greater than (>) less than (<)
H 0 always has a symbol with an equal in it. H a never has a symbol with an equal in it. The choice of symbol depends on the wording of the hypothesis test. However, be aware that many researchers (including one of the co-authors in research work) use = in the null hypothesis, even with > or < as the symbol in the alternative hypothesis. This practice is acceptable because we only make the decision to reject or not reject the null hypothesis.
H 0 : No more than 30% of the registered voters in Santa Clara County voted in the primary election. p ≤ 30
H a : More than 30% of the registered voters in Santa Clara County voted in the primary election. p > 30
A medical trial is conducted to test whether or not a new medicine reduces cholesterol by 25%. State the null and alternative hypotheses.
H 0 : The drug reduces cholesterol by 25%. p = 0.25
H a : The drug does not reduce cholesterol by 25%. p ≠ 0.25
We want to test whether the mean GPA of students in American colleges is different from 2.0 (out of 4.0). The null and alternative hypotheses are:
H 0 : μ = 2.0
H a : μ ≠ 2.0
We want to test whether the mean height of eighth graders is 66 inches. State the null and alternative hypotheses. Fill in the correct symbol (=, ≠, ≥, <, ≤, >) for the null and alternative hypotheses. H 0 : μ __ 66 H a : μ __ 66
We want to test if college students take less than five years to graduate from college, on the average. The null and alternative hypotheses are:
H 0 : μ ≥ 5
H a : μ < 5
We want to test if it takes fewer than 45 minutes to teach a lesson plan. State the null and alternative hypotheses. Fill in the correct symbol ( =, ≠, ≥, <, ≤, >) for the null and alternative hypotheses. H 0 : μ __ 45 H a : μ __ 45
In an issue of U.S. News and World Report , an article on school standards stated that about half of all students in France, Germany, and Israel take advanced placement exams and a third pass. The same article stated that 6.6% of U.S. students take advanced placement exams and 4.4% pass. Test if the percentage of U.S. students who take advanced placement exams is more than 6.6%. State the null and alternative hypotheses.
H 0 : p ≤ 0.066
H a : p > 0.066
On a state driver’s test, about 40% pass the test on the first try. We want to test if more than 40% pass on the first try. Fill in the correct symbol (=, ≠, ≥, <, ≤, >) for the null and alternative hypotheses. H 0 : p __ 0.40 H a : p __ 0.40
In a hypothesis test , sample data is evaluated in order to arrive at a decision about some type of claim. If certain conditions about the sample are satisfied, then the claim can be evaluated for a population. In a hypothesis test, we: Evaluate the null hypothesis , typically denoted with H 0 . The null is not rejected unless the hypothesis test shows otherwise. The null statement must always contain some form of equality (=, ≤ or ≥) Always write the alternative hypothesis , typically denoted with H a or H 1 , using less than, greater than, or not equals symbols, i.e., (≠, >, or <). If we reject the null hypothesis, then we can assume there is enough evidence to support the alternative hypothesis. Never state that a claim is proven true or false. Keep in mind the underlying fact that hypothesis testing is based on probability laws; therefore, we can talk only in terms of non-absolute certainties.
H 0 and H a are contradictory.
Statistics By Jim
Making statistics intuitive
By Jim Frost 6 Comments
The null hypothesis in statistics states that there is no difference between groups or no relationship between variables. It is one of two mutually exclusive hypotheses about a population in a hypothesis test.
In every study or experiment, researchers assess an effect or relationship. This effect can be the effectiveness of a new drug, building material, or other intervention that has benefits. There is a benefit or connection that the researchers hope to identify. Unfortunately, no effect may exist. In statistics, we call this lack of an effect the null hypothesis. Researchers assume that this notion of no effect is correct until they have enough evidence to suggest otherwise, similar to how a trial presumes innocence.
In this context, the analysts don’t necessarily believe the null hypothesis is correct. In fact, they typically want to reject it because that leads to more exciting finds about an effect or relationship. The new vaccine works!
You can think of it as the default theory that requires sufficiently strong evidence to reject. Like a prosecutor, researchers must collect sufficient evidence to overturn the presumption of no effect. Investigators must work hard to set up a study and a data collection system to obtain evidence that can reject the null hypothesis.
Related post : What is an Effect in Statistics?
Null hypotheses start as research questions that the investigator rephrases as a statement indicating there is no effect or relationship.
Does the vaccine prevent infections? | The vaccine does not affect the infection rate. |
Does the new additive increase product strength? | The additive does not affect mean product strength. |
Does the exercise intervention increase bone mineral density? | The intervention does not affect bone mineral density. |
As screen time increases, does test performance decrease? | There is no relationship between screen time and test performance. |
After reading these examples, you might think they’re a bit boring and pointless. However, the key is to remember that the null hypothesis defines the condition that the researchers need to discredit before suggesting an effect exists.
Let’s see how you reject the null hypothesis and get to those more exciting findings!
So, you want to reject the null hypothesis, but how and when can you do that? To start, you’ll need to perform a statistical test on your data. The following is an overview of performing a study that uses a hypothesis test.
The first step is to devise a research question and the appropriate null hypothesis. After that, the investigators need to formulate an experimental design and data collection procedures that will allow them to gather data that can answer the research question. Then they collect the data. For more information about designing a scientific study that uses statistics, read my post 5 Steps for Conducting Studies with Statistics .
After data collection is complete, statistics and hypothesis testing enter the picture. Hypothesis testing takes your sample data and evaluates how consistent they are with the null hypothesis. The p-value is a crucial part of the statistical results because it quantifies how strongly the sample data contradict the null hypothesis.
When the sample data provide sufficient evidence, you can reject the null hypothesis. In a hypothesis test, this process involves comparing the p-value to your significance level .
Reject the null hypothesis when the p-value is less than or equal to your significance level. Your sample data favor the alternative hypothesis, which suggests that the effect exists in the population. For a mnemonic device, remember—when the p-value is low, the null must go!
When you can reject the null hypothesis, your results are statistically significant. Learn more about Statistical Significance: Definition & Meaning .
Conversely, when the p-value is greater than your significance level, you fail to reject the null hypothesis. The sample data provides insufficient data to conclude that the effect exists in the population. When the p-value is high, the null must fly!
Note that failing to reject the null is not the same as proving it. For more information about the difference, read my post about Failing to Reject the Null .
That’s a very general look at the process. But I hope you can see how the path to more exciting findings depends on being able to rule out the less exciting null hypothesis that states there’s nothing to see here!
Let’s move on to learning how to write the null hypothesis for different types of effects, relationships, and tests.
Related posts : How Hypothesis Tests Work and Interpreting P-values
The null hypothesis varies by the type of statistic and hypothesis test. Remember that inferential statistics use samples to draw conclusions about populations. Consequently, when you write a null hypothesis, it must make a claim about the relevant population parameter . Further, that claim usually indicates that the effect does not exist in the population. Below are typical examples of writing a null hypothesis for various parameters and hypothesis tests.
Related posts : Descriptive vs. Inferential Statistics and Populations, Parameters, and Samples in Inferential Statistics
T-tests and ANOVA assess the differences between group means. For these tests, the null hypothesis states that there is no difference between group means in the population. In other words, the experimental conditions that define the groups do not affect the mean outcome. Mu (µ) is the population parameter for the mean, and you’ll need to include it in the statement for this type of study.
For example, an experiment compares the mean bone density changes for a new osteoporosis medication. The control group does not receive the medicine, while the treatment group does. The null states that the mean bone density changes for the control and treatment groups are equal.
Proportions tests assess the differences between group proportions. For these tests, the null hypothesis states that there is no difference between group proportions. Again, the experimental conditions did not affect the proportion of events in the groups. P is the population proportion parameter that you’ll need to include.
For example, a vaccine experiment compares the infection rate in the treatment group to the control group. The treatment group receives the vaccine, while the control group does not. The null states that the infection rates for the control and treatment groups are equal.
Some studies assess the relationship between two continuous variables rather than differences between groups.
In these studies, analysts often use either correlation or regression analysis . For these tests, the null states that there is no relationship between the variables. Specifically, it says that the correlation or regression coefficient is zero. As one variable increases, there is no tendency for the other variable to increase or decrease. Rho (ρ) is the population correlation parameter and beta (β) is the regression coefficient parameter.
For example, a study assesses the relationship between screen time and test performance. The null states that there is no correlation between this pair of variables. As screen time increases, test performance does not tend to increase or decrease.
For all these cases, the analysts define the hypotheses before the study. After collecting the data, they perform a hypothesis test to determine whether they can reject the null hypothesis.
The preceding examples are all for two-tailed hypothesis tests. To learn about one-tailed tests and how to write a null hypothesis for them, read my post One-Tailed vs. Two-Tailed Tests .
Related post : Understanding Correlation
Neyman, J; Pearson, E. S. (January 1, 1933). On the Problem of the most Efficient Tests of Statistical Hypotheses . Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A . 231 (694–706): 289–337.
January 11, 2024 at 2:57 pm
Thanks for the reply.
January 10, 2024 at 1:23 pm
Hi Jim, In your comment you state that equivalence test null and alternate hypotheses are reversed. For hypothesis tests of data fits to a probability distribution, the null hypothesis is that the probability distribution fits the data. Is this correct?
January 10, 2024 at 2:15 pm
Those two separate things, equivalence testing and normality tests. But, yes, you’re correct for both.
Hypotheses are switched for equivalence testing. You need to “work” (i.e., collect a large sample of good quality data) to be able to reject the null that the groups are different to be able to conclude they’re the same.
With typical hypothesis tests, if you have low quality data and a low sample size, you’ll fail to reject the null that they’re the same, concluding they’re equivalent. But that’s more a statement about the low quality and small sample size than anything to do with the groups being equal.
So, equivalence testing make you work to obtain a finding that the groups are the same (at least within some amount you define as a trivial difference).
For normality testing, and other distribution tests, the null states that the data follow the distribution (normal or whatever). If you reject the null, you have sufficient evidence to conclude that your sample data don’t follow the probability distribution. That’s a rare case where you hope to fail to reject the null. And it suffers from the problem I describe above where you might fail to reject the null simply because you have a small sample size. In that case, you’d conclude the data follow the probability distribution but it’s more that you don’t have enough data for the test to register the deviation. In this scenario, if you had a larger sample size, you’d reject the null and conclude it doesn’t follow that distribution.
I don’t know of any equivalence testing type approach for distribution fit tests where you’d need to work to show the data follow a distribution, although I haven’t looked for one either!
February 20, 2022 at 9:26 pm
Is a null hypothesis regularly (always) stated in the negative? “there is no” or “does not”
February 23, 2022 at 9:21 pm
Typically, the null hypothesis includes an equal sign. The null hypothesis states that the population parameter equals a particular value. That value is usually one that represents no effect. In the case of a one-sided hypothesis test, the null still contains an equal sign but it’s “greater than or equal to” or “less than or equal to.” If you wanted to translate the null hypothesis from its native mathematical expression, you could use the expression “there is no effect.” But the mathematical form more specifically states what it’s testing.
It’s the alternative hypothesis that typically contains does not equal.
There are some exceptions. For example, in an equivalence test where the researchers want to show that two things are equal, the null hypothesis states that they’re not equal.
In short, the null hypothesis states the condition that the researchers hope to reject. They need to work hard to set up an experiment and data collection that’ll gather enough evidence to be able to reject the null condition.
February 15, 2022 at 9:32 am
Dear sir I always read your notes on Research methods.. Kindly tell is there any available Book on all these..wonderfull Urgent
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Figuring out exactly what the null hypothesis and the alternative hypotheses are is not a walk in the park. Hypothesis testing is based on the knowledge that you can acquire by going over what we have previously covered about statistics in our blog.
So, if you don’t want to have a hard time keeping up, make sure you have read all the tutorials about confidence intervals , distributions , z-tables and t-tables .
We've also made a video on null hypothesis vs alternative hypothesis - you can watch it below or just scroll down if you prefer reading.
Confidence intervals provide us with an estimation of where the parameters are located. You can obtain them with our confidence interval calculator and learn more about them in the related article.
However, when we are making a decision, we need a yes or no answer. The correct approach, in this case, is to use a test .
Here we will start learning about one of the fundamental tasks in statistics - hypothesis testing !
First off, let’s talk about data-driven decision-making. It consists of the following steps:
Let’s start from the beginning.
Though there are many ways to define it, the most intuitive must be:
“A hypothesis is an idea that can be tested.”
This is not the formal definition, but it explains the point very well.
So, if we say that apples in New York are expensive, this is an idea or a statement. However, it is not testable, until we have something to compare it with.
For instance, if we define expensive as: any price higher than $1.75 dollars per pound, then it immediately becomes a hypothesis .
An example may be: would the USA do better or worse under a Clinton administration, compared to a Trump administration? Statistically speaking, this is an idea , but there is no data to test it. Therefore, it cannot be a hypothesis of a statistical test.
Actually, it is more likely to be a topic of another discipline.
Conversely, in statistics, we may compare different US presidencies that have already been completed. For example, the Obama administration and the Bush administration, as we have data on both.
Alright, let’s get out of politics and get into hypotheses . Here’s a simple topic that CAN be tested.
According to Glassdoor (the popular salary information website), the mean data scientist salary in the US is 113,000 dollars.
So, we want to test if their estimate is correct.
There are two hypotheses that are made: the null hypothesis , denoted H 0 , and the alternative hypothesis , denoted H 1 or H A .
The null hypothesis is the one to be tested and the alternative is everything else. In our example:
The null hypothesis would be: The mean data scientist salary is 113,000 dollars.
While the alternative : The mean data scientist salary is not 113,000 dollars.
Author's note: If you're interested in a data scientist career, check out our articles Data Scientist Career Path , 5 Business Basics for Data Scientists , Data Science Interview Questions , and 15 Data Science Consulting Companies Hiring Now .
You can also form one-sided or one-tailed tests.
Say your friend, Paul, told you that he thinks data scientists earn more than 125,000 dollars per year. You doubt him, so you design a test to see who’s right.
The null hypothesis of this test would be: The mean data scientist salary is more than 125,000 dollars.
The alternative will cover everything else, thus: The mean data scientist salary is less than or equal to 125,000 dollars.
Important: The outcomes of tests refer to the population parameter rather than the sample statistic! So, the result that we get is for the population.
Important: Another crucial consideration is that, generally, the researcher is trying to reject the null hypothesis . Think about the null hypothesis as the status quo and the alternative as the change or innovation that challenges that status quo. In our example, Paul was representing the status quo, which we were challenging.
Let’s go over it once more. In statistics, the null hypothesis is the statement we are trying to reject. Therefore, the null hypothesis is the present state of affairs, while the alternative is our personal opinion.
Right now, you may be feeling a little puzzled. This is normal because this whole concept is counter-intuitive at the beginning. However, there is an extremely easy way to continue your journey of exploring it. By diving into the linked tutorial, you will find out why hypothesis testing actually works.
Interested in learning more? You can take your skills from good to great with our statistics course!
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False Positive vs. False Negative: Type I and Type II Errors in Statistical Hypothesis Testing
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Published on November 8, 2019 by Rebecca Bevans . Revised on June 22, 2023.
Hypothesis testing is a formal procedure for investigating our ideas about the world using statistics . It is most often used by scientists to test specific predictions, called hypotheses, that arise from theories.
There are 5 main steps in hypothesis testing:
Though the specific details might vary, the procedure you will use when testing a hypothesis will always follow some version of these steps.
Step 1: state your null and alternate hypothesis, step 2: collect data, step 3: perform a statistical test, step 4: decide whether to reject or fail to reject your null hypothesis, step 5: present your findings, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about hypothesis testing.
After developing your initial research hypothesis (the prediction that you want to investigate), it is important to restate it as a null (H o ) and alternate (H a ) hypothesis so that you can test it mathematically.
The alternate hypothesis is usually your initial hypothesis that predicts a relationship between variables. The null hypothesis is a prediction of no relationship between the variables you are interested in.
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For a statistical test to be valid , it is important to perform sampling and collect data in a way that is designed to test your hypothesis. If your data are not representative, then you cannot make statistical inferences about the population you are interested in.
There are a variety of statistical tests available, but they are all based on the comparison of within-group variance (how spread out the data is within a category) versus between-group variance (how different the categories are from one another).
If the between-group variance is large enough that there is little or no overlap between groups, then your statistical test will reflect that by showing a low p -value . This means it is unlikely that the differences between these groups came about by chance.
Alternatively, if there is high within-group variance and low between-group variance, then your statistical test will reflect that with a high p -value. This means it is likely that any difference you measure between groups is due to chance.
Your choice of statistical test will be based on the type of variables and the level of measurement of your collected data .
Based on the outcome of your statistical test, you will have to decide whether to reject or fail to reject your null hypothesis.
In most cases you will use the p -value generated by your statistical test to guide your decision. And in most cases, your predetermined level of significance for rejecting the null hypothesis will be 0.05 – that is, when there is a less than 5% chance that you would see these results if the null hypothesis were true.
In some cases, researchers choose a more conservative level of significance, such as 0.01 (1%). This minimizes the risk of incorrectly rejecting the null hypothesis ( Type I error ).
The results of hypothesis testing will be presented in the results and discussion sections of your research paper , dissertation or thesis .
In the results section you should give a brief summary of the data and a summary of the results of your statistical test (for example, the estimated difference between group means and associated p -value). In the discussion , you can discuss whether your initial hypothesis was supported by your results or not.
In the formal language of hypothesis testing, we talk about rejecting or failing to reject the null hypothesis. You will probably be asked to do this in your statistics assignments.
However, when presenting research results in academic papers we rarely talk this way. Instead, we go back to our alternate hypothesis (in this case, the hypothesis that men are on average taller than women) and state whether the result of our test did or did not support the alternate hypothesis.
If your null hypothesis was rejected, this result is interpreted as “supported the alternate hypothesis.”
These are superficial differences; you can see that they mean the same thing.
You might notice that we don’t say that we reject or fail to reject the alternate hypothesis . This is because hypothesis testing is not designed to prove or disprove anything. It is only designed to test whether a pattern we measure could have arisen spuriously, or by chance.
If we reject the null hypothesis based on our research (i.e., we find that it is unlikely that the pattern arose by chance), then we can say our test lends support to our hypothesis . But if the pattern does not pass our decision rule, meaning that it could have arisen by chance, then we say the test is inconsistent with our hypothesis .
If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.
Methodology
Research bias
Hypothesis testing is a formal procedure for investigating our ideas about the world using statistics. It is used by scientists to test specific predictions, called hypotheses , by calculating how likely it is that a pattern or relationship between variables could have arisen by chance.
A hypothesis states your predictions about what your research will find. It is a tentative answer to your research question that has not yet been tested. For some research projects, you might have to write several hypotheses that address different aspects of your research question.
A hypothesis is not just a guess — it should be based on existing theories and knowledge. It also has to be testable, which means you can support or refute it through scientific research methods (such as experiments, observations and statistical analysis of data).
Null and alternative hypotheses are used in statistical hypothesis testing . The null hypothesis of a test always predicts no effect or no relationship between variables, while the alternative hypothesis states your research prediction of an effect or relationship.
If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.
Bevans, R. (2023, June 22). Hypothesis Testing | A Step-by-Step Guide with Easy Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved September 3, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/statistics/hypothesis-testing/
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10.1 - setting the hypotheses: examples.
A significance test examines whether the null hypothesis provides a plausible explanation of the data. The null hypothesis itself does not involve the data. It is a statement about a parameter (a numerical characteristic of the population). These population values might be proportions or means or differences between means or proportions or correlations or odds ratios or any other numerical summary of the population. The alternative hypothesis is typically the research hypothesis of interest. Here are some examples.
About 10% of the human population is left-handed. Suppose a researcher at Penn State speculates that students in the College of Arts and Architecture are more likely to be left-handed than people found in the general population. We only have one sample since we will be comparing a population proportion based on a sample value to a known population value.
A generic brand of the anti-histamine Diphenhydramine markets a capsule with a 50 milligram dose. The manufacturer is worried that the machine that fills the capsules has come out of calibration and is no longer creating capsules with the appropriate dosage.
Many people are starting to prefer vegetarian meals on a regular basis. Specifically, a researcher believes that females are more likely than males to eat vegetarian meals on a regular basis.
Obesity is a major health problem today. Research is starting to show that people may be able to lose more weight on a low carbohydrate diet than on a low fat diet.
This research question might also be addressed like example 11.4 by making the hypotheses about comparing the proportion of stroke patients that live with smokers to the proportion of controls that live with smokers.
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The actual test begins by considering two hypotheses . They are called the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis . These hypotheses contain opposing viewpoints.
Since the null and alternative hypotheses are contradictory, you must examine evidence to decide if you have enough evidence to reject the null hypothesis or not. The evidence is in the form of sample data.
After you have determined which hypothesis the sample supports, you make a decision. There are two options for a decision. They are "cannot accept \(H_0\)" if the sample information favors the alternative hypothesis or "do not reject \(H_0\)" or "decline to reject \(H_0\)" if the sample information is insufficient to reject the null hypothesis. These conclusions are all based upon a level of probability, a significance level, that is set my the analyst.
Table 9.1 presents the various hypotheses in the relevant pairs. For example, if the null hypothesis is equal to some value, the alternative has to be not equal to that value.
\(H_0\) | \(H_a\) |
---|---|
equal (=) | not equal (\(\neq\)) |
greater than or equal to (\(\geq\)) | less than (<) |
less than or equal to (\(\leq\)) | more than (>) |
As a mathematical convention \(H_0\) always has a symbol with an equal in it. Ha never has a symbol with an equal in it. The choice of symbol depends on the wording of the hypothesis test.
\(H_0\): No more than 30% of the registered voters in Santa Clara County voted in the primary election. \(p \leq 30\) \(H_a\): More than 30% of the registered voters in Santa Clara County voted in the primary election. \(p > 30\)
We want to test whether the mean GPA of students in American colleges is different from 2.0 (out of 4.0). The null and alternative hypotheses are: \(H_0: \mu = 2.0\) \(H_a: \mu \neq 2.0\)
We want to test if college students take less than five years to graduate from college, on the average. The null and alternative hypotheses are: \(H_0: \mu \geq 5\) \(H_a: \mu < 5\)
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The null hypothesis is a general statement that states that there is no relationship between two phenomenons under consideration or that there is no association between two groups.
The following are some examples of null hypothesis:
H 0 : µ 1 = µ 2
H 0 = null hypothesis µ 1 = mean score of men µ 2 = mean score of women
An alternative hypothesis is a statement that describes that there is a relationship between two selected variables in a study.
The following are some examples of alternative hypothesis:
1. If a researcher is assuming that the bearing capacity of a bridge is more than 10 tons, then the hypothesis under this study will be:
Null hypothesis H 0 : µ= 10 tons Alternative hypothesis H a : µ>10 tons
2. Under another study that is trying to test whether there is a significant difference between the effectiveness of medicine against heart arrest, the alternative hypothesis will be that there is a relationship between the medicine and chances of heart arrest.
The null hypothesis is a general statement that states that there is no relationship between two phenomenons under consideration or that there is no association between two groups. | An alternative hypothesis is a statement that describes that there is a relationship between two selected variables in a study. | |
It is denoted by H . | It is denoted by H or H . | |
It is followed by ‘equals to’ sign. | It is followed by not equals to, ‘less than’ or ‘greater than’ sign. | |
The null hypothesis believes that the results are observed as a result of chance. | The alternative hypothesis believes that the results are observed as a result of some real causes. | |
It is the hypothesis that the researcher tries to disprove. | It is a hypothesis that the researcher tries to prove. | |
The result of the null hypothesis indicates no changes in opinions or actions. | The result of an alternative hypothesis causes changes in opinions and actions. | |
If the null hypothesis is accepted, the results of the study become insignificant. | If an alternative hypothesis is accepted, the results of the study become significant. | |
If the p-value is greater than the level of significance, the null hypothesis is accepted. | If the p-value is smaller than the level of significance, an alternative hypothesis is accepted. | |
The null hypothesis allows the acceptance of correct existing theories and the consistency of multiple experiments. | Alternative hypothesis are important as it establishes a relationship between two variables, resulting in new improved theories. |
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Once you have developed a clear and focused research question or set of research questions, you’ll be ready to conduct further research, a literature review, on the topic to help you make an educated guess about the answer to your question(s). This educated guess is called a hypothesis.
In research, there are two types of hypotheses: null and alternative. They work as a complementary pair, each stating that the other is wrong.
Null Hypothesis: H 0 : There is no difference in the salary of factory workers based on gender. Alternative Hypothesis : H a : Male factory workers have a higher salary than female factory workers.
Null Hypothesis : H 0 : There is no relationship between height and shoe size. Alternative Hypothesis : H a : There is a positive relationship between height and shoe size.
Null Hypothesis : H 0 : Experience on the job has no impact on the quality of a brick mason’s work. Alternative Hypothesis : H a : The quality of a brick mason’s work is influenced by on-the-job experience.
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Learn about a null versus alternative hypothesis and what they show with examples for each. Also go over the main differences and similarities between them.
In This Article
What is an alternative hypothesis, outcomes of a hypothesis test.
Main Differences Between Null & Alternative Hypothesis
Similarities Between Null & Alternative Hypothesis
Hypothesis Testing & Errors
In statistics, you’ll draw insights or “inferences” about population parameters using data from a sample. This process is called inferential statistics.
To make statistical inferences, you need to determine if you have enough evidence to support a certain hypothesis about the population. This is where null and alternative hypotheses come into play!
In this article, we’ll explain the differences between these two types of hypotheses, and we’ll explain the role they play in hypothesis testing.
Imagine you want to know what percent of Americans are vegetarians. You find a Gallup poll claiming 5% of the population was vegetarian in 2018, but your intuition tells you vegetarianism is on the rise and that far more than 5% of Americans are vegetarian today.
To investigate further, you collect your own sample data by surveying 1,000 randomly selected Americans. You’ll use this random sample to determine whether it’s likely the true population proportion of vegetarians is, in fact, 5% (as the Gallup data suggests) or whether it could be the case that the percentage of vegetarians is now higher.
Notice that your investigation involves two rival hypotheses about the population. One hypothesis is that the proportion of vegetarians is 5%. The other hypothesis is that the proportion of vegetarians is greater than 5%. In statistics, we would call the first hypothesis the null hypothesis, and the second hypothesis the alternative hypothesis. The null hypothesis ( H 0 H_0 H 0 ) represents the status quo or what is assumed to be true about the population at the start of your investigation.
Null Hypothesis
In hypothesis testing, the null hypothesis ( H 0 H_0 H 0 ) is the default hypothesis.
It's what the status quo assumes to be true about the population.
The alternative hypothesis ( H a H_a H a or H 1 H_1 H 1 ) is the hypothesis that stands contrary to the null hypothesis. The alternative hypothesis represents the research hypothesis—what you as the statistician are trying to prove with your data .
In medical studies, where scientists are trying to demonstrate whether a treatment has a significant effect on patient outcomes, the alternative hypothesis represents the hypothesis that the treatment does have an effect, while the null hypothesis represents the assumption that the treatment has no effect.
Alternative Hypothesis
The alternative hypothesis ( H a H_a H a or H 1 H_1 H 1 ) is the hypothesis being proposed in opposition to the null hypothesis.
In a hypothesis test, the null and alternative hypotheses must be mutually exclusive statements, meaning both hypotheses cannot be true at the same time. For example, if the null hypothesis includes an equal sign, the alternative hypothesis must state that the values being mentioned are “not equal” in some way.
Your hypotheses will also depend on the formulation of your test—are you running a one-sample T-test, a two-sample T-test, F-test for ANOVA , or a Chi-squared test? It also matters whether you are conducting a directional one-tailed test or a nondirectional two-tailed test.
Null Hypothesis: The population mean is equal to some number, x. 𝝁 = x
Alternative Hypothesis: The population mean is not equal to x. 𝝁 ≠ x
Null Hypothesis: The population mean is less than or equal to some number, x. 𝝁 ≤ x Alternative Hypothesis: The population mean is greater than x. 𝝁 > x
Null Hypothesis: The population mean is greater than or equal to some number, x. 𝝁 ≥ x
Alternative Hypothesis: The population mean is less than x. 𝝁 < x
By the end of a hypothesis test, you will have reached one of two conclusions.
You will run into either 2 outcomes:
Fail to reject the null hypothesis on the grounds that there's insufficient evidence to move away from the null hypothesis
Reject the null hypothesis in favor of the alternative.
If you’re confused about the outcomes of a hypothesis test, a good analogy is a jury trial. In a jury trial, the defendant is innocent until proven guilty. To reach a verdict of guilt, the jury must find strong evidence (beyond a reasonable doubt) that the defendant committed the crime.
This is analogous to a statistician who must assume the null hypothesis is true unless they can uncover strong evidence ( a p-value less than or equal to the significance level) in support of the alternative hypothesis.
Notice also, that a jury never concludes a defendant is innocent—only that the defendant is guilty or not guilty. This is similar to how we never conclude that the null hypothesis is true. In a hypothesis test, we never conclude that the null hypothesis is true. We can only “reject” the null hypothesis or “fail to reject” it.
In this video, let’s look at the jury example again, the reasoning behind hypothesis testing, and how to form a test. It starts by stating your null and alternative hypotheses.
Here is a summary of the key differences between the null and the alternative hypothesis test.
The null hypothesis represents the status quo; the alternative hypothesis represents an alternative statement about the population.
The null and the alternative are mutually exclusive statements, meaning both statements cannot be true at the same time.
In a medical study, the null hypothesis represents the assumption that a treatment has no statistically significant effect on the outcome being studied. The alternative hypothesis represents the belief that the treatment does have an effect.
The null hypothesis is denoted by H_0 ; the alternative hypothesis is denoted by H_a H_1
You “fail to reject” the null hypothesis when the p-value is larger than the significance level. You “reject” the null hypothesis in favor of the alternative hypothesis when the p-value is less than or equal to your test’s significance level.
The similarities between the null and alternative hypotheses are as follows.
Both the null and the alternative are statements about the same underlying data.
Both statements provide a possible answer to a statistician’s research question.
The same hypothesis test will provide evidence for or against the null and alternative hypotheses.
Always remember that statistical inference provides you with inferences based on probability rather than hard truths. Anytime you conduct a hypothesis test, there is a chance that you’ll reach the wrong conclusion about your data.
In statistics, we categorize these wrong conclusions into two types of errors:
Type I Errors
Type II Errors
A Type I error occurs when you reject the null hypothesis when, in fact, the null hypothesis is true. This is sometimes called a false positive and is analogous to a jury that falsely convicts an innocent defendant. The probability of making this type of error is represented by alpha, ɑ.
A Type II error occurs when you fail to reject the null hypothesis when, in fact, the null hypothesis is false. This is sometimes called a false negative and is analogous to a jury that reaches a verdict of “not guilty,” when, in fact, the defendant has committed the crime. The probability of making this type of error is represented by beta, ꞵ.
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The actual test begins by considering two hypotheses . They are called the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis . These hypotheses contain opposing viewpoints.
H 0 : The null hypothesis: It is a statement of no difference between the variables—they are not related. This can often be considered the status quo and as a result if you cannot accept the null it requires some action.
H a : The alternative hypothesis: It is a claim about the population that is contradictory to H 0 and what we conclude when we reject H 0 . This is usually what the researcher is trying to prove.
Since the null and alternative hypotheses are contradictory, you must examine evidence to decide if you have enough evidence to reject the null hypothesis or not. The evidence is in the form of sample data.
After you have determined which hypothesis the sample supports, you make a decision. There are two options for a decision. They are "reject H 0 " if the sample information favors the alternative hypothesis or "do not reject H 0 " or "decline to reject H 0 " if the sample information is insufficient to reject the null hypothesis.
Mathematical Symbols Used in H 0 and H a :
equal (=) | not equal (≠) greater than (>) less than (<) |
greater than or equal to (≥) | less than (<) |
less than or equal to (≤) | more than (>) |
H 0 always has a symbol with an equal in it. H a never has a symbol with an equal in it. The choice of symbol depends on the wording of the hypothesis test. However, be aware that many researchers (including one of the co-authors in research work) use = in the null hypothesis, even with > or < as the symbol in the alternative hypothesis. This practice is acceptable because we only make the decision to reject or not reject the null hypothesis.
H 0 : No more than 30% of the registered voters in Santa Clara County voted in the primary election. p ≤ .30 H a : More than 30% of the registered voters in Santa Clara County voted in the primary election. p > 30
A medical trial is conducted to test whether or not a new medicine reduces cholesterol by 25%. State the null and alternative hypotheses.
We want to test whether the mean GPA of students in American colleges is different from 2.0 (out of 4.0). The null and alternative hypotheses are: H 0 : μ = 2.0 H a : μ ≠ 2.0
We want to test whether the mean height of eighth graders is 66 inches. State the null and alternative hypotheses. Fill in the correct symbol (=, ≠, ≥, <, ≤, >) for the null and alternative hypotheses.
We want to test if college students take less than five years to graduate from college, on the average. The null and alternative hypotheses are: H 0 : μ ≥ 5 H a : μ < 5
We want to test if it takes fewer than 45 minutes to teach a lesson plan. State the null and alternative hypotheses. Fill in the correct symbol ( =, ≠, ≥, <, ≤, >) for the null and alternative hypotheses.
In an issue of U. S. News and World Report , an article on school standards stated that about half of all students in France, Germany, and Israel take advanced placement exams and a third pass. The same article stated that 6.6% of U.S. students take advanced placement exams and 4.4% pass. Test if the percentage of U.S. students who take advanced placement exams is more than 6.6%. State the null and alternative hypotheses. H 0 : p ≤ 0.066 H a : p > 0.066
On a state driver’s test, about 40% pass the test on the first try. We want to test if more than 40% pass on the first try. Fill in the correct symbol (=, ≠, ≥, <, ≤, >) for the null and alternative hypotheses.
Bring to class a newspaper, some news magazines, and some Internet articles . In groups, find articles from which your group can write null and alternative hypotheses. Discuss your hypotheses with the rest of the class.
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The actual test begins by considering two hypotheses. They are called the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis. These hypotheses contain opposing viewpoints.
Since the null and alternative hypotheses are contradictory, you must examine evidence to decide if you have enough evidence to reject the null hypothesis or not. The evidence is in the form of sample data. After you have determined which hypothesis the sample supports, you make a decision. There are two options for a decision. They are "reject \(H_{0}\)" if the sample information favors the alternative hypothesis or "do not reject \(H_{0}\)" or "decline to reject \(H_{0}\)" if the sample information is insufficient to reject the null hypothesis.
equal (=) | not equal \((\neq)\) greater than (>) less than (<) |
greater than or equal to \((\geq)\) | less than (<) |
less than or equal to \((\leq)\) | more than (>) |
\(H_{0}\) always has a symbol with an equal in it. \(H_{a}\) never has a symbol with an equal in it. The choice of symbol depends on the wording of the hypothesis test. However, be aware that many researchers (including one of the co-authors in research work) use = in the null hypothesis, even with > or < as the symbol in the alternative hypothesis. This practice is acceptable because we only make the decision to reject or not reject the null hypothesis.
Example \(\PageIndex{1}\)
Exercise \(\PageIndex{1}\)
A medical trial is conducted to test whether or not a new medicine reduces cholesterol by 25%. State the null and alternative hypotheses.
Example \(\PageIndex{2}\)
We want to test whether the mean GPA of students in American colleges is different from 2.0 (out of 4.0). The null and alternative hypotheses are:
Exercise \(\PageIndex{2}\)
We want to test whether the mean height of eighth graders is 66 inches. State the null and alternative hypotheses. Fill in the correct symbol \((=, \neq, \geq, <, \leq, >)\) for the null and alternative hypotheses.
Example \(\PageIndex{3}\)
We want to test if college students take less than five years to graduate from college, on the average. The null and alternative hypotheses are:
Exercise \(\PageIndex{3}\)
We want to test if it takes fewer than 45 minutes to teach a lesson plan. State the null and alternative hypotheses. Fill in the correct symbol ( =, ≠, ≥, <, ≤, >) for the null and alternative hypotheses.
Example \(\PageIndex{4}\)
In an issue of U. S. News and World Report , an article on school standards stated that about half of all students in France, Germany, and Israel take advanced placement exams and a third pass. The same article stated that 6.6% of U.S. students take advanced placement exams and 4.4% pass. Test if the percentage of U.S. students who take advanced placement exams is more than 6.6%. State the null and alternative hypotheses.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{4}\)
On a state driver’s test, about 40% pass the test on the first try. We want to test if more than 40% pass on the first try. Fill in the correct symbol (\(=, \neq, \geq, <, \leq, >\)) for the null and alternative hypotheses.
COLLABORATIVE EXERCISE
Bring to class a newspaper, some news magazines, and some Internet articles . In groups, find articles from which your group can write null and alternative hypotheses. Discuss your hypotheses with the rest of the class.
In a hypothesis test , sample data is evaluated in order to arrive at a decision about some type of claim. If certain conditions about the sample are satisfied, then the claim can be evaluated for a population. In a hypothesis test, we:
\(H_{0}\) and \(H_{a}\) are contradictory.
equal \((=)\) | greater than or equal to \((\geq)\) | less than or equal to \((\leq)\) | |
has: | not equal \((\neq)\) greater than \((>)\) less than \((<)\) | less than \((<)\) | greater than \((>)\) |
\(\alpha\) is preconceived. Its value is set before the hypothesis test starts. The \(p\)-value is calculated from the data.References
Data from the National Institute of Mental Health. Available online at http://www.nimh.nih.gov/publicat/depression.cfm .
Barbara Illowsky and Susan Dean (De Anza College) with many other contributing authors. Content produced by OpenStax College is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 license. Download for free at http://cnx.org/contents/[email protected] .
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In a scientific experiment, the null hypothesis is the proposition that there is no effect or no relationship between phenomena or populations. If the null hypothesis is true, any observed difference in phenomena or populations would be due to sampling error (random chance) or experimental error. The null hypothesis is useful because it can be tested and found to be false, which then implies that there is a relationship between the observed data. It may be easier to think of it as a nullifiable hypothesis or one that the researcher seeks to nullify. The null hypothesis is also known as the H 0, or no-difference hypothesis.
The alternate hypothesis, H A or H 1 , proposes that observations are influenced by a non-random factor. In an experiment, the alternate hypothesis suggests that the experimental or independent variable has an effect on the dependent variable .
There are two ways to state a null hypothesis. One is to state it as a declarative sentence, and the other is to present it as a mathematical statement.
For example, say a researcher suspects that exercise is correlated to weight loss, assuming diet remains unchanged. The average length of time to achieve a certain amount of weight loss is six weeks when a person works out five times a week. The researcher wants to test whether weight loss takes longer to occur if the number of workouts is reduced to three times a week.
The first step to writing the null hypothesis is to find the (alternate) hypothesis. In a word problem like this, you're looking for what you expect to be the outcome of the experiment. In this case, the hypothesis is "I expect weight loss to take longer than six weeks."
This can be written mathematically as: H 1 : μ > 6
In this example, μ is the average.
Now, the null hypothesis is what you expect if this hypothesis does not happen. In this case, if weight loss isn't achieved in greater than six weeks, then it must occur at a time equal to or less than six weeks. This can be written mathematically as:
H 0 : μ ≤ 6
The other way to state the null hypothesis is to make no assumption about the outcome of the experiment. In this case, the null hypothesis is simply that the treatment or change will have no effect on the outcome of the experiment. For this example, it would be that reducing the number of workouts would not affect the time needed to achieve weight loss:
H 0 : μ = 6
"Hyperactivity is unrelated to eating sugar " is an example of a null hypothesis. If the hypothesis is tested and found to be false, using statistics, then a connection between hyperactivity and sugar ingestion may be indicated. A significance test is the most common statistical test used to establish confidence in a null hypothesis.
Another example of a null hypothesis is "Plant growth rate is unaffected by the presence of cadmium in the soil ." A researcher could test the hypothesis by measuring the growth rate of plants grown in a medium lacking cadmium, compared with the growth rate of plants grown in mediums containing different amounts of cadmium. Disproving the null hypothesis would set the groundwork for further research into the effects of different concentrations of the element in soil.
You may be wondering why you would want to test a hypothesis just to find it false. Why not just test an alternate hypothesis and find it true? The short answer is that it is part of the scientific method. In science, propositions are not explicitly "proven." Rather, science uses math to determine the probability that a statement is true or false. It turns out it's much easier to disprove a hypothesis than to positively prove one. Also, while the null hypothesis may be simply stated, there's a good chance the alternate hypothesis is incorrect.
For example, if your null hypothesis is that plant growth is unaffected by duration of sunlight, you could state the alternate hypothesis in several different ways. Some of these statements might be incorrect. You could say plants are harmed by more than 12 hours of sunlight or that plants need at least three hours of sunlight, etc. There are clear exceptions to those alternate hypotheses, so if you test the wrong plants, you could reach the wrong conclusion. The null hypothesis is a general statement that can be used to develop an alternate hypothesis, which may or may not be correct.
Null Hypothesis , often denoted as H 0, is a foundational concept in statistical hypothesis testing. It represents an assumption that no significant difference, effect, or relationship exists between variables within a population. It serves as a baseline assumption, positing no observed change or effect occurring. The null is t he truth or falsity of an idea in analysis.
In this article, we will discuss the null hypothesis in detail, along with some solved examples and questions on the null hypothesis.
Table of Content
Null hypothesis symbol, formula of null hypothesis, types of null hypothesis, null hypothesis examples, principle of null hypothesis, how do you find null hypothesis, null hypothesis in statistics, null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis, null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis examples, null hypothesis – practice problems.
Null Hypothesis in statistical analysis suggests the absence of statistical significance within a specific set of observed data. Hypothesis testing, using sample data, evaluates the validity of this hypothesis. Commonly denoted as H 0 or simply “null,” it plays an important role in quantitative analysis, examining theories related to markets, investment strategies, or economies to determine their validity.
Null Hypothesis represents a default position, often suggesting no effect or difference, against which researchers compare their experimental results. The Null Hypothesis, often denoted as H 0 asserts a default assumption in statistical analysis. It posits no significant difference or effect, serving as a baseline for comparison in hypothesis testing.
The null Hypothesis is represented as H 0 , the Null Hypothesis symbolizes the absence of a measurable effect or difference in the variables under examination.
Certainly, a simple example would be asserting that the mean score of a group is equal to a specified value like stating that the average IQ of a population is 100.
The Null Hypothesis is typically formulated as a statement of equality or absence of a specific parameter in the population being studied. It provides a clear and testable prediction for comparison with the alternative hypothesis. The formulation of the Null Hypothesis typically follows a concise structure, stating the equality or absence of a specific parameter in the population.
H 0 : μ 1 = μ 2
This asserts that there is no significant difference between the means of two populations or groups.
H 0 : p 1 − p 2 = 0
This suggests no significant difference in proportions between two populations or conditions.
H 0 : σ 1 = σ 2
This states that there’s no significant difference in variances between groups or populations.
H 0 : Variables are independent
This asserts that there’s no association or relationship between categorical variables.
Null Hypotheses vary including simple and composite forms, each tailored to the complexity of the research question. Understanding these types is pivotal for effective hypothesis testing.
The Equality Null Hypothesis, also known as the Simple Null Hypothesis, is a fundamental concept in statistical hypothesis testing that assumes no difference, effect or relationship between groups, conditions or populations being compared.
In some studies, the focus might be on demonstrating that a new treatment or method is not significantly worse than the standard or existing one.
The concept of a superiority null hypothesis comes into play when a study aims to demonstrate that a new treatment, method, or intervention is significantly better than an existing or standard one.
In certain statistical tests, such as chi-square tests for independence, the null hypothesis assumes no association or independence between categorical variables.
In tests like ANOVA (Analysis of Variance), the null hypothesis suggests that there’s no difference in population means across different groups.
The principle of the null hypothesis is a fundamental concept in statistical hypothesis testing. It involves making an assumption about the population parameter or the absence of an effect or relationship between variables.
In essence, the null hypothesis (H 0 ) proposes that there is no significant difference, effect, or relationship between variables. It serves as a starting point or a default assumption that there is no real change, no effect or no difference between groups or conditions.
The null hypothesis is usually formulated to be tested against an alternative hypothesis (H 1 or H [Tex]\alpha [/Tex] ) which suggests that there is an effect, difference or relationship present in the population.
Rejecting the Null Hypothesis occurs when statistical evidence suggests a significant departure from the assumed baseline. It implies that there is enough evidence to support the alternative hypothesis, indicating a meaningful effect or difference. Null Hypothesis rejection occurs when statistical evidence suggests a deviation from the assumed baseline, prompting a reconsideration of the initial hypothesis.
Identifying the Null Hypothesis involves defining the status quotient, asserting no effect and formulating a statement suitable for statistical analysis.
The Null Hypothesis is rejected when statistical tests indicate a significant departure from the expected outcome, leading to the consideration of alternative hypotheses. It occurs when statistical evidence suggests a deviation from the assumed baseline, prompting a reconsideration of the initial hypothesis.
In statistical hypothesis testing, researchers begin by stating the null hypothesis, often based on theoretical considerations or previous research. The null hypothesis is then tested against an alternative hypothesis (Ha), which represents the researcher’s claim or the hypothesis they seek to support.
The process of hypothesis testing involves collecting sample data and using statistical methods to assess the likelihood of observing the data if the null hypothesis were true. This assessment is typically done by calculating a test statistic, which measures the difference between the observed data and what would be expected under the null hypothesis.
In the realm of hypothesis testing, the null hypothesis (H 0 ) and alternative hypothesis (H₁ or Ha) play critical roles. The null hypothesis generally assumes no difference, effect, or relationship between variables, suggesting that any observed change or effect is due to random chance. Its counterpart, the alternative hypothesis, asserts the presence of a significant difference, effect, or relationship between variables, challenging the null hypothesis. These hypotheses are formulated based on the research question and guide statistical analyses.
The null hypothesis (H 0 ) serves as the baseline assumption in statistical testing, suggesting no significant effect, relationship, or difference within the data. It often proposes that any observed change or correlation is merely due to chance or random variation. Conversely, the alternative hypothesis (H 1 or Ha) contradicts the null hypothesis, positing the existence of a genuine effect, relationship or difference in the data. It represents the researcher’s intended focus, seeking to provide evidence against the null hypothesis and support for a specific outcome or theory. These hypotheses form the crux of hypothesis testing, guiding the assessment of data to draw conclusions about the population being studied.
Criteria | Null Hypothesis | Alternative Hypothesis |
---|---|---|
Definition | Assumes no effect or difference | Asserts a specific effect or difference |
Symbol | H | H (or Ha) |
Formulation | States equality or absence of parameter | States a specific value or relationship |
Testing Outcome | Rejected if evidence of a significant effect | Accepted if evidence supports the hypothesis |
Let’s envision a scenario where a researcher aims to examine the impact of a new medication on reducing blood pressure among patients. In this context:
Null Hypothesis (H 0 ): “The new medication does not produce a significant effect in reducing blood pressure levels among patients.”
Alternative Hypothesis (H 1 or Ha): “The new medication yields a significant effect in reducing blood pressure levels among patients.”
The null hypothesis implies that any observed alterations in blood pressure subsequent to the medication’s administration are a result of random fluctuations rather than a consequence of the medication itself. Conversely, the alternative hypothesis contends that the medication does indeed generate a meaningful alteration in blood pressure levels, distinct from what might naturally occur or by random chance.
Mathematics Maths Formulas Probability and Statistics
Example 1: A researcher claims that the average time students spend on homework is 2 hours per night.
Null Hypothesis (H 0 ): The average time students spend on homework is equal to 2 hours per night. Data: A random sample of 30 students has an average homework time of 1.8 hours with a standard deviation of 0.5 hours. Test Statistic and Decision: Using a t-test, if the calculated t-statistic falls within the acceptance region, we fail to reject the null hypothesis. If it falls in the rejection region, we reject the null hypothesis. Conclusion: Based on the statistical analysis, we fail to reject the null hypothesis, suggesting that there is not enough evidence to dispute the claim of the average homework time being 2 hours per night.
Example 2: A company asserts that the error rate in its production process is less than 1%.
Null Hypothesis (H 0 ): The error rate in the production process is 1% or higher. Data: A sample of 500 products shows an error rate of 0.8%. Test Statistic and Decision: Using a z-test, if the calculated z-statistic falls within the acceptance region, we fail to reject the null hypothesis. If it falls in the rejection region, we reject the null hypothesis. Conclusion: The statistical analysis supports rejecting the null hypothesis, indicating that there is enough evidence to dispute the company’s claim of an error rate of 1% or higher.
Q1. A researcher claims that the average time spent by students on homework is less than 2 hours per day. Formulate the null hypothesis for this claim?
Q2. A manufacturing company states that their new machine produces widgets with a defect rate of less than 5%. Write the null hypothesis to test this claim?
Q3. An educational institute believes that their online course completion rate is at least 60%. Develop the null hypothesis to validate this assertion?
Q4. A restaurant claims that the waiting time for customers during peak hours is not more than 15 minutes. Formulate the null hypothesis for this claim?
Q5. A study suggests that the mean weight loss after following a specific diet plan for a month is more than 8 pounds. Construct the null hypothesis to evaluate this statement?
The null hypothesis (H 0 ) and alternative hypothesis (H a ) are fundamental concepts in statistical hypothesis testing. The null hypothesis represents the default assumption, stating that there is no significant effect, difference, or relationship between variables. It serves as the baseline against which the alternative hypothesis is tested. In contrast, the alternative hypothesis represents the researcher’s hypothesis or the claim to be tested, suggesting that there is a significant effect, difference, or relationship between variables. The relationship between the null and alternative hypotheses is such that they are complementary, and statistical tests are conducted to determine whether the evidence from the data is strong enough to reject the null hypothesis in favor of the alternative hypothesis. This decision is based on the strength of the evidence and the chosen level of significance. Ultimately, the choice between the null and alternative hypotheses depends on the specific research question and the direction of the effect being investigated.
What does null hypothesis stands for.
The null hypothesis, denoted as H 0 , is a fundamental concept in statistics used for hypothesis testing. It represents the statement that there is no effect or no difference, and it is the hypothesis that the researcher typically aims to provide evidence against.
A null hypothesis is formed based on the assumption that there is no significant difference or effect between the groups being compared or no association between variables being tested. It often involves stating that there is no relationship, no change, or no effect in the population being studied.
In statistical hypothesis testing, if the p-value (the probability of obtaining the observed results) is lower than the chosen significance level (commonly 0.05), we reject the null hypothesis. This suggests that the data provides enough evidence to refute the assumption made in the null hypothesis.
In research, the null hypothesis represents the default assumption or position that there is no significant difference or effect. Researchers often try to test this hypothesis by collecting data and performing statistical analyses to see if the observed results contradict the assumption.
The null hypothesis (H0) is the default assumption that there is no significant difference or effect. The alternative hypothesis (H1 or Ha) is the opposite, suggesting there is a significant difference, effect or relationship.
Rejecting the null hypothesis implies that there is enough evidence in the data to support the alternative hypothesis. In simpler terms, it suggests that there might be a significant difference, effect or relationship between the groups or variables being studied.
Formulating a null hypothesis often involves considering the research question and assuming that no difference or effect exists. It should be a statement that can be tested through data collection and statistical analysis, typically stating no relationship or no change between variables or groups.
The null hypothesis is commonly symbolized as H 0 in statistical notation.
The null hypothesis serves as a starting point for hypothesis testing, enabling researchers to assess if there’s enough evidence to reject it in favor of an alternative hypothesis.
Rejecting the null hypothesis implies that there is sufficient evidence to support an alternative hypothesis, suggesting a significant effect or relationship between variables.
Various statistical tests, such as t-tests or chi-square tests, are employed to evaluate the validity of the Null Hypothesis in different scenarios.
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The null hypothesis (H0) answers "No, there's no effect in the population.". The alternative hypothesis (Ha) answers "Yes, there is an effect in the population.". The null and alternative are always claims about the population. That's because the goal of hypothesis testing is to make inferences about a population based on a sample.
Null hypothesis: The sample data provides no evidence to support some claim being made by an individual. Alternative hypothesis: The sample data does provide sufficient evidence to support the claim being made by an individual. For example, suppose it's assumed that the average height of a certain species of plant is 20 inches tall. However ...
The null and alternative hypotheses are two competing claims that researchers weigh evidence for and against using a statistical test: Null hypothesis (H0): There's no effect in the population. Alternative hypothesis (HA): There's an effect in the population. The effect is usually the effect of the independent variable on the dependent ...
Review. In a hypothesis test, sample data is evaluated in order to arrive at a decision about some type of claim.If certain conditions about the sample are satisfied, then the claim can be evaluated for a population. In a hypothesis test, we: Evaluate the null hypothesis, typically denoted with \(H_{0}\).The null is not rejected unless the hypothesis test shows otherwise.
The actual test begins by considering two hypotheses.They are called the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis.These hypotheses contain opposing viewpoints. H 0, the —null hypothesis: a statement of no difference between sample means or proportions or no difference between a sample mean or proportion and a population mean or proportion. In other words, the difference equals 0.
H a: The alternative hypothesis: It is a claim about the population that is contradictory to H 0 and what we conclude when we reject H 0. Since the null and alternative hypotheses are contradictory, you must examine evidence to decide if you have enough evidence to reject the null hypothesis or not. The evidence is in the form of sample data.
When your sample contains sufficient evidence, you can reject the null and conclude that the effect is statistically significant. Statisticians often denote the null hypothesis as H 0 or H A.. Null Hypothesis H 0: No effect exists in the population.; Alternative Hypothesis H A: The effect exists in the population.; In every study or experiment, researchers assess an effect or relationship.
The Null and Alternative Hypotheses. There are two hypotheses that are made: the null hypothesis, denoted H 0, and the alternative hypothesis, denoted H 1 or H A. The null hypothesis is the one to be tested and the alternative is everything else. In our example: The null hypothesis would be: The mean data scientist salary is 113,000 dollars.
The alternate hypothesis is usually your initial hypothesis that predicts a relationship between variables. The null hypothesis is a prediction of no relationship between the variables you are interested in. Hypothesis testing example. You want to test whether there is a relationship between gender and height. Based on your knowledge of human ...
10.1 - Setting the Hypotheses: Examples. A significance test examines whether the null hypothesis provides a plausible explanation of the data. The null hypothesis itself does not involve the data. It is a statement about a parameter (a numerical characteristic of the population). These population values might be proportions or means or ...
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The actual test begins by considering two hypotheses. They are called the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis. These hypotheses contain opposing viewpoints. H0 H 0: The null hypothesis: It is a statement of no difference between a sample mean or proportion and a population mean or proportion. In other words, the difference equals 0.
Alternative hypothesis examples. The following are some examples of alternative hypothesis: 1. If a researcher is assuming that the bearing capacity of a bridge is more than 10 tons, then the hypothesis under this study will be: Null hypothesis H 0: µ= 10 tons Alternative hypothesis H a: µ>10 tons. 2.
The actual test begins by considering two hypotheses.They are called the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis.These hypotheses contain opposing viewpoints. H 0: The null hypothesis: It is a statement of no difference between the variables-they are not related. This can often be considered the status quo and as a result if you cannot accept the null it requires some action.
Review. In a hypothesis test, sample data is evaluated in order to arrive at a decision about some type of claim.If certain conditions about the sample are satisfied, then the claim can be evaluated for a population. In a hypothesis test, we: Evaluate the null hypothesis, typically denoted with \(H_{0}\).The null is not rejected unless the hypothesis test shows otherwise.
Null Hypothesis (H0) - This can be thought of as the implied hypothesis. "Null" meaning "nothing.". This hypothesis states that there is no difference between groups or no relationship between variables. The null hypothesis is a presumption of status quo or no change. Alternative Hypothesis (Ha) - This is also known as the claim.
Alternative Hypothesis . The alternative hypothesis (H a H_a H a or H 1 H_1 H 1 ) is the hypothesis being proposed in opposition to the null hypothesis. Examples of Null and Alternative Hypotheses In a hypothesis test, the null and alternative hypotheses must be mutually exclusive statements, meaning both hypotheses cannot be true at the same time.
The actual test begins by considering two hypotheses.They are called the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis.These hypotheses contain opposing viewpoints. H 0: The null hypothesis: It is a statement of no difference between the variables—they are not related. This can often be considered the status quo and as a result if you cannot accept the null it requires some action.
Most technical papers rely on just the first formulation, even though you may see some of the others in a statistics textbook. Null hypothesis: " x is equal to y.". Alternative hypothesis " x is not equal to y.". Null hypothesis: " x is at least y.". Alternative hypothesis " x is less than y.". Null hypothesis: " x is at most ...
They are called the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis. These hypotheses contain opposing viewpoints. The null hypothesis (\ (H_ {0}\)) is a statement about the population that either is believed to be true or is used to put forth an argument unless it can be shown to be incorrect beyond a reasonable doubt.
Null Hypothesis Examples. "Hyperactivity is unrelated to eating sugar " is an example of a null hypothesis. If the hypothesis is tested and found to be false, using statistics, then a connection between hyperactivity and sugar ingestion may be indicated. A significance test is the most common statistical test used to establish confidence in a ...
Null hypothesis, often denoted as H0, is a foundational concept in statistical hypothesis testing. It represents an assumption that no significant difference, effect, or relationship exists between variables within a population. Learn more about Null Hypothesis, its formula, symbol and example in this article