The life history interviews ran for 40 – 60 minutes. The timing for sessions 2 and 3 is not provided.
Interviews are the most common data collection technique in qualitative research. There are four main types of interviews; the one you choose will depend on your research question, aims and objectives. It is important to formulate open-ended interview questions that are understandable and easy for participants to answer. Key considerations in setting up the interview will enhance the quality of the data obtained and the experience of the interview for the participant and the researcher.
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How to carry out great interviews in qualitative research.
11 min read An interview is one of the most versatile methods used in qualitative research. Here’s what you need to know about conducting great qualitative interviews.
Qualitative research interviews are a mainstay among q ualitative research techniques, and have been in use for decades either as a primary data collection method or as an adjunct to a wider research process. A qualitative research interview is a one-to-one data collection session between a researcher and a participant. Interviews may be carried out face-to-face, over the phone or via video call using a service like Skype or Zoom.
There are three main types of qualitative research interview – structured, unstructured or semi-structured.
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As a qualitative research method interviewing is hard to beat, with applications in social research, market research, and even basic and clinical pharmacy. But like any aspect of the research process, it’s not without its limitations. Before choosing qualitative interviewing as your research method, it’s worth weighing up the pros and cons.
Pros of qualitative interviews:
Cons of qualitative interviews:
Semi-structured interviews are based on a qualitative interview guide, which acts as a road map for the researcher. While conducting interviews, the researcher can use the interview guide to help them stay focused on their research questions and make sure they cover all the topics they intend to.
An interview guide may include a list of questions written out in full, or it may be a set of bullet points grouped around particular topics. It can prompt the interviewer to dig deeper and ask probing questions during the interview if appropriate.
Consider writing out the project’s research question at the top of your interview guide, ahead of the interview questions. This may help you steer the interview in the right direction if it threatens to head off on a tangent.
According to Duke University , bias can create significant problems in your qualitative interview.
The interview questions you ask need to be carefully considered both before and during the data collection process. As well as considering the topics you’ll cover, you will need to think carefully about the way you ask questions.
Open-ended interview questions – which cannot be answered with a ‘yes’ ‘no’ or ‘maybe’ – are recommended by many researchers as a way to pursue in depth information.
An example of an open-ended question is “What made you want to move to the East Coast?” This will prompt the participant to consider different factors and select at least one. Having thought about it carefully, they may give you more detailed information about their reasoning.
A closed-ended question , such as “Would you recommend your neighborhood to a friend?” can be answered without too much deliberation, and without giving much information about personal thoughts, opinions and feelings.
Follow-up questions can be used to delve deeper into the research topic and to get more detail from open-ended questions. Examples of follow-up questions include:
As well as avoiding closed-ended questions, be wary of leading questions. As with other qualitative research techniques such as surveys or focus groups, these can introduce bias in your data. Leading questions presume a certain point of view shared by the interviewer and participant, and may even suggest a foregone conclusion.
An example of a leading question might be: “You moved to New York in 1990, didn’t you?” In answering the question, the participant is much more likely to agree than disagree. This may be down to acquiescence bias or a belief that the interviewer has checked the information and already knows the correct answer.
Other leading questions involve adjectival phrases or other wording that introduces negative or positive connotations about a particular topic. An example of this kind of leading question is: “Many employees dislike wearing masks to work. How do you feel about this?” It presumes a positive opinion and the participant may be swayed by it, or not want to contradict the interviewer.
Harvard University’s guidelines for qualitative interview research add that you shouldn’t be afraid to ask embarrassing questions – “if you don’t ask, they won’t tell.” Bear in mind though that too much probing around sensitive topics may cause the interview participant to withdraw. The Harvard guidelines recommend leaving sensitive questions til the later stages of the interview when a rapport has been established.
Observing a participant’s body language can give you important data about their thoughts and feelings. It can also help you decide when to broach a topic, and whether to use a follow-up question or return to the subject later in the interview.
Be conscious that the participant may regard you as the expert, not themselves. In order to make sure they express their opinions openly, use active listening skills like verbal encouragement and paraphrasing and clarifying their meaning to show how much you value what they are saying.
Remember that part of the goal is to leave the interview participant feeling good about volunteering their time and their thought process to your research. Aim to make them feel empowered , respected and heard.
Unstructured interviews can demand a lot of a researcher, both cognitively and emotionally. Be sure to leave time in between in-depth interviews when scheduling your data collection to make sure you maintain the quality of your data, as well as your own well-being .
Historically, recording qualitative research interviews and then transcribing the conversation manually would have represented a significant part of the cost and time involved in research projects that collect qualitative data.
Fortunately, researchers now have access to digital recording tools, and even speech-to-text technology that can automatically transcribe interview data using AI and machine learning. This type of tool can also be used to capture qualitative data from qualitative research (focus groups,ect.) making this kind of social research or market research much less time consuming.
Qualitative interview data is unstructured, rich in content and difficult to analyze without the appropriate tools. Fortunately, machine learning and AI can once again make things faster and easier when you use qualitative methods like the research interview.
Text analysis tools and natural language processing software can ‘read’ your transcripts and voice data and identify patterns and trends across large volumes of text or speech. They can also perform khttps://www.qualtrics.com/experience-management/research/sentiment-analysis/
which assesses overall trends in opinion and provides an unbiased overall summary of how participants are feeling.
Another feature of text analysis tools is their ability to categorize information by topic, sorting it into groupings that help you organize your data according to the topic discussed.
All in all, interviews are a valuable technique for qualitative research in business, yielding rich and detailed unstructured data. Historically, they have only been limited by the human capacity to interpret and communicate results and conclusions, which demands considerable time and skill.
When you combine this data with AI tools that can interpret it quickly and automatically, it becomes easy to analyze and structure, dovetailing perfectly with your other business data. An additional benefit of natural language analysis tools is that they are free of subjective biases, and can replicate the same approach across as much data as you choose. By combining human research skills with machine analysis, qualitative research methods such as interviews are more valuable than ever to your business.
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6 qualitative research and interviews.
So we’ve described doing a survey and collecting quantitative data. But not all questions can best be answered by a survey. A survey is great for understanding what people think (for example), but not why they think what they do. If your research is intending to understand the underlying motivations or reasons behind peoples actions, or to build a deeper understanding on the background of a subject, an interview may be the more appropriate data collection method.
Interviews are a method of data collection that consist of two or more people exchanging information through a structured process of questions and answers. Questions are designed by the researcher to thoughtfully collect in-depth information on a topic or set of topics as related to the central research question. Interviews typically occur in-person, although good interviews can also be conducted remotely via the phone or video conferencing. Unlike surveys, interviews give the opportunity to ask follow-up questions and thoughtfully engage with participants on the spot (rather than the anonymous and impartial format of survey research).
And surveys can be used in qualitative or quantitative research – though they’re more typically a qualitative technique. In-depth interviews , containing open-ended questions and structured by an interview guide . One can also do a standardized interview with closed-ended questions (i.e. answer options) that are structured by an interview schedule as part of quantitative research. While these are called interviews they’re far closer to surveys, so we wont cover them again in this chapter. The terms used for in-depth interviews we’ll cover in the next section.
In-depth interviews allow participants to describe experiences in their own words (a primary strength of the interview format). Strong in-depth interviews will include many open-ended questions that allow participants to respond in their own words, share new ideas, and lead the conversation in different directions. The purpose of open-ended questions and in-depth interviews is to hear as much as possible in the person’s own voice, to collect new information and ideas, and to achieve a level of depth not possible in surveys or most other forms of data collection.
Typically, an interview guide is used to create a soft structure for the conversation and is an important preparation tool for the researcher. You can not go into an interview unprepared and just “wing it”; what the interview guide allows you to do is map out a framework, order of topics, and may include specific questions to use during the interview. Generally, the interview guide is thought of as just that — a guide to use in order to keep the interview focused. It is not set in stone and a skilled researcher can change the order of questions or topics in an interviews based on the organic conversation flow.
Depending on the experience and skill level of the researcher, an interview guide can be as simple as a list of topics to cover. However, for consistency and quality of research, the interviewer may want to take the time to at least practice writing out questions in advance to ensure that phrasing and word choices are as clear, objective, and focused as possible. It’s worth remembering that working out the wording of questions in advance allows researchers to ensure more consistency across interview. The interview guide below, taken from the wonderful and free textbook Principles of Sociological Inquiry , shows an interview guide that just has topics.
Alternatively, you can use a more detailed guide that lists out possible questions, as shown below. A more detailed guide is probably better for an interviewer that has less experience, or is just beginning to work on a given topic.
The purpose of an interview guide is to help ask effective questions and to support the process of acquiring the best possible data for your research. Topics and questions should be organized thematically, and in a natural progression that will allow the conversation to flow and deepen throughout the course of the interview. Often, researchers will attempt to memorize or partially memorize the interview guide, in order to be more fully present with the participant during the conversation.
Remember, the purposes of interviews is to go more in-depth with an individual than is possible with a generalized survey. For this reason, it is important to use the guide as a starting point but not to be overly tethered to it during the actual interview process. You may get stuck when respondents give you shorter answers than you expect, or don’t provide the type of depth that you need for your research. Often, you may want to probe for more specifics. Think about using follow up questions like “How does/did that affect you?” or “How does X make you feel?” and “Tell me about a time where X…”
For example, if I was researching the relationship between pets and mental health, some strong open-ended questions might be: * How does your pet typically make you feel when you wake up in the morning? * How does your pet generally affect your mood when you arrive home in the evening? * Tell me about a time when your pet had a significant impact on your emotional state.
Questions framed in this manner leave plenty of room for the respondent to answer in their own words, as opposed to leading and/or truncated questions, such as: * Does being with your pet make you happy? * After a bad day, how much does seeing your pet improve your mood? * Tell me about how important your pet is to your mental health.
These questions assume outcomes and will not result in high quality research. Researchers should always avoid asking leading questions that give away an expected answer or suggest particular responses. For instance, if I ask “we need to spend more on public schools, don’t you think?” the respondent is more likely to agree regardless of their own thoughts. Some wont, but humans generally have a strong natural desire to be agreeable. That’s why leaving your questions neutral and open so that respondents can speak to their experiences and views is critical.
Writing good questions and interviewing respondents are just the first steps of the interview process. After these stages, the researcher still has a lot of work to do to collect usable data from the interview. The researcher must spend time coding and analyzing the interview to retrieve this data. Just doing an interview wont produce data. Think about how many conversations you have everyday, and none of those are leaving you swimming in data.
Hopefully you can record your interviews. Recording your interviews will allow you the opportunity to transcribe them word for word later. If you can’t record the interview you’ll need to take detailed notes so that you can reconstruct what you heard later. Do not trust yourself to “just remember” the conversation. You’re collecting data, precious data that you’re spending time and energy to collect. Treat it as important and valuable. Remember our description of the methodology section from Chapter 2, you need to maintain a chain of custody on your data. If you just remembered the interview, you could be accused of making up the results. Your interview notes and the recording become part of that chain of custody to prove to others that your interviews were real and that your results are accurate.
Assuming you recorded your interview, the first step in the analysis process is transcribing the interview. A transcription is a written record of every word in an interview. Transcriptions can either be completed by the researcher or by a hired worker, though it is good practice for the researcher to transcribe the interview him or herself. Researchers should keep the following points in mind regarding transcriptions: * The interview should take place in a quiet location with minimal background noise to produce a clear recording; * Transcribing interviews is a time-consuming process and may take two to three times longer than the actual interview; * Transcriptions provide a more precise record of the interview than hand written notes and allow the interviewer to focus during the interview.
After transcribing the interview, the next step is to analyze the responses. Coding is the main form of analysis used for interviews and involves studying a transcription to identify important themes. These themes are categorized into codes, which are words or phrases that denote an idea.
You’ll typically being with several codes in mind that are generated by key ideas you week seeking in the questions, but you can also being by using open coding to understand the results. An open coding process involves reading through the transcript multiple times and paying close attention to each line of the text to discover noteworthy concepts. During the open coding process, the researcher keeps an open mind to find any codes that may be relevant to the research topic.
After the open coding process is complete, focused coding can begin. Focused coding takes a closer look at the notes compiled during the open coding stage to merge common codes and define what the codes mean in the context of the research project.
Imagine a researcher is conducting interviews to learn about various people’s experiences of childhood in New Orleans. The following example shows several codes that this researcher extrapolated from an interview with one of their subjects.
The next chapter will address ways to identify people to interview, but most of the remainder of the book will address how to analyze quantitative data. That shouldn’t be taken as a sign that quantitative data is better, or that it’s easier to use interview data. Because in an interview the researcher must interpret the words of others it is often more challenging to identify your findings and clearly answer your research question. However, quantitative data is more common, and there are more different things you can do with it, so we spend a lot of the textbook focusing on it.
I’ll work through one more example of using interview data though. It takes a lot of practice to be a good and skilled interviewer. What I show below is a brief excerpt of an interview I did, and how that data was used in a resulting paper I wrote. These aren’t the only way you can use interview data, but it’s an example of what the intermediary and final product might look like.
The overall project these are drawn from was concerned with minor league baseball stadiums, but the specific part I’m pulling from here was studying the decline and rejuvenation of downtown around those stadiums in several cities. You’ll see that I’m using the words of the respondent fairly directly, because that’s my data. But I’m not just relying on one respondent and trusting them, I did a few dozen interviews in order to understand the commonalities in people’s perspectives to build a narrative around my research question.
Excerpt from Notes
Excerpt from Resulting Paper
How many interviews are necessary? It actually doesn’t take many. What you want to observe in your interviews is theoretical saturation , where the codes you use in the transcript begin to appear across conversations and groups. If different people disagree that’s fine, but what you want to understand is the commonalities across peoples perspectives. Most research on the subject says that with 8 interviews you’ll typically start to see a decline in new information gathered. That doesn’t mean you won’t get new words , but you’ll stop hearing completely unique perspectives or gain novel insights. At that point, where you’ve ‘heard it all before’ you can stop, because you’ve probably identified the answer to the questions you were trying to research.
One significant ethical concern with interviews, that also applies to surveys, is making sure that respondents maintain anonymity. In either form of data collection you may be asking respondents deeply personal questions, that if exposed may cause legal, personal, or professional harm. Notice that in the excerpt of the paper above the respondents are only identified by an id I assigned (Louisville D) and their career, rather than their name. I can only include the excerpt of the interview notes above because there are no details that might lead to them being identified.
You may want to report details about a person to contextualize the data you gathered, but you should always ensure that no one can be identified from your research. For instance, if you were doing research on racism at large companies, you may want to preface people’s comments by their race, as there is a good chance that white and minority employees would feel differently about the issues. However, if you preface someones comments by saying they’re a minority manager, that may violate their anonymity. Even if you don’t state what company you did interviews with, that may be enough detail for their co-workers to identify them if there are few minority managers at the company. As such, always think long and hard about whether there is any way that the participation of respondents may be exposed.
We’ve discussed surveys and interviews as different methods the last two chapters, but they can also complement each other.
For instance, let’s say you’re curious to study people who change opinions on abortion, either going from support to opposition or vice versa. You could use a survey to understand the prevalence of changing opinions, i.e. what percentage of people in your city have changed their views. That would help to establish whether this is a prominent issue, or whether it’s a rare phenomenon. But it would be difficult to understand from the survey what makes people change their views. You could add an open ended question for anyone that said they changed their opinion, but many people won’t respond and few will provide the level of detail necessary to understand their motivations. Interviews with people that have changed their opinions would give you an opportunity to explore how their experiences and beliefs have changed in combination with their views towards abortion.
In the last two chapters we’ve discussed the two most prominent methods of data collection in the social sciences: surveys and interviews. What we haven’t discussed though is how to identify the people you’ll collect data from; that’s called a sampling strategy. In the next chapter
But what exactly do semi structured interviews mean? What exactly counts as in-depth? How structured are semi-structured interviews?
Interviews are a frequently used research method in qualitative studies. You will see dozens of papers that state something like “We conducted n in-depth semi-structured interviews with key informants”. But what exactly does this mean? What exactly counts as in-depth? How structured are semi-structured interviews?
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The term “in-depth” is defined fairly vaguely in the literature: it generally means a one-to-one interview on one general topic, which is covered in detail. Usually these qualitative interviews last about an hour, although sometimes much longer. It sounds like two people having a discussion, but there are differences in the power dynamics, and end goal: for the classic sociologist Burgess (2002) these are “conversations with a purpose”.
Qualitative interviews generally differ from quantitative survey based questions in that they are looking for a more detailed and nuanced response. They also acknowledge there is no ‘one-size fits all’, especially when asking someone to recall a personal narrative about their experiences. Instead of a fixed “research protocol” that asks the same question to each respondent, most interviewees adopt a more flexible approach. However there is still a need “...to ensure that the same general areas of information are collected from each interviewee; this provides more focus than the conversational approach, but still allows a degree of freedom and adaptability in getting information from the interviewee” – MacNamara (2009) .
Turner (2010) (who coincidentally shares the same name as me) describes three different types of qualitative interview; Informal Conversation, General Interview Guide, and Standardised Open-Ended. These can be seen as a scale from least to most structured, and we are going to focus on the ‘interview guide’ approach, which takes a middle ground.
An interview guide is like a cheat-sheet for the interviewer – it contains a list of questions and topic areas that should be covered in the interview. However, these are not to be read verbatim and in order, in fact they are more like an aide-mémoire. “Usually the interviewer will have a prepared set of questions but these are only used as a guide, and departures from the guidelines are not seen as a problem but are often encouraged” – Silverman (2013) . That way, the interviewer can add extra questions about an unexpected but relevant area that emerges, and sections that don’t apply to the participant can be negated.
So what do these look like, and how does one go about writing a suitable semi-structured interview guide? Unfortunately, it is rare in journal articles for researchers to share the interview guide, and it’s difficult to find good examples on the internet. Basically they look like a list of short questions and follow-on prompts, grouped by topic. There will generally be about a dozen. I’ve written my fair share of interview guides for qualitative research projects over the years, either on my own or with the collaboration of colleagues, so I’m happy to share some tips.
Questions should answer your research questions Your research project should have one or several main research questions, and these should be used to guide the topics covered in the interviews, and hopefully answer the research questions. However, you can’t just ask your respondents “Can the experience of male My Little Pony fans be described through the lens of Derridean deconstruction?”. You will need to break down your research into questions that have meaning for the participant and that they can engage with. The questions should be fairly informal and jargon free (unless that person is an expert in that field of jargon), open ended - so they can’t be easily answered with a yes or no, and non-leading so that respondents aren’t pushed down a certain interpretation.
Link to your proposed analytical approach The questions on your guide should also be constructed in such a way that they will work well for your proposed method of analysis – which again you should already have decided. If you are doing narrative analysis, questions should be encouraging respondents to tell their story and history. In Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis you may want to ask more detail about people’s interpretations of their experiences. Think how you will want to analyse, compare and write up your research, and make sure that the questioning style fits your own approach.
Specific ‘Why’ and prompt questions It is very rare in semi-structured interviews that you will ask one question, get a response, and then move on to the next topic. Firstly you will need to provide some structure for the participant, so they are not expected (or encouraged) to recite their whole life story. But on the other level, you will usually want to probe more about specific issues or conditions. That is where the flexible approach comes in. Someone might reveal something that you are interested in, and is relevant to the research project. So ask more! It’s often useful in the guide to list a series of prompt words that remind you of more areas of detail that might be covered. For example, the question “When did you first visit the doctor?” might be annotated with optional prompts such as “Why did you go then?”, “Were you afraid?” or “Did anyone go with you?”. Prompt words might reduce this to ‘Why THEN / afraid / with someone’.
Be flexible with order Generally, an interview guide will be grouped into several topics, each with a few questions. One of the most difficult skills is how to segue from one topic or question to the next, while still seeming like a normal conversation. The best way to manage this is to make sure that you are always listening to the interviewee, and thinking at the same time about how what they are saying links to other discussion topics. If someone starts talking about how they felt isolated visiting the doctor, and one of your topics is about their experience with their doctor, you can ask ‘Did you doctor make you feel less isolated?’. You might then be asking about topic 4, when you are only on topic 1, but you now have a logical link to ask the more general written question ‘Did you feel the doctor supported you?’. The ability to flow from topic to topic as the conversation evolves (while still covering everything on the interview guide) is tricky, and requires you to:
Know your guide backwards - literally I almost never went into an interview without a printed copy of the interview guide in front of me, but it was kind of like Dumbo’s magic feather : it made me feel safe, but I didn’t really need it. You should know everything on your interview guide off by heart, and in any sequence. Since things will crop up in unpredictable ways, you should be comfortable asking questions in different orders to help the conversational flow. Still, it’s always good to have the interview guide in front of you; it lets you tick off questions as they are asked (so you can see what hasn’t been covered), is space to write notes, and also can be less intimidating for the interviewee, as you can look at your notes occasionally rather than staring them in the eye all the time.
Try for natural conversation Legard, Keegan and Ward (2003) note that “Although a good in-depth interview will appear naturalistic, it will bear little resemblance to an everyday conversation”. You will usually find that the most honest and rich responses come from relaxed, non-combative discussions. Make the first question easy, to ease the participant into the interview, and get them used to the question-answer format. But don’t let it feel like a tennis match, where you are always asking the questions. If they ask something of you, reply! Don’t sit in silence: nod, say ‘Yes’, or ‘Of course’ every now and then, to show you are listening and empathising like a normal human being. Yet do be careful about sharing your own potentially leading opinions, and making the discussion about yourself.
Discuss with your research team / supervisors You should take the time to get feedback and suggestions from peers, be they other people on your research project, or your PhD supervisors. This means preparing the interview guide well in advance of your first interview, leaving time for discussion and revisions. Seasoned interviewers will have tips about wording and structuring questions, and even the most experienced researcher can benefit from a second opinion. Getting it right at this stage is very important, it’s no good discovering after you’ve done all your interviews that you didn’t ask about something important.
Adapting the guide While these are semi-structured interviews, in general you will usually want to cover the same general areas every time you do an interview, no least so that there is some point of comparison. It’s also common to do a first few interviews and realise that you are not asking about a critical area, or that some new potential insight is emerging (especially if you are taking a grounded theory approach). In qualitative research, this need not be a disaster (if this flexibility is methodologically appropriate), and it is possible to revise your interview guide. However, if you do end up making significant revisions, make sure you keep both versions, and a note of which respondents were interviewed with each version of the guide.
Test the timing Inevitably, you will not have exactly the same amount of time for each interview, and respondents will differ in how fast they talk and how often they go off-topic! Make sure you have enough questions to get the detail you need, but also have ‘lower priority’ questions you can drop if things are taking too long. Test the timing of your interview guide with a few participants, or even friends before you settle on it, and revise as necessary. Try and get your interview guide down to one side of paper at the most: it is a prompt, not an encyclopaedia!
Hopefully these points will help demystify qualitative interview guides, and help you craft a useful tool to shape your semi-structured interviews. I’d also caution that semi-structured interviewing is a very difficult process, and benefits majorly from practice. I have been with many new researchers who tend to fall back on the interview guide too much, and read it verbatim. This generally leads to closed-off responses, and missed opportunities to further explore interesting revelations. Treat your interview guide as a guide, not a gospel, and be flexible. It’s extra hard, because you have to juggle asking questions, listening, choosing the next question, keeping the research topic in your head and making sure everything is covered – but when you do it right, you’ll get rich research data that you will actually be excited to go home and analyse.
Don’t forget to check out some of the references above, as well as the myriad of excellent articles and textbooks on qualitative interviews. There’s also Quirkos itself , software to help you make the research process engaging and visual, with a free trial to download of this innovative tool. We also have a rapidly growing series of blog post articles on qualitative interviews. These now include 10 tips for qualitative interviewing , transcribing qualitative interviews and focus groups , and how to make sure you get good recordings . Our blog is updated with articles like this every week, and you can hear about it first by following our Twitter feed @quirkossoftware .
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Methodology
Published on March 10, 2022 by Tegan George . Revised on June 22, 2023.
An interview is a qualitative research method that relies on asking questions in order to collect data . Interviews involve two or more people, one of whom is the interviewer asking the questions.
There are several types of interviews, often differentiated by their level of structure.
Interviews are commonly used in market research, social science, and ethnographic research .
What is a structured interview, what is a semi-structured interview, what is an unstructured interview, what is a focus group, examples of interview questions, advantages and disadvantages of interviews, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about types of interviews.
Structured interviews have predetermined questions in a set order. They are often closed-ended, featuring dichotomous (yes/no) or multiple-choice questions. While open-ended structured interviews exist, they are much less common. The types of questions asked make structured interviews a predominantly quantitative tool.
Asking set questions in a set order can help you see patterns among responses, and it allows you to easily compare responses between participants while keeping other factors constant. This can mitigate research biases and lead to higher reliability and validity. However, structured interviews can be overly formal, as well as limited in scope and flexibility.
Semi-structured interviews are a blend of structured and unstructured interviews. While the interviewer has a general plan for what they want to ask, the questions do not have to follow a particular phrasing or order.
Semi-structured interviews are often open-ended, allowing for flexibility, but follow a predetermined thematic framework, giving a sense of order. For this reason, they are often considered “the best of both worlds.”
However, if the questions differ substantially between participants, it can be challenging to look for patterns, lessening the generalizability and validity of your results.
An unstructured interview is the most flexible type of interview. The questions and the order in which they are asked are not set. Instead, the interview can proceed more spontaneously, based on the participant’s previous answers.
Unstructured interviews are by definition open-ended. This flexibility can help you gather detailed information on your topic, while still allowing you to observe patterns between participants.
However, so much flexibility means that they can be very challenging to conduct properly. You must be very careful not to ask leading questions, as biased responses can lead to lower reliability or even invalidate your research.
A focus group brings together a group of participants to answer questions on a topic of interest in a moderated setting. Focus groups are qualitative in nature and often study the group’s dynamic and body language in addition to their answers. Responses can guide future research on consumer products and services, human behavior, or controversial topics.
Focus groups can provide more nuanced and unfiltered feedback than individual interviews and are easier to organize than experiments or large surveys . However, their small size leads to low external validity and the temptation as a researcher to “cherry-pick” responses that fit your hypotheses.
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Depending on the type of interview you are conducting, your questions will differ in style, phrasing, and intention. Structured interview questions are set and precise, while the other types of interviews allow for more open-endedness and flexibility.
Here are some examples.
Interviews are a great research tool. They allow you to gather rich information and draw more detailed conclusions than other research methods, taking into consideration nonverbal cues, off-the-cuff reactions, and emotional responses.
However, they can also be time-consuming and deceptively challenging to conduct properly. Smaller sample sizes can cause their validity and reliability to suffer, and there is an inherent risk of interviewer effect arising from accidentally leading questions.
Here are some advantages and disadvantages of each type of interview that can help you decide if you’d like to utilize this research method.
Type of interview | Advantages | Disadvantages |
---|---|---|
Structured interview | ||
Semi-structured interview | , , , and | |
Unstructured interview | , , , and | |
Focus group | , , and , since there are multiple people present |
If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.
Research bias
The four most common types of interviews are:
The interviewer effect is a type of bias that emerges when a characteristic of an interviewer (race, age, gender identity, etc.) influences the responses given by the interviewee.
There is a risk of an interviewer effect in all types of interviews , but it can be mitigated by writing really high-quality interview questions.
Social desirability bias is the tendency for interview participants to give responses that will be viewed favorably by the interviewer or other participants. It occurs in all types of interviews and surveys , but is most common in semi-structured interviews , unstructured interviews , and focus groups .
Social desirability bias can be mitigated by ensuring participants feel at ease and comfortable sharing their views. Make sure to pay attention to your own body language and any physical or verbal cues, such as nodding or widening your eyes.
This type of bias can also occur in observations if the participants know they’re being observed. They might alter their behavior accordingly.
A focus group is a research method that brings together a small group of people to answer questions in a moderated setting. The group is chosen due to predefined demographic traits, and the questions are designed to shed light on a topic of interest. It is one of 4 types of interviews .
Quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while qualitative research deals with words and meanings.
Quantitative methods allow you to systematically measure variables and test hypotheses . Qualitative methods allow you to explore concepts and experiences in more detail.
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George, T. (2023, June 22). Types of Interviews in Research | Guide & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved September 3, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/interviews-research/
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BMC Health Services Research volume 24 , Article number: 1022 ( 2024 ) Cite this article
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Mobile Integrated Health-Community Paramedicine (MIH-CP) is a novel approach that may reduce the rural-urban disparity in vaccination uptake in the United States. MIH-CP providers, as physician extenders, offer clinical follow-up and wrap-around services in homes and communities, uniquely positioning them as trusted messengers and vaccine providers. This study explores stakeholder perspectives on feasibility and acceptability of community paramedicine vaccination programs.
We conducted semi-structured qualitative interviews with leaders of paramedicine agencies with MIH-CP, without MIH-CP, and state/regional leaders in Indiana. Interviews were audio recorded, transcribed verbatim, and analyzed using content analysis.
We interviewed 24 individuals who represented EMS organizations with MIH-CP programs (MIH-CP; n = 10), EMS organizations without MIH-CP programs (non-MIH-CP; n = 9), and state/regional administrators (SRA; n = 5). Overall, the sample included professionals with an average of 19.6 years in the field (range: 1–42 years). Approximately 75% ( n = 14) were male, and all identified as non-Hispanic white. MIH-CPs reported they initiated a vaccine program to reach underserved areas, operating as a health department extension. Some MIH-CPs integrated existing services, such as food banks, with vaccine clinics, while other MIH-CPs focused on providing vaccinations as standalone initiatives. Key barriers to vaccination program initiation included funding and vaccinations being a low priority for MIH-CP programs. However, participants reported support for vaccine programs, particularly as they provided an opportunity to alleviate health disparities and improve community health. MIH-CPs reported low vaccine hesitancy in the community when community paramedics administered vaccines. Non-CP agencies expressed interest in launching vaccine programs if there is clear guidance, sustainable funding, and adequate personnel.
Our study provides important context on the feasibility and acceptability of implementing an MIH-CP program. Findings offer valuable insights into reducing health disparities seen in vaccine uptake through community paramedics, a novel and innovative approach to reduce health disparities in rural communities.
Peer Review reports
Mobile integrated health-community paramedicine (MIH-CP) is a rapidly evolving patient-centered healthcare delivery model within the domain of emergency medical services (EMS) [ 1 , 2 ]. Community Paramedics (CP)s, a large portion of the MIH-CP workforce, expand the traditional role of EMS personnel to be physician extenders, delivering non-urgent but key medical services such as vaccinations. This is particularly important considering the existing vaccination inequities.
The COVID-19 pandemic highlighted these systemic health inequities, exacerbated existing health disparities, and broadened the gap in access to care. For example, many healthcare visits during the COVID-19 pandemic took place virtually using telemedicine and research shows that low socioeconomic status (SES), rural, and minority populations received less access to telehealth during the pandemic [ 3 , 4 ]. Furthermore, a study of Rural Health Clinics (RHCs) found that the clinics reported high levels of financial concerns and challenges obtaining personal protective equipment, resulting in them providing fewer preventive services during the pandemic [ 5 ].
Vaccination rates also dropped during the pandemic, with early reports suggesting some childhood vaccination rates dropping by as much as 70% in the beginning of the pandemic [ 6 , 7 ]. These reductions in vaccine uptake are multifactorial and are associated not only with lack of access to care, but also higher levels of mistrust in the medical system and medical establishment among underrepresented minorities as well as people living in rural areas [ 7 ]. A potential solution to address these disparities is through trusted messengers, who have the opportunity to change previously held beliefs and increase awareness and acceptability of vaccinations [ 8 ]. One example of a trusted messenger is a CP.
CPs are evolving to be a blend of community health workers, social workers, and non-emergency health care providers [ 1 , 2 , 9 ]. Approximately 18 states in the United States (U.S.) have CPs, but the roles vary in scope, training, and authority [ 1 , 10 ]. Studies have shown that they are positively accepted and reviewed across the quadruple aim framework used to assess the effectiveness of a health care system (i.e., improved patient satisfaction, improved provider satisfaction, reducing healthcare costs, and improved population health outcomes) [ 1 , 11 ]. While there are limited studies encompassing all of the quadruple aims, review papers have shown that MIH-CP programs are generally perceived positively as a means of bridging the healthcare delivery gap, especially within communities with healthcare shortages, such as rural areas, and can potentially reduce existing disparities [ 1 , 2 , 9 , 10 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 ].
This positive reception and patient satisfaction suggests MIH-CP may be a novel approach to address health disparities and improve uptake of preventive health services, including vaccinations [ 1 , 14 , 15 ]. MIH-CP programs are often able to administer vaccines [ 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 ], but there are few studies specifically examining the impact of this service. Currently, Indiana has more than a dozen MIH-CP programs [ 23 ], including many that provide vaccination services. More research is needed to understand program effectiveness and the potential usefulness in improving health equity through these programs. In addition, it is unclear whether community paramedics are receptive to including vaccine administration in their scope of care, which may cause implementation challenges. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine perceived barriers, facilitators, attitudes, and beliefs of relevant stakeholders (i.e., MIH-CP/EMS providers, leaders, and administrators) regarding implementation of MIH-CP-based adult vaccination services in the state of Indiana.
This study was reviewed and approved as exempt by the Institutional Review Boards at both Purdue University and Indiana University.
We conducted one-time interviews with three groups of participants: leaders of paramedicine agencies with registered MIH-CP programs (10 interviews), leaders of paramedicine agencies without MIH-CP programs (9 interviews), and state/regional administrators (SRA; 5 interviews). Below we describe how each group was identified and recruited.
The Indiana Department of Homeland Security (DHS), which oversees EMS in Indiana, provided a list of registered MIH-CP programs as of January 2023. Team members contacted the administrators of these programs via email or phone to confirm whether the MIH-CP program was active. Of the 16 registered agencies with an active MIH-CP program, 10 (63%) completed interviews.
To identify non-MIH-CP providers, we used targeted recruitment and identified counties that were demographically similar to the counties served by the MIH-CP interviewees, specifically focusing on rurality (within 4% rurality of MIH-CP interviewees) and average resident age (mean age within 2 years of MIH-CP interviewees). Then, we identified the hospital-based, governmental, paid fire, and private paramedicine agencies in those counties from a registry of ambulance service providers from DHS. We excluded volunteer organizations, as they are quite different in scope and function than organizations with employees. Of the 18 programs identified and contacted, 9 (50%) completed an interview.
Finally, we contacted the state MIH-CP administrators and regional EMS administrators, based on the contact information provided on the DHS website [ 24 ]. Approximately half (i.e., 5 of 9) of the state and reginal administrators contacted by the team completed an interview.
All interviews were conducted by study team members (MLK, AL, SJS) trained in qualitative interviewing and were recorded via Zoom. One interviewer (MLK) is a faculty member with a PhD and two are graduate students (AL, SJS). All interviewers are female. No one else was present in the interviews besides the participants and research team members. The interview guides are included as Additional File 1 (leaders of paramedicine agencies) and Additional File 2 (state/regional administrators). The audio files were transcribed in three rounds, one by artificial-intelligence transcriber through happyscribe.com, then verified by two rounds of manual transcriptions carried out by team members with training in qualitative methods (AL, SJS, SS). Following the interview, participants completed an anonymous survey about their demographic characteristics and beliefs about the COVID-19 vaccine. Survey items were adapted from previously validated surveys [ 25 , 26 , 27 ], where applicable. The survey codebook is included as Additional File 3. All participants were offered a $50 gift card in appreciation of their time, although many declined due to agency restrictions on accepting gifts.
Interviews started with introductory questions about the participants’ roles within their agency to build rapport, better understand the participants’ experience in EMS, and describe the goals of the research project. The rest of the interview questions focused on MIH-CP program history and functions. However, the questions were tailored to the participants’ experiences with MIH-CP and whether they had vaccination programs. For MIH-CP interviews, the subsequent questions focused on their overall MIH-CP programs as well as their vaccination programs, emphasizing how the programs started, barriers to implementation, operational barriers, and lessons learned. Non-MIH-CP interviews emphasized similar topics except that the questions were framed around their opinions and perspectives on MIH-CP as someone without a program. State/regional administrator interviews focused on higher-level administration of MIH-CP programs.
We used qualitative content analysis, as described by Schreier, to analyze the transcripts [ 28 ]. First, two authors (LMSR, AL) completed an exhaustive and comprehensive review of the transcripts to ensure a thorough understanding of all the data. During these reviews, they took notes on content that was repeated across interviews and areas that were unique to each interview. After gaining familiarity with the material, each author reviewed the transcripts for a second time, specifically focusing on content that was not noted in the first review. Then, each author organized their notes into a first draft of a codebook. This approach is most similar to the codebook development strategy described by Schrier as summarization. As part of our note-taking process, we paraphrased relevant passages. As we developed the codebook, we deleted paraphrases that were superfluous and combined related paraphrases. Then, we used the paraphrases to generate the main category and subcategory names. Although we did not generate the main categories prior to codebook development, our draft codebooks were closely aligned with our objectives because the semi-structured interview guide used to collect data was aligned with our objectives.
Based on these initial drafts, two members of the research team (LMSR, MLK) reviewed the draft codebooks, combined the codebook drafts into a single comprehensive codebook (Additional File 4), and pilot-coded a transcript together. Then, one member of the team (LMSR) applied the codebook to the transcripts. Finally, two members of the team (LMSR, MLK) met to review the coded materials and assess for disagreement in the code application. However, the codebook is quite straightforward and descriptive, so there were no disagreements.
Saturation has multiple meanings in qualitative methods. In qualitative content analysis, as described by Schreier, saturation occurs when each subcategory has at least one code segment (i.e., no subcategory is ‘empty’). Because we used a data-driven approach to develop our codebook, we automatically met the criterion of saturation. That is, if the content was not present in the data, it was not present in our coding framework. Data analyses were conducted using MAXQDA.
We interviewed 24 individuals who represented EMS organizations with MIH-CP programs (MIH-CP; n = 10), EMS organizations without MIH-CP programs (non-MIH-CP; n = 9), and state/regional administrators (SRA; n = 5). Interviews lasted an average of 41 min (range: 14–75 min). Of the 24 interviewees, 19 responded to the survey provided at the end of the interview. Overall, the sample included highly experienced EMS professionals with an average of 19.6 years in the field (range: 1–42 years). Approximately 75% ( n = 14) of respondents were male, and all identified as non-Hispanic white. Nearly two-thirds of respondents were fully vaccinated for COVID-19 and had received at least one booster shot ( n = 12). Another quarter were fully vaccinated without a booster shot ( n = 5). One respondent received one dose of the COVID-19 vaccine, and one was not vaccinated.
When asked if their programs ever distributed vaccines, more than 75% of agencies reported doing so. This was significantly different between MIH-CP (10 out of 10 distributed vaccines) and non-MIH-CP (5 out of 9 distributed vaccines) programs ( p < 0.05). Most programs ( n = 11) discussed distributing COVID-19 vaccines during the pandemic. Flu vaccines were the second most commonly administered vaccine ( n = 7). Other vaccines included Tetanus, Hepatitis A, and childhood vaccines. Some agencies partnered with other organizations (i.e., primary care providers, health departments, and schools) and were willing to give any vaccines requested by these partners. These partnerships and structures are further discussed in the next section.
All vaccine programs fit into one of three structures: outreach for a separate agency, extension of existing MIH-CP services, or standalone programs focused on vaccine distribution.
Most vaccine programs were outreach for a separate agency, generally the county health department during the COVID-19 pandemic. In Indiana, many county health departments sponsored mass vaccine clinics and/or provided in-home vaccines for individuals unable to leave their homes. EMS agencies provided staffing for both approaches. One individual shared that during the COVID-19 mass clinics “ the state said that anywhere they were administering vaccines , they had to have a paramedic on site.” (Non-MIH-CP-15). Some agencies allowed their staff to go during normal work hours, while others treated it as volunteer/non-work time. Generally, the MIH-CP programs were more focused on providing in-home services, although a couple of non-MIH-CP programs also provided these services. As one participant explained, “ Let’s do what paramedicine’s meant to do , and it’s to be mobile… ” (MIH-CP-08). Generally, these programs followed the same administrative processes:
“So basically, county health nurse will identify Mrs. Smith at 1234 North Main Street, needs a vaccine. Can you do it on this date? Sure, we’ll do it. We’ll send all the information back to the county health nurse and then she’ll enter it in [the state vaccine registry]. And that’s kind of the partnership we have is we’re the boots on the ground and they’re the paperwork side of things, which is obviously the least fun part.” (MIH-CP-05).
At least one program continued partnering with the county health department beyond the COVID-19 vaccine clinics, including providing vaccines to students in schools and routine vaccines in people’s homes. These arrangements had several benefits for EMS agencies: reduced administrative burden, financial compensation, and relationship building with community organizations. As discussed above, the health department was responsible for procuring and storing the vaccines, managing the schedule, and documenting the distribution with the state vaccine registry. This administrative oversight was particularly helpful when the storage and maintenance of multiple COVID-19 vaccines became complicated. As one participant explained:
“It got crazy. Like you had to order your patients in such a way to where your vaccines weren’t expiring. So, we had a fridge inside of the vehicle, but it does not get to cold storage temperatures. So, it’s only maintaining. So yeah, you had to schedule your Johnson and Johnson’s first and then your Modernas and then your Pfizers…” (MIH-CP-10).
Providing vaccines as an extension of the health department was also financially beneficial for some agencies. All agencies were eligible for reimbursement for vaccine administration as part of a state-wide program. One individual explained, “ We got compensated for all those. I think we got like seventy-five dollars- seventy five to one hundred dollars for- per dose.” (MIH-CP-04). However, some agencies preferred to use the opportunity to build relationships. One individual described their motivation as “ just to help the health department.” (MIH-CP-09). For many agencies, these programs ended when the mass COVID-19 vaccine clinics ended. Some, including non-MIH-CP programs, used the existing processes and relationships as an opportunity to continue the partnerships, including “ a vaccine clinic at our school.” (Non-MIH-CP-12).
Some MIH-CP programs also provided vaccines as an extension of their current services. Several programs offered vaccines to all existing MIH-CP patients. A primary care provider or health department was responsible for vaccine storage and documentation in these instances. Other extensions reflected the uniqueness of the MIH-CP programs. For example, one MIH-CP program operated out of a community center that hosted a weekly food bank. As demand for the food bank increased, MIH-CP personnel decided to pilot a vaccine clinic, which became the basis for mass vaccine drive-through clinics in the state:
“We tied it into the food distribution. So, people were already here, they were already in line. They would get their food, and as they drove through, we flagged the ones that would like- you know, they said, ‘yeah, we’ll do a flu shot as well.’ It was a simple- it started off with a post-it note on their windshield. And as they came through the food distribution, we’d flag them into the other part of the parking lot, and they would stay in their car, roll down their window, we would vaccinate them, and then we’d move them off just to the side to stay there for their 15 minutes to make sure that they weren’t having a reaction. Their instructions were, if you start feeling funny or ill in any way, honk your horn, turn on your flashers, we’ll be right there.” (MIH-CP-06).
Another MIH-CP program was integrated into an occupational health program and had provided vaccines to their patients since 2013. Generally, this consisted of on-site vaccine clinics, particularly for employers who mandated the vaccines. For other employers, program staff “ just made ourselves available. ” (MIH-CP-07). During the pandemic, this program expanded its vaccine services to other MIH-CP programs. For example, they regularly held clinics at Salvation Army and transitional housing centers. During these events, they started “ providing vaccines at every single one of those community events. And that was just simple walk up.” (MIH-CP-07).
Because these programs were unique, the relative benefits and challenges were also unique. Some agencies acted as independent vaccine providers, while others’ administrative structure was more similar to that of the agencies acting as outreach (i.e., purchasing, storage, and documentation were managed by a separate agency). Agencies acting as independent vaccine providers did not frame purchasing, storage, or documentation as challenging. However, these agencies had a history of vaccine administration before the COVID-19 pandemic, meaning they had built sufficient infrastructure (e.g., staff, space, and financial resources) for their day-to-day operations.
Only one MIH-CP program had a standalone program focused exclusively on vaccines, which started in 2020. The goal was to provide vaccines in schools for staff and students, with a particular emphasis on vaccines required to attend school. During the pandemic, the program shifted to “ a lot more work with COVID vaccines and testing ” (MIH-CP-08). After schools began reopening, the team learned that a local hospital had started providing a traveling nurse to schools to provide vaccines, which duplicated their service. They decided to shift the focus to “ really just finding those gaps and needs.” (MIH-CP-08). For this community, that looked like:
“Let’s do what paramedicine’s meant to do, and it’s to be mobile, right, to go out and fill that fill that gap. So if we have students that are getting to that point where school is going to kick them out because they haven’t met their mandated vaccines, we’ll go out and do that. We’ll put clinics together and fill that piece….We have some vaccinations- for HPV and meningitis I believe - that we needed to- we knew that was the right age, so we connected with the school nurse there and did clinics for the [the local college] students.” (MIH-CP-08).
For this program, vaccine storage and documentation were not reported as challenges. The primary challenge was finding the right partnerships and gaps, although there were also financial challenges. Because they operated as a standalone program, they also managed purchasing the vaccines. The administrator described one related issue as, “ You have to be very strategic about it. And we run into that. You know , there are a few where we’ve had some expire because we haven’t got shots in arms and you eat that cost. ” (MIH-CP-08).
When talking about challenges related to providing vaccines through an MIH-CP program, participants reported a range of challenges, including concerns about funding, vaccine hesitancy in communities, and vaccines as a low priority for MIH-CP.
One participant described the funding issue as “ Vaccines aren’t sexy. It’s not a big money maker. It’s just- It’s one of those things that has to be done .” (MIH-CP-08). During the COVID-19 pandemic, the state had a program for reimbursing vaccines. Since that program expired, there has been no funding for vaccine distribution through MIH-CP. Without this funding, the biggest barrier for many agencies was “ really just having the money to cover the supplies and the uh cost of actually getting the money out there to do it.” (MIH-CP-01). Even if funding was available, the administrative burden can be overwhelming. One participant described their program’s decision to stop providing vaccines as:
“But there’s just too much already on a day-to-day basis to where even just that minor ask that they’re trying to ask for it’s becoming too burdensome….it would be fantastic if everyone in our organization also had a secretary, right? I mean, that would be- just someone to help. I’m talking about interns or whatever….you’re sacrificing a lot of your personal time in order to do that, because it’s just not- the reimbursement is just not there to really build up the workforce how it needs to be.” (MIH-CP-10).
The lack of established funding mechanisms was perceived by some participant as evidence that it was not a high priority for the state. As one participant said, “ I’m here to serve my community. So , I don’t mind going out there and helping somebody and administering that. But if that was something the health care field thought we should do all the time , then there have to be some kind of funding mechanism for that. ” (Non-MIH-CP-16).
In discussing funding challenges, a few other participants discussed how the lack of MIH-CP infrastructure and state policies impeded reimbursement and billing mechanisms. A state/regional administrator explained that many state agencies oversee vaccine regulations. The “ Department of Health , because they regulate vaccines. They have reimbursed for some of it” , “ the FFSA [Family and Social Services Administration] was covering [MIH-CP vaccines] for Medicaid” and the Department of Homeland Security play roles in who is allowed to administer vaccines and reimbursement (SRA-21). Some MIH-CP administrators believed that the lack of policies governing MIH-CP contributed to the limited reimbursement opportunities. One participant said,
“We just don’t have a standard documented [reimbursement policy] in the state of Indiana….I mean, there are other states that have it out there. I think Minnesota is a prime example, but yeah. What does that look like for the state of Indiana? And let’s get it written into policy, and it’s been talked about for the last several years, and it’s supposed to be coming up, but it’s just nature of how that works.” (MIH-CP-08).
Because most of the programs provided vaccines to individuals who requested them, vaccine hesitancy was not a primary challenge. As one participant described, “ I mean , because we’re not beating their door down and jabbing them without their permission , right? So if we’re there for a service that they’ve requested , uh , I don’t see there being any divide. Uh , I don’t see there being any issue.” (Non-MIH-CP-15). However, many of the participants described wide-spread vaccine hesitancy in their communities. One explained that, “ Yeah , there’s always hesitant , not because we’re doing it. The hesitancy exists because of the vaccine , the misinformation from the vaccines. Um , when the vaccines became a political issue and a political fireball to use , that created a hesitancy . ” (Non-MIH-CP-13).
Some people saw addressing vaccine hesitancy as within the scope of paramedicine. Many felt “ comfortable communicating with people” about vaccines (MIH-CP-01). One went further and said that to address vaccine hesitancy, “ I mean , what do you do? You know , you can talk to individuals. ” (MIH-CP-06). Others wanted to avoid the “ political involvement ” with vaccines (Non-MIH-CP-18). One participant further explained that “ We see them when they’re sick , whether they’re vaccinated or not with COVID or whatever…If they don’t want it , they don’t want it. We as an agency , don’t push that to outside people.” (Non-MIH-CP-13).
These differences in opinions may be related to participants’ own feelings about vaccines. In the open-ended question at the end of the post-interview survey, one participant said that,
“Combating misinformation has been required in our vaccination program. Not only with patients but with healthcare providers. More information to healthcare workers delivered in a manner they will digest such as 1-to-2-minute videos would be beneficial. So much information was given, but ultimately ignored during COVID, and I believe the delivery of the information could have been improved. Asking how do we get all our Healthcare providers speaking comfortably, confidently and competently while delivering the same talking points I believe will be critical to build public trust.” (Post-Interview Survey, anonymous).
This view was also shared by another participant who said, “ And even amongst healthcare workers , the number of them that just outright refuse for whatever reason is pretty , pretty impressive. ” (Non-MIH-CP-17). This division was evident in our post-interview survey questions about vaccine hesitancy. We asked participants how strongly they agreed or disagreed with 12 statements describing vaccine hesitancy like, “Getting a COVID-19 vaccine is a good way to protect me from coronavirus disease.” and “I think COVID-19 vaccines might cause lasting health problems for me.” For all questions, there were individuals who answered “Strongly Agree” and individuals who answered “Strongly Disagree,” respectively. The overall mean score of the 12 items on a scale of 1–5 (with higher numbers indicating more confidence in vaccines) was 3.6 out of 5. However, the anonymous nature of the study precluded us from connecting their interview data with their survey responses.
A few participants with MIH-CP programs thought vaccines could be a component of their services, but the other services were more critical: “ We were very protective of our Medics because they see only chronic disease patients , right - the highest risk patients…So we didn’t- we don’t really do , we’re not high-volume vaccines comparatively to some of our other peer programs .” (MIH-CP-02). Although this view was less commonly described in the interviews, several voiced it in the post-interview survey. One said:
“We should be asking if this is the best way to utilize community paramedics. There are much more beneficial tasks (fall prevention, home modification, collection of health information in case of emergency, risk mitigation) that should be prioritized over vaccines. The vaccinations could be a portion of a holistic health picture but is relatively low priority when it comes to the numbers and severity of those impacted.” (Post-Interview Survey, anonymous).
Some participants perceived vaccines to be a low priority for MIH-CP because EMTs could provide the same service. One participant stated, “ I guess when I think community paramedicine , I think more of an advanced scope than vaccine distribution. Um , and here in the state of Indiana , EMT Basics are eligible to distribute vaccinations. ” (Non-MIH-CP-11). However, one of the state administrators clarified that EMTs can “ do influenza and COVID. We added that to their scope of practice. Anything else would have to be a paramedic for vaccination.” (SRA-21).
Despite the challenges, many participants felt there were benefits to providing vaccines through MIH-CP and that their programs were successful. Many people viewed vaccines as “ beneficial ” (MIH-CP-01) and that MIH-CP could be an important part of reducing health disparities saying, “ I think that leans into a large ability to see the patient as a whole. And certainly , vaccines are within that ability to go into the home and do and make sure that everybody has equal access. ” (Non-MIH-CP-18). Agencies that had COVID-19 programs reported that they were successful. One said that, “ we ended up doing hundreds of vaccines. I can’t remember how many , but it was a lot of them .” (MIH-CP-10). Another described the response to their services as:
“Oh, incredibly successful. You know, the whole concept was it wasn’t just the clinics that were successful. I say clinic and that’s kind of a broad term ….And so part of these clinics were us going to these individuals homes and giving them these vaccinations on site in their own homes. And that part of this was just, you know, I thought, wildly successful too. Because, you know, here we are taking care to people who otherwise wouldn’t have a means of getting there. And I think that that’s the kind of health care system we need to start moving towards in a lot of respects, not just in vaccinations.” (MIH-CP-07).
In this qualitative study examining implementation of MIH-CP vaccination programs, participants reported a wide variety of vaccination program structure and functions. Overall, vaccine programs were described as very successful and have the potential to serve as an effective way to improve access to underserved areas. The largest overall challenge reported was funding for the program, and the lack of funding had a ripple effect, affecting multiple functions within the organization, resulting in a lack of dedicated staff for vaccines and a perception that vaccinations were a low priority for the organization. Some participants commented on upstream causes of the lack of funding, including that there are not state-wide and federal policies governing MIH-CP, which limits reimbursement opportunities and limits the implementation of broader vaccination programs. Most participants described their vaccination programs as very successful and a way to reach people who were homebound or otherwise unable to access vaccines within their communities. The overall sentiment was that while vaccine hesitancy was not a barrier with the patient population they were serving, they did express discomfort at the prospect of being perceived as “pushing” or advocating for vaccines.
When discussing the feasibility of implementing an MIH-CP vaccine program, the main barrier described was funding. This was described as a barrier at multiple levels, including gaining initial funding, maintaining funding, and having dedicated staffing when sustained funding is not guaranteed. This same barrier has been reported in the literature for community health workers (CHWs), with one study also conducted in Indiana specifically reporting on the difficulties maintaining personnel with uncertain funding mechanisms and a cumbersome and confusing structure to apply for Medicaid reimbursement [ 29 ]. Like our findings, the CHW study reported that inconsistent funding jeopardizes CHW programs and recommended clarifying the existing Medicaid reimbursement policies. Recently, Indiana county health departments have received an influx of public health funding from the state that increased funding for public health in the state by 1500% [ 30 ]. Some of these funds are being used to expand the geographic reach of existing MIH-CP programs. This increased funding should alleviate the barriers discussed by our participants. Future work should examine the effects of this funding on alleviating disparities in the expanded areas.
Overall, CP vaccination programs were perceived as acceptable across EMS organizations. Our participants also reported they believed community members would be supportive of receiving vaccines from a CP. However, there have been limited studies examining patient perceptions of the acceptability of CP vaccine provision, particularly in the U.S [ 2 ]. Similar studies examining patient acceptability of the CHW-model has shown overall positive perceptions and high acceptability both in the U.S [ 31 ], and abroad [ 32 , 33 ]. Future studies should examine community perceptions of CP acceptability to determine whether this might be a model that could be implemented more broadly to address health disparities.
While CPs in our study did report they felt comfortable giving vaccines, most also expressed that they would not want to advocate for vaccines or be seen as “pushing” vaccines on their patients. Even though they did not report any personal vaccination hesitancy in the qualitative interviews, the answers on the anonymous survey did indicate a significant level of vaccination hesitancy in this group of providers. This sentiment is seen across health professionals with one publication finding that nearly one-third of US healthcare providers were hesitant about vaccinations [ 34 ]. This is not a new phenomenon and vaccine hesitant providers existed before the COVID-19 pandemic and continue to exist after the pandemic [ 35 ]. Thus, there is a pressing need not only to educate healthcare providers to reduce vaccination hesitancy among this group, but also to give providers across the spectrum adequate training to effectively communicate with patients so that they feel comfortable combatting existing misinformation to improve vaccination uptake.
This study is among the first to examine feasibility and acceptability of implementing vaccination programs within MIH-CP programs. The findings can be used to inform implementation of other programs and to improve existing programs. However, the results should be interpreted in light of several limitations. First, the participants in this study are from a single state and the findings may be different in other geographic locations. Second, there were counties within the state that had no EMS services, and we were not able to gain perspectives of professionals working in those counties. Third, while the qualitative nature of our study allowed us to gain an in-depth understanding of the existing programs, we did not have quantitative data assessing program effectiveness and we are unable to determine if the implemented programs have had an impact on the health of the community.
This study provides important context on the feasibility and acceptability of implementing an MIH-CP vaccination program. Major barriers to implementing and maintaining these programs are lack of sustained funding and unclear policies governing the programs. While participants in our study did not describe vaccine hesitancy as a major problem in their communities, they also expressed discomfort in advocating for vaccines, should people express hesitancy. They also described vaccines as a lower priority for their agencies than other services they provide, like managing chronic diseases. However, many did describe vaccines as beneficial and an important part of reducing health disparities in their communities. Future research should conduct rigorous evaluations of MIH-CP programs to determine program effectiveness and examine patient perceptions of the acceptability of receiving a vaccine from a CP. Using CP to deliver vaccinations to underserved communities has the potential to reduce health disparities and improve health outcomes for these communities.
The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
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MK, KH, GZ, and LSR contributed to the study conception and design. Data collection was performed by MK, AL, and SS. Data analysis was performed by AL, SS and LSR. The first draft of the manuscript was written by AL, LSR, BU, and MK. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Correspondence to Monica L. Kasting .
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This study was reviewed and approved by the Institutional Review Board at Purdue University (IRB-2022-672) and all participants provided informed consent.
Competing interests.
GDZ has served as an external advisory board member for Pfizer and Moderna, and as a consultant to Merck. MLK has served as a consultant to Merck. GDZ, KJH, LMSR, and MLK have received investigator-initiated research funding from Merck administered through Indiana University and Purdue University, respectively. The other co-authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.
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Kasting, M.L., Laily, A., Smith, S.J. et al. Exploring the feasibility and acceptability of community paramedicine programs in achieving vaccination equity: a qualitative study. BMC Health Serv Res 24 , 1022 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-024-11422-0
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COMMENTS
Don't ask, instruct (command!) Ask one question at a time; get the detail in the probes. Ask questions that can be answered. Repeat, and redirect. Use your naïveté to your advantage. Ask how, not why questions. Make people respondents, not key informants (individuals are unreliable) Don't ask respondents to be analysts.
A Guide for Designing and Conducting In-Depth Interviews ...
Activity 3: Drafting the Interview Guide •As a group, develop an interview facilitation guide to answer your research question(s). Be sure to include probes where needed. Keep in mind that revision of both the guide and research question are a natural part of the qualitative research process.
Vancouver, Canada. Abstract. Interviews are one of the most promising ways of collecting qualitative data throug h establishment of a. communication between r esearcher and the interviewee. Re ...
(PDF) Qualitative Interview Questions: Guidance for Novice ...
Figure 9.2 provides an example of an interview guide that uses questions rather than topics. Figure 9.2 Interview guide displaying questions rather than topics. As you might have guessed, interview guides do not appear out of thin air. They are the result of thoughtful and careful work on the part of a researcher.
5. Not keeping your golden thread front of mind. We touched on this a little earlier, but it is a key point that should be central to your entire research process. You don't want to end up with pages and pages of data after conducting your interviews and realize that it is not useful to your research aims.
TIPSHEET - QUALITATIVE INTERVIEWING
qualitative interviews for novice investigators by employing a step-by-step process for implementation. Key Words: Informal Conversational Interview, General Interview Guide, and Open-Ended Interviews. Qualitative research design can be complicated depending upon the level of experience a researcher may have with a particular type of methodology.
Twelve tips for conducting qualitative research interviews
Chapter 11. Interviewing - Introduction to Qualitative ...
Pose open, rather than closed questions. Sequence interview questions from broad to narrow. Avoid the inclusion of possible responses in questions. Pose one question at a time. Avoid posing multi-part questions. There are numerous excellent resources that provide assistance to researchers developing an interview guide.
An interview guide, referred to here as a "protocol", gives direction for conducting the data ... data collection was conducted on a sample of 270 (for quantitative analysis), and 4 samples ...
How to Conduct a Qualitative Interview (2024 Guide)
The topics and questions should be mapped to the research question/s, and the interview guide should be developed well in advance of commencing data collection. ... Sample of interview questions from interview guide ... Chadwick B. Methods of data collection in qualitative research: interviews and focus groups. Br Dent J. 2008;204(6):291-295 ...
How to Carry Out Great Interviews in Qualitative Research
Interview Research - Library Support for Qualitative Research
Learni. g Objectives Qualitative InterviewsHello! I want to welcome everyone to th. presentation on qualitative interviewing. In this presentation, I will introduce you to qualitat. ve interviews as a data generation method. Interviewing is one of the most common methods of generating qualitativ. d outside scholarship.Learning Objective.
6.1 Interviews. In-depth interviews allow participants to describe experiences in their own words (a primary strength of the interview format). Strong in-depth interviews will include many open-ended questions that allow participants to respond in their own words, share new ideas, and lead the conversation in different directions. The purpose of open-ended questions and in-depth interviews is ...
Limitations of Qualitative Research. Lengthy and complicated designs, which do not draw large samples. Validity of reliability of subjective data. Difficult to replicate study because of central role of the researcher and context. Data analysis and interpretation is time consuming. Subjective - open to misinterpretation.
In qualitative research, this need not be a disaster (if this flexibility is methodologically appropriate), and it is possible to revise your interview guide. However, if you do end up making significant revisions, make sure you keep both versions, and a note of which respondents were interviewed with each version of the guide.
Types of Interviews in Research | Guide & Examples
In qualitative interview samples in tourism, researcher reflexivity on sample selection and characteristics is crucial (Ateljevic, Harris, Wilson, & Collins, 2005). Thus, considerations of the interviewer's positionality in relation with research participants become an important aspect of the study, which can shape and contextualise the outcomes.
All interviews were conducted by study team members (MLK, AL, SJS) trained in qualitative interviewing and were recorded via Zoom. One interviewer (MLK) is a faculty member with a PhD and two are graduate students (AL, SJS). All interviewers are female. No one else was present in the interviews besides the participants and research team members.