can be a distinct chapter or included in different sections; it can be part of the introduction chapter, part of each research topic, or part of each published paper ( 7 ). However, scholars view the LR as an integral part of the main body of an academic work because it is intrinsically connected to other sections ( Figure 1 ) and is frequently present. The structure of the LR depends on the conventions of a particular discipline, the rules of the department, and the student’s and supervisor’s areas of expertise, needs and interests.
Interestingly, many postgraduate students choose to submit their LR to peer-reviewed journals. As LRs are critical evaluations of current knowledge, they are indeed publishable material, even in the form of narrative or systematic reviews. However, systematic reviews have specific patterns 1 ( 8 ) that may not entirely fit with the questions posed in the dissertation/thesis. Additionally, the scope of a systematic review may be too narrow, and the strict criteria for study inclusion may omit important information from the dissertation/thesis. Therefore, this essay discusses the definition of an LR is and methods to develop an LR in the context of an academic dissertation/thesis. Finally, we suggest a checklist to evaluate an LR.
Conducting research and writing a dissertation/thesis translates rational thinking and enthusiasm ( 9 ). While a strong body of literature that instructs students on research methodology, data analysis and writing scientific papers exists, little guidance on performing LRs is available. The LR is a unique opportunity to assess and contrast various arguments and theories, not just summarize them. The research results should not be discussed within the LR, but the postgraduate student tends to write a comprehensive LR while reflecting on his or her own findings ( 10 ).
Many people believe that writing an LR is a lonely and linear process. Supervisors or the institutions assume that the Ph.D. student has mastered the relevant techniques and vocabulary associated with his/her subject and conducts a self-reflection about previously published findings. Indeed, while elaborating the LR, the student should aggregate diverse skills, which mainly rely on his/her own commitment to mastering them. Thus, less supervision should be required ( 11 ). However, the parameters described above might not currently be the case for many students ( 11 , 12 ), and the lack of formal and systematic training on writing LRs is an important concern ( 11 ).
An institutional environment devoted to active learning will provide students the opportunity to continuously reflect on LRs, which will form a dialogue between the postgraduate student and the current literature in a particular field ( 13 ). Postgraduate students will be interpreting studies by other researchers, and, according to Hart (1998) ( 3 ), the outcomes of the LR in a dissertation/thesis include the following:
A sound LR translates the postgraduate student’s expertise in academic and scientific writing: it expresses his/her level of comfort with synthesizing ideas ( 11 ). The LR reveals how well the postgraduate student has proceeded in three domains: an effective literature search, the language domain, and critical writing.
All students should be trained in gathering appropriate data for specific purposes, and information literacy skills are a cornerstone. These skills are defined as “an individual’s ability to know when they need information, to identify information that can help them address the issue or problem at hand, and to locate, evaluate, and use that information effectively” ( 14 ). Librarian support is of vital importance in coaching the appropriate use of Boolean logic (AND, OR, NOT) and other tools for highly efficient literature searches (e.g., quotation marks and truncation), as is the appropriate management of electronic databases.
Academic writing must be concise and precise: unnecessary words distract the reader from the essential content ( 15 ). In this context, reading about issues distant from the research topic ( 16 ) may increase students’ general vocabulary and familiarity with grammar. Ultimately, reading diverse materials facilitates and encourages the writing process itself.
Critical judgment includes critical reading, thinking and writing. It supposes a student’s analytical reflection about what he/she has read. The student should delineate the basic elements of the topic, characterize the most relevant claims, identify relationships, and finally contrast those relationships ( 17 ). Each scientific document highlights the perspective of the author, and students will become more confident in judging the supporting evidence and underlying premises of a study and constructing their own counterargument as they read more articles. A paucity of integration or contradictory perspectives indicates lower levels of cognitive complexity ( 12 ).
Thus, while elaborating an LR, the postgraduate student should achieve the highest category of Bloom’s cognitive skills: evaluation ( 12 ). The writer should not only summarize data and understand each topic but also be able to make judgments based on objective criteria, compare resources and findings, identify discrepancies due to methodology, and construct his/her own argument ( 12 ). As a result, the student will be sufficiently confident to show his/her own voice .
Writing a consistent LR is an intense and complex activity that reveals the training and long-lasting academic skills of a writer. It is not a lonely or linear process. However, students are unlikely to be prepared to write an LR if they have not mastered the aforementioned domains ( 10 ). An institutional environment that supports student learning is crucial.
Different institutions employ distinct methods to promote students’ learning processes. First, many universities propose modules to develop behind the scenes activities that enhance self-reflection about general skills (e.g., the skills we have mastered and the skills we need to develop further), behaviors that should be incorporated (e.g., self-criticism about one’s own thoughts), and each student’s role in the advancement of his/her field. Lectures or workshops about LRs themselves are useful because they describe the purposes of the LR and how it fits into the whole picture of a student’s work. These activities may explain what type of discussion an LR must involve, the importance of defining the correct scope, the reasons to include a particular resource, and the main role of critical reading.
Some pedagogic services that promote a continuous improvement in study and academic skills are equally important. Examples include workshops about time management, the accomplishment of personal objectives, active learning, and foreign languages for nonnative speakers. Additionally, opportunities to converse with other students promotes an awareness of others’ experiences and difficulties. Ultimately, the supervisor’s role in providing feedback and setting deadlines is crucial in developing students’ abilities and in strengthening students’ writing quality ( 12 ).
A consensus on the appropriate method for elaborating an LR is not available, but four main steps are generally accepted: defining the main topic, searching the literature, analyzing the results, and writing ( 6 ). We suggest a fifth step: reflecting on the information that has been written in previous publications ( Figure 2 ).
Planning an LR is directly linked to the research main question of the thesis and occurs in parallel to students’ training in the three domains discussed above. The planning stage helps organize ideas, delimit the scope of the LR ( 11 ), and avoid the wasting of time in the process. Planning includes the following steps:
The ability to gather adequate information from the literature must be addressed in postgraduate programs. Librarian support is important, particularly for accessing difficult texts. This step comprises the following components:
In addition, two other approaches are suggested. First, a review of the reference list of each document might be useful for identifying relevant publications to be included and important opinions to be assessed. This step is also relevant for referencing the original studies and leading authors in that field. Moreover, students can directly contact the experts on a particular topic to consult with them regarding their experience or use them as a source of additional unpublished documents.
Before submitting a dissertation/thesis, the electronic search strategy should be repeated. This process will ensure that the most recently published papers will be considered in the LR.
This task is an important exercise in time management. First, students should read the title and abstract to understand whether that document suits their purposes, addresses the research question, and helps develop the topic of interest. Then, they should scan the full text, determine how it is structured, group it with similar documents, and verify whether other arguments might be considered ( 5 ).
Critical reading and thinking skills are important in this step. This step consists of the following components:
The recognition of when a student is able and ready to write after a sufficient period of reading and thinking is likely a difficult task. Some students can produce a review in a single long work session. However, as discussed above, writing is not a linear process, and students do not need to write LRs according to a specific sequence of sections. Writing an LR is a time-consuming task, and some scholars believe that a period of at least six months is sufficient ( 6 ). An LR, and academic writing in general, expresses the writer’s proper thoughts, conclusions about others’ work ( 6 , 10 , 13 , 16 ), and decisions about methods to progress in the chosen field of knowledge. Thus, each student is expected to present a different learning and writing trajectory.
In this step, writing methods should be considered; then, editing, citing and correct referencing should complete this stage, at least temporarily. Freewriting techniques may be a good starting point for brainstorming ideas and improving the understanding of the information that has been read ( 1 ). Students should consider the following parameters when creating an agenda for writing the LR: two-hour writing blocks (at minimum), with prespecified tasks that are possible to complete in one section; short (minutes) and long breaks (days or weeks) to allow sufficient time for mental rest and reflection; and short- and long-term goals to motivate the writing itself ( 20 ). With increasing experience, this scheme can vary widely, and it is not a straightforward rule. Importantly, each discipline has a different way of writing ( 1 ), and each department has its own preferred styles for citations and references.
In this step, the postgraduate student should ask him/herself the same questions as in the analyzing the results step, which can take more time than anticipated. Ambiguities, repeated ideas, and a lack of coherence may not be noted when the student is immersed in the writing task for long periods. The whole effort will likely be a work in progress, and continuous refinements in the written material will occur once the writing process has begun.
In contrast to review papers, the LR of a dissertation/thesis should not be a standalone piece or work. Instead, it should present the student as a scholar and should maintain the interest of the audience in how that dissertation/thesis will provide solutions for the current gaps in a particular field.
A checklist for evaluating an LR is convenient for students’ continuous academic development and research transparency: it clearly states the desired achievements for the LR of a dissertation/thesis. Here, we present an LR checklist developed from an LR scoring rubric ( 11 ). For a critical analysis of an LR, we maintain the five categories but offer twelve criteria that are not scaled ( Figure 3 ). The criteria all have the same importance and are not mutually exclusive.
1. justified criteria exist for the inclusion and exclusion of literature in the review.
This criterion builds on the main topic and areas covered by the LR ( 18 ). While experts may be confident in retrieving and selecting literature, postgraduate students must convince their audience about the adequacy of their search strategy and their reasons for intentionally selecting what material to cover ( 11 ). References from different fields of knowledge provide distinct perspective, but narrowing the scope of coverage may be important in areas with a large body of existing knowledge.
2. a critical examination of the state of the field exists.
A critical examination is an assessment of distinct aspects in the field ( 1 ) along with a constructive argument. It is not a negative critique but an expression of the student’s understanding of how other scholars have added to the topic ( 1 ), and the student should analyze and contextualize contradictory statements. A writer’s personal bias (beliefs or political involvement) have been shown to influence the structure and writing of a document; therefore, the cultural and paradigmatic background guide how the theories are revised and presented ( 13 ). However, an honest judgment is important when considering different perspectives.
The broader scholarly literature should be related to the chosen main topic for the LR ( how to develop the literature review section). The LR can cover the literature from one or more disciplines, depending on its scope, but it should always offer a new perspective. In addition, students should be careful in citing and referencing previous publications. As a rule, original studies and primary references should generally be included. Systematic and narrative reviews present summarized data, and it may be important to cite them, particularly for issues that should be understood but do not require a detailed description. Similarly, quotations highlight the exact statement from another publication. However, excessive referencing may disclose lower levels of analysis and synthesis by the student.
Situating the LR in its historical context shows the level of comfort of the student in addressing a particular topic. Instead of only presenting statements and theories in a temporal approach, which occasionally follows a linear timeline, the LR should authentically characterize the student’s academic work in the state-of-art techniques in their particular field of knowledge. Thus, the LR should reinforce why the dissertation/thesis represents original work in the chosen research field.
Distinct theories on the same topic may exist in different disciplines, and one discipline may consider multiple concepts to explain one topic. These misunderstandings should be addressed and contemplated. The LR should not synthesize all theories or concepts at the same time. Although this approach might demonstrate in-depth reading on a particular topic, it can reveal a student’s inability to comprehend and synthesize his/her research problem.
The LR is a unique opportunity to articulate ideas and arguments and to purpose new relationships between them ( 10 , 11 ). More importantly, a sound LR will outline to the audience how these important variables and phenomena will be addressed in the current academic work. Indeed, the LR should build a bidirectional link with the remaining sections and ground the connections between all of the sections ( Figure 1 ).
The LR is a ‘creative inquiry’ ( 13 ) in which the student elaborates his/her own discourse, builds on previous knowledge in the field, and describes his/her own perspective while interpreting others’ work ( 13 , 17 ). Thus, students should articulate the current knowledge, not accept the results at face value ( 11 , 13 , 17 ), and improve their own cognitive abilities ( 12 ).
8. the main methodologies and research techniques that have been used in the field are identified and their advantages and disadvantages are discussed.
The LR is expected to distinguish the research that has been completed from investigations that remain to be performed, address the benefits and limitations of the main methods applied to date, and consider the strategies for addressing the expected limitations described above. While placing his/her research within the methodological context of a particular topic, the LR will justify the methodology of the study and substantiate the student’s interpretations.
The audience expects the writer to analyze and synthesize methodological approaches in the field. The findings should be explained according to the strengths and limitations of previous research methods, and students must avoid interpretations that are not supported by the analyzed literature. This criterion translates to the student’s comprehension of the applicability and types of answers provided by different research methodologies, even those using a quantitative or qualitative research approach.
10. the scholarly significance of the research problem is rationalized.
The LR is an introductory section of a dissertation/thesis and will present the postgraduate student as a scholar in a particular field ( 11 ). Therefore, the LR should discuss how the research problem is currently addressed in the discipline being investigated or in different disciplines, depending on the scope of the LR. The LR explains the academic paradigms in the topic of interest ( 13 ) and methods to advance the field from these starting points. However, an excess number of personal citations—whether referencing the student’s research or studies by his/her research team—may reflect a narrow literature search and a lack of comprehensive synthesis of ideas and arguments.
The practical significance indicates a student’s comprehensive understanding of research terminology (e.g., risk versus associated factor), methodology (e.g., efficacy versus effectiveness) and plausible interpretations in the context of the field. Notably, the academic argument about a topic may not always reflect the debate in real life terms. For example, using a quantitative approach in epidemiology, statistically significant differences between groups do not explain all of the factors involved in a particular problem ( 21 ). Therefore, excessive faith in p -values may reflect lower levels of critical evaluation of the context and implications of a research problem by the student.
12. the lr was written with a coherent, clear structure that supported the review.
This category strictly relates to the language domain: the text should be coherent and presented in a logical sequence, regardless of which organizational ( 18 ) approach is chosen. The beginning of each section/subsection should state what themes will be addressed, paragraphs should be carefully linked to each other ( 10 ), and the first sentence of each paragraph should generally summarize the content. Additionally, the student’s statements are clear, sound, and linked to other scholars’ works, and precise and concise language that follows standardized writing conventions (e.g., in terms of active/passive voice and verb tenses) is used. Attention to grammar, such as orthography and punctuation, indicates prudence and supports a robust dissertation/thesis. Ultimately, all of these strategies provide fluency and consistency for the text.
Although the scoring rubric was initially proposed for postgraduate programs in education research, we are convinced that this checklist is a valuable tool for all academic areas. It enables the monitoring of students’ learning curves and a concentrated effort on any criteria that are not yet achieved. For institutions, the checklist is a guide to support supervisors’ feedback, improve students’ writing skills, and highlight the learning goals of each program. These criteria do not form a linear sequence, but ideally, all twelve achievements should be perceived in the LR.
A single correct method to classify, evaluate and guide the elaboration of an LR has not been established. In this essay, we have suggested directions for planning, structuring and critically evaluating an LR. The planning of the scope of an LR and approaches to complete it is a valuable effort, and the five steps represent a rational starting point. An institutional environment devoted to active learning will support students in continuously reflecting on LRs, which will form a dialogue between the writer and the current literature in a particular field ( 13 ).
The completion of an LR is a challenging and necessary process for understanding one’s own field of expertise. Knowledge is always transitory, but our responsibility as scholars is to provide a critical contribution to our field, allowing others to think through our work. Good researchers are grounded in sophisticated LRs, which reveal a writer’s training and long-lasting academic skills. We recommend using the LR checklist as a tool for strengthening the skills necessary for critical academic writing.
Leite DFB has initially conceived the idea and has written the first draft of this review. Padilha MAS and Cecatti JG have supervised data interpretation and critically reviewed the manuscript. All authors have read the draft and agreed with this submission. Authors are responsible for all aspects of this academic piece.
We are grateful to all of the professors of the ‘Getting Started with Graduate Research and Generic Skills’ module at University College Cork, Cork, Ireland, for suggesting and supporting this article. Funding: DFBL has granted scholarship from Brazilian Federal Agency for Support and Evaluation of Graduate Education (CAPES) to take part of her Ph.D. studies in Ireland (process number 88881.134512/2016-01). There is no participation from sponsors on authors’ decision to write or to submit this manuscript.
No potential conflict of interest was reported.
1 The questions posed in systematic reviews usually follow the ‘PICOS’ acronym: Population, Intervention, Comparison, Outcomes, Study design.
2 In 1988, Cooper proposed a taxonomy that aims to facilitate students’ and institutions’ understanding of literature reviews. Six characteristics with specific categories are briefly described: Focus: research outcomes, research methodologies, theories, or practices and applications; Goals: integration (generalization, conflict resolution, and linguistic bridge-building), criticism, or identification of central issues; Perspective: neutral representation or espousal of a position; Coverage: exhaustive, exhaustive with selective citations, representative, central or pivotal; Organization: historical, conceptual, or methodological; and Audience: specialized scholars, general scholars, practitioners or policymakers, or the general public.
“A substantive, thorough, sophisticated literature review is a precondition for doing substantive, thorough, sophisticated research”. Boote and Baile 2005
Authors of manuscripts treat writing a literature review as a routine work or a mere formality. But a seasoned one knows the purpose and importance of a well-written literature review. Since it is one of the basic needs for researches at any level, they have to be done vigilantly. Only then the reader will know that the basics of research have not been neglected.
The aim of any literature review is to summarize and synthesize the arguments and ideas of existing knowledge in a particular field without adding any new contributions. Being built on existing knowledge they help the researcher to even turn the wheels of the topic of research. It is possible only with profound knowledge of what is wrong in the existing findings in detail to overpower them. For other researches, the literature review gives the direction to be headed for its success.
As per the common belief, literature reviews are only a summary of the sources related to the research. And many authors of scientific manuscripts believe that they are only surveys of what are the researches are done on the chosen topic. But on the contrary, it uses published information from pertinent and relevant sources like
and many more for a field of study or theory or a particular problem to do the following:
By doing the above on the relevant information, it provides the reader of the scientific manuscript with the following for a better understanding of it:
The importance of literature review in scientific manuscripts can be condensed into an analytical feature to enable the multifold reach of its significance. It adds value to the legitimacy of the research in many ways:
22. It helps the readers to identify the following for further reading of the scientific manuscript:
A profound literature review with many relevant sources of reference will enhance the chances of the scientific manuscript publication in renowned and reputed scientific journals .
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Submitted: 18 January 2024 Reviewed: 02 March 2024 Published: 30 April 2024
DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.1005191
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Innovation management, a multifaceted organizational process encompassing opportunities and ideas from inception to implementation, demands a systematic approach, particularly in the critical initial phase known as the Front End of Innovation (FEI). This pivotal phase significantly influences the entire innovation management chain. Despite its recognized importance, FEI in the defense sector has yet to be systematically addressed in the academic literature. Recognizing the vital role of FEI in the defense sector, this study addresses this deficiency through a systematic review, scrutinizing 24 documents from the scientific literature (Scopus and Web of Science databases) and gray literature (government defense documents). This research systematically maps key activities identified in seminal FEI models. These activities include the identification and analysis of opportunities; generation, enrichment, and screening of ideas; product concept definition; and consideration of influencing factors. Concurrently, this work aligns defense practices with established innovation models and provides valuable insights for optimizing the management dynamics of the military innovation process. Through this systematic inquiry, this study contributes to a nuanced understanding of the FEI in the defense sector, offering practical implications for enhancing defense innovation development.
Romullo girardi *.
Paulo césar pellanda.
*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]
Innovation management, a complex and broad organizational process covering the entire spectrum, from identifying new opportunities and ideas to their practical implementation, poses significant challenges for managers across all organizational levels [ 1 ].
Notably, innovation seldom fails due to a lack of creativity; instead, it is the absence of discipline that plays a pivotal role in innovation failures [ 2 ]. From this perspective, Boeddrich [ 3 ] contends that systematic and structured procedures in the early phase, known as the Front End of Innovation (FEI), are imperative to avert adverse effects throughout the innovation management chain.
Multiple researchers emphasize that enhancing FEI activities contributes positively to organizational outcomes, bolstering the likelihood of successful innovation development [ 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 ]. Yet, the successful adoption of a FEI model requires considering some factors like organizational size and culture, as well as decision-making styles [ 10 , 11 ].
Despite the increasing attention to FEI as a complex and multidisciplinary field [ 12 ], the defense context of FEI has not been sufficiently addressed in the academic literature, a gap this study endeavors to address. Therefore, this research aims to unravel the dynamics of FEI in the military sector through a systematic literature review, focusing on the research question: How can the current literature on the early phase of the innovation process in defense be mapped within seminal FEI models?
This question is pertinent given the Armed Forces’ distinct organizational culture, demanding innovation to sustain high-tech operational capabilities and mainly requiring innovations capable of inducing technological surprise in the theater of operations. Aligning defense practices with established models in innovation literature can furnish invaluable insights for improving the management dynamics of the military’s initial innovation phase. Moreover, by reviewing approaches used by different countries, the study recognizes that the suitability and significance of FEI management practices can differ across national defense contexts. It emphasizes how cultural and procedural nuances impact the development and adoption of new technologies in military settings.
Structured around the research question, this paper is organized as follows: Section 2 provides a theoretical foundation on FEI, seminal FEI models, and defense peculiarities. Section 3 outlines the research methodology. Section 4 delineates the mapping of the FEI in the defense sector within seminal FEI models. Section 5 discusses salient aspects identified throughout the study. Finally, Section 6 highlights the concluding remarks, outlining directions for future research.
Before exploring the current literature on the early stage of the innovation process in defense, it is essential to understand the foundational topics involved: the FEI concept, the seminal FEI models, and the unique aspects of the military sector.
The Fuzzy Front End (FFE) refers to the earliest stage in the New Product Development (NPD) process. This term was popularized by Smith and Reinertsen [ 13 ], as pointed out by Khurana and Rosenthal [ 10 ].
In 2002, Koen et al. [ 14 ] proposed the term Front End of Innovation (FEI), considering that the adjective “fuzzy” is “mysterious, lacks accountability, and cannot be critically evaluated” ([ 14 ], p. 30). The new term dissociated the idea that the initial phase of the innovation process was nebulous and uncontrollable. In this approach, the FEI is described as “those activities that come before the formal and well-structured NPD process” ([ 14 ], p. 30).
Figure 1 illustrates the breakdown of the product innovation management process into three phases: FEI, NPD, and implementation (the commercialization of the product in the market). The circular shape of the FEI suggests that ideas should flow and iterate until the formal definition of products is developed. In contrast, the NPD phase is depicted as a series of sequential, well-structured, and chronologically ordered steps [ 14 , 15 ].
Breakdown of the product innovation management process. Source: Adapted from Koen et al. [ 14 , 15 ].
The FEI emerges as a crucial driver of positive outcomes for new products and, consequently, the overall success of the business [ 16 ]. Markham [ 6 ] underscores the profound impact of early-phase activities on product performance, emphasizing that the success of the front end stands as the strongest independent predictor of all NPD performance variables.
Selecting an appropriate FEI model requires careful consideration of various factors, including organizational size and culture, as well as decision-making style [ 10 , 11 ]. As a response to these diverse organizational needs, numerous FEI models have been developed over time, offering distinct approaches to navigate their complexities, as detailed in the next section.
In an integrative literature review, Pereira et al. [ 12 ] found that 26% of articles related to FEI contributed in terms of frameworks, models, processes, tools, and methodologies, exemplifying endeavors to structure the early phase of the innovation process in specific contexts.
While recent contributions are significant, seminal works have produced models that served as reference points for structuring the FEI. Table 1 provides an overview of the four seminal models identified by Pereira et al. [ 12 , 20 ].
References | Model | Overview |
---|---|---|
Cooper [ , ] | Stage-Gate | Proposes a system with well-defined stages to launch new products into the market. The early stages represent the front end of innovation and make use of control gates. |
Khurana and Rosenthal [ , ] | Three Phase Front End | Presents an approach that connects business and product strategy with specific product-related decisions. |
Koen et al. [ , ] | New Concept Development | Provides methods, tools, and techniques suitable for managing the front end of innovation. Moreover, the authors seek a common vision and terminology for the FEI. |
Reid and De Brentani [ ] | The Fuzzy Front End of New Product Development for Discontinuous Innovations | Details an approach focusing on disruptive innovation, proposing a structure based on a reverse flow of information (from the outside world into the organization). |
Seminal FEI models.
Source: Adapted from Pereira et al. [ 12 , 20 ].
Stage 0 (Discovery) : In this inaugural stage, the organization actively generates ideas for new products.
Gate 1 (Idea screen) : Ideas undergo a concise evaluation based on strategic, feasibility, and market criteria. Financial considerations are deferred at this point. Accepted ideas proceed to the next phase.
Stage 1 (Scoping) : The accepted idea transitions into a project, initiating a dual evaluation process:
Market evaluation : Involves research, user contact, and conceptual testing to determine market size and acceptance.
Technical evaluation : Encompasses feasibility, costs, and development timelines.
Gate 2 (Second screen) : Comprehensive information from market and technical evaluations prompts a reassessment of the project’s viability. If approved, the project advances to the next stage.
Stage 2 (Build business case) : Positioned just before product development, this stage involves:
Assessing the project’s attractiveness.
Defining clear objectives.
Conducting market, technical, operational, and financial evaluations.
Gate 3 (Development) : A pivotal decision point where the organization determines resource allocation for project development [ 17 , 18 ].
The FEI within the stage-gate model. Source: Adapted from Cooper [ 17 ].
Pre-Phase Zero : This initial phase concentrates on the continuous identification of opportunities within the organization. It involves generating ideas and conducting technological and market analyzes. When a promising opportunity is identified, it triggers the transition to Phase Zero. The authors emphasize that this phase should occur continuously within the organization.
Phase Zero : This phase is initiated when Pre-Phase Zero identifies a promising opportunity. Its primary objective is to define the concept of a new product.
Phase One : Following the conceptualization of the new product, Phase One focuses on analyzing feasibility and planning the project to initiate the NPD process formally. It is crucial to maintain a constant interface with the organization’s product and portfolio strategy throughout the entire process.
Three Phase Front End model. Source: Khurana and Rosenthal [ 11 ].
The New Concept Development (NCD) model, proposed by Koen et al. [ 14 , 15 ], is a theoretical construction composed of the three fundamental concepts: controllable activities, “engine” and influencing factors. Controllable activities represent the elements that the organization can control. The “engine” encompasses the controllable aspects of the organization that are responsible for driving the activities of the FEI. Finally, the influencing factors are variables that have an impact on the FEI and are relatively outside of the organization’s control [ 14 , 15 ]. Table 2 details the structure of the NCD model. In the structure of the NCD model, organizational capabilities are classified as an influencing factor because they usually change very slowly and are therefore uncontrollable. Alternatively, organizational capabilities can be incorporated into the “engine” to the extent that the organization can modify and control them [ 14 ].
Concepts | Elements |
---|---|
Controllable activities | Opportunity identification Opportunity Analysis Idea generation Idea enrichment Idea selection Concept definition |
“The engine” | Culture Leadership Business strategy |
Influencing factors | Organizational capabilities The outside world Customer and competitor influences Enabling sciences and technology |
Structure of the NCD model.
Source: Koen et al. [ 14 ].
The model proposed by Reid and De Brentani [ 19 ] provides a unique focus on disruptive innovations, highlighting their distinct entry into the organization compared to incremental innovations. According to this model, disruptive innovations typically originate from the external environment. Figure 4 illustrates how the front end of the innovation process initiates its flow based on information from the external environment, involving the identification of unstructured problems and the recognition of opportunities. This model emphasizes that disruptive innovations follow a distinctive path, with the FEI process being strongly influenced by external inputs. The opportunities identified undergo thorough analyzes and decisions at various organizational levels before being formally integrated into an NPD project [ 19 ].
The Fuzzy Front End of new product development for discontinuous innovations. Source: Reid and De Brentani [ 19 ].
The seminal models presented – Cooper’s Stage-Gate Model, Khurana, and Rosenthal’s Three Phase Front End Model, Koen et al.’s New Concept Development (NCD) Model, and Reid and De Brentani’s Model for Discontinuous Innovations – vary in focus, approach, depth, and structuring of activities. Despite these differences, a common thread emerges as they collectively address the FEI through key activities: identification and analysis of opportunities, generation, enrichment, and screening of ideas, product concept definition, and consideration of influencing factors (encompassing the outside world, market and technology information, scenario planning, competitive analysis, and organizational issues such as culture, leadership, strategy, portfolio, and capabilities).
The ultimate objective of these FEI activities is to formulate a well-defined product concept before entering the formal NPD stage. Table 3 establishes the correspondence between FEI activities and the structures of the seminal models.
Activities | Structure of the seminal models |
---|---|
] ] ] ] | |
] ] ] ] | |
] ] ] ] | |
The outside world, market and technology information, scenario planning, competitive analysis, and organizational issues (culture, leadership, strategy, portfolio, and capabilities) | ] ] ] ] |
FEI activities and their relationship with the seminal models.
To mitigate potential ambiguities in the interpretation of certain terms related to the FEI, Table 4 provides standardized reference definitions. This table serves as a reference guide, providing clear and standardized definitions for key terms associated with the FEI, enhancing clarity and consistency in their interpretation.
Term | Definition |
---|---|
Opportunity | “A business or technology gap, that a company or individual realizes, that exists between the current situation and an envisioned future in order to capture competitive advantage, respond to a threat, solve a problem, or ameliorate a difficulty” ([ ], p. 7). |
Ideia | “The most embryonic form of a new product or service. It often consists of a high-level view of the solution envisioned for the problem identified by the opportunity” ([ ], p. 7). |
Product concept | “A well-defined form, including both a written and visual description, that includes its primary features and customer benefits combined with a broad understanding of the technology needed” ([ ], p. 7). |
The outside world | “Distribution channels, law, government policy, customers, competitors, and political and economic climate” ([ ], p. 8). |
Organizational culture | “A pattern of shared basic assumptions that was learned by a group as it solved its problems of external adaptation and internal integration, that has worked well enough to be considered valid and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems” ([ ], p. 17). |
Organizational leadership | “It is originally the source of the beliefs and values that get a group moving in dealing with its internal and external problems” ([ ], p. 36). “Leadership is needed to help the group identify the issues and deal with them” ([ ], p. 407). |
Organizational strategy | “A shared understanding of core mission, primary task, and manifest and latent functions” ([ ], p. 88). |
Organizational portfolio | “Collection of projects, programs, and other activities that are grouped together to meet strategic business objectives. The practice of portfolio management is integral to the implementation of an organization’s overall strategic plan” [ ]. |
Organizational capacity | In the context of dynamic capabilities theory, it is defined as “the firm’s ability to integrate, build, and reconfigure internal and external competences to address rapidly changing environments” ([ ], p. 516). |
Definitions for terms related to the FEI.
High technological level : The defense industry requires substantial investments in research, development, and innovation to create sophisticated products such as aircraft, ships, weapons, and systems. These must operate safely and reliably under severe conditions [ 25 ], often characterized as Complex Products and Systems (CoPS). CoPS involve customization, production in small quantities by a few companies, integration of diverse knowledge areas, and a lifecycle spanning decades [ 26 ].
Technological duality : Innovations developed for military purposes may have civilian applications (spin-off) and vice versa (spin-in) [ 27 , 28 ]. Dual-use technologies, like GPS and the Internet, initially developed for defense, now find widespread civilian applications.
Governmental dependence : The defense market is highly regulated and relies on government contracts, resulting in a strong dependence on public resources. From a demand perspective, the defense market operates as a monopsony, with the State being the primary purchaser of goods and services [ 29 , 30 , 31 ].
High market concentration : Global defense market dominance by a few companies leads to limited competition and protectionist practices. Oligopolies in the defense market can collude, manipulate prices, limit competition, or engage in practices like dumping [ 32 ] to control strategic interests [ 31 , 33 ].
Vulnerability to geopolitical issues : The demand for defense equipment is influenced by geopolitical conflicts and international relations, resulting in a volatile market subject to sudden changes. Companies may exploit geopolitical issues for financial or strategic reasons, impacting commitments during times of national crisis [ 31 , 34 ].
In summary, the defense sector is characterized by its strategic importance, technological advancement, dual-use nature, governmental dependence, market concentration, and vulnerability to geopolitical issues. This situation is a combination of a monopoly/oligopoly, where a few major global players dominate the supply, and a monopsony, where the State centralizes the demand. Recognizing these peculiarities highlights the need for a comprehensive exploration of FEI dynamics within the defense sector.
Databases : Scopus and Web of Science (WoS), aligning with the methodology outlined by Ferreira et al. [ 36 ].
Search string : The search string was crafted by combining key terms related to the FEI and the defense sector. The FEI-related terms were derived from a frequency analysis of authors’ keywords, following the methodology of Ferreira et al. [ 36 ]. To capture the comprehensive scope of the defense sector, terms related to aerospace were also incorporated, acknowledging that certain countries treat both topics as a unified strategic theme. For instance, the United States has the U.S. Space Force under its Department of Defense [ 37 ]. The search was conducted on September 21, 2023, focusing on terms found in the title, abstract, and keywords:
Scopus database: TITLE-ABS-KEY((“front end of innovation” OR “front-end of innovation” OR “front end innovation” OR “front-end innovation” OR “fuzzy front end” OR “fuzzy front-end”) AND (“military” OR “defense” OR “defense” OR “navy” OR “army” OR “air force” OR “aerospace” OR “aeronautic*” OR “astronautic*” OR “avionics”)).
WoS database: TS = ((“front end of innovation” OR “front-end of innovation” OR “front end innovation” OR “front-end innovation” OR “fuzzy front end” OR “fuzzy front-end”) AND (“military” OR “defense” OR “defense” OR “navy” OR “army” OR “air force” OR “aerospace” OR “aeronautic*” OR “astronautic*” OR “avionics”)).
Inclusion criteria : publications in English, Portuguese, or Spanish were considered, and the accessibility of the entire document was taken into account. Additionally, the publication had to address explicitly the FEI in the defense context.
The academic literature search yielded five documents from the Scopus database and two from WoS. Upon analysis, one redundancy was identified, resulting in six unique documents. Subsequently, it was observed that two articles did not meet the inclusion criteria, leaving four documents within the review scope. Following this initial search, the snowball technique was applied to identify relevant documents citing or cited by the selected publications. Additional efforts were made to explore works authored by the selected publications’ authors, uncovering three more documents.
In parallel with the academic literature search, the exploration of government defense management agencies’ websites led to the identification of 17 more documents. Therefore, while the academic literature contributed documents presenting general aspects of FEI in the defense sector, the gray literature addressed defense management in specific nations, ensuring representation across continents and encompassing both developed and developing countries. The nations (or alliances) covered included Australia, Brazil, China, India, NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization), the United Kingdom, the United States, and South Africa.
Thus, a total of 24 documents were selected for review. It is noteworthy that, during the research, no review works similar to this article were found. The steps of the review are represented in summary in Figure 5 , using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) diagram, a tool for presenting the flow of information through the different phases of a systematic literature review [ 38 ].
Stages of the systematic literature review. Source: Adapted from Page et al. [ 38 ].
The investigation of FEI in the defense sector is structured based on content mapping of the selected review documents, focusing on key FEI activities outlined in Section 2.2. These activities include the identification and analysis of opportunities; generation, enrichment, and screening of ideas; product concept definition; and consideration of influencing factors.
The identification and analysis of opportunities serve as the primary catalyst for the FEI process. It occurs when an organization recognizes a gap, whether related to business or technology issues. This gap represents the difference between the current state and a desired future state, presenting an opportunity that can be exploited to gain a competitive advantage, address a threat, solve a problem, or enhance a situation [ 14 ]. As stressed by Khurana and Rosenthal [ 11 ], the phase of identifying and analyzing opportunities should be an ongoing and continuous process within an organization.
In the defense sector, the identification and analysis of opportunities are intricately tied to Capability-Based Planning (CBP), a central process in strategic defense management [ 39 , 40 ]. This strategic planning paradigm, initially utilized in the United States Nuclear Program during the 1960s, saw broader adoption by the U.S. Department of Defense in 2001, becoming a reference for armed forces worldwide [ 41 ]. From this standpoint, Table 5 provides a mapping of the phase of identification and analysis of opportunities within the documents reviewed.
Documents | Approaches | National context |
---|---|---|
United States [ ] | CBP is implemented through the Joint Capabilities Integration and Development System (JCIDS). The strategic approach begins by identifying scenarios for the U.S. Armed Forces’ operations. Then, the necessary capabilities for each scenario are determined. Finally, existing capabilities are evaluated, and gaps are identified (a process called Capabilities-Based Assessment – CBA). The assessment of capabilities follows the acronym DOTmLPF-P, which incorporates the following elements: Doctrine, Organization, Training, Materiel, Leadership and education, Personnel, Facilities, and Policy. | USA |
NATO [ ] | CBP is implemented following the acronym DOTMLPF-I, which incorporates the following elements: Doctrine, Organization, Training, Materiel, Leadership, Personnel, Facilities, and Interoperability. Notably, the interoperability element is included in the approach, considering NATO comprises 32 member countries, listed alphabetically as follows: Albania, Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Turkey, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and the United States. | NATO |
United Kingdom [ ] | Implements CBP following the DLOD concept, referring to Defense Lines of Development. DLOD encompasses Training, Equipment, Personnel, Information, Doctrine & Concepts, Organization, Infrastructure, Logistics, and Interoperability. The latter is only sometimes listed as a separate line of development but is essential for combined operations with allies. | United Kingdom |
Australia [ ] | Implements CBP following the FIC concept, which stands for Fundamental Inputs to Capability. FICs include Organization, Command and management, Personnel, Collective training, Major systems, Facilities and training areas, Supplies, Support, and Industry. | Australia |
Barton [ ] | Implements CBP similarly to the U.S. DOTmLPF-P approach. | China |
India [ ] and South Africa [ ] | They highlight the capability-based approach without defining specific analysis elements. | India and South Africa |
Brasil [ , ] | CBP is implemented following the acronym DOAMEPI, which includes the following elements: Doctrine, Organization (and/or processes), Training, Materiel, Education, Personnel, and Facilities. It is worth noting that Brazil maintains a capabilities catalog to support its CBP. | Brazil |
Helfat and Peteraf [ ], Salvato and Rerup [ ], and Wallin et al. [ ] | They emphasize the importance of the capability-based approach in supporting planning for the development of new technological products. | Generic (academic literature) |
Approaches to identification and analysis of opportunities within the review documents.
According to Koen et al. [ 14 ], the generation and enrichment of ideas follow the identification and analysis of opportunities. An idea, as conceptualized by the authors, represents the most preliminary form of a new product or service, typically outlining a high-level vision for the planned solution related to the identified opportunity [ 14 ]. Cooper [ 17 ], in the stage-gate model, underscores that ideas for new products must undergo initial screening, known as gate 1, before being integrated into an organization’s project [ 17 ]. Reid and De Brentani [ 19 ] also stress the importance of a formal analysis of opportunities/ideas at the corporate level before progressing to the project level [ 19 ].
In the defense sector, as outlined in Table 6 , the identification of the need for a new product occurs when a capability gap analysis indicates the necessity for a new materiel solution. This triggers the formal process of acquiring a defense product. Table 6 provides a mapping of the phase of generation, enrichment, and screening of ideas within the reviewed documents.
Documents | Approaches | National context |
---|---|---|
United States [ , ] | The American approach prioritizes non-materiel solutions when addressing capability gaps, incorporating adjustments in Doctrine, Organization, Training, Leadership and education, Personnel, Facilities, and/or Policy (DOTmLPF-P). The lowercase “m” in the acronym signifies this approach. If a materiel solution is deemed necessary, an Initial Capabilities Document (ICD) is drafted, justifying the need for a new acquisition process. The ICD outlines the identified capability gap, the concept of operations (CONOPS) detailing the expected operational context of the materiel solution, and associated risks. A validated ICD is mandatory for a Materiel Development Decision (MDD), initiating the life cycle of the new product. | USA |
United Kingdom [ ] | Following a model similar to that of the USA, the identification of the need for a materiel solution and the elaboration/approval of the concept of operations initiate the life cycle of a new product. | United Kingdom |
Australia [ ] | Australia | |
India [ ] | India | |
South Africa [ ] | South Africa | |
Brasil [ ] | Brazil |
Approaches to idea generation, enrichment, and screening within the review documents.
According to Koen et al. [ 14 ], a well-defined product concept should entail a comprehensive configuration, offering both written and visual descriptions that encapsulate the primary features, customer benefits, and a broad understanding of the required technologies. This stage in product development represents the final step preceding the formal NPD process [ 14 ]. The models proposed by Khurana and Rosenthal [ 11 ], Reid and De Brentani [ 19 ], and Cooper [ 17 ] also emphasize the significance of product concept development, feasibility analysis, project planning, and decision-making as crucial prerequisites before formally entering the NPD phase.
In the defense sector, the Armed Forces commonly adopt the systems engineering lifecycle concept to structure their acquisition processes [ 56 ]. Within this framework, the product concept undergoes development through a top-down approach, comprising two distinct phases: logical description (problem domain) and physical description (solution domain). The logical or functional description essentially outlines the intended functionalities of the new product from the user’s perspective, providing an operational view. Building upon the logical description, the physical description then defines the high-level architecture of the product elements, encompassing systems, subsystems, assemblies, and/or components, from a technical perspective [ 57 , 58 , 59 ]. Table 7 provides a mapping of the product concept definition phase within the reviewed documents.
Documents | Approaches | National context |
---|---|---|
United States [ , ] | The US approach divides the life cycle of a defense product into six phases: Materiel Solution Analysis (MSA), Technology Maturation & Risk Reduction (TMRR), Engineering & Manufacturing Development (EMD), Production & Deployment (PD), Operations & Support (OS), and Disposal. The FEI phases (before NPD), MSA and TMRR, involve significant requirements engineering effort. MSA uses the CONOPS to define operational requirements, establishing operational performance parameters and attributes – Key Performance Parameters (KPPs) and Key System Attributes (KSAs). The physical description is preliminary, analyzing technical alternatives for product acquisition. MSA concludes with the approval of the Capability Development Document (CDD) Draft. The CDD Draft evolves during the TMRR phase, refining technical product requirements into the Request For Proposals (RFP), inviting companies to submit development proposals. TMRR concludes with the approval of the Preliminary Design Review (PDR), ensuring technological risks are mitigated and the product concept is ready to advance to the formal NPD stage. | USA |
Innovations [ ] and United Kingdom [ ] | Divide the product life cycle into six phases: concept, assessment, demonstration, manufacture, in-service, and disposal. The FEI phases are concept and assessment. The concept phase develops the logical and physical descriptions of the product. The subsequent phase refines these descriptions through evaluations for risk reduction before entering NPD. Risk reduction is exemplified by technology competitions promoted by the UK Ministry of Defense to mature/identify alternatives for technological components of the product before its development/integration. | United Kingdom |
Australia [ ] | Divides the product life cycle into five phases: Strategy and Concepts, Risk Mitigation and Requirement Setting, Acquisition, In-Service, and Disposal. The FEI phases are Strategy & Concepts and Risk Mitigation & Requirement Setting. These phases define the logical and physical descriptions of the product and conduct risk reduction activities before entering NPD. | Australia |
India [ ] | Adopts distinct workflows depending on the acquisition modality: Buy, Buy and Make, Leasing, Make, Design and Development, and Strategic Partnership Model. In all cases, logical and physical descriptions are developed, in greater or lesser detail, to support the acquisition of a defense product. | India |
South Africa [ ] | Divides the life cycle of a defense product into four phases: Design, Development, Operation & Maintenance, and Disposal. The phase belonging to the FEI is the Design phase, where the product concept is developed before entering NPD. | South Africa |
Brasil [ ] | Divides the life cycle of a defense product into five phases: conception, acquisition, production, operation and support, and disposal. The phase belonging to the FEI is conception. The most important step of the conception phase is integrated design, which establishes the logical description (doctrinal/operational constraints and operational requirements) and the physical definition (technical requirements, conceptual design, technology map, integrated logistics support plan, and test and evaluation plan) of the product before entering NPD. | Brazil |
Clegg et al. [ ], Larsson et al. [ ] and Johansson et al. [ ] | In the aerospace and defense context, they present simulators or methodologies to support collaborative product concept development before entering NPD. | Generic (academic literature) |
Approaches to product concept definition within the review documents.
According to Koen et al. [ 14 ], influencing factors are variables that impact FEI and are relatively outside the organization’s control. Table 8 maps the influencing factors considered in the review documents.
Documents | Influencing factors | National context |
---|---|---|
United States [ , , , ] | National guidelines (notably the National Security Strategy – NSS), budget management (PPBE process – Planning, Programming, Budgeting, and Execution), scenario planning, and the strategic portfolio of programs/projects/capabilities. Emphasis on analyzes of alternatives, feasibility, technological criticality (list of critical and emerging technologies), and technological maturity (TRL - Technology Readiness Levels of 6 or higher as reference value before entering NPD). Selection and continuity of leadership (military and/or civilian) in NPD project planning. | USA |
NATO [ ] | Emphasizes interoperability as a relevant factor, considering it integrates 32 member countries. | NATO |
United Kingdom [ , ] | Technological criticality (critical technological areas guided by the “Integrated Force Plan 2030”) and technological maturity (TRL 7 and SRL – System Readiness Level – 4 as reference values before entering NPD). Continuity management in NPD project planning. | United Kingdom |
Australia [ , ] | Government Office for Critical Technologies Policy Coordination periodically publishes a list of technologies to be prioritized in national technological projects, especially in the defense area. Action plan for the development of technological products to ensure mastery of critical technological areas. | Australia |
IEDI [ ] | Defines “frontier” technologies to reduce dependence on foreign components and supply chains in these areas. Emphasis on dual-use technologies, especially in basic research phases, where it is possible to circumvent international embargoes and undertake research in critical areas with developed countries. | China |
India [ ] | Emphasizes critical technological areas following “Make” or “Buy and Make” strategies. The Indigenous Content (IC) factor specifies the percentage that defense technological capability acquisition contracts should allocate to national investments. | India |
South Africa [ ] | Defines key areas to be prioritized in the development of the defense industrial base to reduce technological dependency. | South Africa |
Brasil [ , ] | Technological criticality (priority areas defined in the strategic plan) and technological maturity (product development must have critical component technologies with a TRL of 6 or higher). The concept of technological duality gains importance for extra-budgetary resources and the integration of military and civilian sectors. | Brazil |
Influencing factors within the review documents.
After presenting the review results, it is essential to delve deeper into key findings and considerations identified throughout the study.
Table 9 provides a condensed overview, offering a synthetic diagnosis of the results derived from the review. It succinctly outlines FEI activities in the defense sector and establishes connections with the influencing factors under consideration.
Activity | Description | Influencing factors |
---|---|---|
Identification and analysis of opportunities | National guidelines, public budget, scenario planning, geopolitical issues, and strategic portfolio. | |
Generation, enrichment, and screening of ideas | ||
Product concept definition |
FEI activities in the defense sector.
After systematically mapping the FEI in defense sector against established FEI models, several distinct aspects specific to the military context have emerged, as shown in Table 10 .
Aspect | Military FEI | Seminal FEI models |
---|---|---|
Systems engineering approach | Government documents highlight the prevalent use of systems engineering activities, particularly in requirements engineering and systems lifecycle management, during the early phases of military innovation. | Often, they overlook the systems engineering approach, emphasizing the need for innovation models tailored to the defense sector. |
National strategic focus | The optimization of FEI primarily serves the common good, development, and survival of the State, differing from the profit-driven motives of commercial entities. Consideration of geopolitical aspects and alignment with high-level national guidelines becomes crucial in this context. | Generally designed for technology product manufacturing companies, lacking emphasis on the broader national scope inherent in defense innovation. |
Technological duality | The defense sector incorporates the concept of technological duality, where innovations or technologies intended for military use may find civilian applications (spin-off), and vice versa (spin-in). This dual-use perspective is essential in the defense sector, influencing decisions on resource allocation and fostering collaboration between military and civilian technological advancements. | The emphasis is typically on generating ideas and concepts within a specific industry or market to meet customer needs or address market gaps. The models may not explicitly consider the dual-use potential or the transferability of technologies between military and civilian domains. |
Technological criticality | FEI in the military context is closely tied to the concept of technological criticality. Investments in defense prioritize mapping critical technological areas to promote strategic sectors in the national industrial base. | The strategic mapping of critical technologies for national development, as seen in the defense sector, is a specific consideration that goes beyond the scope of traditional FEI models. |
Technological maturity | Defense innovation involves assessing the maturity of critical technologies to mitigate risks before entering the formal NPD stage. The TRL scale is commonly used for this assessment. The TRL scale, and in some cases, the SRL, plays a crucial role in gauging the readiness of critical technologies, ensuring they meet the required standards before advancing to NPD. | While traditional FEI models may indirectly touch upon aspects of technology readiness, they typically do not incorporate a formalized assessment process like the TRL scale. The emphasis in traditional FEI models is often on customer-centric aspects, market dynamics, and the development of innovative solutions. |
Organizational capabilities as the “engine” | FEI, in defense, places organizational capabilities at the core, considering capability-based planning as a central element in identifying and analyzing opportunities, as well as in generating, enriching, and screening ideas. Organizational capabilities are integral to the military FEI “engine,” contradicting the notion that they change slowly and are uncontrollable. | Organizational capabilities are classified as an influencing factor and not as part of the FEI’s “engine”, considering that they usually change very slowly and are therefore uncontrollable. |
“Implementation” of innovation | In defense, the concept of “implementation” extends beyond market introduction. It is realized when a new product is effectively incorporated into the capability’s portfolio of an Armed Force, necessitating adjustments in various non-technological aspects. The symbiosis between technological and doctrinal advancements defines military innovation, emphasizing the harmonization of both aspects for successful implementation. | It aligns with the definition from the Oslo Manual [ ] which asserts that the “implementation” of a product innovation is realized when a new or significantly improved product is introduced to the market, i.e., is commercialized. |
Continuity in project leadership | Project leadership continuity is a crucial influencing factor, given the extended duration of defense product development and high turnover among military leaders. Mitigating leadership turnover is addressed through strategies like the continuity of civilian leadership, ensuring stability throughout the NPD phase. | They emphasize the significance of organizational leadership in the context of the FEI, but do not explicitly address managing leadership continuity in NPD project planning. |
Peculiarities of FEI in the defense sector.
Use of systems engineering approach : The defense sector prominently employs systems engineering activities during the early phase of military innovation. This approach encompasses requirements engineering and systems lifecycle management, aspects not explicitly emphasized in traditional FEI models.
Relevance of technological duality, criticality, and maturity : Concepts such as technological duality, criticality, and maturity play a crucial role in military FEI. These factors, while not extensively covered in established FEI models, are instrumental in decision-making processes, risk mitigation, and the strategic development of defense capabilities.
Organizational capabilities as the “engine” of FEI : In contrast to seminal NPD models that classify organizational capabilities as influencing factors, the defense sector integrates organizational capabilities as a fundamental component of the FEI “engine.” Capability-based planning is a central element in identifying and analyzing opportunities, as well as in generating, enriching, and screening ideas.
“Implementation” of military innovation : The implementation of military innovation necessitates a broader interpretation compared to traditional FEI models. In defense, implementation occurs when a new or improved product is seamlessly integrated into the capability’s portfolio of an Armed Force. This integration involves adjustments in various non-technological aspects, emphasizing the symbiosis between technological and doctrinal advancement.
Continuity in project leadership : Recognizing the high turnover of military leaders and the extended durations of defense projects, the continuity of leadership emerges as a critical consideration. Seminal FEI models do not explicitly address managing leadership continuity in NPD project planning.
Moreover, it is noteworthy that recent contributions in the FEI literature have started to delve deeper into the alignment between organizational strategy and FEI activities. Unlike seminal models that treat this issue generically, recent works, such as the integrative ontologies developed by Pereira et al. [ 20 ] and Castro and Ferreira [ 72 , 73 ], provide management artifacts designed to align organizational strategic vision with FEI activities. Employing the design science paradigm, these artifacts integrate constructs, models, methods, and instantiations, thereby enriching the strategic dimension of FEI literature.
The defense sector, encompassing products ranging from CoPS to mass-produced items, presents a unique challenge due to its diverse complexity and production volume [ 74 ]. While the CoPS research area has an established connection with systems engineering literature, the realm of mass-produced products aligns more closely with the theoretical foundations of the FEI literature. Notably, defense documents predominantly draw from the CoPS approach, sparingly incorporating principles from mass production. However, recognizing that the military context spans both worlds, the integration of these approaches becomes crucial, and mapping established FEI models within the dynamics of the initial phase of the military innovation process serves as a valuable step in achieving this harmonization.
Moreover, the FEI literature, characterized by well-defined seminal models and recent integrative ontologies (as discussed in the previous section), contrasts with the more heterogeneous nature of the systems engineering literature. The latter encompasses diverse authors, countries, organizations, and standardization bodies, each adhering to distinct management models with unique nomenclatures and structures [ 43 , 44 , 45 , 47 , 48 , 54 , 55 , 57 , 58 , 59 ]. In this context, the FEI literature emerges as a unifying force, facilitating the creation of a common representation of knowledge related to the early stage of the military innovation process. This not only streamlines communication among specialists, decision-makers, managers, researchers, entrepreneurs, and other stakeholders in the defense field but also promotes greater efficiency in navigating the diverse landscape of defense innovation.
Selection of seminal FEI models : The identification of seminal FEI models relied on findings from Pereira et al. [ 12 , 20 ] and co-citation analysis of FEI-related works available in the Scopus and WoS databases. Alternative criteria for model selection might yield a different set of seminal documents, potentially influencing the analysis.
Data collection in gray literature : The exploration of gray literature related to FEI in the military sector was constrained by the availability of documents on government websites of defense management agencies. This limitation could result in an incomplete representation of the landscape.
Scope of mapping : The review presented an initial mapping of FEI in the defense sector within seminal models. A more comprehensive and structured mapping could be achieved through the adoption of more robust methodological approaches, such as the design science paradigm [ 75 , 76 ]. This suggests that there is potential for a more in-depth and detailed examination of FEI activities in the defense sector.
Acknowledging these limitations is essential for a nuanced understanding of the scope and implications of the study, guiding future research endeavors in this domain.
This study aimed to comprehensively explore the dynamics of FEI in the defense sector through a systematic review encompassing 24 documents from both academic and gray literature. By analyzing seminal FEI models, the research mapped key activities within the defense context, including the identification and analysis of opportunities, generation, enrichment, and screening of ideas, product concept definition, and consideration of influencing factors.
The study’s contributions extend to both FEI and defense literature, introducing original perspectives. Notably, it emphasized the systems engineering approach, national strategic focus, technological duality, technological criticality, technological maturity, organizational capabilities as the “engine”, the unique concept of “implementation” in military innovation, and the importance of continuity in project leadership.
Acknowledging limitations, such as the criteria for selecting seminal FEI models, constraints in accessing gray literature, and the preliminary nature of the mapping, the study calls for future research to employ more robust methodologies, like the design science paradigm [ 75 , 76 ], for an in-depth understanding of the initial phase of the military innovation process.
In conclusion, this research lays a foundation for further exploration and synthesis of knowledge, contributing to the advancement of both FEI theory and its application in the defense sector.
This work was supported by the Brazilian Army (Atv PCENA V23-011).
We thank Dr. João José Pinto Ferreira (INESC TEC and Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto) for his expertise and help in writing the manuscript.
© The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
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Traditional hydration assessment methods, while accurate, are often invasive and impractical for routine monitoring. In response, innovative non-invasive techniques such as bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA), electrodermal activity (EDA), electrocardiogram (ECG) monitoring, and urine color charts have emerged, offering greater comfort and accessibility for patients. These methods use various types of sensors to capture a range of bio-signals, followed by machine learning-based classification or regression methods, providing real-time feedback on hydration status, which is crucial for effective management and prevention of urinary stones. This review explores the principles, applications, and efficacy of these non-invasive techniques, highlighting their potential to transform hydration monitoring in clinical and everyday settings. By facilitating improved patient compliance and enabling proactive hydration management, these approaches align with contemporary trends in personalized healthcare. This article presents a literature review on non-invasive approaches to hydration assessment, focusing on their significance in preventing kidney stone disease and enhancing kidney health.
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No datasets were generated or analysed during the current study.
Bioelectrical impedance analysis
Electrodermal activity
Electrocardiogram
Kidney stone disease
Extracellular water
Intracellular water
Galvanic skin response
Bidirectional long short-term memory
K-nearest neighbors
Monitoring my dehydration
Heart rate variability
Before exercise
Post-exercise
After hydration
Standard deviation of RR intervals
Root mean square of successive RR interval differences
Support vector machine
Electric potential sensing
Body mass index
Hydration monitor
Photoplethysmography
Dehydration body monitor
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Achraf Tahar & Hadil Zrour
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Stéphane Dupont
Kidney Stone Clinic, University Hospital Brugmann, Place A. Van Gehuchtenplein 4, 1020, Brussels, Belgium
Agnieszka Pozdzik
Faculty of Medicine, Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Route de Lennik 808, 1070, Brussels, Belgium
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Tahar, A., Zrour, H., Dupont, S. et al. Non-invasive approaches to hydration assessment: a literature review. Urolithiasis 52 , 132 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00240-024-01630-y
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What kinds of literature reviews are written? Narrative review: The purpose of this type of review is to describe the current state of the research on a specific topic/research and to offer a critical analysis of the literature reviewed. Studies are grouped by research/theoretical categories, and themes and trends, strengths and weakness, and gaps are identified.
A literature review is a critical summary and evaluation of the existing research (e.g., academic journal articles and books) on a specific topic. It is typically included as a separate section or chapter of a research paper or dissertation, serving as a contextual framework for a study. Literature reviews can vary in length depending on the ...
A literature or narrative review is a comprehensive review and analysis of the published literature on a specific topic or research question. The literature that is reviewed contains: books, articles, academic articles, conference proceedings, association papers, and dissertations. It contains the most pertinent studies and points to important ...
"A literature review is an account of what has been published on a topic by accredited scholars and researchers. In writing the literature review, your purpose is to convey to your reader what knowledge and ideas have been established on a topic, and what their strengths and weaknesses are. As a piece of writing, the literature review must be ...
It can also help to provide an overview of areas in which the research is disparate and interdisciplinary. In addition, a literature review is an excellent way of synthesizing research findings to show evidence on a meta-level and to uncover areas in which more research is needed, which is a critical component of creating theoretical frameworks and building conceptual models.
Definition. A literature review is an assessment of the sources in a chosen topic of research. In a literature review, you're expected to report on the existing scholarly conversation, without adding new contributions. If you are currently writing one, you've come to the right place. In the following paragraphs, we will explain: the objective ...
A literature review is a written work that: Compiles significant research published on a topic by accredited scholars and researchers; Surveys scholarly articles, books, dissertations, conference proceedings, and other sources; Examines contrasting perspectives, theoretical approaches, methodologies, findings, results, conclusions.
The importance of the literature review is directly related to its aims and purpose. Nursing and allied health disciplines contain a vast amount of ever increasing lit-erature and research that is important to the ongoing development of practice. The literature review is an aid to gathering and synthesising that information. The pur-
When writing a literature review it is important to start with a brief introduction, followed by the text broken up into subsections and conclude with a summary to bring everything together. A summary table including title, author, publication date and key findings is a useful feature to present in your review (see Table 1 for an example).
A literature review is not only a summary of key sources, but has an organizational pattern which combines both summary and synthesis, often within specific conceptual categories.A summary is a recap of the important information of the source, but a synthesis is a re-organization, or a reshuffling, of that information in a way that informs how you are planning to investigate a research problem.
A literature review is a critical analysis and synthesis of existing research on a particular topic. It provides an overview of the current state of knowledge, identifies gaps, and highlights key findings in the literature. 1 The purpose of a literature review is to situate your own research within the context of existing scholarship, demonstrating your understanding of the topic and showing ...
A literature review may consist of simply a summary of key sources, but in the social sciences, a literature review usually has an organizational pattern and combines both summary and synthesis, often within specific conceptual categories.A summary is a recap of the important information of the source, but a synthesis is a re-organization, or a reshuffling, of that information in a way that ...
Purpose and Importance of the Literature Review. An understanding of the current literature is critical for all phases of a research study. Lingard 9 recently invoked the "journal-as-conversation" metaphor as a way of understanding how one's research fits into the larger medical education conversation. As she described it: "Imagine yourself joining a conversation at a social event.
A formal literature review is an evidence-based, in-depth analysis of a subject. There are many reasons for writing one and these will influence the length and style of your review, but in essence a literature review is a critical appraisal of the current collective knowledge on a subject. Rather than just being an exhaustive list of all that ...
Definition: A literature review is a comprehensive and critical analysis of the existing literature on a particular topic or research question. ... Establishing the significance of the research: A literature review helps to establish the significance of the research by demonstrating the gap or problem in the existing literature that the study ...
INTRODUCTION. Writing the literature review (LR) is often viewed as a difficult task that can be a point of writer's block and procrastination in postgraduate life.Disagreements on the definitions or classifications of LRs may confuse students about their purpose and scope, as well as how to perform an LR.Interestingly, at many universities, the LR is still an important element in any ...
A literature r eview plays an important role in research papers. It is a study of. academic references on a single subject. It offers an analysis of current. understanding, helping you to ...
The literature review provides a way for the novice researcher to convince the proposal the reviewers that she is knowledgeable about the related research and the "intellectual traditions" that support the proposed study. The literature review provides the researcher with an opportunity to identify any gaps that may exist in the body of ...
"A substantive, thorough, sophisticated literature review is a precondition for doing substantive, thorough, sophisticated research". Boote and Baile 2005 . Authors of manuscripts treat writing a literature review as a routine work or a mere formality. But a seasoned one knows the purpose and importance of a well-written literature review.
Some Issues in Liter ature R eview. 1. A continuous and time consuming process runs. through out r esearch work (more whil e selecting. a resear ch problem and writing 'r eview of. liter ature ...
In this study, our objective is to review the literature on corporate crisis readiness for several reasons: Firstly, despite the substantial body of literature highlighting the importance of crisis readiness for corporate organisations (Coombs & Laufer, 2018; McConnell & Drennan, 2006; Parnell & Crandall, 2021; Penrose, 2000), the concept remains underdeveloped (Jin et al., 2024).
1. Introduction. Innovation management, a complex and broad organizational process covering the entire spectrum, from identifying new opportunities and ideas to their practical implementation, poses significant challenges for managers across all organizational levels [].Notably, innovation seldom fails due to a lack of creativity; instead, it is the absence of discipline that plays a pivotal ...
This article presents a literature review on non-invasive approaches to hydration assessment, focusing on their significance in preventing kidney stone disease and enhancing kidney health. ... and root mean square of successive RR interval differences (RMSSD). These parameters were chosen for their known sensitivity to autonomic nervous system ...