research paper on biodegradable sanitary napkins

• Open access
• Published: 04 March 2021

Development of biopolymer-based menstrual pad and quality analysis against commercial merchandise

• Md. Moynul Hassan Shibly 1 ,
• Mohammad Anower Hossain   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-2698-1006 1 ,
• M. Forhad Hossain 2 ,
• Md Golam Nur 3 &
• Mohammad Billal Hossain 1  

Bulletin of the National Research Centre volume  45 , Article number:  50 ( 2021 ) Cite this article

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Managing menstrual hygiene in the least developed countries represents a significant obstacle for women and girls. Commonly dirty stuffs are used to control the menstrual cycle which causes many diseases, while disposable hygiene-absorbent material during menstruation is an essential requirement. Most local commercial sanitary napkins offer high absorptiveness and flexibility; however, most of them, due to the use of synthetic superabsorbent polymer (SAP) within the core layer, are not biodegradable and harmful to human skin. This research aims to create a sanitized and biodegradable pad in order to replace SAP with environmentally sound biopolymer that give rural poor women competent performance and characteristics.

For the construction of the model, some of the current sanitary pads from the local market are examined. Six models are designed using various biopolymers such as cotton, viscose, wood pulp, sodium alginate and carboxy methyl cellulose (CMC) in different proportions as the core absorbent layer to boost requirements such as absorption, fluid retention strength, coziness and cost reduction. The sanitized pads have gone through various investigations such as antimicrobial activity, wicking ability and water retention capacity to standardize vital features and value. The experimental results show the use of sodium alginate and CMC is a possible replacement for SAP as the best comparable result is observed in template consuming sodium alginate, CMC and cellulosic fibre. Non-woven fabric treated with neem extract forming the outer layer of sanitary napkin serving with antimicrobial activity of more than 90% against both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria.

Outcomes recommend significant advancement and cost-effectiveness of the newly designed archetype. Sanitary napkins without SAP can be a safe disposal solution and can therefore have a sustainable environmental impact.

Menstruation is a natural feminine function that occurs every 21–28 days with a duration of five days in a menstrual cycle (Woeller and Hochwalt 2015 ) and plays a significant role in the reproductive system for women (Crofts 2012 ). Women typically experience a menstrual period between ages of 11 and 50 years, and regular menstrual periods are usually 3–7 days, with a menstrual average blood loss of 35 millilitre (ml) where the blood loss (10–80) ml is considered normal (Nyoni et al. 2014 ). In particular, at the start of the early menstrual day the rate stays high, but the flow rate is declining slowly from the second day of the cycle to the last few days (Nyoni et al. 2014 ). Menstrual fluid consists of approximately 50–60% of blood with mixtures of uterine, cervical and vaginal secretion and mucous materials (Fraizer 2006 ; Chakwana and Nkiwane 2014 ).

In the developing world, women in all societies (i.e. upper, middle and lower classes) are not sufficiently aware of menstrual hygiene management, resulting school absenteeism, infections and various diseases to women's health, embarrassment and barriers to work in women that cause low productivity (Bharadwaj and Patkar 2004 ). In order to collect and retain menstrual fluids, poor and unconscious women generally use dirty cloths, rags that are unhygienic for their health. Moreover, poor women are not used to wearing underwear as a consequence of which they are not interested in using commercial sanitary napkins although panty or other underwear is essential to use commercial sanitary napkin. Because of lack of awareness, product costs and their socio-economic structure, the scenario requires designing such a form of hygienic sanitary napkin that can be generated at very low expense and environmentally friendly.

The health-conscious female is nowadays following a multitude of products including sanitary pads, tampons, panty liners and menstrual cloth pad with three principal layers: the top sheet, the absorbing core of absorbing materials and the leaking barrier sheet (Yadav et al. 2016 ). Traditionally, the absorbent core has been developed from wood pulp but continuous efforts are being made to substitute it with air-laid wood pulp and SAP to increase its efficiency of absorption (Zohuriaan-Mehr et al. 2010 ). Super absorbent polymers, such as sodium polyacrylates, are integrated into the absorbent core along with soft cellulosic fibre to enhance the absorbency. The loosely cross-linked structure along with extended polymer chains with water enables them to attain additional absorbency. Despite this specific benefit, the commercial sample has some constraints, since SAP are petroleum-based polymers that do not easily deteriorate in earth (Yadav et al. 2016 ). SAP also causes some adverse effects on the health of the user as long-term exposure causes severe reactions such as skin infections and even toxic shock syndrome (Berkley 1987). Since this polymer remains inert and is not readily decomposed by bacteria, it pollutes the atmosphere enormously (Hubble et al. 2013 ). In addition, a woman disposes an enormous number of pads in her lifetime that are available as non-biodegradable and cannot be reused. Hence, landfills are eventually loaded with non-disposable pads used by the entire woman in the globe that is so alarming to our environment.

Arunachalam Muruganantham recently developed low-cost Indian sanitary napkin where he has tried to reduce the amount of SAP utilization in the core layer of the pad but still did not offer biodegradability. Several private NGOs have developed low-cost sanitary napkin by using cotton fibre in the core layer in large amounts, which certainly makes the sanitary napkin a little heavier and thicker than the commercial pad weight and eventually leads to consumer discomfort. The performance of locally developed sanitary napkin is poor, as a result of their poor retention capacity, and a single pad is not sufficient for menstrual fluid collection for an entire long day. Besides, synthetic material in commercial merchandise usually blocks moisture and temperature, leading to yeast and bacterial growth in the vagina which cause toxic shock syndrome and plasticizers used to achieve smooth finish can lead to multiple organ failure (Berkley 1987). Appropriate antimicrobial treatment other than standard sterilization is therefore required to promote product hygiene status.

The consequential advantage of the selection of sodium alginate and cellulose-based hydrogels for the development of sanitary napkins over SAP lies in their biodegradability and environmentally friendly nature. Sodium alginate is an acidic polysaccharide composed of linear block copolymer1–4 bound β- d -mannuronic acid and α- l -guluronic acid (Bardajee et al. 2008 ). On the other hand, CMC comprises hydrophilic carboxylate units in its polymeric structure that can consume lots of water. The higher number of negative (COO − ) charges of CMC in gels eventually enlarge the molecular chains of repulsion, leading to an increase in mesh size and assistance in the uptake of water (Tang et al. 2014 ). Several scientists have earlier documented on the biodegradability and biocompatibility of sodium alginate and CMC and it is a common perception that these biopolymers are beneficial to the environment and to personal health (Hubble et al. 2013 ). Eventually, natural and convenient antimicrobial agent, i.e. neem extract, is used to treat non-woven fabrics which construct the established prototype's top layer and pocket fabric to induce user skin security.

The choice of biopolymers in the absorbent core of sanitary napkin could therefore incorporate the biocompatibility, biodegradability and non-toxicity of these products which is the key objectives of this research.

Material and methods

100% cotton, viscose fibre and tissue paper used as the core material in the experimental study were obtained from Square Textile Mills Ltd., Bangladesh. Finished non-woven fabric (90% polyester + 10% polypropylene) was purchased from the local market to be incorporated into the upper and lower napkin layers. As a substitute for SAP, commercial grade sodium alginate and CMC were purchased from Dysin Bangladesh and used to develop sanitary pad samples without modification. During the use of neem extract on non-woven fabric, analytical grade citric acid from Merck, India, was used as binder. Whatman No. 1 filter paper was used for neem extraction obtained from the Department of Textile Engineering, Primeasia University, Bangladesh. Measurement of wicking height was taken using a direct dye solution collected from Dysin Bangladesh. 0.9% saline solution and distilled water were collected from Incepta pharmaceuticals ltd, Bangladesh. The neem-treated non-woven’s antimicrobial efficacy has been examined against Staphylococcus aureus (gram positive) and Escherichia coli (gram negative) collected from the Department of Microbiology, Primeasia University, Bangladesh. Three feminine commercial products (CS 01 to CS 03) were bought from the local market as a reference, namely Whisper Ultra Clean, Freedom (Regular) and Joya (Regular).

Sample preparation

In this research, finished non-woven fabrics were first treated with neem extract solution, collected from freshly neem leaves that grown in Bangladesh National Botanical Garden. Fresh neem leaves were washed with distilled water and cut into fine pieces, then boiled with 100 ml of distilled water, and filtration was performed using whatman No. 1 filter paper. For further investigation, three different concentrated neem extracts (10%, 25% and 50%) were prepared and used. The grafting of the neem leaf extract substrate was incorporated by the pad-dry-cure method. The non-woven fabric was immersed in a solution comprising neem leaf extract (10%, 25% and 50%) in three distinct conical flasks. The citric acid binder (1%) was then introduced to all three flasks and held for 40 s (Patel and Desai 2014 ). Excess solution has been separated from the test fabric by using Copower Technology Ltd, Taiwan's Laboratory Padding Mangle at room temperature, at a pressure of 2 kg/cm 2 . After padding, all the test samples were dried at 80 °C for 20 min and then cured at 120 °C for 5 min (Fig.  1 ).

Developed sanitary napkin

The pad samples, developed from treated non-woven fabric, consists of three layers where the first layer is porous non-woven (285 mm × 75 mm), the second layer is non-woven pocket (220 mm × 70 mm) containing cellulosic polymers, sodium alginate, CMC of different proportions and the third layer is polyethylene (285 mm × 75 mm). Newly engineered core forming machine (Fig.  2 ) transformed the core forming materials into cake form and inserted into the pocket for quick absorption of menstrual fluid. All layers were sealed together by heat sealing machine (Model PS-1000, Impulse Heat Sealer, china). The UV-treated sterilizer (Model YTP280MT1, UV, china) sterilizes all developed pad samples. Newly developed sample (Fig.  1 ) is categorized into six samples (DS-01 to DS-06) based on different core forming materials and they were coded as shown in Table 1 .

Core forming machine fabricated for this study

Antibacterial property of non-woven fabrics

ASTM E2149-01, a quantitative antimicrobial test method intended to assess the resistance of non-leaching antimicrobial processed samples to microbe development under dynamic contact conditions, has been used to investigate the antimicrobial characteristics of neem extract-treated non-woven fabrics (Ferrero and Periolatto 2012 ). Antimicrobial efficacy was investigated against S. aureus (gram positive) and E. coli (gram negative). Each culture was suspended in a small amount of nutrient broth, spread on the nutrient blood agar plate and incubated at 37 °C for 2 h. Two single colonies were collected with an inoculating loop from the ager plate, suspended in 5 ml of nutrient broth and incubated at 37 °C for 18 h. The final concentration of 1.5–3.0 × 10 5 colony forming units per millilitre (CFU/ml) was produced by diluting each culture with a sterile buffer solution (0.3 mM phosphate buffer, p H 7.2) which was used as a diluent in all tests. These dilute culture solutions have been used for the antimicrobial experiment.

A 250-ml flask comprising 50 ml of active bacterial dilution (1.5–3 × 10 5  CFU/ml) has been provided for each neem-treated and one untreated sample, and small pieces (1 cm × 1cm) of non-woven fabric samples were put on flask. All flasks were loosely capped, positioned on a shaking incubator, shaken at 37 °C and shaken at 120 rpm for 1 h. Using the buffer solution, a series of dilutions were produced and each 0.1 ml of dilution was put in the nutrient agar plate. The inoculated plates were incubated at 37 °C in the incubator (USA Binder) for 18–24 h, and the surviving cells were counted. The safety cabinet (Clernair from Belgium) was used for the preparation of bacterial culture and transfer to agar plate. The antimicrobial activity was demonstrated as a percentage reduction of the organism after contact with the test specimen compared to the number of bacterial cells that survive after contact with the control using Eq.  1 (Arif et al. 2015 ).

where A and B are the surviving cells (CFU/ml) for the flasks containing test samples (neem-treated non-woven fabric samples) and the control (blank non-woven fabrics) respectively after 1-h contact time.

Evaluation of developed sanitary napkin

Absorbent capacity test.

An absorbent capacity test is used to assess a material's ability to absorb a liquid and how quickly it does this, defined as its speed of absorption (ISO/IEC 17025). It is being used by companies that produce products such as sanitary napkin, baby diapers, wipes, paper towels, sponges and personal and feminine hygiene items. The specimen will be measured before and after the shower in this experiment. Dry napkin weight is first taken and then soaked in a 200 ml 0.9% saline solution and hangs for 1 min to allow the saline solution to drain from the napkin and the moist napkin's weight has been taken. (Fraizer 2006 ; EDANA 2018 ). For evaluating absorbent capacity of developed sanitary napkin, saline solution (0.9 wt% NaCl) was used as a substitute of blood (Yadav et al. 2016 ).

Rewet/wet back test

The rewet or wet back of sanitary napkin was assessed in accordance with ISO/IEC 17025 where 5 ml 0.9% saline solution is poured into the centre of napkin and wait for 1 min. After that 3 g dry filter paper is put on centre for 15 s which give first filter paper weight and repetition of the procedure will give second filter paper weight. The difference between second and first filter paper weight was recorded for all sample, and all the procedures were performed in standard testing atmosphere (Temperature 20º ± 2 °C and relative humidity 65 ± 2%) (EDANA 2018 ).

Strike through test

The experiment was established to assess the rate of penetration of a single drop of liquid through the sanitary pad samples using only a small volume (5 ml) of 0.9% saline solution (ISO/IEC 17025). In order to execute this experiment, a drop of the test liquid was permitted to fall on the pad sample and the penetration rate of the liquid was thoroughly observed. The pad was assessed by measuring the time taken for the blood substitute to be absorbed from the upper layer of the pad to the inner layer. The drop was monitored closely until the drop of the test liquid appeared on the pad sample like a dull spot, the pad being observed over the same period of time (EDANA 2018 ).

Retention capacity test

After soaking 5 min in 200 ml 0.9% saline solution, both commercial and developed sanitary napkins were removed from the liquor and the wet napkins were centrifuged for 30 s and then eventually assessed the retention ability in accordance with ISO/IEC 17025 (EDANA 2018 ).

Wicking height test

The column (vertical wicking) experiment has been used to evaluate the distribution of absorption of the multiple samples, preceded by the AATCC TM 197-2011 norm. This test method is used to evaluate the ability of vertically aligned pad specimens to transport liquid along and/or through them, by capillary action and also applicable to woven, knitted or non-woven fabrics. A pad sample of (5 cm × 18 cm) is taken in case of the wicking test and a mark is created at 1 cm from the bottom. Then 1 cm portion is immersed in 1 per cent direct dye solution for 5 min and then the distance travelled above 1 cm mark by the coloured solution is expressed in mm.

Physical testing of sanitary napkin

Sanitary napkin's general physical attributes are the thickness, length, width and weight which are assessed according to (ISO/IEC 17025). Based on the commercial sanitary napkin standard, the length, width and weight of the developed sanitary napkin are taken into account and evaluated (Fraizer 2006 ; EDANA 2018 ). Ana thickness tester (Model MAG-C1001, India, MAG Ana Thick, Analog Thickness Gauge), measurement range (0.010–10.00) mm is used to determine the thickness of different pads followed by IS 7702 test method.

Antimicrobial properties of neem-treated non-woven fabric

Neem leaves are one of the prominent natural sources which are extensively used as an antimicrobial agent due to its wide spectrum of activity and a rapid killing rate against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria from many years ago. Azadirachta indica (Neem) has a potential antimicrobial activity against various strains of bacterial pathogens and shows an antimicrobial function by inhibiting the microbial growth due to cell wall breakdown (Mordue and Nisbet 2000 ). Several concentrations of neem extract are used as 10%, 25% and 50% in this research and the antimicrobial characteristic of the neem extract-treated non-woven fabric against S. aureus and E. coli are tabulated in Table 2 . The result indicates that neem extract effectively reduces the growth of both organism as no antimicrobial activity was observed against S. aureus and E. coli in untreated non-woven fabric (Fig.  3 ).

Graphical representation of the research work

Neem extract-treated non-woven fabric, however, showed significant improvement in antimicrobial property against both organisms (Figs.  4 , 5 and 6 ), and bacteria reduction was found to increase with increased concentration of neem extract. Lowest concentrated (10%) neem-treated samples show very good resistance against pathogenic growth where the protection reached maximum value at 50% neem-treated samples.

Number of surviving cells ( S. aureus ) after contact with untreated non-woven fabric sample ( a ) and non-woven fabric sample treated with 50% neem extract solution ( b )

Number of surviving cells ( E. coli ) after contact with untreated non-woven fabric sample ( a ) and non-woven fabric sample treated with 50% neem extract solution ( b )

Microbial reduction with the increment of neem extract

Total absorptive capacity by pad

Absorptive capacity performs a significant feature in sanitary napkins, which are determined by the frequency of use without blood leakage. Absorptive capacity (amount of liquid absorbed) of sanitary napkin may be represented by the ability to absorb liquid or menstrual fluid (Fraizer 2006 ; Chakwana and Nkiwane 2014 ). The maximum absorption capacity of the pad was defined as the total volume of saline poured onto the pad before the pad could no longer absorb saline, i.e. the last saline droplet remained on the pad surface for more than 10 min (Chatchai et al. 2007 ). The absorption experiment was performed using saline solution to assess the absorption capacity of the pad samples. Absorptive capacity of developed pad samples was evaluated and contrasted with chosen commercially accessible feminine sanitary napkins. Figure  7 summarizes the comparison of total absorption capacity of developed sanitary napkin against commercial sanitary napkin. The highest absorptive capacity for sample, CS-01 (63.6 gm), is observed among three commercial samples. On the other side, the absorption capacity of the sample CS-02 and CS-03 is low owing to the use of absorbent fibre only. The absorption capacity of the samples DS-01 and DS-03 is lower among the developed pad samples, but these samples are comparable to CS-02 and CS-03. However, the developed pad samples (DS-02, DS-04 and DS-05) display improved absorption capacity. In the same way, the highest absorption capacity (63.20 gm) of the developed sample is recorded for the DS-06 sample.

Total absorptive capacity of various samples

Rewet or wet back test

Wet back testing is particularly important for any sanitary napkin to examine the pad's ability to resist transportation back to the skin of a liquid that has so far penetrated the cover stock. Wetback (or rewet) is a phenomenal characteristic for assessing the quantity of liquid released by the product after absorption when the product is subjected to pressure (2.22 kg or 4.8 lb) (Mohammad 2008 ; EDANA 2018 ). Figure  8 demonstrates a comparison of the wetback properties of the engineered pad samples against commercial pad samples. As noted, the wet back property of the commercial sample (CS-01) is excellent, whereas CS-2 and CS-3 have moderate wet back properties. Although the wet back value of the developed pad samples (DS-01, DS-02, and DS-03) was not as good, it can be compared with commercial samples (CS-2 and CS-03). On the other hand, the wet back properties of the developed samples (DS-04 and DS-05) were good due to the use of absorbent fibre and absorbent chemicals inside the core layer. Similarly, the developed sample (DS-06) showed very good wet back properties when compared to the commercial sample (CS-01).

Wet back of various samples

Acquisition time/strike through test of pad

Strike through/penetration time is a measure of the speed at which the liquid has been transported from the surface of the pad to the inside. High strike through properties illustrates that the upper surface of the skin is readily absorbed by the pad and keeps the skin feeling dry, avoiding any feeling of wetness and eventually contributes to comfort while wearing a pad (EDANA 2018 ). The strike through properties of the developed pad samples compared to commercial pad samples is shown in Fig.  9 . The strike through properties of commercial sample (CS-01) was higher than other commercial samples (CS-02 and CS-03). However, commercial pad samples (CS-01) show a better strike through properties compared to other commercial and developed pad samples as they took the least time to strike. On the other side, samples CS-02, CS-03, DS-01 and DS-03 revealed poor performances. However, the developed pad samples DS-02, DS-04 and DS-05 give a reasonable strike through as they contribute significantly to liquid transport from the upper surface to the interior at a very high speed. A similar trend was observed for sample DS-06, which took exactly the same acquisition time (3 s) as the commercial sample CS-01.

Strike through test of various samples

Retention capacity after centrifugation

Retention capability for sanitary napkin is a very important characteristic that usually measures the pad's ability to manage menstrual fluid before leakage. Different methods are used for sanitary pads and panty liners to assess the retention capacity of the products after centrifugation, as women have to work with their daily household tasks in accordance with other physical movements, such as sitting, running and walking during menstruation, to keep themselves dry before leakage, which eventually provides comfort against external pressure. Different techniques for assessing retention ability (absorption before leakage) have been established (EDANA 2018 ). Table 3 reveals the retention ability of all samples, and Fig.  10 illustrates the comparison of all samples. The highest retention capability was considered for commercial sample CS-01 as viewed. In contrast, the CS-02 and CS-03 commercial samples showed very poor retention capacity. Similarly, DS-01, DS-02 and DS-03 samples show poor retention capacity similar to commercial CS-02 and CS-03 samples. However, owing to the use of eco-friendly chemicals inside their key layer, the retention capability for engineered samples DS-04 and DS-05 seems to be much better. Hence, the highest retention capacity among created samples is for sample DS-06.

Retention capacity after centrifugation (gm) of various samples

Measurement of wicking height

Wicking is an absolutely fundamental quality of sanitary pads as they allow the blood to be distributed throughout the pad's entire structure while allowing the accumulated blood to be retained and distributed in the pad, thereby reducing leakage (Das et al. 2008 ). This test method was used by capillary action accompanied by the AATCC TM 197-2011 standard to assess the ability of vertically aligned pad specimens to transport liquid through them. Figure  11 demonstrates the wicking height results in a 1% direct dye solution. As can be seen from the graph (Fig.  11 ), the wicking height of the commercial sample CS-01 was greater than that of all the developed samples (DS-01 to DS-06). Interestingly, the wicking height decreases for commercial samples CS-02 and CS-03. Similarly, due to containing hydrophilic fibres only in their core layer, the wicking height of some samples developed DS-01, DS-02 and DS-03 was poor. On the other hand, some of the developed samples (DS-04, DS-05 and DS-06) reveal much better results while comparing the wicking height in a 1% direct dye solution.

Wicking height (cm) of various samples

Physical properties of sanitary napkin

Table 4 and Fig.  12 illustrate the comparison of physical characteristics among various sanitary napkin pad samples used in this research. All of the nine samples used in this experiment have a product width of between 150 and 155 mm, followed by commercial samples (CS-01 to CS-03) and newly developed samples (DS-01 to DS-06). The weight of the commercial samples was regarded as a standard weight during the development of sanitary napkin as the quality of sanitary napkin depends on the size and weight. From Fig.  12 , it is shown that the weight of all developed samples (DS-01 to DS-06) is between 7 and 8 g, which incorporates comfort and protection against blood leakage during the use of sanitary napkin. The length of each sanitary napkin pad sample hereby is kept at 285 mm, which is the standard size according to various established branded products and eventually preferable to consumers providing additional protection against leakage both day and night. Thickness along with absorbency is a basic requirement for sanitary napkin since it is not desirable and convenient to use a thicker napkin (Das et al. 2008 ). The length, width and thickness of the developed samples and commercial samples can be seen in Fig.  12 . Consequently, Fig.  12 and Table 4 demonstrate a significant improvement in thickness and weight with an increase in the mass of the absorbent core blended web portion. The thickness of commercial samples (CS-01) is significantly lower relative to other samples incorporating an additional advantage for ultra-thin sanitary napkin, whereas CS-02 and CS-03 are thicker due to the use of cotton or other hydrophilic fibres. Commercial sample average thickness (CS-01) is 1.54 mm which is smallest due to the use of SAP, microfibres and wood pulp inside the base layer where newly developed pad samples (DS-01 to DS-06) were slightly thinner than commercial samples (CS-01). The thickness value of developed pad samples (DS-01 to DS-06) ranges from (1.6 to 4 mm) as the absorbent layer of the developed sample is made from cotton, viscose, CMC and sodium alginate. Among the developed samples (DS-01 to DS-06) the lowest thickness value is 1.6 mm for (DS-06) which is remotely similar to commercial (CS-01) samples.

Physical attributes of various pad samples

Previous studies show that neem plays a key role as an active agent against human pathogenic bacteria (Maragathavalli et al. 2011 ) because of the presence of multiple antimicrobial active ingredients in neem tree leaves, such as desactylimbin, quercetin and sitosterol. Moreover, the presence of high concentrations of azadirachtins, quercetin and β-sitosterol in Azadirachta indica (Neem) leaves might be responsible for strong antimicrobial, antibacterial and antifungal activity compared with bark and seed (Subapriya and Nagini 2005 ). This result is also reflected in the current experimental result when non-woven fabric is treated with 50 per cent neem extract solution.

As a consequence of this studies, neem extract is used to treat the non-woven fabric that incorporates antimicrobial function throughout the pads to make them user-friendly and comfortable. Non-woven fabrics treated with 50 per cent (w/v) neem concentration reveal improved performance, whereas all sanitary napkin pad samples are developed from these fabric samples (sample DS-01 to sample DS-06). Nonetheless, no more inquiries were made into the relative relationship between neem extract concentration and antimicrobial quality due to adverse effects on the pad's handling properties.

The absorption capacity of the commercial sample (CS-01) increased when super-absorbent polymers, such as polyacrylates, were adopted into the soft cellulose natural fibre pulp, which incorporates an enormous amount of water absorbency with sufficient breathability and flexibility (Zohuriaan-Mehr et al. 2010 ). The absorption capacity of several samples (CS-02, CS-03, DS-01 and DS-02) decreased due to the use of absorbent fibres only in the core layer. On the contrary, the absorptive capacity of the developed sample (DS-02, DS-04, DS-05 and DS-06) is boosted by the incorporation of absorbent fibres such as cotton and viscose together with CMC and sodium alginate inside the core layer as an alginate containing large amounts of hydroxyl group, COOH groups and hydrophilic carboxyl group of CMC which really contributes to the absorption of a lot of water (Tang et al. 2014 ). Although the commercial pad sample (CS-01) has a slightly higher absorptive capacity compared to newly developed samples (DS-01 to DS-06), but by using absorptive textile fibre such as viscose and eco-friendly available chemicals such as sodium alginate, CMC can eliminate environmental problems and offer not only safe environmental disposal but also body hygiene and comfort by minimizing irritation and other health issues on prolonged contact to human body (Berkley 1987; Yadav et al. 2016 ).

The improvement in the wet back property of the commercial sample (CS-01) is due to the addition of super absorbent polymers (SAP) which are lightly cross-linked polymers that swell when wet (Zohuriaan-Mehr et al. 2010 ). On the contrary, the reason behind the mild wet back properties for samples (CS-02, CS-03, DS-01, DS-02 and DS-03) is related to the use of absorbent textile fibres only inside their key layer. Absorbent fibres can absorb fluid quickly but could not retain it effectively, as it was connected by means of weak hydrogen bond and van daar walls force. In addition, DS-4 and DS-5 displayed better wet back functionality as it comprises sodium alginate and CMC inside the key layer. Because highly hydrophilic carboxyl group of CMC could absorb a lot of water to fill up pores, it would lead to a large space to engage water molecules as hydrogels. Among the samples developed, the wet back value for the sample DS-6 is higher due to the inclusion of sodium alginate and CMC along with 50% cotton and 50% viscose fibre to the core layer. As a result, the increased number of negative charges (COO − ) of CMC and sodium alginate in gels enhanced the repulsion of the molecular chains, leading to the enlargement of the mesh and to the promotion of water uptake (Tang et al. 2014 ). In addition, sodium alginate not only provides better wet back properties, but also replaces SAP that take several years to degrade.

Strike through

A better strike through properties depends on the use of super absorbent granules such as SAP in the core layer of the pad (Das et al. 2008 ). As noted, the strike through properties of samples CS-02, CS-03, DS-01 and DS-03 was poor as the core layers of these samples were manufactured with absorbent textile fibres that can absorb fluid easily but not so fast compared to absorbent polymers. The justification for this high strike through properties of the constructed samples (DS-02, DS-04 and DS-05) was owing to the use of increasing amounts of CMC, sodium alginate and hydrophilic textile fibres inside the key layer that can absorb the liquid as fast as possible. In addition, the developed sample DS-06 showed excellent properties as it took the least time to transport the saline solution from the upper surface of the pad to the inside. Sodium alginate is a well-known hydrophilic polysaccharide as cellulose and eventually increases the hydrophilicity of the hydrogels, contributing to a greater equilibrium swelling proportion. In addition, high sodium alginate content and CMC incorporate excellent hydrophilic characteristics, resulting in an increase in water absorption capacity within a very short period of time (Chang et al. 2009 ).

Among three commercial samples, the highest amount of retention capacity is observed for the CS-01 sample (18.07 gm), which displays better retention potential. Since commercial sample core layer is usually designed with superabsorbent gels (SAP) that can absorb and retain liquid, as a consequence, these gels swell and hold the absorbed liquid in a solid and rubbery condition that prevents any leakage (Chakwana and Nkiwane 2014 ). On the other hand, for several samples CS-02, CS-03, DS-01, DS-02 and DS-03, the lower retention capacity is exhibited as the core layer of these pads designed with only absorbent fibres capable of absorbing liquid but not capable of retaining liquid as much as the absorbent polymer has contributed. Incorporation of CMC and sodium alginate together with absorbent textile fibres (cotton and viscose) as key layer material resulted in the improvement in created pad samples DS-04 and DS-05. Sample DS-06 (16.30 gm) is noted to have the highest retention ability among the created sample. Since, with the contact of liquids, sodium alginate and CMC are readily transformed into hydrogels and eventually create a film that drives to maximum liquid absorption and retention potential under external pressure. In addition, the water absorption of the hydrogels improved with an increase in CMC content in the hydrogels, which can hold a huge amount of liquids against external pressure (Tang et al. 2014 ). The rise in the retention ability of the developed sample DS-06 in (Fig.  10 ) is therefore very obvious. Nevertheless, there was no analysis or assessment in this research of the better combination of these eco-friendly biopolymers and their proper physical shape and chemical alteration to improve their storage ability, such as commercial goods.

The maximum wicking height was recorded for the commercial sample CS-01, as the commercial sample consisted of superabsorbent polymer as its absorbent core. Generally, SAP is added to maximize the absorbency inside the core layer together with the other absorbent fibres, which combined effect can absorb fluid more quickly (Zohuriaan-Mehr et al. 2010 ). Although commercial samples CS-02 and CS-03 displayed poor wicking height as the absorbent core was engineered using only hydrophilic polymers which could not hold liquids faster than super absorbent polymer, similar trend was observed for DS-01, DS-02 and DS-03 samples as the absorbent core was intended only by fuzzy cellulosic fibres. By contrast, the wicking height of developed pad samples (DS-04, DS-05 and DS-06) gradually increases in Fig.  11 reflects the maximum absorbency of the created pad samples (DS-01 to DS-06). In addition, the developed samples DS-05 and DS-06 illustrate a maximum wicking height comparable to commercial samples (CS-01) due to the use of sodium alginate and CMC inside the core layer which can absorb water quickly. In addition, natural cellulose fibres or pulps absorb liquids through the capillary action as they have tube-like core microstructure and this absorbency potential tends to increase dramatically when mixed with CMC and sodium alginate, since sodium alginate and CMC have gelling characteristics which allow the gel to absorb and retain the liquid throughout its distribution (Pehkonen 2001 ).

Table 4 and Fig.  12 reveal that developed samples achieved comparable dimensions as commercial merchandise although lagging behind thickness. Non-formulation of absorbing chemicals in nanoform and inadequate alignment with base materials may be the reasons for increase in thickness. However, eco-friendly materials inside the core layer will offer the least chance of irritation when it comes to skin whereby commercial sanitary napkins available on the local market cause severe reactions during use such as rashes and even toxic shock syndrome due to use of SAP (Berkley et al. 1987 ). Thickness does not always show excellent absorbency, but the nature of the fibres in the pad is determined by the uptake of blood, as some fibres might be hydrophilic, whereas others be hydrophobic (Das et al. 2008 ). Overall, thinner napkin stands for uniform liquid distribution, which consequently ensures quality absorption of menstrual fluid as well as providing comfort while wearing sanitary napkin.

Conclusions

Antimicrobial finished non-woven fabrics and hydrophilic cellulosic fibres were mounted in the core layer of the pad with or without encapsulation of various amounts of biopolymer, such as sodium alginate and CMC, and their use in women's hygiene products was successfully demonstrated. Some key features of pad were examined in saline solutions for all samples developed in this research and outcomes were further compared with commercially available local female sanitary napkins used during menstrual cycles for different phases. Among the samples developed (DS-01 to DS-06), DS-06 showed excellent absorption in saline solution in all conditions compared to any other commercial merchandise (CS-01 to CS-03). However, the performance of developed sanitary napkins with proportion of the commercial pad quality does not increase considerably, but the finding of this research suggests prospective implementation of biopolymer as a substitute for SAP in the absorbent napkin to provide better health conditions during menstruation. Most of the materials and chemicals used in this study are environmentally friendly, not only reducing the health risks associated with the use of SAP, but also making disposable women napkin items more environmentally friendly.

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The datasets generated and/or analysed during the current study are included in this published manuscript.

Abbreviations

American society for testing and materials

Carboxy methyl cellulose

Colony forming unit

Commercial sample

Developed sample

European Disposables and Non-wovens Association

Escherichia coli

International Organization for Standardization

Revolutions per minute

Staphylococcus aureus

Super absorbent polymer

Ultraviolet

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Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge Incepta Pharmaceuticals Limited (Bangladesh), Primeasia University and Bangladesh University of Textiles (BUTEX) for their supportive and tremendous assistance throughout the research. We would also like to take this opportunity to express our appreciation to those scholarly and manufacturing experts for all their excellent recommendation because our achievement would not have been feasible without their assistance and guidance.

There are currently no funding sources in the design of the study and collection, analysis and interpretation of data and in writing of the manuscript.

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MHS and MAH conceived of the study, designed the experiment and participated in the sequence alignment and drafted the manuscript. MGN and MBH helped to coordinate experimental analysis and manuscript submission. MFH helped to revise the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript submission.

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Shibly, M.M.H., Hossain, M.A., Hossain, M.F. et al. Development of biopolymer-based menstrual pad and quality analysis against commercial merchandise. Bull Natl Res Cent 45 , 50 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1186/s42269-021-00504-2

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s42269-021-00504-2

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• Feminine sanitary napkins
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• Carboxymethyl cellulose
• Antimicrobial activity
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• DOI: 10.1007/s13399-023-04688-7
• Corpus ID: 260410087

Biodegradable sanitary napkins — a sustainable approach towards menstrual and environmental hygiene

• Mohit Panjwani , Yugendhar Rapolu , +4 authors V. Sinha
• Published in Biomass Conversion and… 1 August 2023
• Environmental Science

3 Citations

Development of eco-friendly biofilms by utilizing microcrystalline cellulose extract from banana pseudo-stem, exploring feminine hygiene product adoption: a gynecologists’ perspective in india. application of the theory of planned behavior (tpb) to women’s buying behavior, extraction, purification, and characterization of novel plant fiber from tabernaemontana divaricate stem to use as reinforcement in polymer composites, 35 references, functional aspect of eco-friendly banana fibre as textile, inapt management of menstrual hygiene waste (mhw): an urgent global environmental and public health challenge in developed and developing countries, superabsorbent polymers: from long-established, microplastics generating systems, to sustainable, biodegradable and future proof alternatives, development of sanitary napkins using corn husk fibres in absorbent layer – an exploratory study, a study of environmentally friendly menstrual absorbents in the context of social change for adolescent girls in low- and middle-income countries, menstrual cup: a replacement to sanitary pads for a plastic free periods, banana fibre: a natural and sustainable bioresource for eco-friendly applications, development of eco-friendly sanitary napkins using sansevieria trifasciata fibres coated with rosa damascena extracts, antibacterial modification of lyocell fiber: a review., performance study of chia seeds, chia flour and mimosa pudica hydrogel as polysaccharide-based superabsorbent polymers for sanitary napkins, related papers.

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MIT Sloan—Ideas Made To Matter: A ‘big, bold idea’ for better sanitary pads

With its biodegradable, compostable sanitary pads, Saathi is pursuing sustainable and responsible manufacturing, one menstrual cycle at a time.

READ STORY ORIGINALLY PUBLISHED AT MITSLOAN.MIT.EDU

By Meredith Somers April 13, 2022

In 2015, the United Nations adopted  17 sustainable development goals to promote both global peace and prosperity, while acknowledging neither can happen without addressing climate change, reducing inequality, and spurring economic growth.

That same year,  Kristin Kagetsu  co-founded  Saathi , a sanitary pad company based in India and built on nine of those sustainable development goals, including gender equality and sanitation for all.

“We built Saathi believing that good engineering and systems thinking can help solve social problems in a way that doesn’t have to compromise either profit or the planet,” said Kagetsu, SB ’12. “That means making pads from sustainable, renewable materials, making them accessible to women no matter where they live, and working with other partners to make sure our products get upcycled.”

While menstruating is a natural, largely unavoidable part of life, sanitary products are expensive, can be difficult to source in rural or impoverished areas, and produce a lot of  plastic pollution .

Saathi uses biodegradable and compostable banana and bamboo fiber to make its pads.  Using a tiered business model, the company is able to subsidize pads for underserved people in rural India, where a  2016 survey found only 36% of women use sanitary pads .

We spoke with Kagetsu about Saathi’s mission, how she forms and tests ideas at the company, and Saathi’s “big, bold idea” to be a model for sustainable and responsible manufacturing.

Who inspires you? 

Amy Smith  [the founding director of  MIT’s D-Lab ] inspired me to explore other ways to use my engineering degree to help people and create impactful solutions with the community. In terms of work ethic, my mom inspires me to work hard and dream big. All the entrepreneurs I have met through the  Cartier , MIT D-Lab,  SheEO , and  Earth Company  networks have truly been an inspiration because they are all working on different solutions in every industry to make the world a more equal, safer, sustainable, and better place.

Where do you get ideas?

I get ideas from observing how things work and imagining how they might be improved. During my first trip to India in college, I worked with a non-governmental organization in the Himalayas. We stayed in a remote village and there wasn’t any waste infrastructure; the waste had to be dealt with locally or else it would end up in random patches off the road and down the mountain. Knowing this and thinking about how we were going to address access to sanitary pads made me think twice about how our solution should try to address both issues. Instead of just trying to solve access with cheap and low-quality plastic pads, how could we develop something that wouldn’t later become a plastic waste problem?

How are new ideas discovered and developed in your organization?

We are inspired by many things, and our curiosity and willingness to discuss help the ideas grow and flourish. Everything from products to marketing is open for everyone across the team to contribute ideas and suggestions. We engage our marketing interns in brainstorming activities because they come from different backgrounds and sometimes different countries as well. We consider the resources we have and what is possible and then come up with a plan and work together to bring it to life. Some of the ideas are tried and tested, and some are done from scratch.

How do you keep track of new ideas?

Lists! Many, many lists. Depending on the type of idea, it might be in a notebook, Excel sheet, or Google Keep. We have lists of people and organizations we want to work with along with lists of new products we want to make and lists of people and organizations who align with our mission. We document all our ideas and refer to them during campaigns, events, and so on.

How do you test ideas?

We usually prototype or run small experiments that will help us prove our hypothesis. In the early days of Saathi, we had to make many iterations of our product before we settled on the final version. The initial pads we had didn’t look like pads — they were rectangular. But it was more important that we got the layers right at that stage, then we could worry about the shape. We also ask for feedback from our customers and stakeholders, which helps us make sure we’re headed in the right direction.

What’s the biggest idea you are working on right now?

We are working on a new kind of socially responsible plastic offset credit and carbon offset credit. Today, plastic credits are just counting the kilograms of plastic waste  collected , which is essentially measuring recycling. Our credits measure the amount of plastic waste  prevented , because we are making completely non-plastic products that replace plastic sanitary pads. We  wrote about the issue of plastic waste in the context of ocean pollution in our 5-part blog series .

Instead of purchasing regular plastic credits, which are based on collection of plastic waste already created, companies can buy plastic offset credits from us that not only equate to a certain amount of plastic replaced inthe ecosystem, but also know that they are supporting additional income to farmers, an all-women workforce in our manufacturing unit, and providing menstrual hygiene products to underserved women.

At MIT Sloan, we talk about ideas made to matter — ideas that are carefully developed and have meaningful impact in the world. In that context — what is your idea made to matter?

Our big, bold idea is that we aim to drive systemic change around how menstrual hygiene is addressed and drive the shift to a circular economy by working on nine of the U.N.’s sustainable development goals. That means making pads that are from sustainable, renewable materials, making them accessible to women no matter where they live, and working with other partners to make sure our products get upcycled.

In the long term, we plan to be a model for sustainable and responsible manufacturing of absorbent products. We believe in business as a tool to create impact, which is why we have built all of our impacts into our business model. Instead of looking at the waste problem after it is created, we’re addressing it from the source. We’re  consciously choosing our materials to be biodegradable and compostable , and we’re working on ways to upcycle the pads in the long term.

Sharing this idea can create more impact not only for the women who don’t have access to sanitary pads, but also for the farmers who get additional income working with us and the women we employ in our all-women manufacturing unit. We genuinely want to create a circular future because it is the need of the hour, and we believe that partnership and working together will move all of us toward this shared goal.

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Sandhra Ganesh Student, Department of Chemical Engineering, Government Engineering College, Kozhikode, Kerala, India. 673005 India

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Development of 100% Biodegradable Sanitary Napkin from Pineapple Leaf Fiber with Antimicrobial Properties

The necessity for the development of 100% biodegradable sanitary napkin is increasing as the earth is moving towards safer, sustainable, and eco-friendly planet. As the number of patients with cervical cancer and other reproductive tract infections are increasing day by day, it is necessary to implant organic and hygienic products on day to day basis. This is a safe and sufficient approach. The development of completely natural biodegradable sanitary napkin using retted pineapple fiber is considered as a negative cost. The composition of PALF have proved it is biodegradable within 3 days of exposure to soil. The blending of PALF with cotton has increased the properties of fiber such as moisture absorption. This PALF-cotton blend will act as the outer core of napkin. The development of aloe vera alginate hydrogel paid way to a new natural product. Aloe vera and alginate both are derived from plant source. Both have anti-microbial properties. The hydrogel is prepared by internal gelification method. The hydrogel prepared is considered to be the super absorbing polymer (SAP). This prepared SAP will absorb large amount of moisture and at the same time have tremendous antimicrobial property. In order to increase the antimicrobial property, curcumin is extracted from turmeric. This is an antibiotic pigment. Thus, the presence of this gel will increase the long lifeless usage of sanitary napkins. The bottom layer of sanitary napkins is made up of bioplastic dextrin instead of polyethene used in other sanitary napkins. Thus, to increase the strength of sanitary napkins, CaO nanoparticle is added. The sanitary napkin assembled with these components is of minimal cost and it is ecofriendly and sustainable. The usage of bioplastic dextrin implemented with cellulose based paper gives the final touch to 100% biodegradable sanitary napkins.

Liu Hongyi, Zhang Yong, Yao Juming. Preparation and properties of an ecofriendly superabsorbent based on flax yarn waste for sanitary napkin applications. Fibres & Polymers. 2013; 15: 145–152.

Wijesingha ANS, Perera MAI. (2017). Developing sanitary napkin using corn husk fiber [online] Available from https://ours.ou.ac.lk/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/OURS2017-all-part-2-1-133-136.pdf.

A Barman, Katkar PM, Asagekar SD. Natural and sustainable raw materials for sanitary napkin. J Textile Sci Eng. 2017; 7(3): 1–3.

Mishra Sarika, Pandey Ritu, Kumar Singh Mukesh. Development of sanitary napkin by flax carding waste as absorbent core with herbal and antimicrobial efficiency. International Journal of Science, Environment and Technology. 2016; 5(2): 404–411.

Ismoilov Khusniddin, Chauhan Sachin, Yang Mingxing, et al. Spinning system for pineapple leaf fiber via cotton spinning system by solo and binary blending and identifying yarn properties. Journal of Textile Science and Technology. 2019; 5(4): 86–91.

Nasiruddin Md., Maih Solayman, Abdul Jaleel Mohammed, et al. A review on extraction, characterization & application of pineapple leaf fibres (PALF) in textile and other fields. International Journal of Advanced Research. 2017; 5: 112–116.

Pawar Harshal Ashok, Gavassane Amit Jagannath, Choudhary Pritham Dinesh. A novel and simple approach for extraction of curcuminiods from turmeric rhizomes. Nat Prod Chem Res. 2018; 6(1).

SJ Kulkarni, KN Maske, MP Budre, RP Mahajan. Extraction and purification of curcuminoids from turmeric. Int J Pharm Technol. 2012; 1(2): 81–84.

Singh Surabhi, Anjum Sadhiya, Joy Jincy, et al. Cellulose-based Superabsorbent Hydrogels: polysaccharide aloe vera bioactive hydrogel as wound care system. Switzerland: Springer International Publishing; 2018.

Pereira Rubin, Mendes Ausenda, Bartoto Paulo. Alginate/aloe vera hydrogel films for biomedical application. Procedia CIRP. 2013; 5: 210–215.

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Development of Cost-Effective, Eco-Friendly Sanitary Pads for Better Health and Sanitation of Rural Women

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One of the major challenges India is facing is the plastic waste generated by commercial sanitary pads. One sanitary pad equals 4 plastic bags. It affects the water bodies, and plastic pads do not degrade for years together. More than 80% of sanitary pad users are not satisfied with the existing pads as they cause a lot of health issues because of the chemicals and plastics in them. This project deals with the development and characterisation of a biodegradable sanitary pad (Bio-pad) that is an alternative to commercial plastic pads. A sanitary napkin consists of three layers- The top, bottom layer, and the absorbent core. Viscose, bamboo spun lace nonwovens were chosen for the top layer. Wood pulp, kenaf, banana, and flax fibres were chosen for the absorbent core because of their good absorbency and antimicrobial properties. Bioplastics made of corn starch, and tapioca starch were chosen for the bottom layer of the napkin. All the materials were characterized and analyzed as per standards. The best material for each layer was selected to be made into a biodegradable sanitary pad. The produced sanitary napkin was tested as per BIS standards and compared with commercial sanitary napkins. It was found to perform as well as commercial sanitary pads.

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2006 Song KH, Obendorf SK (2006) Chemical and biological retting of kenaf fibers. Text Res J 76:751–756

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Niveda, R., Ramakrishnan, G. (2024). Development of Cost-Effective, Eco-Friendly Sanitary Pads for Better Health and Sanitation of Rural Women. In: Gupta, D., Majumdar, A., Gupta, S. (eds) Functional Textiles and Clothing 2023. ICFTC 2023. Springer Proceedings in Materials, vol 42. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-9983-5_20

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Knowledge, Attitude, Perception and Practices towards Disposal of Sanitary Napkins among Young Females: A Cross-Sectional Study

Vivekanand kattimani.

1 Sibar Institute of Dental Sciences, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, India

Donipudi Lakshmi Durga Alekhya

2 GSL Dental College and Hospital, Rajahmundry, Andhra Pradesh, India

Sahithi Pathralapati

3 Narayana Dental College and Hospital (NTRUHS), Nellore, Andhra Pradesh, India

Shilpa Susan Sojin

4 Family Dentistry of Arnold, St. Louis, Missouri, USA

Shikha Patel

5 Rutgers School of Public Health, New Jersey, USA

Chinmayi Prabhakar

6 Bangalore Medical College and Research Centre, Bangalore, Karnataka, India

Heena Dixit

7 DY Patil Deemed to be University, Navi Mumbai, Maharashtra, India

Background:

Almost 70% of women residing in urban areas and 48% of women in rural areas use sanitary napkins in India. According to menstrual health alliance India (MHAI), single sanitary pad will take about 500-800 years to decompose as the plastic used in manufacturing is nonbiodegradable and causes severe noxious effects contributing to global warming through the production of planet warming fuels which eventually have severe impact on environment sustainability. Hence, the study was undertaken to contribute the evidence for the “Clean and Green India”.

To know the perception and practice of disposal of sanitary napkins among young college-going females in India.

Materials and Methods:

A cross-sectional study was conducted throughout the country employing a self-administered questionnaire using a survey link sent through social media. Data collected were analyzed and interpreted using SPSS version 20.0.

The study population comprised 484 young college girls with a mean age of 20.92 ± 1.86 years and 96.9% of them are using sanitary napkins as menstrual absorbent aids. The most common method employed for the disposal of sanitary napkins was dumping them in the bin (87.4%). About 63.2% of them had no knowledge about sanitary napkin-burning machines. Around 92% think that improper disposal of sanitary napkins can cause health problems.

Conclusion:

The findings from the study revealed that a significant number of women were practicing noneco-friendly disposal methods and menstrual hygiene aids which are a bane to the ecosystem. Study warrants the education and training of females to achieve a green and clean sustainable India.

I NTRODUCTION

In India, modernization, industrialization, and economic expansion resulted in massive solid waste production per capita and remained a global concern and it has been exacerbated by phenomenal population expansion, high urban density, diversified culture, changing dietary habits, and lifestyles.[ 1 ] Massive solid waste generation per capita in India varies between small towns and cities, ranging from 0.17 kg to 0.62 kg per person per day.[ 2 ] Approximately 336 million menstruating women in India, of which 36% use disposable sanitary napkins, on average, a woman throws away about 150 kg of nonbiodegradable absorbents which is deleterious to the environment and health. Many countries have waste disposal management in relation to faecal and urinary waste but management of menstrual practise around the world is still inadequate. Eventually, the sanitary pad or napkins used during menstruation form domestic solid waste collected in the garbage bins.[ 3 ] In a developing country like India, toilets lack sanitary napkin discarding bins. In urban areas, the disposal is done along with solid waste management whereas in rural areas they may be buried, burned, and thrown in the garbage or latrine pits.[ 4 , 5 , 6 ] Therefore, the research was conducted to gain insights into the level of awareness regarding the proper disposal of sanitary napkins among young college-going females across India.

Aim and objectives

To know the perception and practices of disposal of sanitary napkins among young college-going females in India. To assess the knowledge of various disposal methods of menstrual waste. To assess the practice of menstrual waste disposal management. To know the perception on disposal of menstrual waste.

M ATERIALS AND M ETHODS

A cross-sectional study was conducted among 484 participants throughout the country and unanimous data was collected using Google Forms. The study consists of pretested and validated 13 self-administered, semi-structured questions in the English language with four questions related to knowledge, three questions on attitude, three questions on practice, and two questions on perceptions with Cronbach’s alpha varied between 0.79 and 0.83 indicating the acceptance of the questionnaire. A survey link was circulated through social media (WhatsApp groups) and the participation was voluntary.

Statistical analysis

SPSS 20.0 was used for analysis using descriptive statistics and proportions for the categorical variables with a statistical significance level set as P < .05.

A total of 484 responses were received. Of 484 students, 461 were undergraduates and 23 were postgraduate students, and among them, 60.5% were staying in hostel. The mean age of the study population was 20.92 ± 1.86 years while their age range was 18-27 years. The majority (96.9%) used sanitary napkins as menstrual absorbent aids, whereas only 0.4% used tampons [ Figure 1 ]. The most common method employed for the disposal of sanitary napkins was dumping them in the bin (87.4%) and about 63.2% of the students had no knowledge about sanitary napkins–burning machine [ Figure 2 ].

Chart depicting the usage of menstrual absorbent aids

Chart depicting the method of disposal of menstrual absorbent aids

D ISCUSSION

In past, cloth was used as menstrual absorbent aid by most of the women. It is a sustainable sanitary option as it can be hygienically washed and dried in the sunlight and the waste generated is very minimal. It is believed that despite the availability of new aids, people in the past were more hygienic and healthier compared to the current generation. Now improper disposable disposals are increasing, which are being a concern to the humanity. The menstrual hygiene practices were impacted by cultural norms, parental influence, individual preferences, and the socioeconomic status of an individual or the family. There are various beliefs referring to the misconceptions and the attitudes pertaining to menstruation for a given culture or religion. The beliefs, knowledge, and practices were all interlinked to each other and were important in menstrual hygiene management. These norms can be a boon or bane in the path of practicing better menstrual hygiene practices.[ 5 ] Different perceptions were observed regarding the restrictions on routine work activities, cooking, bathing, worshipping, and on consumption of certain foods because of considering menstruation as a process of dirt and polluting.[ 6 ] This study explored the current conditions of disposal and management of sanitary napkins; 87.4% of the respondents use dumping bins to dispose their used sanitary napkins which is to be collected by the routine local trash collectors as of part of domestic waste disposal system and these findings are in accordance with the study conducted[ 6 ] where 97.4% of the study participants considered to dispose their sanitary pads into the bins. However, this scenario was contradicted with the study, where 19.8% of the participants responded that they felt difficulty in finding the bins to dispose their sanitary napkins and this is consistent with the results observed in the study conducted[ 7 ] which showed that there was a lack of sanitary bins and facilities in developing countries. The present study shows that about 9.5% of the participants follow the method of burning as a disposal practice which is inconsistent (3.6%) with the study conducted[ 8 ] among adolescent girls in Chennai. In the present study, we have observed a significant number of girls have reported that they were embarrassed because of a lack of an adequate disposal system. The majority of the respondents (96.3%) reported that they conceal the used sanitary pads before disposal [ Figure 3 ] of which 85.1% wrapped in paper and about 12.9% concealed in the plastic bags [ Figure 4 ] which is similar to the previous studies.[ 9 ] Moreover, this study reports that a significant number of girls, that is, 45.7% felt that the method of their sanitary pad disposal was environmentally friendly and about 25% were unaware of the eco-friendliness of their disposal method.[ 10 ] These observations highlight the importance of creating awareness among females about sustainable and environmentally friendly disposal methods, and making them readily available in public places. This would be a great step towards achieving the goal of “Clean India - Green India”. It is evident from this study that there still exists the disposal method of throwing into open areas which constitutes about 0.6% of the various disposal methods creates an unusual nuisance and creates a huge risk of disease transmission.[ 11 ]

Distribution of study participants based on the practice of disposal of sanitary napkins

Chart depicting the material used to wrap sanitary napkins

Generalizability

The governing bodies should establish a platform that should be gender inclusive for enlightening with the experts and the civil societal organizations. Although there were several initiatives by governmental and nongovernmental bodies for the promotion of better menstrual hygiene among adolescent girls in the age group of 10-19 years in rural areas. It is imperative for all the females in the country to get access for such schemes which could promote an enhanced menstrual health. Initiatives such as “Not Just a Piece of Cloth,” “Green India,” and “Free Days” should be included in the policy for the betterment of women’s health and to maintain the ecosystem.

Recommendations for the management of menstrual waste

• The government should enact new standards for the proper disposal and management of menstrual wastes.
• As the disposal of menstrual waste is a major concern which affects the health and environment.
• The government should allocate funds to the Municipal Corporation or nongovernmental organizations for the development of women-friendly restrooms.
• Menstrual products should be distributed free of charge in schools and educational institutions.
• Manufacturers of sanitary products should employ environmental-friendly ingredients to prevent soil and water pollution and speed up the decomposition process.
• Menstrual hygiene management should be a component of student’s curriculum.
• Installing semi-automatic sanitary napkin dispensing machines that operate by inserting a coin into a slot can be a great addition to restrooms. It can help ensure that women have access to necessary sanitary products, while also providing a convenient and easy-to-use solution.
• There should be a separate collection system for menstrual waste that does not jeopardize women’s privacy and dignity.
• Educational institutions and public places should provide space to maintain menstrual hygiene measures which are of utmost importance for females.

Limitations

Despite with the interesting findings from this study, the data extracted were based on the convenience sampling method and the age group of the participants was between 18 years to 27 years. Also, information regarding the socioeconomic status, cultural practices, and religion were not considered in the study. The strengths of the study include the environmental aspect and the perceptions of the individuals who participated in the study. Further research should be done on females with the more diverse sample in terms of age, cultural practices, and socioeconomic status would yield more information that could further help to change the disposal system and for the better maintenance of the environment, for framing the guidelines and there is a need for the revisit to the reusable sanitary napkins instead of disposable (single use) which saves the money and decreases the waste.

C ONCLUSION

Hygiene and sustainability can only be accomplished in the long term through education. Young women should be made aware of the latest menstrual products, different manufacturers, government legislation, and so on through social and electronic media. To avoid the problem of disposal, emphasis should be placed on the usage of biodegradable and reusable sanitary or cloth pads. Sanitary napkin–burning machines should be deployed in schools and communities if at all practicable. There is indeed a critical need to encourage adolescents to engage in hygienic and safe practices at the school level.

Financial support and sponsorship

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Conflicts of interest

There are no conflicts of interest.

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A Research Study about the Expectations from Sanitary Napkins, Current Problems and Design of a Functional Sanitary Napkin

2021, Erciyes University Journal of Institue Of Science and Technology

Sanitary napkins are technical textile products those are used by women during menstruation to collect menstrual fluids hygienically. Sanitary napkins are layered structures, as they have to fulfill different end-use properties at the same time. In this study, a detailed survey was conducted to 500 women living in different regions of Turkey. In the first parts of the survey, the expectations from sanitary napkins, perception of sanitary napkin performance characteristics and the problems in current sanitary napkins were questioned. In addition, some information to design a novel/functional sanitary napkin was collected. Also, to provide information to the companies in the sector, current preferences on sanitary napkins, usage habits and effects of product promotions were analyzed. Consequently, it was determined that women focused on odourless and soft surfaced sanitary napkins in addition to the absorption properties such as leak-proofing and dryness. The most frequent problems in current pads were leakage, odour and the need of frequent changes. In parallel, the most desired functional property of a new sanitary napkin was antibacterial activity. There were some statistically significant differences between the expectations, sanitary napkin selection factors and problems of the women depending on the age ranges.

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Journal of Applied Science and Education (JASE), A 2 Z Journals

Sanitary napkins are layered designs, as they need to satisfy different end-use properties simultaneously. The most common issues with current napkins include leakage, odor, and the need for frequent change. To address these problems, a comprehensive survey was conducted among 500 women residing in two selected villages within the study area. The survey covered women's expectations of sanitary napkins, their perceptions of these products, performance characteristics, and the challenges encountered with existing sanitary napkins. In the initial segments of the overview, the expectations from sanitary napkins, perception of sanitary napkins, performance characteristics and the problems in current sanitary napkins were addressed. The findings indicated that women prioritize absorption properties such as leak-proofing and dryness, as well as an odorless and soft surface. The most desirable functional characteristic was antibacterial activity. There were notable differences in the expectations, selection factors, and issues reported by women across different age groups. The collected data was used to design a cost-effective sanitary napkin made up of more than 80% biodegradable materials, promoting sustainability in the production of sanitary napkins.

Angel Princy Dasari , Sherin Daniel

A review paper on sanitary napkin, utilization, practise and disposal among women in reproductive age in urban settlements of India .We looked into different studies focussing on sanitary napkin usage by women in the urban cities of India ,along with World Vision’s Urban WASH baseline data . With results showing 20 per cent of Indian women in the “My City” initiative project area still using cloth. Only 47 per cent of women with a household income below Rs. 5000/- use sanitary napkins compared to 85 per cent usage of sanitary napkins among women with a household income of Rs.15000/-.Affordability is still a challenge for 61 per cent of women to use sanitary napkins. Focusing on disposal of used sanitary napkins 85 percent dispose sanitary napkins along with the household waste .Commercially available sanitary napkins being non bio- degradable create a burden on community and environment as well .The above findings highlight the need of WASH to focus on Menstrual Hygiene Management (MHM). Key Words:-FGD (Focus Group Discussion), MHM (Menstrual Hygiene Management), Sanitary napkins, Disposal of sanitary napkins. WASH (Water Sanitation and Hygiene)

IJERA Journal

Hygiene practices have effects on vulvovaginal microbiota. Specific products for intimate female hygiene are available in the market, such as the sanitary pads. Since these pads were introduced in the market , they became the focus of research that seek to improve their shape, manufacturing processes and the properties of materials used in order to provide more benefits to users. Thus, the present study aimed to characterize the fabrics used in daily sanitary pads, focusing on the development of future products. The spectra generated by FTIR/ATR suggest that the samples were composed of polypropylene. The photomicrographs showed that the polymeric outer layer was made of nonwoven fabric manufactured by spunbond and point bonding processes.

International Journal Of Community Medicine And Public Health

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Background: The knowledge of the proper use, disposal of sanitary pads, and its related side effects during menstruation is a vital aspect of a woman’s well-being. Use of sanitary pads appropriately and replacing them on time are essential practices needed to maintain menstrual hygiene. Failure to do so may lead to detrimental consequences that could affect the health of women and make them susceptible to reproductive tract infections. Objectives were to assess a range of factors considered by female about the usage of sanitary pads and the various methods employed regarding its disposal.Methods: A cross sectional study was conducted from March to June 2018, in the city of Karachi, by students of Jinnah Sindh Medical University. A sampling technique was used to select 391 females. Data collection was carried out using a structured questionnaire, by convenience sampling. Response of the participants was acquired using a 5-point Likert scale.Results: In total, 391 females from the cit...

European Scientific Journal ESJ

Management of menstrual hygiene is a critical problem for Bangladeshi women and girls as the sanitary pads are expensive. Therefore, purchasing sanitary napkins for incredibly poor and middle-class families is very challenging. Many retail sanitary napkins are available on the local market, but most of them are costly. However, poor women's are unable to purchase or use high-quality sanitary napkins. Thus, a maximum of nine sanitary napkin pad samples with very cheap raw materials (natural fibres) have been produced in this study. Newly manufactured products even undergo antimicrobial treatment with natural antimicrobial agents such as Tulshi and Aloe Vera accompanied by a simple production process, which ultimately makes the product cheaper and safer for the consumer during use. A maximum of nine samples were produced and compared with commercial samples for cost analysis. The primary objective of this research is to develop such a kind of sanitary napkin that will be cheaper as well as user-friendly in contrast to commercial samples. More interestingly, poor women are not used to wear underwear, because of which they are not interested in using pads as commercial sanitary napkins; panty or other underwear is required. For this reason, an adjustable waistband support is used in this experiment to easily attach the sanitary napkin without any gum. Since menstruation is directly linked to the human reproductive process, it is important for women and girls to manage menstruation appropriately. In addition, the material (especially sanitary napkin core forming materials) used in commercial sanitary napkins is synthetic and may lead to accelerated growth of bacteria and germs by long term use of the pad. The goal of this research was to construct an inexpensive sanitized pad that was treated with Aloe Vera and Tulshi extract. Tulshi and Aloe Vera modified non-woven fabrics incorporate antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) and Escherichia coli (E. coli). Therefore, as it can be used without undergarments, sanitary napkin is not only hygienic but also inexpensive and comfortable with effective protection against leakage. Findings demonstrate the newly developed prototype's substantial design and cost-effectiveness.

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In respect to carrying the present research paper, the main aims are to provide the importance of using sanitary napkins in the menstruation cycle. Awareness and essential information need to provide to all female in rural areas so that effectiveness will be developed in a systematic manner. Furthermore, thematic analysis has been implemented that assists to find effective information towards the aim. Descriptive research design also ascertains that make proper outcomes in business will in-depth information in the society

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Increasing numbers of research studies and publication on menstrual hygiene globally have led to support of the beneficiaries via national government, NGOs, UN agencies etc. This research study was undertaken to understand the key factors affecting the penetration, use and continued acceptance of low cost sanitary napkin by target consumers at the bottom of the pyramid. For the initial study, an exploratory research was done to understand through qualitative research findings, nuances and challenges of similar sanitary hygiene projects undertaken elsewhere in India. An intense understanding of the ill effects of not-so-safe product usage (cloth, etc) during menstrual cycle is critical for the acceptance and continued usage of low cost sanitary napkins. Initiation into the safe and hygienic factors needs to be done at a very young age. The best way to drive home awareness and knowledge of menstrual hygiene is through schools, the mother herself, local clinics and self help groups. This would enhance the self esteem, prevent diseases and ultimately lead to women empowerment.

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The vast amount of menstrual-related non-biodegradable waste produced in a nation like India, where women make up nearly 50% of the population, has serious environmental consequences. The bulk of the population in the country comes from low-middle class origins, therefore maintaining healthy menstrual hygiene practises with eco-friendly products calls for taking into account accessible and highly sustainable options. Furthermore, women are turning to the market for reusable products for inexpensive and durable alternatives because period poverty is now more prevalent than ever due to the COVID-19 pandemic. As a result, we investigated the Feasibility and Acceptability (FA) of a novel menstruation pad made of banana fibre in both rural and urban settings.

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